_id
stringlengths 2
130
| text
stringlengths 33
6.62k
|
|---|---|
World_Trade_Center_(2001–present) | The World Trade Center is a partially completed complex of buildings under construction in Lower Manhattan , New York City , U.S. , replacing an original complex of seven buildings with the same name on the same site that were damaged or destroyed in the September 11 attacks . The site is being rebuilt with six new skyscrapers , a memorial and museum to those killed in the attacks , and a transportation hub . One World Trade Center , the tallest building in the United States , North America and the Western Hemisphere is the lead building for the new complex , reaching more than 100 stories upon its completion in November 2014 . The original World Trade Center featured the landmark Twin Towers , which opened in 1973 , and were the tallest buildings in the world at their completion . They were destroyed on the morning of September 11 , 2001 , when al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the complex in a coordinated act of terrorism . The attacks on the World Trade Center killed 2,753 people . The resulting collapse caused structural failure in many of the surrounding buildings as well . The process of cleaning up and recovery at the World Trade Center site took eight months , after which rebuilding of the site commenced . After years of delay and controversy , reconstruction at the World Trade Center site started . The new complex includes One World Trade Center , 7 World Trade Center , three other high-rise office buildings , a museum and memorial , and a transportation hub similar in size to Grand Central Terminal . One World Trade Center was completed on August 30 , 2012 , and the final component of its spire was installed on May 10 , 2013 . 4 World Trade Center opened on November 12 , 2013 , making it the first building completed as part of the site 's master plan . The 9/11 memorial is complete , and the museum opened on May 21 , 2014 . The World Trade Center Transportation Hub opened to the public on March 4 , 2016 , and 3 World Trade Center is under construction set to be finished in 2018 . 2 World Trade Center 's full construction was placed on hold in 2009 , with a new design announced in 2015 . |
Weather-related_cancellation | A weather-related cancellation or delay is closure , cancellation , or delay of an institution , operation , or event as a result of inclement weather . Certain institutions , such as schools , are likely to close when bad weather , such as snow , flooding , tropical cyclones , or extreme heat or cold impairs travel , causes power outages , or otherwise impedes public safety or makes opening the facility impossible or more difficult . Depending upon the local climate , the chances of a school or school system closing may vary . While some regions may close or delay schools when there is any question of safety , others located in areas where bad weather is a regular occurrence may remain open , as local people may be accustomed to travelling under such conditions . Many countries and sub-national jurisdictions have mandates for a minimum number of school days in a year . To meet these requirements , many schools that face a likelihood of closure build a few extra school days into their calendar . If , by the end of the year , these days are unused , some schools give students days off . If all snow days are exhausted , and inclement weather requires more closures , schools usually make the days up later in the year . US State education departments have , for example by administrative decision late in the 2015 Texas school year , occasionally issued waivers to schools , so that they do not need make up days for weather-related cancellations . |
Western_Canada | Western Canada , also referred to as the Western provinces and more commonly known as the West , is a region of Canada that includes the four provinces of Alberta , British Columbia , Manitoba and Saskatchewan . British Columbia is culturally , economically , geographically , and politically distinct from the other parts of Western Canada and is often referred to as the `` west coast '' or `` Pacific Canada '' , while Alberta , Saskatchewan , and Manitoba are grouped together as the Prairie Provinces and most commonly known as `` The Prairies '' . |
World | The world is the planet Earth and all life upon it , including human civilization . In a philosophical context , the world is the whole of the physical Universe , or an ontological world . In a theological context , the world is the material or the profane sphere , as opposed to the celestial , spiritual , transcendent or sacred . The `` end of the world '' refers to scenarios of the final end of human history , often in religious contexts . History of the world is commonly understood as spanning the major geopolitical developments of about five millennia , from the first civilizations to the present . In terms such as world religion , world language , world government , and world war , world suggests international or intercontinental scope without necessarily implying participation of the entire world . World population is the sum of all human populations at any time ; similarly , world economy is the sum of the economies of all societies or countries , especially in the context of globalization . Terms like world championship , gross world product , world flags imply the sum or combination of all current-day sovereign states . |
Wind_power_in_the_European_Union | As of December 2014 , installed capacity of wind power in the European Union totaled 128,751 megawatts ( MW ) . The EU wind industry has had a compound annual growth rate ( CAGR ) of 10 % between the years 2000 and 2013 . In 2014 , a total of 11,791 MW of wind power was installed , representing 32 % of all new power capacity . In a normal wind year the wind power capacity installed by early 2014 would produce 257 TWh of electricity , enough to supply 8 % of the EU 's electricity consumption . In the future , wind power is likely to continue to grow in the European Union . According to a European Environment Agency report , wind energy can play a major role in achieving the European renewable energy targets . The European Wind Energy Association estimates that 230 gigawatts ( GW ) of wind capacity will be installed in Europe by 2020 , consisting of 190 GW onshore and 40 GW offshore . This would produce 14-17 % of the EU 's electricity , avoiding 333 million tonnes of CO2 per year and saving Europe $ 28 billion a year in fuel costs . Research from a wide variety of sources in various European countries shows that support for wind power is consistently about 80 per cent among the general public . |
Weather_satellite | The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth . Satellites can be polar orbiting , covering the entire Earth asynchronously , or geostationary , hovering over the same spot on the equator . Meteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems . City lights , fires , effects of pollution , auroras , sand and dust storms , snow cover , ice mapping , boundaries of ocean currents , energy flows , etc. . Other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites . Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna . Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored . Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth 's vegetation , sea state , ocean color , and ice fields . For example , the 2002 Prestige oil spill off the northwest coast of Spain was watched carefully by the European ENVISAT , which , though not a weather satellite , flies an instrument ( ASAR ) which can see changes in the sea surface . El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images . The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data . Collectively , weather satellites flown by the U.S. , Europe , India , China , Russia , and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch . |
Wind | Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale . On the surface of the Earth , wind consists of the bulk movement of air . In outer space , solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the Sun through space , while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet 's atmosphere into space . Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale , their speed , the types of forces that cause them , the regions in which they occur , and their effect . The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune and Saturn . Winds have various aspects , an important one being its velocity ( wind speed ) ; another the density of the gas involved ; another its energy content or wind energy . In meteorology , winds are often referred to according to their strength , and the direction from which the wind is blowing . Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts . Strong winds of intermediate duration ( around one minute ) are termed squalls . Long-duration winds have various names associated with their average strength , such as breeze , gale , storm , and hurricane . Wind occurs on a range of scales , from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes , to local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hours , to global winds resulting from the difference in absorption of solar energy between the climate zones on Earth . The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles , and the rotation of the planet ( Coriolis effect ) . Within the tropics , thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations . In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze cycle can define local winds ; in areas that have variable terrain , mountain and valley breezes can dominate local winds . In human civilization , wind has inspired mythology , influenced the events of history , expanded the range of transport and warfare , and provided a power source for mechanical work , electricity and recreation . Wind powers the voyages of sailing ships across Earth 's oceans . Hot air balloons use the wind to take short trips , and powered flight uses it to increase lift and reduce fuel consumption . Areas of wind shear caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft . When winds become strong , trees and man-made structures are damaged or destroyed . Winds can shape landforms , via a variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils , such as loess , and by erosion . Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from its source region by the prevailing winds ; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and associated with dust outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world because of their significant effects on those regions . Wind also affects the spread of wildfires . Winds can disperse seeds from various plants , enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species , as well as flying insect populations . When combined with cold temperatures , wind has a negative impact on livestock . Wind affects animals ' food stores , as well as their hunting and defensive strategies . |
Weather | Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth . Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change . Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns . Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind . |
Wind_turbines_on_public_display | The great majority of wind turbines around the world belong to individuals or corporations who use them to generate electric power or to perform mechanical work . As such , wind turbines are primarily designed to be working devices . However , the large size and height above surroundings of modern industrial wind turbines , combined with their moving rotors , often makes them among the most conspicuous objects in their areas . A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind turbines by placing them on public display , either with visitor centers on their bases , or with viewing areas farther away . The wind turbines themselves are generally of conventional horizontal-axis , three-bladed design , and generate power to feed electrical grids , but they also serve the unconventional roles of technology demonstration , public relations , and education . |
Weighting | The process of weighting involves emphasizing the contribution of some aspects of a phenomenon ( or of a set of data ) to a final effect or result , giving them more weight in the analysis . That is , rather than each variable in the data contributing equally to the final result , some data are adjusted to contribute more than others . It is analogous to the practice of adding extra weight to one side of a pair of scales to favour a buyer or seller . While weighting may be applied to a set of data , such as epidemiological data , it is more commonly applied to measurements of light , heat , sound , gamma radiation , in fact any stimulus that is spread over a spectrum of frequencies . |
Water_tower | A water tower is an elevated structure supporting a water tank constructed at a height sufficient to pressurize a water supply system for the distribution of potable water , and to provide emergency storage for fire protection . In some places , the term standpipe is used interchangeably to refer to a water tower , especially one with tall and narrow proportions . Water towers often operate in conjunction with underground or surface service reservoirs , which store treated water close to where it will be used . Other types of water towers may only store raw ( non-potable ) water for fire protection or industrial purposes , and may not necessarily be connected to a public water supply . Water towers are able to supply water even during power outages , because they rely on hydrostatic pressure produced by elevation of water ( due to gravity ) to push the water into domestic and industrial water distribution systems ; however , they can not supply the water for a long time without power , because a pump is typically required to refill the tower . A water tower also serves as a reservoir to help with water needs during peak usage times . The water level in the tower typically falls during the peak usage hours of the day , and then a pump fills it back up during the night . This process also keeps the water from freezing in cold weather , since the tower is constantly being drained and refilled . |
Water_vapor | Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds . Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution . Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects . |
Worst-case_scenario | A worst-case scenario is a concept in risk management wherein the planner , in planning for potential disasters , considers the most severe possible outcome that can reasonably be projected to occur in a given situation . Conceiving of worst-case scenarios is a common form of strategic planning , specifically scenario planning , to prepare for and minimize contingencies that could result in accidents , quality problems , or other issues . |
Water_scarcity_in_Africa | Water scarcity or lack of safe drinking water is one of the world 's leading problems affecting more than 1.1 billion people globally , meaning that one in every six people lacks access to safe drinking water . The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation set up by the World Health Organization ( WHO ) and United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) defines safe drinking water as `` water with microbial , chemical and physical characteristics that meets WHO guidelines or national standards on drinking water quality . '' Hydrologists generally assess water scarcity by looking at a population-to-water equation that treats 1,700 cubic meters per person as the national threshold for meeting water requirements for agricultural and industrial production , energy , and the environment . Availability below the threshold of 1,000 cubic meters represents a state of `` water scarcity '' , while anything below 500 cubic meters represents a state of `` absolute scarcity '' . As of 2006 , one third of all nations suffered from clean water scarcity , but Sub-Saharan Africa had the largest number of water-stressed countries of any other place on the planet and of an estimated 800 million people who live in Africa , 300 million live in a water stressed environment . According to findings presented at the 2012 Conference on `` Water Scarcity in Africa : Issues and Challenges '' , it is estimated that by 2030 , 75 million to 250 million people in Africa will be living in areas of high water stress , which will likely displace anywhere between 24 million and 700 million people as conditions become increasingly unlivable . |
Wind_farm | A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity . A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles , but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes . A wind farm can also be located offshore . Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in China , the United States and Germany . For example , the largest wind farm in the world , Gansu Wind Farm in China has a capacity of over 6,000 MW as of 2012 , with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020 . As of April 2013 , the 630 MW London Array in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world . There are many large wind farms under construction , including Fosen Vind ( 1000 MW ) , Sinus Holding Wind Farm ( 700 MW ) , Lincs Wind Farm ( 270 MW ) , Lower Snake River Wind Project ( 343 MW ) , Macarthur Wind Farm ( 420 MW ) . |
World_Climate_Research_Programme | The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) was established in 1980 , under the joint sponsorship of International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization , and has also been sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO since 1993 . It is a component of the World Climate Programme . The objectives of the programme are to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physical climate system and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicted and the extent of human influence on climate . The programme encompasses studies of the global atmosphere , oceans , sea ice , land ice ( such as glaciers , ice caps and ice sheets ) , and the land surface which together constitute the Earth 's physical climate system . WCRP activities address issues of scientific uncertainty in the Earth 's climate system including transport and storage of heat by the ocean , the global energy and hydrological cycle , the formation of clouds and their effects on radiative transfer , and the role of the cryosphere in climate . These activities match the scientific priorities identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and provide the basis for responding to issues raised in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . WCRP also lays the scientific foundation for meeting the research challenges posed in Agenda 21 . Together with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the International Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme , WCRP provides the international framework for scientific cooperation in the study of global climate change . Scientific guidance for the programme is provided by a Joint Scientific Committee consisting of 18 scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations . |
Windbreak | A windbreak ( shelterbelt ) is a plantation usually made up of one or more rows of trees or shrubs planted in such a manner as to provide shelter from the wind and to protect soil from erosion . They are commonly planted in hedgerows around the edges of fields on farms . If designed properly , windbreaks around a home can reduce the cost of heating and cooling and save energy . Windbreaks are also planted to help keep snow from drifting onto roadways and even yards . Other benefits include contributing to a microclimate around crops ( with slightly less drying and chilling at night ) , providing habitat for wildlife , and , in some regions , providing wood if the trees are harvested . Windbreaks and intercropping can be combined in a farming practice referred to as alleycropping . Fields are planted in rows of different crops surrounded by rows of trees . These trees provide fruit , wood , or protect the crops from the wind . Alley cropping has been particularly successful in India , Africa , and Brazil , where coffee growers have combined farming and forestry . A further use for a shelterbelt is to screen a farm from a main road or motorway . This improves the farm landscape by reducing the visual incursion of the motorway , mitigating noise from the traffic and providing a safe barrier between farm animals and the road . The term `` windbreak '' is also used to describe an article of clothing worn to prevent wind chill . Americans tend to use the term `` windbreaker '' whereas Europeans favor the term `` windbreak '' . Fences called `` windbreaks '' are also used . Normally made from cotton , nylon , canvas , and recycled sails , windbreaks tend to have three or more panels held in place with poles that slide into pockets sewn into the panel . The poles are then hammered into the ground and a windbreak is formed . Windbreaks or `` wind fences '' are used to reduce wind speeds over erodible areas such as open fields , industrial stockpiles , and dusty industrial operations . As erosion is proportional to wind speed cubed a reduction of wind speed of 1/2 ( for example ) will reduce erosion by over 80 % . |
Wrangell–St._Elias_National_Park_and_Preserve | Wrangell -- St. Elias National Park and Preserve is a United States national park and national preserve managed by the National Park Service in south central Alaska . The park and preserve was established in 1980 by the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act . This protected area is included in an International Biosphere Reserve and is part of the Kluane/Wrangell -- St. Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek UNESCO World Heritage Site . The park and preserve form the largest area managed by the National Park Service in the United States by area with a total of 13175799 acre , an expanse that could encapsulate a total of six Yellowstone National Parks . The park includes a large portion of the Saint Elias Mountains , which include most of the highest peaks in the United States and Canada , yet are within 10 mi of tidewater , one of the highest reliefs in the world . Wrangell -- St. Elias borders on Canada 's Kluane National Park and Reserve to the east and approaches the U.S. Glacier Bay National Park to the south . The chief distinction between park and preserve lands is that sport hunting is prohibited in the park and permitted in the preserve . In addition , 9078675 acre of the park are designated as the largest single wilderness in the United States . Wrangell -- St. Elias National Monument was initially designated on December 1 , 1978 , by President Jimmy Carter using the Antiquities Act , pending final legislation to resolve the allotment of public lands in Alaska . Establishment as a national park and preserve followed the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in 1980 . The park , which is bigger than the country Switzerland , has long , extremely cold winters and a short summer season . It supports a variety of large mammals in an environment defined by relative land elevation . Plate tectonics are responsible for the uplift of the mountain ranges that cross the park . The park 's extreme high point is Mount St. Elias at 18008 ft , the second tallest mountain in both the United States and Canada . The park has been shaped by the competing forces of volcanism and glaciation . Mount Wrangell is an active volcano , one of several volcanoes in the western Wrangell Mountains . In the St. Elias Range Mount Churchill has erupted explosively within the past 2,000 years . The park 's glacial features include Malaspina Glacier , the largest piedmont glacier in North America , Hubbard Glacier , the longest tidewater glacier in Alaska , and Nabesna Glacier , the world 's longest valley glacier . The Bagley Icefield covers much of the park 's interior , which includes 60 % of the permanently ice-covered terrain in Alaska . At the center of the park , the boomtown of Kennecott exploited one of the world 's richest deposits of copper from 1903 to 1938 , exposed by and in part incorporated into Kennicott Glacier . The mine buildings and mills , now abandoned , compose a National Historic Landmark district . |
Wind_speed | Wind speed , or wind flow velocity , is a fundamental atmospheric quantity . Wind speed is caused by air moving from high pressure to low pressure , usually due to changes in temperature . Wind speed affects weather forecasting , aircraft and maritime operations , construction projects , growth and metabolism rate of many plant species , and countless other implications . Wind speed is now commonly measured with an anemometer but can also be classified using the older Beaufort scale which is based on people 's observation of specifically defined wind effects . |
Western_Mediterranean_oscillation | The Western Mediterranean oscillation ( WeMO or WeMOi ) is an index ( which varies over time with no particular periodicity ) measuring the difference between the standardized atmospheric pressure recorded at Padua ( 45.40 ◦ N , 11.48 ◦ E ) in northern Italy , and San Fernando , Cádiz ( 36.28 ◦ N , 6.12 ◦ W ) in Southwestern Spain . Whereas Padua is an area with a relatively high barometric variability due to the influence of the central European anticyclone , San Fernando is often under the influence of the Azores High . This new , more local , teleconnection was initially proposed by researches in the Climatology Group at the University of Barcelona as an alternative to the widely known NAO for studying the variability in rainfall in eastern Spain , in regions such as Catalonia , Valencia , and Murcia . The WeMOi barometric pattern is believed by climatologists to be causally related to , and thus partially predictive of , rainfall variability on the eastern side of the Iberian Peninsula . A Positive phase of the WeMOi typically shows an anticyclone in the Gulf of Cádiz area and a low-pressure area by the Ligurian Sea whereas a Negative WeMOi phase will show a Low in the Gulf of Cádiz and an anticyclone in Central Europe . During the Positive phase , the prevailing winds in the Iberian Peninsula are typically West and NorthWest , originating in the North Atlantic area ; these winds , at the time of reaching the Eastern side of the Peninsula , have travelled over the peninsula 's continental areas , so they have become dry and warm ( westerly winds ) or cooler but equally dry ( north-westerly ) . In contrast , a Negative WeMOi phase is associated to humid airflows which have travelled over the Mediterranean Sea ; these are therefore laden with moisture when they reach the eastern side of the Iberian Peninsula , leading to increased - sometimes torrential - precipitation in this area . |
West_Antarctica | West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes the Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea ( partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ) , and the Weddell Sea ( largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ) . It may be considered a giant peninsula stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America . West Antarctica is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly . The coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become ( in summer ) ice-free . These constitute the Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica . The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season . |
Wind_power_in_California | As of December 31 , 2016 , California has 5,662 megawatts ( MW ) of wind powered electricity generating capacity . California 's wind power capacity has grown by nearly 350 % since 2001 , when it was less than 1,700 MW . As of the end of September 2012 , wind energy ( including that supplied by other states ) now supplies about 5 % of California 's total electricity needs , or enough to power more than 400,000 households . Most of California 's wind generation is found in the Tehachapi area of Kern County , with some big projects in Solano , Contra Costa and Riverside counties as well . California is among the states with the largest amount of installed wind power capacity . |
World_Climate_Report | World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter . |
Wilderness_area | A wilderness area is a region where the land is in a natural state ; where impacts from human activities are minimal -- that is , as a wilderness . It might also be called a wild or natural area . Especially in wealthier , industrialized nations , it has a specific legal meaning as well : as land where development is prohibited by law . Many nations have designated Wilderness Areas , including Australia , Canada , New Zealand , South Africa and the United States . The WILD Foundation states that wilderness areas have two dimensions : they must be biologically intact and legally protected . The World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) classifies wilderness at two levels , Ia ( Strict Nature Preserves ) and Ib ( Wilderness areas ) . Most scientists and conservationists agree that no place on earth is completely untouched by humanity , either due to past occupation by indigenous people , or through global processes such as climate change . Activities on the margins of specific wilderness areas , such as fire suppression and the interruption of animal migration , also affect the interior of wildernesses . |
Word | In linguistics , a word is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content ( with literal or practical meaning ) . This contrasts deeply with a morpheme , which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its own . A word may consist of a single morpheme ( for example : oh ! , rock , red , quick , run , expect ) , or several ( rocks , redness , quickly , running , unexpected ) , whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word ( in the words just mentioned , these are - s , - ness , - ly , - ing , un - , - ed ) . A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes ( rock-s , red-ness , quick-ly , run-ning , un-expect-ed ) , or more than one root in a compound ( black-board , sand-box ) . Words can be put together to build larger elements of language , such as phrases ( a red rock , put up with ) , clauses ( I threw a rock ) , and sentences ( He threw a rock too , but he missed ) . The term word may refer to a spoken word or to a written word , or sometimes to the abstract concept behind either . Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes , and written words of symbols called graphemes , such as the letters of the English alphabet . |
Wind_power_in_Colorado | The US state of Colorado has vast wind energy resources and the installed capacity of wind power in Colorado has been growing significantly in recent years due federal incentives for wind power and the state 's aggressive renewable portfolio standard that requires 30 % of the state 's electricity to come from renewable sources by 2020 . Wind power is the source of more than 15 percent of the electricity generated in Colorado . |
Wishful_thinking | Wishful thinking is the formation of beliefs and making decisions according to what might be pleasing to imagine instead of by appealing to evidence , rationality , or reality . It is a product of resolving conflicts between belief and desire . Studies have consistently shown that holding all else equal , subjects will predict positive outcomes to be more likely than negative outcomes ( see unrealistic optimism ) . However , research suggests that under certain circumstances , such as when threat increases , a reverse phenomenon occurs . Some psychologists believe that positive thinking is able to positively influence behavior and so bring about better results . This is called `` Pygmalion effect '' . Christopher Booker described wishful thinking in terms of `` the fantasy cycle '' ... a pattern that recurs in personal lives , in politics , in history -- and in storytelling . When we embark on a course of action which is unconsciously driven by wishful thinking , all may seem to go well for a time , in what may be called the `` dream stage '' . But because this make-believe can never be reconciled with reality , it leads to a `` frustration stage '' as things start to go wrong , prompting a more determined effort to keep the fantasy in being . As reality presses in , it leads to a `` nightmare stage '' as everything goes wrong , culminating in an `` explosion into reality '' , when the fantasy finally falls apart . |
Wind_rights | Wind rights are rights relating to windmills , wind turbines and wind power . Historically in Continental Europe wind rights were manorial rights and obligations relating to the operation and profitability of windmills . In modern times , as wind becomes a more important source of power , rights relating to wind turbines and windmills are sometimes referred to as `` wind rights '' . |
World_Conference_on_Disaster_Risk_Reduction | The World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction is a series of United Nations conferences focusing on disaster and climate risk management in the context of sustainable development . The World Conference has been convened three times , with each edition to date having been hosted by Japan : in Yokohama in 1994 , in Kobe in 2005 and in Sendai in 2015 . As requested by the UN General Assembly , the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction ( UNISDR ) served as the coordinating body for the Second and Third UN World Conference on Disaster Reduction in 2005 and 2015 . The conferences bring together government officials and other stakeholders , such as NGOs , civil society organizations , local government and private sector representatives from around the world to discuss how to strengthen the sustainability of development by managing disaster and climate risks . The Third UN World conference adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 . Previous conference outcomes include the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005 - 2015 : Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters in 2005 and the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World in 1994 . |
Watts_Up_With_That? | Watts Up With That ? ( or WUWT ) is a blog promoting climate change denial that was created by Anthony Watts in 2006 . The blog predominantly discusses climate issues with a focus on anthropogenic climate change , generally accommodating beliefs that are in opposition to the scientific consensus on climate change . Contributors include Christopher Monckton and Fred Singer as guest authors . In November 2009 , the blog was one of the first websites to publish emails and documents from the Climatic Research Unit controversy , and a driving force behind its coverage . In the early months of 2010 , it was reported the site might be `` the most read climate blog in the world , '' and in 2013 Michael E. Mann referred to it as the leading climate change denial blog . |
Weatherization | Weatherization ( American English ) or weatherproofing ( British English ) is the practice of protecting a building and its interior from the elements , particularly from sunlight , precipitation , and wind , and of modifying a building to reduce energy consumption and optimize energy efficiency . Weatherization is distinct from building insulation , although building insulation requires weatherization for proper functioning . Many types of insulation can be thought of as weatherization , because they block drafts or protect from cold winds . Whereas insulation primarily reduces conductive heat flow , weatherization primarily reduces convective heat flow . In the United States , buildings use one third of all energy consumed and two thirds of all electricity . Due to the high energy usage , they are a major source of the pollution that causes urban air quality problems and pollutants that contribute to climate change . Building energy usage accounts for 49 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions , 25 percent of nitrous oxide emissions , and 10 percent of particulate emissions . |
Workforce_productivity | Workforce productivity is the amount of goods and services that a worker produces in a given amount of time . It is one of several types of productivity that economists measure . Workforce productivity , often referred to as labor productivity , is a measure for an organization or company , a process , an industry , or a country . Workforce productivity is to be distinguished from employee productivity which is a measure employed at individual level based on the assumption that the overall productivity can be broken down to increasingly smaller units until , ultimately , to the individual employee , in order be used for example for the purpose of allocating a benefit or sanction based on individual performance ( see also : Vitality curve ) . The OECD defines it as `` the ratio of a volume measure of output to a volume measure of input '' . Volume measures of output are normally gross domestic product ( GDP ) or gross value added ( GVA ) , expressed at constant prices i.e. adjusted for inflation . The three most commonly used measures of input are : hours worked ; workforce jobs ; and number of people in employment . |
West_North_Central_States | The West North Central States form one of the nine geographic divisions within the United States that are officially recognized by the U.S. Census Bureau . Seven states compose the division : Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Nebraska , North Dakota and South Dakota , and it makes up the western half of the United States Census Bureau 's larger region of the Midwest , the eastern half of which consists of the East North Central States of Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Ohio and Wisconsin . The Mississippi River marks the bulk of the boundary between these two divisions . Where the East North Central States are seen as being synonymous ( though not absolutely coterminous ) with the Rust Belt by the vast majority of Americans , the West North Central States are regarded as constituting the core of the nation 's `` Farm Belt . '' Another name popularly applied to the division is the `` Agricultural Heartland , '' or simply the `` Heartland . '' Since the early 1990s , the West North Central division has consistently had the lowest unemployment rate in the United States ( especially in its many college towns ) , and has also been noted for its plentiful supply of affordable housing . As of 2010 , the West North Central States had a combined population of 20,505,437 . This number is a 6.6 % increase from 19,237,739 in 2000 . The West North Central region covers 507913 sqmi of land , and has an average population density of 40.37 people per square mile . |
Wildlife_of_Antarctica | The wildlife of Antarctica are extremophiles , having to adapt to the dryness , low temperatures , and high exposure common in Antarctica . The extreme weather of the interior contrasts to the relatively mild conditions on the Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands , which have warmer temperatures and more liquid water . Much of the ocean around the mainland is covered by sea ice . The oceans themselves are a more stable environment for life , both in the water column and on the seabed . There is relatively little diversity in Antarctica compared to much of the rest of the world . Terrestrial life is concentrated in areas near the coast . Flying birds nest on the milder shores of the Peninsula and the subantarctic islands . Eight species of penguins inhabit Antarctica and its offshore islands . They share these areas with seven pinniped species . The Southern Ocean around Antarctica is home to 10 cetaceans , many of them migratory . There are very few terrestrial invertebrates on the mainland , although the species that do live there have high population densities . High densities of invertebrates also live in the ocean , with Antarctic krill forming dense and widespread swarms during the summer . Benthic animal communities also exist around the continent . Over 1000 fungi species have been found on and around Antarctica . Larger species are restricted to the subantarctic islands , and the majority of species discovered have been terrestrial . Plants are similarly restricted mostly to the subantarctic islands , and the western edge of the Peninsula . Some mosses and lichens however can be found even in the dry interior . Many algae are found around Antarctica , especially phytoplankton , which form the basis of many of Antarctica 's food webs . Human activity has caused introduced species to gain a foothold in the area , threatening the native wildlife . A history of overfishing and hunting has left many species with greatly reduced numbers . Pollution , habitat destruction , and climate change pose great risks to the environment . The Antarctic Treaty System is a global treaty designed to preserve Antarctica as a place of research , and measures from this system are used to regulate human activity in Antarctica . |
West_Spitsbergen_Current | The West Spitsbergen Current ( WSC ) is a warm , salty current that runs poleward just west of Spitsbergen , ( formerly called West Spitsbergen ) , in the Arctic Ocean . The WSC branches off the Norwegian Atlantic Current in the Norwegian Sea . The WSC is of importance because it drives warm and salty Atlantic Water into the interior Arctic . The warm and salty WSC flows north through the eastern side of Fram Strait , while the East Greenland Current ( EGC ) flows south through the western side of Fram Strait . The EGC is characterized by being very cold and low in salinity , but above all else it is a major exporter of Arctic sea ice . Thus , the EGC combined with the warm WSC makes the Fram Strait the northernmost ocean area having ice-free conditions throughout the year in all of the global ocean . |
Weathering | Weathering is the breaking down of rocks , soil , and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth 's atmosphere , waters , and biological organisms . Weathering occurs in situ ( on site ) , that is , in the same place , with little or no movement , and thus should not be confused with erosion , which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water , ice , snow , wind , waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations . Two important classifications of weathering processes exist -- physical and chemical weathering ; each sometimes involves a biological component . Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact with atmospheric conditions , such as heat , water , ice and pressure . The second classification , chemical weathering , involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in the breakdown of rocks , soils and minerals . While physical weathering is accentuated in very cold or very dry environments , chemical reactions are most intense where the climate is wet and hot . However , both types of weathering occur together , and each tends to accelerate the other . For example , physical abrasion ( rubbing together ) decreases the size of particles and therefore increases their surface area , making them more susceptible to rapid chemical reactions . The various agents act in concert to convert primary minerals ( feldspars and micas ) to secondary minerals ( clays and carbonates ) and release plant nutrient elements in soluble forms . The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil . The mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material ; thus , a soil derived from a single rock type can often be deficient in one or more minerals needed for good fertility , while a soil weathered from a mix of rock types ( as in glacial , aeolian or alluvial sediments ) often makes more fertile soil . In addition , many of Earth 's landforms and landscapes are the result of weathering processes combined with erosion and re-deposition . |
World_Glacier_Monitoring_Service | The World Glacier Monitoring Service ( WGMS ) was started in 1986 , combining the two former services PSFG ( Permanent Service on Fluctuations of Glaciers ) and TTS/WGI ( Temporal Technical Secretary/World Glacier Inventory ) . It is a service of the International Association of the Cryospheric Sciences of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics ( IACS , IUGG ) as well as of the World Data System of the International Council for Science ( WDS , ICSU ) and works under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) , and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) The WGMS is based at a centre at the University of Zurich in Switzerland , and the Director of the Service is Michael Zemp . It is supported by the United Nations Environment Programme . WGMS `` collects standardised observations on changes in mass , volume , area and length of glaciers with time ( glacier fluctuations ) , as well as statistical information on the distribution of perennial surface ice in space ( glacier inventories ) . Such glacier fluctuation and inventory data are high priority key variables in climate system monitoring ; they form a basis for hydrological modelling with respect to possible effects of atmospheric warming , and provide fundamental information in glaciology , glacial geomorphology and quaternary geology . Such glacier fluctuation and inventory data are high priority key variables in climate system monitoring ; they form a basis for hydrological modelling with respect to possible effects of atmospheric warming , and provide fundamental information in glaciology , glacial geomorphology and quaternary geology . The highest information density is found for the Alps and Scandinavia , where long and uninterrupted records are available '' `` In close collaboration with the U.S. National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) and the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space ( GLIMS ) initiative , the WGMS is in charge of the Global Terrestrial Network for Glaciers ( GTN-G ) within GTOS/GCOS . GTN-G aims at combining ( a ) in-situ observations with remotely sensed data , ( b ) process understanding with global coverage and ( c ) traditional measurements with new technologies by using an integrated and multi-level strategy '' |
Wine_Country_(California) | The Wine Country is an area of Northern California in the United States known worldwide as a premium wine-growing region . Viticulture and wine-making have been practiced in the region since the mid-19th century . There are over 400 wineries in the area north of San Francisco , mostly located in the area 's valleys , including Napa Valley in Napa County , and the Sonoma Valley , Alexander Valley , Dry Creek Valley , Bennett Valley , and Russian River Valley in Sonoma County . Wine grapes are also grown at higher elevations , such as Atlas Peak and Mount Veeder AVAs . The region is defined not only by its viticulture , but also its ecology , geology , architecture , cuisine , and culture . The majority of the grape harvest , by both area and value , derives from Sonoma County . Cities and towns associated with the Wine Country include Santa Rosa , Healdsburg , Sonoma , Kenwood , Petaluma , Sebastopol , Guerneville , Windsor , Geyserville , and Cloverdale in Sonoma County ; Napa , Yountville , Rutherford , St. Helena and Calistoga in Napa County ; and Hopland and Ukiah in Mendocino County . |
Wikipedia | Wikipedia ( -LSB- wɪkiˈpiːdiə -RSB- ) is a free online encyclopedia with the aim to allow anyone to edit articles . Wikipedia is the largest and most popular general reference work on the Internet and is ranked among the ten most popular websites . Wikipedia is owned by the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation . Wikipedia was launched on January 15 , 2001 , by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger . Sanger coined Wikipedia , a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia . There was only the English language version initially , but it quickly developed similar versions in other languages , which differ in content and in editing practices . With articles , the English Wikipedia is the largest of the more than 290 Wikipedia encyclopedias . Overall , Wikipedia consists of more than 40 million articles in more than 250 different languages and , , it had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors each month . As of March 2017 , Wikipedia has about forty thousand high-quality articles known as Featured Articles and Good Articles that cover vital topics . In 2005 , Nature published a peer review comparing 42 science articles from Encyclopædia Britannica and Wikipedia , and found that Wikipedia 's level of accuracy approached Encyclopædia Britannicas . Criticism of Wikipedia includes claims that it exhibits systemic bias , presents a mixture of `` truths , half truths , and some falsehoods '' , and that , in controversial topics , it is subject to manipulation and spin . |
Wild_farming | The agricultural technique known as `` Wild Farming '' is a growing alternative to `` factory farming '' . Wild farming consists of planting crops that are highly associated and supportive to the natural ecosystem . This includes intercropping with native plants , following the contours and geography of the land , and supporting local food chains . The goal is to produce large crop yields , while still promoting a healthy environment . Wild farming is a backlash against the dominance of factory farming . Up until the mid 20th century , agricultural crop yields relied on natural inputs such as rainfall patterns , natural soil resources , recycling of organic matter , and built-in biological control mechanisms . Currently , agricultural practices have been conventionalized to include large monocropped fields and use of synthetics : pesticides and fertilizers . Avoiding the conventional farming practices , wild farming adopts many practices from sustainable agricultural systems such as agroecology , permaculture , forest farming , and greywater systems . The four basic guiding principles of the wild farming movement are : Direct managers to develop long-term vision for future of landscape Basic recognition of ecosystem processes . High value on biological diversity . To consider the quality of life of the community as well as the self . |
Wilderness | Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity . It may also be defined as : `` The most intact , undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet -- those last truly wild places that humans do not control and have not developed with roads , pipelines or other industrial infrastructure . '' Some governments establish them by law or administrative acts , usually in land tracts that have not been modified by human action in great measure . The main feature of them is that human activity is significantly restricted . These actions seek not only to preserve what already exists , but also to promote and advance a natural expression and development . Wilderness areas can be found in preserves , conservation preserves , National Forests , National Parks and even in urban areas along rivers , gulches or otherwise undeveloped areas . These areas are considered important for the survival of certain species , biodiversity , ecological studies , conservation , solitude , and recreation . Wilderness is deeply valued for cultural , spiritual , moral , and aesthetic reasons . Some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity . They may also preserve historic genetic traits and provide habitat for wild flora and fauna that may be difficult to recreate in zoos , arboretums or laboratories . The word wilderness derives from the notion of `` wildness '' -- in other words , that which is not controlled by humans . The mere presence or activity of people does not disqualify an area from being `` wilderness . '' Many ecosystems that are , or have been , inhabited or influenced by activities of people may still be considered `` wild . '' This way of looking at wilderness includes areas within which natural processes operate without human interference . The WILD Foundation states that wilderness areas have two dimensions : they must be biologically intact and legally protected . The World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) classifies wilderness at two levels , Ia ( Strict Nature Reserves ) and Ib ( Wilderness Areas ) . Most scientists and conservationists agree that no place on earth is completely untouched by humanity , either due to past occupation by indigenous people , or through global processes such as climate change . Activities on the margins of specific wilderness areas , such as fire suppression and the interruption of animal migration also affect the interior of wildernesses . Especially in wealthier , industrialized nations , it has a specific legal meaning as well : as land where development is prohibited by law . Many nations have designated wilderness , including the United States , Australia , Canada , New Zealand , and South Africa . Many new parks are currently being planned and legally passed by various Parliaments and Legislatures at the urging of dedicated individuals around the globe who believe that `` in the end , dedicated , inspired people empowered by effective legislation will ensure that the spirit and services of wilderness will thrive and permeate our society , preserving a world that we are proud to hand over to those who come after us . '' |
Wetland | A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water , either permanently or seasonally , such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem . The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants , adapted to the unique hydric soil . Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment , principally water purification , flood control , carbon sink and shoreline stability . Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems , serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life . Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica , the largest including the Amazon River basin , the West Siberian Plain , and the Pantanal in South America . The water found in wetlands can be freshwater , brackish , or saltwater . The main wetland types include swamps , marshes , bogs , and fens ; and sub-types include mangrove , carr , pocosin , and varzea . The UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth . International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to inform people about wetland issues . Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater runoff . They may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design . |
Worse-than-average_effect | The worse-than-average effect or below-average effect is the human tendency to underestimate one 's achievements and capabilities in relation to others . It is the opposite of the usually pervasive better-than-average effect ( in contexts where the two are compared or the overconfidence effect in other situations ) . It has been proposed more recently to explain reversals of that effect , where people instead underestimate their own desirable traits . This effect seems to occur when chances of success are perceived to be extremely rare . Traits which people tend to underestimate include juggling ability , the ability to ride a unicycle , the odds of living past 100 or of finding a U.S. twenty dollar bill on the ground in the next two weeks . Some have attempted to explain this cognitive bias in terms of the regression fallacy or of self-handicapping . In a 2012 article in Psychological Bulletin it is suggested the worse-than-average effect ( as well as other cognitive biases ) can be explained by a simple information-theoretic generative mechanism that assumes a noisy conversion of objective evidence ( observation ) into subjective estimates ( judgment ) . |
Western_Palaearctic | The Western Palaearctic or Western Palearctic is part of the Palaearctic ecozone , one of the eight ecozones dividing the Earth 's surface . Because of its size , the Palaearctic is often divided for convenience into two , with Europe , North Africa , northern and central parts of the Arabian Peninsula , and part of temperate Asia , roughly to the Ural Mountains forming the western zone , and the rest of temperate Asia becoming the Eastern Palaearctic . Its exact boundaries differ depending on the authority in question , but the Handbook of the Birds of Europe , the Middle East , and North Africa : The Birds of the Western Palearctic ) ( BWP ) definition is widely used , and is followed by the most popular Western Palearctic checklist , that of the Association of European Rarities Committees ( AERC ) . The Western Palearctic ecozone includes mostly boreal and temperate climate ecoregions . The Palaearctic region has been recognised as a natural zoogeographic region since Sclater proposed it in 1858 . The oceans to the north and west , and the Sahara to the south are obvious natural boundaries with other ecozones , but the eastern boundary is more arbitrary , since it merges into another part of the same ecozone , and the mountain ranges used as markers are less effective biogeographic separators . The climate differences across the Western Palearctic region can cause behavioral differences within the same species across geographical distance , such as in the sociality of behavior for bees of the species Lasioglossum malachurum . |
Weather_Underground | The Weather Underground Organization ( WUO ) , commonly known as the Weather Underground , was an American militant radical left-wing organization founded on the Ann Arbor campus of the University of Michigan . Originally called Weatherman , the group became known colloquially as the Weathermen . Weatherman organized in 1969 as a faction of Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) composed for the most part of the national office leadership of SDS and their supporters . Their goal was to create a clandestine revolutionary party for the overthrow of the U.S. Government . With revolutionary positions characterized by black power and opposition to the Vietnam War , the group conducted a campaign of bombings through the mid-1970s and took part in actions such as the jailbreak of Dr. Timothy Leary . The `` Days of Rage '' , their first public demonstration on October 8 , 1969 , was a riot in Chicago timed to coincide with the trial of the Chicago Seven . In 1970 the group issued a `` Declaration of a State of War '' against the United States government , under the name `` Weather Underground Organization '' . The bombing campaign targeted mostly government buildings , along with several banks . The group stated that the government had been exploiting other nations by waging war as a means of solidifying America as a greater nation . Most were preceded by evacuation warnings , along with communiqués identifying the particular matter that the attack was intended to protest . No people were killed in any of their acts of property destruction , although three members of the group were killed in the Greenwich Village townhouse explosion . For the bombing of the United States Capitol on March 1 , 1971 , they issued a communiqué saying that it was `` in protest of the U.S. invasion of Laos '' . For the bombing of the Pentagon on May 19 , 1972 , they stated that it was `` in retaliation for the U.S. bombing raid in Hanoi '' . For the January 29 , 1975 bombing of the United States Department of State building , they stated that it was `` in response to the escalation in Vietnam '' . The Weathermen grew out of the Revolutionary Youth Movement ( RYM ) faction of SDS . It took its name from Bob Dylan 's lyric , `` You do n't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows '' , from the song `` Subterranean Homesick Blues '' ( 1965 ) . `` You Do n't Need a Weatherman to Know Which Way the Wind Blows '' was the title of a position paper that they distributed at an SDS convention in Chicago on June 18 , 1969 . This founding document called for a `` white fighting force '' to be allied with the `` Black Liberation Movement '' and other radical movements to achieve `` the destruction of U.S. imperialism and achieve a classless world : world communism '' . The Weathermen began to disintegrate after the United States reached a peace accord in Vietnam in 1973 , after which the New Left declined in influence . By 1977 , the organization was defunct . |
World_Meteorological_Organization | The World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) is an intergovernmental organization with a membership of 191 Member States and Territories . It originated from the International Meteorological Organization ( IMO ) , which was founded in 1873 . Established by the ratification of the WMO Convention on 23 March 1950 , WMO became the specialised agency of the United Nations for meteorology ( weather and climate ) , operational hydrology and related geophysical sciences a year later . Its current Secretary-General is Petteri Taalas and the President of the World Meteorological Congress , its supreme body , is David Grimes . The Organization is headquartered in Geneva , Switzerland . |
Weather_forecasting | Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location . Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia , and formally since the nineteenth century . Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere at a given place and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will change . Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure , current weather conditions , and sky condition , weather forecasting now relies on computer-based models that take many atmospheric factors into account . Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon , which involves pattern recognition skills , teleconnections , knowledge of model performance , and knowledge of model biases . The inaccuracy of forecasting is due to the chaotic nature of the atmosphere , the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere , the error involved in measuring the initial conditions , and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes . Hence , forecasts become less accurate as the difference between current time and the time for which the forecast is being made ( the range of the forecast ) increases . The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome . There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts . Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property . Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture , and therefore to traders within commodity markets . Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days . On an everyday basis , people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day . Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain , snow and wind chill , forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events , and to plan ahead and survive them . In 2014 , the US spent $ 5.1 billion on weather forecasting . |
World_Trade_Center_(1973–2001) | The World Trade Center was a large complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan , New York City , United States . It featured landmark twin towers , which opened on April 4 , 1973 , and were destroyed as a result of the September 11 attacks . At the time of their completion , the `` Twin Towers '' -- the original 1 World Trade Center , at 1368 ft ; and 2 World Trade Center , at 1,362 ft -- were the tallest buildings in the world . The other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center ( 3 WTC ) , 4 WTC , 5 WTC , 6 WTC , and 7 WTC . All these buildings were built between 1975 and 1985 , with a construction cost of $ 400 million ( $ in 2014 dollars ) . The complex was located in New York City 's Financial District and contained 13400000 sqft of office space . The World Trade Center experienced a fire on , 1975 , a bombing on , 1993 , and a robbery on , 1998 . In 1998 , the Port Authority decided to privatize the World Trade Center , leasing the buildings to a private company to manage , and awarded the lease to Silverstein Properties in . On the morning of September 11 , 2001 , Al-Qaeda-affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the North and South Towers within minutes of each other ; two hours later , both had collapsed . The attacks killed 2,606 people in and within the vicinity of the towers , as well as all 157 on board the two aircraft . Falling debris from the towers , combined with fires that the debris initiated in several surrounding buildings , led to the partial or complete collapse of all the other buildings in the complex and caused catastrophic damage to ten other large structures in the surrounding area . The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months , during which time what remained of the other World Trade Center buildings was demolished . The World Trade Center complex was rebuilt over a span of more than a decade . The site is being rebuilt with six new skyscrapers , while a memorial to those killed in the attacks and a new rapid transit hub have both opened . One World Trade Center , the tallest building in the United States , is the lead building for the new complex , reaching more than 100 stories upon its completion in November 2014 . |
Water | Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth 's streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is H2O , meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its solid state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water vapor ) . It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity . Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . It is vital for all known forms of life . On Earth , 96.5 % of the planet 's crust water is found in seas and oceans , 1.7 % in groundwater , 1.7 % in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland , a small fraction in other large water bodies , and 0.001 % in the air as vapor , clouds ( formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air ) , and precipitation . Only 2.5 % of this water is freshwater , and 98.8 % of that water is in ice ( excepting ice in clouds ) and groundwater . Less than 0.3 % of all freshwater is in rivers , lakes , and the atmosphere , and an even smaller amount of the Earth 's freshwater ( 0.003 % ) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products . A greater quantity of water is found in the earth 's interior . Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and transpiration ( evapotranspiration ) , condensation , precipitation , and runoff , usually reaching the sea . Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land . Large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals . Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients . Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world , but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation . There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita . However , some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability . A report , issued in November 2009 , suggests that by 2030 , in some developing regions of the world , water demand will exceed supply by 50 % . Water plays an important role in the world economy . Approximately 70 % of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture . Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world . Much of long-distance trade of commodities ( such as oil and natural gas ) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas , rivers , lakes , and canals . Large quantities of water , ice , and steam are used for cooling and heating , in industry and homes . Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances ; as such it is widely used in industrial processes , and in cooking and washing . Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment , such as swimming , pleasure boating , boat racing , surfing , sport fishing , and diving . |
Weddell_seal | The Weddell seal , Leptonychotes weddellii , is a relatively large and abundant true seal ( family : Phocidae ) with a circumpolar distribution surrounding Antarctica . Weddell seals have the most southerly distribution of any mammal , with a habitat that extends as far south as McMurdo Sound ( at 77 ° S ) . It is the only species in the genus Leptonychotes , and the only member of the Antarctic tribe of lobodontine seals to prefer in-shore habitats on shore-fast ice over free-floating pack ice . Genetic evidence suggests that Weddell seal population numbers may have increased during the Pleistocene . Because of its abundance , relative accessibility , and ease of approach by humans , it is the best-studied of the Antarctic seals . An estimated 800,000 individuals remain today . A genetic survey did not detect evidence of a recent , sustained genetic bottleneck in this species , which suggests that populations do not appear to have suffered a substantial and sustained decline in the recent past . Weddell seal pups leave their mothers at a few months of age . In those months , they are fed by their mothers ' warming and fat-rich milk . They leave when they are ready to hunt and are fat enough to survive in the harsh weather . The Weddell seal was discovered and named in the 1820s during expeditions led by James Weddell , the British sealing captain , to the parts of the Southern Ocean now known as the Weddell Sea . However , it is found in relatively uniform densities around the entire Antarctic continent . |
Water_heating | Water heating is a thermodynamic process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature . Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking , cleaning , bathing , and space heating . In industry , hot water and water heated to steam have many uses . Domestically , water is traditionally heated in vessels known as water heaters , kettles , cauldrons , pots , or coppers . These metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a preset temperature . Rarely , hot water occurs naturally , usually from natural hot springs . The temperature varies with the consumption rate , becoming cooler as flow increases . Appliances that provide a continual supply of hot water are called water heaters , hot water heaters , hot water tanks , boilers , heat exchangers , geysers , or calorifiers . These names depend on region , and whether they heat potable or non-potable water , are in domestic or industrial use , and their energy source . In domestic installations , potable water heated for uses other than space heating is also called domestic hot water ( DHW ) . Fossil fuels ( natural gas , liquefied petroleum gas , oil ) , or solid fuels are commonly used for heating water . These may be consumed directly or may produce electricity that , in turn , heats water . Electricity to heat water may also come from any other electrical source , such as nuclear power or renewable energy . Alternative energy such as solar energy , heat pumps , hot water heat recycling , and geothermal heating can also heat water , often in combination with backup systems powered by fossil fuels or electricity . Densely populated urban areas of some countries provide district heating of hot water . This is especially the case in Scandinavia and Finland . District heating systems supply energy for water heating and space heating from waste heat from industries , power plants , incinerators , geothermal heating , and central solar heating . Actual heating of tap water is performed in heat exchangers at the consumers ' premises . Generally the consumer has no in-building backup system , due to the expected high availability of district heating systems . |
Water_restrictions_in_Australia | Water restrictions have been enacted in many cities and regions in Australia , which is the Earth 's driest inhabited continent , in response to chronic water shortages resulting from the widespread drought . Depending upon the location , these can include restrictions on watering lawns , using sprinkler systems , washing vehicles , hosing pavement , refilling swimming pools , etc. . Over population , evidence of drying climates , coupled with corresponding reductions in the supply of drinking water have led various state governments to consider alternative water sources to supplement existing sources , and to implement `` water inspectors '' who can issue penalties to those who waste water . As of July 2007 , some areas and towns have no water restrictions , including the Northern Territory , Regional Tasmania , Newcastle , Bathurst and Dubbo . There are also a few parts of Australia where the water storage levels are at or close to 100 % , such as Taree . Many states describe the different levels of water restrictions in terms of `` stages '' : starting at Stage 1 , for the least restrictive , going up as far as Stage 8 . The highest level reached in the current drought has been stage 7 for Kingaroy . There are different definitions given to each `` stage '' in different States . |
Wind_power_in_New_Mexico | Wind power in New Mexico has the potential to generate more than all of the electricity consumed in the U.S. state of New Mexico . |
Wind_shear | Wind shear , sometimes referred to as windshear or wind gradient , is a difference in wind speed and/or direction over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere . Atmospheric wind shear is normally described as either vertical or horizontal wind shear . Vertical wind shear is a change in wind speed or direction with change in altitude . Horizontal wind shear is a change in wind speed with change in lateral position for a given altitude . Wind shear is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance , but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts . It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms , fronts , areas of locally higher low-level winds referred to as low level jets , near mountains , radiation inversions that occur due to clear skies and calm winds , buildings , wind turbines , and sailboats . Wind shear has significant effects on control of an aircraft effect , and it has been a sole or contributing cause of many aircraft accidents . Wind shear is sometimes experienced by pedestrians at ground level when walking across a plaza towards a tower block and suddenly encountering a strong wind stream that is flowing around the base of the tower . Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear , which can bend the wave front , causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not , or vice versa . Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development , but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into longer life cycles which can then produce severe weather . The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed at different heights are dependent on horizontal temperature differences , and explains the existence of the jet stream . |
Wisconsin_glaciation | The Wisconsin Glacial Episode , also called the Wisconsinan glaciation , was the most recent major advance of the North American ice sheet complex . This advance included the Cordilleran Ice Sheet , which nucleated in the northern North American Cordillera ; the Innuitian ice sheet , which extended across the Canadian Arctic Archipelago ; the Greenland ice sheet ; and the massive Laurentide ice sheet , which covered the high latitudes of central and eastern North America . This advance was synchronous with global glaciation during the last glacial period , including the North American alpine glacier advance , known as the Pinedale glaciation . The Wisconsin glaciation extended from approximately 85,000 to 11,000 years ago , between the Sangamon interglacial ( known globally as the Eemian stage ) and the current interglacial , the Holocene . The maximum ice extent occurred approximately 25,000 -- 21,000 years ago during the last glacial maximum , also known as the Late Wisconsin in North America . This glaciation radically altered the geography north of the Ohio River . At the height of the Wisconsin Episode glaciation , the ice sheet covered most of Canada , the Upper Midwest , and New England , as well as parts of Idaho , Montana , and Washington . On Kelleys Island in Lake Erie or in New York City 's Central Park , the grooves left by these glaciers can be easily observed . In southwestern Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta , a suture zone between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets formed the Cypress Hills , the northernmost point in North America that remained south of the continental ice sheets . During much of the glaciation , sea level was low enough to permit land animals , including humans , to occupy Beringia ( the Bering Land Bridge ) and move between North America and Siberia . As the glaciers retreated , glacial lakes were breached in great floods of water such as the Kankakee Torrent , which reshaped the landscape south of modern Chicago as far as the Ohio and Mississippi rivers . |
Water_distribution_on_Earth | The water distribution on earth shows that most water in the Earth 's atmosphere and crust comes from the world ocean 's saline seawater , while freshwater accounts for only 2.5 % of the total . Because the oceans that cover roughly 71 % of the area of the Earth reflect blue light , the Earth appears blue from space , and is often referred to as the blue planet and the Pale Blue Dot . An estimated 1.5 to 11 times the amount of water in the oceans may be found hundreds of miles deep within the Earth 's interior , although not in liquid form . The oceanic crust is young , thin and dense , with none of the rocks within it dating from any older than the breakup of Pangaea . Because water is much denser than any gas , this means that water will flow into the `` depressions '' formed as a result of the high density of oceanic crust . ( On a planet like Venus , with no water , the depressions appear to form a vast plain above which rise plateaux ) . Since the low density rocks of the continental crust contain large quantities of easily eroded salts of the alkali and alkaline earth metals , salt has , over billions of years , accumulated in the oceans as a result of evaporation returning the fresh water to land as rain and snow . As a result , the vast bulk of the water on Earth is regarded as saline or salt water , with an average salinity of 35 ‰ ( or 3.5 % , roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater ) , though this varies slightly according to the amount of runoff received from surrounding land . In all , water from oceans and marginal seas , saline groundwater and water from saline closed lakes amount to over 97 % of the water on Earth , though no closed lake stores a globally significant amount of water . Saline groundwater is seldom considered except when evaluating water quality in arid regions . The remainder of the Earth 's water constitutes the planet 's fresh water resource . Typically , fresh water is defined as water with a salinity of less than 1 percent that of the oceans - i.e. below around 0.35 ‰ . Water with a salinity between this level and 1 ‰ is typically referred to as marginal water because it is marginal for many uses by humans and animals . The ratio of salt water to fresh water on Earth is around 40 to 1 . The planet 's fresh water is also very unevenly distributed . Although in warm periods such as the Mesozoic and Paleogene when there were no glaciers anywhere on the planet all fresh water was found in rivers and streams , today most fresh water exists in the form of ice , snow , groundwater and soil moisture , with only 0.3 % in liquid form on the surface . Of the liquid surface fresh water , 87 % is contained in lakes , 11 % in swamps , and only 2 % in rivers . Small quantities of water also exist in the atmosphere and in living beings . Of these sources , only river water is generally valuable . Most lakes are in very inhospitable regions such as the glacial lakes of Canada , Lake Baikal in Russia , Lake Khövsgöl in Mongolia , and the African Great Lakes . The North American Great Lakes , which contain 21 % of the world 's fresh water by volume , are the exception . They are located in a hospitable region , which is heavily populated . The Great Lakes Basin is home to 33 million people . The Canadian cities of Toronto , Hamilton , Ontario , St. Catharines , Niagara , Oshawa , Windsor , and Barrie , and the United States cities of Duluth , Milwaukee , Chicago , Gary , Detroit , Cleveland , Buffalo , and Rochester , are all located on shores of the Great Lakes . Although the total volume of groundwater is known to be much greater than that of river runoff , a large proportion of this groundwater is saline and should therefore be classified with the saline water above . There is also a lot of fossil groundwater in arid regions that has never been renewed for thousands of years ; this must not be seen as renewable water . However , fresh groundwater is of great value , especially in arid countries such as India . Its distribution is broadly similar to that of surface river water , but it is easier to store in hot and dry climates because groundwater storages are much more shielded from evaporation than are dams . In countries such as Yemen , groundwater from erratic rainfall during the rainy season is the major source of irrigation water . Because groundwater recharge is much more difficult to accurately measure than surface runoff , groundwater is not generally used in areas where even fairly limited levels of surface water are available . Even today , estimates of total groundwater recharge vary greatly for the same region depending on what source is used , and cases where fossil groundwater is exploited beyond the recharge rate ( including the Ogallala Aquifer ) are very frequent and almost always not seriously considered when they were first developed . |
Willie_Soon | Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation . |
Wetland_methane_emissions | As one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane , wetlands remain a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands are characterized by water-logged soils and distinctive communities of plant and animal species that have evolved and adapted to the constant presence of water . Due to this high level of water saturation as well as warm weather , wetlands are one of the most significant natural sources of atmospheric methane . Most methanogenesis , or methane production , occurs in oxygen-poor environments . Because the microbes that live in warm , moist environments consume oxygen more rapidly than it can diffuse in from the atmosphere , wetlands are the ideal anaerobic , or oxygen poor , environments for fermentation . Fermentation is a process used by certain kinds of microorganisms to break down essential nutrients . In a process called acetoclastic methanogenesis , microorganisms from the classification domain archaea produce methane by fermenting acetate and H2-CO2 into methane and carbon dioxide . H3C-COOH → CH4 + CO2 Depending on the wetland and type of archaea , hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis , another process that yields methane , can also occur . This process occurs as a result of archaea oxidizing hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water . 4H2 + CO2 → CH4 + 2H2O |
Wisconsin_River | The Wisconsin River is a tributary of the Mississippi River in the U.S. state of Wisconsin . At approximately 430 miles ( 692 km ) long , it is the state 's longest river . The river 's name , first recorded in 1673 by Jacques Marquette as `` Meskousing , '' is rooted in the Algonquian languages used by the area 's American Indian tribes , but its original meaning is obscure . French explorers who followed in the wake of Marquette later modified the name to `` Ouisconsin , '' and so it appears on Guillaume de L'Isle 's map ( Paris , 1718 ) This was simplified to `` Wisconsin '' in the early 19th century before being applied to Wisconsin Territory and finally the state of Wisconsin . The Wisconsin River originates in the forests of the Lake District of northern Wisconsin , in Lac Vieux Desert near the border of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . It flows south across the glacial plain of central Wisconsin , passing through Wausau , Stevens Point , and Wisconsin Rapids . In southern Wisconsin it encounters the terminal moraine formed during the last ice age , where it forms the Dells of the Wisconsin River . North of Madison at Portage , the river turns to the west , flowing through Wisconsin 's hilly Western Upland and joining the Mississippi approximately 3 miles ( 4.8 km ) south of Prairie du Chien . The highest waterfall on the river is Grandfather Falls in Lincoln County . |
Western_Hemisphere | The Western Hemisphere is a geographical term for the half of the earth that lies west of the Prime meridian ( which crosses Greenwich , UK ) and east of the antimeridian , the other half being called the Eastern Hemisphere . In this sense , the Western Hemisphere consists of the Americas , the western portions of Eurasia and Africa , the extreme eastern tip of Russia , numerous territories in Oceania , and a portion of Antarctica , while excluding some of the Aleutian Islands to the southwest of the Alaskan mainland . In an effort to define the Western Hemisphere as the parts of the world which are not part of the Old World , there also exist projections which use the 20th meridian west and the diametrically opposed 160th meridian east to define the hemisphere . This projection excludes the European and African mainlands and a small portion of northeast Greenland , but includes more of eastern Russia and Oceania . The center of the Western Hemisphere is located in the Pacific Ocean at the intersection of the 90th meridian west and the equator very close to the Gal % C3 % A1pagos . The highest mountain in the Western Hemisphere is Aconcagua in the Andes of Argentina at 6960.8 m. |
Wildfire | A wildfire or wildland fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or rural area . Depending on the type of vegetation where it occurs , a wildfire can also be classified more specifically as a brush fire , bush fire , desert fire , forest fire , grass fire , hill fire , peat fire , vegetation fire , or veld fire . Fossil charcoal indicates that wildfires began soon after the appearance of terrestrial plants 420 million years ago . Wildfire 's occurrence throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems ' flora and fauna . Earth is an intrinsically flammable planet owing to its cover of carbon-rich vegetation , seasonally dry climates , atmospheric oxygen , and widespread lightning and volcano ignitions . Wildfires can be characterized in terms of the cause of ignition , their physical properties , the combustible material present , and the effect of weather on the fire . Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life , but they have many beneficial effects on native vegetation , animals , and ecosystems that have evolved with fire . Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction . However , wildfire in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have negative ecological effects . Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of factors such as available fuels , physical setting , and weather . Analyses of historical meteorological data and national fire records in western North America show the primacy of climate in driving large regional fires via wet periods that create substantial fuels or drought and warming that extend conducive fire weather . Strategies of wildfire prevention , detection , and suppression have varied over the years . One common and inexpensive technique is controlled burning : permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire . Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain high species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation . Wildland fire use is the cheapest and most ecologically appropriate policy for many forests . Fuels may also be removed by logging , but fuels treatments and thinning have no effect on severe fire behavior . Wildfire itself is reportedly `` the most effective treatment for reducing a fire 's rate of spread , fireline intensity , flame length , and heat per unit of area '' according to Jan Van Wagtendonk , a biologist at the Yellowstone Field Station . Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and a defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure . |
Water_scarcity | Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet water needs within a region . It affects every continent and around 2.8 billion people around the world at least one month out of every year . More than 1.2 billion people lack access to clean drinking water . Water scarcity involves water shortage , water stress or deficits , and water crisis . The relatively new concept of water stress is difficulty in obtaining sources of fresh water for use during a period of time ; it may result in further depletion and deterioration of available water resources . Water shortages may be caused by climate change , such as altered weather-patterns ( including droughts or floods ) , increased pollution , and increased human demand and overuse of water . The term water crisis labels a situation where the available potable , unpolluted water within a region is less than that region 's demand . Two converging phenomena drive water scarcity : growing freshwater use and depletion of usable freshwater resources . Water scarcity can result from two mechanisms : physical ( absolute ) water scarcity economic water scarcity Physical water scarcity results from inadequate natural water resources to supply a region 's demand , and economic water scarcity results from poor management of the sufficient available water resources . According to the United Nations Development Programme , the latter is found more often to be the cause of countries or regions experiencing water scarcity , as most countries or regions have enough water to meet household , industrial , agricultural , and environmental needs , but lack the means to provide it in an accessible manner . Many countries and governments aim to reduce water scarcity . The UN recognizes the importance of reducing the number of people without sustainable access to clean water and sanitation . The Millennium Development Goals within the United Nations Millennium Declaration aimed by 2015 to `` halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water . '' |
Weak_and_strong_sustainability | Although related subjects , sustainable development and sustainability are different concepts . Weak sustainability is the idea within environmental economics , which states that ` human capital ' can substitute ` natural capital ' . It is based upon the work of Nobel Laureate Robert Solow and John Hartwick , . Contrary to weak sustainability , strong sustainability assumes that `` human capital '' and `` natural capital '' are complementary , but not interchangeable . This idea received more political attention as sustainable development discussions evolved in the late 1980s and early 1990s . A key landmark was the Rio Summit in 1992 where the vast majority of nation-states committed themselves to sustainable development . This commitment was demonstrated by the signing of Agenda 21 , a global action plan on sustainable development . Weak sustainability has been defined using concepts like human capital and natural capital . Human ( or produced ) capital incorporates resources such as infrastructure , labour and knowledge . Natural capital covers the stock of environmental assets such as fossil fuels , biodiversity and other ecosystem structures and functions relevant for ecosystem services . In very weak sustainability , the overall stock of man-made capital and natural capital remains constant over time . It is important to note that , unconditional substitution between the various kinds of capital is allowed within weak sustainability . This means that natural resources may decline as long as human capital is increased . Examples include the degradation of the ozone layer , tropical forests and coral reefs if accompanied by benefits to human capital . An example of the benefit to human capital could include increased financial profits . If capital is left constant over time intergenerational equity , and thus Sustainable Development , is achieved . An example of weak sustainability could be mining coal and using it for production of electricity . The natural resource coal , is replaced by a manufactured good which is electricity . The electricity is then in turn used to improve domestic life quality ( e.g. cooking , lighting , heating , refrigeration and operating boreholes to supply water in some villages ) and for industrial purposes ( growing the economy by producing other resources using machines that are electricity operated . ) Case studies of weak sustainability in practice have had both positive and negative results . The concept of weak sustainability still attracts a lot of criticism . Some even suggest that the concept of sustainability is redundant . Other approaches are advocated , including ` social bequests ' , which focus the attention away from neoclassical theory altogether . Strong sustainability assumes that the economic and environmental capital is complimentary , but not interchangeable . Strong sustainability accepts there are certain functions that the environment performs that can not be duplicated by humans or human made capital . The ozone layer is one example of an ecosystem service that is crucial for human existence , forms part of natural capital , but is difficult for humans to duplicate . Unlike weak sustainability , strong sustainability puts the emphasis on ecological scale over economic gains . This implies that nature has a right to exist and that it has been borrowed and should be passed on from one generation to the next still intact in its original form . An example of strong sustainability could be the manufacturing of office carpet tiles from used car tyres . In this scenario , office carpets and other products are manufactured from used motorcar tyres that would have been sent to a landfill . |
Wiesław_Masłowski | Wiesław Masłowski is a research professor at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , California since 2009 . He obtained his MS from the University of Gdańsk in 1987 , and his PhD from the University of Alaska , Fairbanks in 1994 with a dissertation entitled `` Numerical modeling study of the circulation of the Greenland Sea '' . He became well known in 2007 for stating that the Arctic Ocean might be nearly ice free in the summer as early as 2013 , based on projection of the declining ice volume trend . While later revised to 2016 + / - 3 years based on computer modeling , this prediction became controversial when the Arctic was not sea-ice free in 2013 , having increased from the record low set in 2012 . |
Wildlife_of_Peru | Peru has some of the greatest biodiversity in the world because of the presence of the Andes , Amazon Rainforest , and the Pacific Ocean . |
World_energy_consumption | World energy consumption is the total energy used by the entire human civilization . Typically measured per year , it involves all energy harnessed from every energy source applied towards humanity 's endeavours across every single industrial and technological sector , across every country . It does not include energy from food , and the extent to which direct biomass burning has been accounted for is poorly documented . Being the power source metric of civilization , World Energy Consumption has deep implications for humanity 's socio-economic-political sphere . Institutions such as the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) , the U.S. Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) , and the European Environment Agency record and publish energy data periodically . Improved data and understanding of World Energy Consumption may reveal systemic trends and patterns , which could help frame current energy issues and encourage movement towards collectively useful solutions . Closely related to energy consumption is the concept of total primary energy supply ( TPES ) , which - on a global level - is the sum of energy production minus storage changes . Since changes of energy storage over the year are minor , TPES values can be used as an estimator for energy consumption . However , TPES ignores conversion efficiency , overstating forms of energy with poor conversion efficiency ( e.g. coal , gas and nuclear ) and understating forms already accounted for in converted forms ( e.g. photovoltaic or hydroelectricity ) . The IEA estimates that , in 2013 , total primary energy supply ( TPES ) was 1.575 × 1017 Wh ( = 157.5 PWh , 5.67 × 1020 joules , or 13,541 Mtoe ) . From 2000 -- 2012 coal was the source of energy with the largest growth . The use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth , followed by hydropower and renewable energy . Renewable energy grew at a rate faster than any other time in history during this period . The demand for nuclear energy decreased , in part due to nuclear disasters ( e.g. Three Mile Island 1979 , Chernobyl 1986 , and Fukushima 2011 ) . In 2011 , expenditures on energy totalled over 6 trillion USD , or about 10 % of the world gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Europe spends close to one-quarter of the world 's energy expenditures , North America close to 20 % , and Japan 6 % . |
World_news | World news or international news or even foreign coverage is the news media jargon for news from abroad , about a country or a global subject . For journalism , it is a branch that deals with news either sent by foreign correspondents or news agencies , or -- more recently -- information that is gathered or researched through distance communication technologies , such as telephone , satellite TV or the internet . Although in most of the English-speaking world this field is not usually regarded as a specific specialization for journalists , it is so in nearly all the world . Particularly in the United States , there is a blurred distinction between world news and `` national '' news when they include directly the national government or national institutions , such as wars in which the US are involved or summits of multilateral organizations in which the US are a member . Actually , at the birth of modern journalism , most news were actually foreign , as registered by the courants of the 17th century in West and Central Europe , such as the Daily Courant ( England ) , the Nieuwe Tijudinger ( Antwerp ) , the Relation ( Strasbourg ) , the Avisa Relation oder Zeitung ( Wolfenbüttel ) and the Courante Uyt Italien , Duytsland & C. ( Amsterdam ) . Since these papers were aimed at bankers and merchants , they brought mostly news from other markets , which usually meant other nations . In any case , it is worthy to remark that nation-states were still incipient in 17th-century Europe . From the 19th century on , with newspapers already established in Europe , the United States and a few other countries , innovations in telecommunications such as the telegraph made news from abroad easier to be spread . The first news agencies were then founded , like AFP ( France ) , Reuters ( UK ) , Wolff ( currently DPA , Germany ) and the AP ( USA ) . War journalism is one of the best known subfields of world news ( although war coverage can be national for the media of belligerent countries themselves ) . |
West_Ice | The West Ice is a patch of the Greenland Sea covered by pack ice during winter time . It is located north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . The West Ice is a major breeding ground for seals , especially harp seals and hooded seals . It was discovered in the early 18th century by British whalers . At the time , whalers were not interested in seal hunting as long as there was ample stock of bowhead whales in the area . However , after the 1750s , the whale population had been depleted in the area , and systematic seal hunting started , first by British ships and then by German , Dutch , Danish , Norwegian , and Russian ships . The annual catches were 120,000 animals around 1900 , mostly by Norway and Russia , and rose to 350,000 by the 1920s . They then declined , first because of imposed restrictions on total allowable catch and then in response to decreasing market demand . Nevertheless , the seal population in the West Ice was rapidly falling , from an estimated 1,000,000 in 1956 to 100,000 in the 1980s . In the 1980s -- 1990s , takings of harp seals totaled 8,000 -- 10,000 , and annual catches of hooded seals totaled a few thousand between 1997 and 2001 . Norway accounts for all recent seal hunting in the West Ice , as Russia has not hunted hooded seals since 1995 , and catches harp seals at the East Ice in the White Sea -- Barents Sea . Seal hunting in the West Ice was a dangerous occupation , as floating ice , storms and winds posed constant threat to the ships ; in the 19th century , the hunters often encountered frozen human bodies on the West Ice . A major accident occurred around 5 April 1952 when a sudden storm surprised 53 ships hunting in the area . Seven of them sank and five vanished , namely Ringsel , Brattind and Vårglimt from Troms and Buskøy and Pels from Sunnmøre , with 79 men on board . The search for them involved ships and planes and continued for many days , but no trace of the missing boats was found . |
Workforce | The workforce or labour force ( labor force in American English ; see spelling differences ) is the labour pool in employment . It is generally used to describe those working for a single company or industry , but can also apply to a geographic region like a city , state , or country . Within a company , its value can be labelled as its `` Workforce in Place '' . The workforce of a country includes both the employed and the unemployed . The labour force participation rate , LFPR ( or economic activity rate , EAR ) , is the ratio between the labour force and the overall size of their cohort ( national population of the same age range ) . The term generally excludes the employers or management , and can imply those involved in manual labour . It may also mean all those who are available for work . |
Weddell_Polynya | The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya . |
Weather_warning | A Weather warning generally refers to an alert issued by a meteorological agency to warn citizens of approaching dangerous weather . A weather watch , on the other hand , typically refers to an alert issued to indicate that conditions are favorable for the development of dangerous weather patterns , although the dangerous weather conditions themselves are not currently present . In the United States , governmental weather warnings and watches are issued by the National Weather Service , which is itself a branch of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . The NWS defines a watch as `` the risk of a hazardous weather or hydrologic event -LSB- increasing -RSB- significantly , but its occurrence , location , and/or timing is still uncertain '' and a warning as `` hazardous weather or hydrologic event -LSB- that -RSB- is occurring , is imminent , or has a very high probability of occurring '' . Additionally , the NWS breaks down weather warnings and watches based upon the specific type of hazardous weather . These warnings and watches include , but are not limited to , flooding , severe local storms , tropical cyclones , and winter storms . The Severe Weather Terminology article has much greater detail on NWS warnings . The Met Office , the NWS 's counterpart in the United Kingdom , does not issue separate weather warnings and watches , but has an analogous system of flash warnings and advance warnings that serve the same general role of weather warnings and weather watches , respectively . Other official meteorological departments may use similar systems but use different terms . MetService is the National Meteorological Service of New Zealand , and is designated by the Minister of Transport to provide New Zealand 's authorised meteorological warning service . MetService issues Severe Weather Outlooks , Watches and Warnings under a Code of Practice that enables others to distribute this information in the national interest . Weather Warning Criteria are published on its website . Like the United States NWS , MetService breaks down weather warnings and watches based on the specific type of hazardous weather - heavy rain , heavy snow , severe gales , and other weather likely to cause significant disruption to the general public or specific industry groups . MetService also provides Severe Thunderstorm Outlooks , Watches and Warnings to deal with heavy rain and strong wind gusts caused by thunderstorms , as well as large hail and damaging tornadoes . The Met Office and other weather services have three colour coded warning levels . Yellow : Be aware . Possible travel delays , or the disruption of your day-to-day activities . Amber : Be prepared . Could cause road and rail closures , interruption to power and the potential risk to life and property . Red : Take action . Widespread damage , travel and power disruption and risk to life is likely . Avoid dangerous areas . The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute has developed its own warning level terminology . Class 1 means forecast of weather that can mean some risks and disturbances to transport and other parts of society . Class 2 is for weather that can mean danger , damage and larger disturbances . Class 3 is for weather that can mean big danger , serious damage and major disturbances . This can refer to many types of weather related events such as wind , flooding , snow , forest fires etc. . Sweden does not have as severe weather as some other countries , so class 3 events in Sweden would normally not cause very large international headlines . |
Wind_power_in_Mexico | Mexico is the world 's twenty-fourth-biggest producer of wind power , and its installed capacity is expected to reach 2 GW by the end of 2012 . It has a capacity 330 MW under construction . As of 2008 , there were three wind farms in the country . The Eurus Wind Farm is the largest wind farm in Latin America . 18 of 27 wind farms construction projects are based in La Ventosa in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca . According to the Mexican Wind Energy Association , the country will rank twentieth worldwide in wind capacity by the end of 2012 , and will produce four percent of the country 's total electricity production . It also believes that the nation will have 12 GW of wind generation capacity by 2020 , and will be able to provide fifteen percent of Mexico 's production . Brian Gardner , Economist Intelligence Unit 's energy analyst , said , `` With strong wind through the south , consistent sunlight in the north and a stable market , Mexico is well positioned for continued renewables growth '' . Wind power is in partial competition with Solar power in Mexico . |
Withdrawal_of_Greenland_from_the_European_Communities | The withdrawal of Greenland from the European Communities took place in 1985 . This followed a referendum in 1982 in which 53 % voted to leave . |
Weather_media_in_the_United_States | The weather media in the United States includes coverage of weather and weather forecasting by farmers ' almanacs , newspapers , radio , television stations , and the internet . Farmers ' Almanacs have taken a stab at forecasting for the following year or so for around two centuries . At first , weather media included reporting on past events , with forecasting playing a role from the late 19th century onward . Weather-related information proliferated to near real-time after the invention of the telegraph . Radio and satellite broadcasts made weather-related communication ever quicker , with the World Wide Web making broadcasting and reporting nearly instantaneous . By the 1990s , sensationalism played a role in weather coverage . |
Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom | The United Kingdom is one of the best locations for wind power in the world , and is considered to be the best in Europe . Wind power contributed 11 % of UK electricity generation in 2015 , and 17 % in December 2015 . Allowing for the costs of pollution , particularly the carbon emissions of other forms of production , onshore wind power is the cheapest form of energy in the United Kingdom . In 2016 , the UK generated more electricity from wind power than from coal . Wind power delivers a growing percentage of the energy of the United Kingdom and at the end of May 2017 , it consisted of 7,520 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of almost 15.5 gigawatts : 10,128 megawatts of onshore capacity and 5,356 megawatts of offshore capacity . This placed the United Kingdom at this time as the world 's sixth largest producer of wind power ( behind 1 . China , 2 . USA , 3 . Germany , 4 . India and 5 . Spain ) , having overtaken France and Italy in 2012 . Polling of public opinion consistently shows strong support for wind power in the UK , with nearly three quarters of the population agreeing with its use , even for people living near onshore wind turbines . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . Three large offshore wind farms came on stream in 2015 , Gwynt y Môr ( 576 MW max . capacity ) , Humber Gateway ( 219 MW ) and Westermost Rough ( 210 MW ) . Through the Renewables Obligation , British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee . The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate ( ROC ) for each MW · h of electricity they have purchased . Within the United Kingdom , wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity , and the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass . However , the UK 's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016 , although the House of Lords have struck these changes down . Overall , wind power raises costs of electricity slightly . In 2015 , it was estimated that the use of wind power in the UK had added # 18 to the average yearly electricity bill . This was the additional cost to consumers of using wind to generate about 9.3 % of the annual total ( see table below ) -- about # 2 for each 1 % . Nevertheless , offshore wind power is significantly more expensive than onshore , which raises costs . Offshore wind projects completed in 2012 -- 14 had a levelised cost of electricity of # 131/MW · h compared to a wholesale price of # 40 -- 50/MW · h ; the industry hopes to get the cost down to # 100/MW · h for projects approved in 2020 . |
Winter | Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate climates , between autumn and spring . Winter is caused by the axis of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun . Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter , and some use a definition based on weather . When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere , it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere , and vice versa . In many regions , winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures . The moment of winter solstice is when the sun 's elevation with respect to the North or South Pole is at its most negative value ( that is , the sun is at its farthest below the horizon as measured from the pole ) , meaning this day will have the shortest day and the longest night . The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates outside the polar regions differ from the date of the winter solstice , however , and these depend on latitude , due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit ( see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset ) . |
Windmade | WindMade is a global ( Brussel 's based ) consumer label for companies , events and products using wind power in their operations or production . It is aimed at promoting wind power and is guided by a Technical Advisory Board , which includes various scientists , and third-party auditors . The organization is a non-profit NGO established by seven Founding Partners : United Nations Global Compact , WWF , Global Wind Energy Council , LEGO Group , PricewaterhouseCoopers ( PwC ) , Bloomberg L.P. and Vestas Wind Systems . |
World_Oceans_Day | World Oceans Day is celebrated every June 8 . It has been celebrated unofficially since its original proposal in 1992 by Canada 's International Centre for Ocean Development ( ICOD ) and the Ocean Institute of Canada ( OIC ) at the Earth Summit - UN Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . The Brundtland Commission , i.e. the World Commission on Environment and Development , provided the inspiration for a global oceans day . The 1987 Brundtland Report noted that the ocean sector lacked a strong voice compared to other sectors . At the first world Oceans Day in 1992 , the objectives were to move the oceans from the sidelines to the centre of the intergovernmental and NGO discussions and policy and to strengthen the voice of ocean and coastal constituencies world wide . World Oceans Day was officially recognized by the United Nations in late 2008 . The Ocean Project , working in partnership with the World Ocean Network , Association of Zoos and Aquariums , and many other partners in its network of 2,000 organizations , has been promoting World Oceans Day since 2002 and led a three-year global petition movement to secure official UN recognition . World Oceans Day events are celebrated on June 8 , the closest weekend , the week , and the month of June . The day is marked in a variety of ways , including launching new campaigns and initiatives , special events at aquariums and zoos , outdoor explorations , aquatic and beach cleanups , educational and conservation action programs , art contests , film festivals , and sustainable seafood events . Youth have been playing an increasingly important role since 2015 , including the development in 2016 of a World Oceans Day Youth Advisory Council . |
Willis_Tower | The Willis Tower , built as and still commonly referred to as Sears Tower , is a 108-story , 442.1 m skyscraper in Chicago , Illinois , United States . At completion in 1973 , it surpassed the World Trade Center towers in New York to become the tallest building in the world , a title it held for nearly 25 years and remained the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere until 2014 and the completion of a new building at the World Trade Center site . The building is considered a seminal achievement for its architect Fazlur Kahn . The Willis Tower is the second-tallest building in the United States and the 16th-tallest in the world . More than one million people visit its observation deck each year , making it one of Chicago 's most popular tourist destinations . The structure was renamed in 2009 by the Willis Group as part of its lease on a portion of the tower 's space . , the building 's largest tenant is United Airlines , which moved its corporate headquarters from the United Building at 77 West Wacker Drive in 2012 and today occupies around 20 floors with its headquarters and operations center . The building 's official address is 233 South Wacker Drive , Chicago , Illinois 60606 . |
World_War_II | World War II ( often abbreviated to WWII or WW2 ) , also known as the Second World War , was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945 , although related conflicts began earlier . It involved the vast majority of the world 's countries -- including all of the great powers -- eventually forming two opposing military alliances : the Allies and the Axis . It was the most widespread war in history , and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries . In a state of `` total war '' , the major participants threw their entire economic , industrial , and scientific capabilities behind the war effort , erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources . Marked by mass deaths of civilians , including the Holocaust ( in which approximately 11 million people were killed ) and the strategic bombing of industrial and population centres ( in which approximately one million were killed , and which included the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ) , it resulted in an estimated 50 million to 85 million fatalities . These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history . The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937 , but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom . Supplied by the Soviet Union , from late 1939 to early 1941 , in a series of campaigns and treaties , Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe , and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan . Under the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 , Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours , Poland , Finland , Romania and the Baltic states . The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth , with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns , the aerial Battle of Britain , the Blitz bombing campaign , the Balkan Campaign as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic . On 22 June 1941 , the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union , opening the largest land theatre of war in history , which trapped the major part of the Axis ' military forces into a war of attrition . In December 1941 , Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean , and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific . The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway , near Hawaii , and Germany was defeated in North Africa and then , decisively , at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union . In 1943 , with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front , the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Italian surrender , and Allied victories in the Pacific , the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts . In 1944 , the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France , while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies . During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma , while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands . The war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union , culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet troops and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945 . Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms , the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively . With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent , the possibility of additional atomic bombings , and the Soviet Union 's declaration of war on Japan and invasion of Manchuria , Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945 . Thus ended the war in Asia , cementing the total victory of the Allies . World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world . The United Nations ( UN ) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts . The victorious great powers -- the United States , the Soviet Union , China , the United Kingdom , and France -- became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers , setting the stage for the Cold War , which lasted for the next 46 years . Meanwhile , the influence of European great powers waned , while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began . Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery . Political integration , especially in Europe , emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create a common identity . |
Wisconsin | Wisconsin ( -LSB- wᵻˈskɒnsᵻn -RSB- ) is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States , in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions . It is bordered by Minnesota to the west , Iowa to the southwest , Illinois to the south , Lake Michigan to the east , Michigan to the northeast , and Lake Superior to the north . Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous . The state capital is Madison , and its largest city is Milwaukee , which is located on the western shore of Lake Michigan . The state is divided into 72 counties . Wisconsin 's geography is diverse , with the Northern Highland and Western Upland along with a part of the Central Plain occupying the western part of the state and lowlands stretching to the shore of Lake Michigan . Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline . Wisconsin is known as `` America 's Dairyland '' because it is one of the nation 's leading dairy producers , particularly famous for its cheese . Manufacturing , especially paper products , information technology ( IT ) , and tourism are also major contributors to the state 's economy . |
Δ13C | In geochemistry , paleoclimatology and paleoceanography δ13C ( pronounced `` delta thirteen c '' or `` delta carbon thirteen '' ) is an isotopic signature , a measure of the ratio of stable isotopes 13C : 12C , reported in parts per thousand ( per mil , ‰ ) . In geology , an increase in δ13C in marine fossils is associated with an increase in the abundance of vegetation . The definition is , in per mil : where the standard is an established reference material . δ13C varies in time as a function of productivity , organic carbon burial and vegetation type . |
Younger_Dryas | The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) . |
Yves_Trudeau_(biker) | Yves `` Apache '' Trudeau ( 1946 -- 2008 ) , also known as `` The Mad Bumper '' , is a Canadian former member of the Hells Angels North Chapter outlaw motorcycle gang in Laval , Quebec . Frustrated by cocaine addiction and his suspicion that his fellow gang members wanted him dead he became a government informant . In exchange he received a lenient sentence , life in prison but eligible for parole after seven years , for the killing of 43 people from September 1973 to July 1985 . He was given a new identity , in 1994 , when he was granted parole . He was arrested in March 2004 for sexually assaulting a young boy and received four more years . In 2007 , Trudeau learned he had cancer and was transferred to a medical centre from Archambault penitentiary . |
Young_Earth_creationism | Young Earth creationism ( YEC ) is the religious belief that the Universe , Earth , and all life on Earth were created by direct acts of God less than 10,000 years ago . Its primary adherents are Christians who subscribe to a literal interpretation of the creation narrative in the Bible 's Book of Genesis and believe that God created the Earth in six 24-hour days . In contrast to YEC , old Earth creationism is the belief in a metaphorical interpretation of the Book of Genesis and the scientifically-determined estimated ages of the Earth and Universe . Since the mid-20th century , young Earth creationists -- starting with Henry Morris ( 1918 -- 2006 ) -- have devised and promoted a pseudoscientific explanation called `` creation science '' as a basis for a religious belief in a supernatural , geologically recent creation . Evidence from numerous scientific disciplines contradicts YEC , showing the age of the universe as 13.8 billion years , the formation of the Earth as at least 4.5 billion years ago , and the first appearance of life on Earth as occurring at least 3.5 billion years ago . A 2009 poll by Harris Interactive found that 39 % of Americans agreed with the statement that `` God created the universe , the earth , the sun , moon , stars , plants , animals , and the first two people within the past 10,000 years '' , yet only 18 % of the Americans polled agreed with the statement `` The earth is less than 10,000 years old '' . Between 1982 and 2014 , successive surveys have found that between 40 % and 47 % of adults in the United States inclined to the view that `` God created humans in their present form at one time within the last 10,000 years '' when Gallup asked for their views on the origin and development of human beings . A 2011 Gallup survey reports that 30 % of U.S. adults say they interpret the Bible literally . |
Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis | The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis or Clovis comet hypothesis originally proposed that a large air burst or earth impact of one or more comets initiated the Younger Dryas cold period about 12,900 BP calibrated ( 10,900 14C uncalibrated ) years ago . The hypothesis has been contested by research showing that most of the conclusions can not be repeated by other scientists , and criticized because of misinterpretation of data and the lack of confirmatory evidence . The current impact hypothesis states that the air burst ( s ) or impact ( s ) of a swarm of carbonaceous chondrites or comet fragments set areas of the North American continent on fire , causing the extinction of most of the megafauna in North America and the demise of the North American Clovis culture after the last glacial period . The Younger Dryas ice age lasted for about 1,200 years before the climate warmed again . This swarm is hypothesized to have exploded above or possibly on the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the region of the Great Lakes , though no impact crater has yet been identified and no physical model by which such a swarm could form or explode in the air has been proposed . Nevertheless , the proponents suggest that it would be physically possible for such an air burst to have been similar to , but orders of magnitude larger than , the Tunguska event of 1908 . The hypothesis proposed that animal and human life in North America not directly killed by the blast or the resulting coast-to-coast wildfires would have likely starved on the burned surface of the continent . |
Zero-energy_building | A zero-energy building , also known as a zero net energy ( ZNE ) building , net-zero energy building ( NZEB ) , or net zero building , is a building with zero net energy consumption , meaning the total amount of energy used by the building on an annual basis is roughly equal to the amount of renewable energy created on the site , or in other definitions by renewable energy sources elsewhere . These buildings consequently contribute less overall greenhouse gas to the atmosphere than similar non-ZNE buildings . They do at times consume non-renewable energy and produce greenhouse gases , but at other times reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas production elsewhere by the same amount . A similar concept approved and implemented by the European Union and other agreeing countries is nearly Zero Energy Building ( nZEB ) , with the goal of having all buildings in the region under nZEB standards by 2020 . Most zero net energy buildings get half or more of their energy from the grid , and return the same amount at other times . Buildings that produce a surplus of energy over the year may be called `` energy-plus buildings '' and buildings that consume slightly more energy than they produce are called `` near-zero energy buildings '' or `` ultra-low energy houses '' . Traditional buildings consume 40 % of the total fossil fuel energy in the US and European Union and are significant contributors of greenhouse gases . The zero net energy consumption principle is viewed as a means to reduce carbon emissions and reduce dependence on fossil fuels and although zero-energy buildings remain uncommon even in developed countries , they are gaining importance and popularity . Most zero-energy buildings use the electrical grid for energy storage but some are independent of the grid . Energy is usually harvested on-site through energy producing technologies like solar and wind , while reducing the overall use of energy with highly efficient HVAC and lighting technologies . The zero-energy goal is becoming more practical as the costs of alternative energy technologies decrease and the costs of traditional fossil fuels increase . The development of modern zero-energy buildings became possible not only through the progress made in new energy and construction technologies and techniques , but it has also been significantly improved by academic research , which collects precise energy performance data on traditional and experimental buildings and provides performance parameters for advanced computer models to predict the efficacy of engineering designs . Zero-energy buildings can be part of a smart grid . Some advantages of these buildings are as follows : Integration of renewable energy resources Integration of plug-in electric vehicles Implementation of zero-energy concepts The net zero concept is applicable to a wide range of resources due to the many options for producing and conserving resources in buildings ( e.g. energy , water , waste ) . Energy is the first resource to be targeted because it is highly managed , expected to continually become more efficient , and the ability to distribute and allocate it will improve disaster resiliency . |
Yosemite_National_Park | Yosemite National Park ( -LSB- joʊˈsɛmᵻti -RSB- ) is a national park spanning portions of Tuolumne , Mariposa and Madera counties in Northern California . The park , which is managed by the National Park Service , covers an area of 747,956 acre and reaches across the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountain range . On average , about 4 million people visit Yosemite each year , and most spend the majority of their time in the seven square miles ( 18 km2 ) of Yosemite Valley . The park set a visitation record in 2016 , surpassing 5 million visitors for the first time in its history . Designated a World Heritage Site in 1984 , Yosemite is internationally recognized for its granite cliffs , waterfalls , clear streams , giant sequoia groves , lakes , mountains , glaciers , and biological diversity . Almost 95 % of the park is designated wilderness . Yosemite was central to the development of the national park idea . First , Galen Clark and others lobbied to protect Yosemite Valley from development , ultimately leading to President Abraham Lincoln 's signing the Yosemite Grant in 1864 . Later , John Muir led a successful movement to establish a larger national park encompassing not just the valley , but surrounding mountains and forests as well -- paving the way for the United States national park system . Yosemite is one of the largest and least fragmented habitat blocks in the Sierra Nevada , and the park supports a diversity of plants and animals . The park has an elevation range from 2127 to and contains five major vegetation zones : chaparral/oak woodland , lower montane forest , upper montane forest , subalpine zone , and alpine . Of California 's 7,000 plant species , about 50 % occur in the Sierra Nevada and more than 20 % within Yosemite . There is suitable habitat for more than 160 rare plants in the park , with rare local geologic formations and unique soils characterizing the restricted ranges many of these plants occupy . The geology of the Yosemite area is characterized by granitic rocks and remnants of older rock . About 10 million years ago , the Sierra Nevada was uplifted and then tilted to form its relatively gentle western slopes and the more dramatic eastern slopes . The uplift increased the steepness of stream and river beds , resulting in formation of deep , narrow canyons . About one million years ago , snow and ice accumulated , forming glaciers at the higher alpine meadows that moved down the river valleys . Ice thickness in Yosemite Valley may have reached 4000 ft during the early glacial episode . The downslope movement of the ice masses cut and sculpted the U-shaped valley that attracts so many visitors to its scenic vistas today . The name `` Yosemite '' ( meaning `` killer '' in Miwok ) originally referred to the name of a renegade tribe which was driven out of the area ( and possibly annihilated ) by the Mariposa Battalion . Before then the area was called `` Ahwahnee '' ( `` big mouth '' ) by indigenous people . |
Zonal_and_meridional | The terms zonal and meridional are used to describe directions on a globe . Zonal means `` along a latitude circle '' or `` in the west -- east direction '' ; while meridional means `` along a longitude circle '' ( a.k.a. meridian ) or `` in the north -- south direction '' . These terms are often used in the atmospheric and earth sciences to describe global phenomena , such as `` meridional wind flow '' , or `` zonal temperature '' . ( Strictly speaking , zonal means more than simply a direction as it also implies a degree of localization in the meridional direction , so that the phenomenon in question is localized to a zone of the planet . ) `` Meridional '' is also used to describe the axis close to the chain orientation in a polymer fiber , while the term `` equatorial '' is used to describe the direction normal to the fiber axis . For vector fields ( such as wind velocity ) , the zonal component ( or x-coordinate ) is denoted as u , while the meridional component ( or y-coordinate ) is denoted as v. |
Year_Without_a_Summer | The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades . |
Xenoestrogen | Xenoestrogens are a type of xenohormone that imitates estrogen . They can be either synthetic or natural chemical compounds . Synthetic xenoestrogens are widely used industrial compounds , such as PCBs , BPA and phthalates , which have estrogenic effects on a living organism even though they differ chemically from the estrogenic substances produced internally by the endocrine system of any organism . Natural xenoestrogens include phytoestrogens which are plant-derived xenoestrogens . Because the primary route of exposure to these compounds is by consumption of phytoestrogenic plants , they are sometimes called `` dietary estrogens '' . Mycoestrogens , estrogenic substances from fungi , are another type of xenoestrogen that are also considered mycotoxins . Xenoestrogens are clinically significant because they can mimic the effects of endogenous estrogen and thus have been implicated in precocious puberty and other disorders of the reproductive system . Xenoestrogens include pharmacological estrogens ( estrogenic action is an intended effect , as in the drug ethinylestradiol used in contraceptive pill ) , but other chemicals may also have estrogenic effects . Xenoestrogens have been introduced into the environment by industrial , agricultural and chemical companies and consumers only in the last 70 years or so , but archiestrogens have been a ubiquitous part of the environment even before the existence of the human race given that some plants ( like the cereals and the legumes ) are using estrogenic substances possibly as part of their natural defence against herbivore animals by controlling their male fertility . The potential ecological and human health impact of xenoestrogens is of growing concern . The word xenoestrogen is derived from the Greek words ξένο ( xeno , meaning foreign ) , οἶστρος ( estrus , meaning sexual desire ) and γόνο ( gene , meaning `` to generate '' ) and literally means `` foreign estrogen '' . Xenoestrogens are also called `` environmental hormones '' or `` EDC '' ( Endocrine Disrupting Compounds ) . Most scientists that study xenoestrogens , including The Endocrine Society , regard them as serious environmental hazards that have hormone disruptive effects on both wildlife and humans . |
Yellowstone_National_Park | Yellowstone National Park is a national park located in the U.S. states of Wyoming , Montana and Idaho . It was established by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1 , 1872 . Yellowstone was the first National Park in the U.S. and is also widely held to be the first national park in the world . The park is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features , especially Old Faithful Geyser , one of its most popular features . It has many types of ecosystems , but the subalpine forest is the most abundant . It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion . Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years . Aside from visits by mountain men during the early-to-mid-19th century , organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s . Management and control of the park originally fell under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior , the first being Columbus Delano . However , the U.S. Army was subsequently commissioned to oversee management of Yellowstone for a 30-year period between 1886 and 1916 . In 1917 , administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service , which had been created the previous year . Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance , and researchers have examined more than 1,000 archaeological sites . Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3468.4 sqmi , comprising lakes , canyons , rivers and mountain ranges . Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera , the largest supervolcano on the continent . The caldera is considered an active volcano . It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years . Half of the world 's geothermal features are in Yellowstone , fueled by this ongoing volcanism . Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone . The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earth 's northern temperate zone . Hundreds of species of mammals , birds , fish , and reptiles have been documented , including several that are either endangered or threatened . The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants . Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous megafauna location in the Continental United States . Grizzly bears , wolves , and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in the park . The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States . Forest fires occur in the park each year ; in the large forest fires of 1988 , nearly one third of the park was burnt . Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities , including hiking , camping , boating , fishing and sightseeing . Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls . During the winter , visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either snow coaches or snowmobiles . |
Yucca_Mountain_nuclear_waste_repository | The Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Repository , as designated by the Nuclear Waste Policy Act amendments of 1987 , is to be a deep geological repository storage facility for spent nuclear fuel and other high level radioactive waste in the United States . The site is located on federal land adjacent to the Nevada Test Site in Nye County , Nevada , about 80 mi northwest of the Las Vegas Valley . The project was approved in 2002 by the United States Congress , but Federal funding for the site ended in 2011 under the Obama Administration via amendment to the Department of Defense and Full-Year Continuing Appropriations Act , passed on April 14 , 2011 . The project has had many difficulties and was highly contested by the general public , the Western Shoshone peoples , and many politicians . The Government Accountability Office stated that the closure was for political , not technical or safety reasons . This leaves the US government and utilities without any designated long-term storage site for the high-level radioactive waste stored on-site at various nuclear facilities around the country . The US government disposes of transuranic waste at WIPP in New Mexico , in rooms 2150 ft underground . The Department of Energy ( DOE ) is reviewing other options for a high-level waste repository and the Blue Ribbon Commission on America 's Nuclear Future , established by the Secretary of Energy , released its final report in January 2012 . It expressed urgency to find a consolidated , geological repository , and said that any future facility should be developed by a new independent organization with direct access to the Nuclear Waste Fund , which is not subject to political and financial control as is the cabinet department of the Department of Energy . In the meantime , most nuclear power plants in the United States have resorted to the indefinite on-site dry cask storage of waste in nearly impervious steel and concrete casks . |
Yup'ik_cuisine | Yup ` ik cuisine ( Yupiit neqait in Yup ` ik language , literally `` Yup ` iks ' foods '' or `` Yup ` iks ' fishes '' ) refers to the Eskimo style traditional subsistence food and cuisine of the Yup ` ik people from the western and southwestern Alaska . Also known as Cup ` ik cuisine for the Chevak Cup ` ik dialect speaking Eskimos of Chevak and Cup ` ig cuisine for the Nunivak Cup ` ig dialect speaking Eskimos of Nunivak Island . This cuisine is traditionally based on meat from fish , birds , sea and land mammals , and normally contains high levels of protein . Subsistence foods are generally considered by many to be nutritionally superior superfoods . Yup ' ik diet is different from Alaskan Inupiat , Canadian Inuit , and Greenlandic diets . Fish as food ( especially Salmonidae species , such as salmon and whitefish ) are primary food for Yup ` ik Eskimos . Both food and fish called neqa in Yup ` ik . Food preparation techniques are fermentation and cooking , also uncooked raw . Cooking methods are baking , roasting , barbecuing , frying , smoking , boiling , and steaming . Food preservation methods are mostly drying and less often frozen . Dried fish is usually eaten with seal oil . The ulu or fan-shaped knife used for cutting up fish , meat , food , and such . The Yup ` ik , like other Eskimo groups , were semi-nomadic hunter-fisher-gatherers who moved seasonally throughout the year within a reasonably well-defined territory to harvest fish , bird , sea and land mammal , berry and other renewable resources . Yup ` ik cuisine is based on traditional subsistence food harvests ( hunting , fishing and berry gathering ) supplemented by seasonal subsistence activities . The Yup ` ik region is rich with waterfowl , fish , and sea and land mammals . The coastal settlements rely more heavily on sea mammals ( seals , walrusses , beluga whales ) , many species of fish ( Pacific salmon , herring , halibut , flounder , trout , burbot , Alaska blackfish ) , shellfish , crabs , and seaweed . The inland settlements rely more heavily on Pacific salmon and freshwater whitefish , land mammals ( moose , caribou ) , migratory waterfowl , bird eggs , berries , greens , and roots help sustain people throughout the region . The akutaq ( Eskimo ice cream ) , tepa ( stinkheads ) , mangtak ( muktuk ) some of the most well-known traditional Yup ` ik delicacies . Traditional subsistence foods are mixed with what is commercially available . Today about half the food is supplied by subsistence activities ( subsistence foods ) , the other half is purchased from the commercial stores ( market foods , store-bought foods ) . |
Year | A year is the orbital period of the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun . Due to the Earth 's axial tilt , the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons , marked by changes in weather , the hours of daylight , and , consequently , vegetation and soil fertility . In temperate and subpolar regions around the globe , four seasons are generally recognized : spring , summer , autumn and winter . In tropical and subtropical regions several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons ; but in the seasonal tropics , the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked . A calendar year is an approximation of the number of days of the Earth 's orbital period as counted in a given calendar . The Gregorian , or modern , calendar , presents its calendar year to be either a common year of 365 days or a leap year of 366 days , as do the Julian calendars ; see below . For the Gregorian calendar the average length of the calendar year ( the mean year ) across the complete leap cycle of 400 years is 365.2425 days . The ISO standard ISO 80000-3 , Annex C , supports the symbol `` a '' ( for Latin annus ) to represent a year of either 365 or 366 days . In English , the abbreviations `` y '' and `` yr '' are commonly used . In astronomy , the Julian year is a unit of time ; it is defined as 365.25 days of exactly seconds ( SI base unit ) , totalling exactly seconds in the Julian astronomical year . The word `` year '' is also used for periods loosely associated with , but not identical to , the calendar or astronomical year , such as the seasonal year , the fiscal year , the academic year , etc. . Similarly , `` year '' can mean the orbital period of any planet : for example , a Martian year or a Venusian year are examples of the time a planet takes to transit one complete orbit . The term can also be used in reference to any long period or cycle , such as the Great Year . |
Yosemite_West,_California | Yosemite West ( pronounced `` Yo-SEM-it-tee '' ) is an unincorporated community of resort homes located just outside the southern area of Yosemite National Park , just off Wawona Road , a continuation of State Route 41 from Fresno . It is situated one mile ( 1.6 km ) south of the Chinquapin intersection of Wawona Road with Glacier Point Road at an altitude of 5,100 -- 6,300 ft ( 1,550 -- 1,900 m ) . The elevation reported by the USGS is 5,866 feet ( 1,788 m ) . The GPS coordinates are N 37 ° 38.938 ' W 119 ° 43.310 ' . Although it appears to be very near El Portal , this community is part of Henness Ridge , towering nearly 3,000 feet ( 900 m ) above the southern banks of the Merced River and State Route 140 from Mariposa . Therefore , there is no direct access to Yosemite West from Highway 140 . To get to Yosemite West from this direction , drivers need to enter the park through the Arch Rock entrance along Highway 140 from Merced and travel south along Wawona Road . As part of Mariposa County , Yosemite West is a subdivision of 294 lots on approximately 120 acre , complete with underground utilities and paved roads . To date , there are 173 developed lots with houses , including two condominium buildings with a total of 48 units . It is surrounded on three sides by Yosemite National Park and Sierra National Forest . Some homes are owned by permanent residents of the area while others are resort homes , some of which are rented on a daily and weekly basis by visitors to Yosemite National Park . These vacation rentals provide much needed funds for infrastructure repairs . Occupation of the Yosemite West area did not begin , however , with the subdivision that opened in 1967 . It began many centuries earlier with the North American Indian Tribes of the Sierra . Before the advent of the white man , Indians used Yosemite West as their camp ground and hunting area . Even today , a search for the obsidian chips used as arrowheads can provide an interesting day outing in Yosemite West . Yosemite Institute ( YI ) Plans for an Environmental Education Center ( EEC ) at Henness Ridge ( Near Yosemite West ) . As per the report ( page 79 ) , `` the total number of students in the park per session would be approximately 490 . Under this alternative , 224 students would be housed at the Henness Ridge campus and approximately 266 in Yosemite Valley ( approximately 74 fewer students than in historic programming ) . The new facilities at Henness Ridge would provide indoor and outdoor learning environments that are tailored to teaching and learning . The new dining hall and classroom , as well as the circulation of students during their stay , would significantly improve the students ' indoor educational experience . A diversity of trails around the campus at Henness Ridge would provide the environmental education program opportunities for exploration . '' In April 2010 , a record of decision was received in favor of the new center to be built at Henness Ridge . `` The new center will provide a permanent home for environmental education in Yosemite National Park and will enable Yosemite Institute to provide improved and expanded educational opportunities for its students . '' |
Last_Glacial_Period | The Last Glacial Period (LGP) occurred from the end of the Eemian to the end of the Younger Dryas, encompassing the period c. 115,000 – c. 11,700 years ago. The LGP is part of a larger sequence of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation which started around 2,588,000 years ago and is ongoing. The definition of the Quaternary as beginning 2.58 million years ago is based on the formation of the Arctic ice cap. The Antarctic ice sheet began to form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in the mid-Cenozoic (Eocene–Oligocene extinction event). The term Late Cenozoic Ice Age is used to include this early phase.During this last glacial period there were alternating episodes of glacier advance and retreat. Within the last glacial period the Last Glacial Maximum was approximately 22,000 years ago. While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar, local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent (see picture of ice core data below for differences). Approximately 12,800 years ago, the Younger Dryas, the most recent glacial epoch, began, a coda to the preceding 100,000 year glacial period. Its end about 11,550 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene, the current geological epoch. From the point of view of human archaeology, the last glacial period falls in the Paleolithic and early Mesolithic periods. When the glaciation event started, Homo sapiens were confined to lower latitudes and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Denisovans and Homo erectus in Asia. Near the end of the event, Homo sapiens migrated into Eurasia and Australia. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover. |
2018_British_Isles_heat_wave | The 2018 Britain and Ireland heat wave was a period of unusually hot weather that took place in June, July and August. It caused widespread drought, hosepipe bans, crop failures, and a number of wildfires. These wildfires worst affected northern moorland areas around the Greater Manchester region, the largest was at Saddleworth Moor and another was at Winter Hill, together these burned over 14 square miles (36 km2) of land over a period of nearly a month.A heat wave was officially declared on 22 June, with Scotland and Northern Ireland recording temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) for the first time since the July 2013 heat wave. The British Isles were in the middle of a strong warm anticyclone inside a strong northward meander of the jet stream, this was part of the wider 2018 European heat wave. The Met Office declared summer 2018 the joint hottest on record together with 1976, 2003 and 2006. |
Climate_change_in_Tuvalu | Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort. |
Climate_variability | Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies. |