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United_States_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction | The United States is known to have possessed three types of weapons of mass destruction : nuclear weapons , chemical weapons , and biological weapons . The U.S. is the only country to have used nuclear weapons in combat , when it detonated two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II . It had secretly developed the earliest form of the atomic weapon during the 1940s under the title `` Manhattan Project '' . The United States pioneered the development of both the nuclear fission and hydrogen bombs ( the latter involving nuclear fusion ) . It was the world 's first and only nuclear power for four years ( 1945 -- 1949 ) , until the Soviet Union managed to produce its own nuclear weapon . The United States has the second largest number of deployed nuclear weapons in the world , after Russia . |
Typical_meteorological_year | A typical meteorological year ( TMY ) is a collation of selected weather data for a specific location , generated from a data bank much longer than a year in duration . It is specially selected so that it presents the range of weather phenomena for the location in question , while still giving annual averages that are consistent with the long-term averages for the location in question . TMY data is frequently used in building simulation , in order to assess the expected heating and cooling costs for the design of the building . It is also used by designers of solar energy systems including solar domestic hot water systems and large scale solar thermal power plants . The first TMY collection was based on 229 locations in the US and was collected between 1948 and 1980 . The second edition of the TMY is called `` TMY 2 '' . It is based on 239 stations collecting data between 1961 and 1990 . The TMY2 data include Precipitable water column ( precipitable moisture ) , which is important in predicting radiative cooling . The third , and latest TMY collection ( TMY3 ) was based on data for 1020 locations in the USA including Guam , Puerto Rico , and US Virgin Islands , derived from a 1976-2005 period of record where available , and a 1991-2005 period of record for all other locations . The TMYs are data sets of hourly values of solar radiation and meteorological elements for a 1-year period . Their intended use is for computer simulations of solar energy conversion systems and building systems to facilitate performance comparisons of different system types , configurations , and locations in the United States and its territories . Because they represent typical rather than extreme conditions , they are not suited for designing systems to meet the worst-case conditions occurring at a location . The source data are available for download from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory . Commercial software packages supporting simulations using TMY data include TRNSYS , PV * SOL and PVscout PVSyst . TMY data specific for specific locations will usually need to be paid for . On the other hand , an advanced , comprehensive , and free simulation package developed under funding from the US Department of Energy called EnergyPlus also reads TMY3 data files , and a large number of these are available at no cost from their website . NREL provides access to TMY2 and TMY3 data sets and also uses these data sets in its online solar energy calculator PVWatts . A complete and comprehensive review of weather files , including TMY , can be found in Herrera et al. , 2017 . |
Typhoon | A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops in the western part of the North Pacific Ocean between 180 ° and 100 ° E . This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin , and is the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth , accounting for almost one-third of the world 's annual tropical cyclones . For organizational purposes , the northern Pacific Ocean is divided into three regions : the eastern ( North America to 140 ° W ) , central ( 140 ° to 180 ° W ) , and western ( 180 ° to 100 ° E ) . The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center ( RSMC ) for tropical cyclone forecasts is in Japan , with other tropical cyclone warning centers for the northwest Pacific in Hawaii ( the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ) , the Philippines and Hong Kong . While the RSMC names each system , the main name list itself is coordinated among 18 countries that have territories threatened by typhoons each year . Only the Philippines use their own naming list for systems approaching the country . A typhoon differs from a cyclone or hurricane only on the basis of location . A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean , a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean , and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean . Within the northwestern Pacific there are no official typhoon seasons as tropical cyclones form throughout the year . Like any tropical cyclone , there are six main requirements for typhoon formation and development : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a pre-existing low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . While the majority of storms form between June and November , a few storms do occur between December and May ( although tropical cyclone formation is at a minimum during that time ) . On average , the northwestern Pacific features the most numerous and intense tropical cyclones globally . Like other basins , they are steered by the subtropical ridge towards the west or northwest , with some systems recurving near and east of Japan . The Philippines receive the brunt of the landfalls , with China and Japan being impacted slightly less . Some of the deadliest typhoons in history have struck China . Southern China has the longest record of typhoon impacts for the region , with a thousand-year sample via documents within their archives . Taiwan has received the wettest known typhoon on record for the northwest Pacific tropical cyclone basins . |
Value-added_tax_(United_Kingdom) | Value-added tax or value added tax ( VAT ) is a consumption tax levied in the United Kingdom by the national government . It was introduced in 1973 and is the third-largest source of government revenue , after income tax and National Insurance . It is administered and collected by HM Revenue and Customs , primarily through the Value Added Tax Act 1994 . VAT is levied on most goods and services provided by registered businesses in the UK and some goods and services imported from outside the European Union . There are complex regulations for goods and services imported from within the EU . The default VAT rate is the standard rate , 20 % since 4 January 2011 . Some goods and services are subject to VAT at a reduced rate of 5 % ( such as domestic fuel ) or 0 % ( such as most food and children 's clothing ) . Others are exempt from VAT or outside the system altogether . Under EU law , the standard rate of VAT in any EU state can not be lower than 15 % . Each state may have up to two reduced rates of at least 5 % for a restricted list of goods and services . The European Council must approve any temporary reduction of VAT in the public interest . VAT is an indirect tax because the tax is paid to the government by the seller ( the business ) rather than the person who ultimately bears the economic burden of the tax ( the consumer ) . Opponents of VAT claim it is a regressive tax because the poorest people spend a higher proportion of their disposable income on VAT than the richest people . Those in favour of VAT claim it is progressive as consumers who spend more pay more VAT . |
United_Nations_Environment_Organization | Proposals for the creation of a United Nations Environmental Organization ( UNEO ) have come as some question the efficacy of the current United Nations Environmental Program ( UNEP ) at dealing with the scope of global environmental issues . Created to act as an anchor institution in the system of Global Environmental Governance ( GEG ) , it has failed to meet those demands . The UNEP has been hindered by its title as a Programme as opposed to a Specialized agency like the WTO or WHO , in addition to a lack of voluntary funding , and a location removed from the centers of political power , in Nairobi , Kenya . These factors have led to widespread calls for UNEP reform , and following the publication of Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC in February 2007 , a `` Paris Call for Action '' read out by French President Chirac and supported by 46 countries , called for the UNEP to be replaced by a new and more powerful United Nations Environment Organization , to be modelled on the World Health Organization . The 52 countries included the European Union nations , but notably did not include the United States and BRIC ( Brasil , Russia , India , and China ) , the top five emitters of greenhouse gases . |
Urban_decay | Urban decay ( also known as urban rot and urban blight ) is the process whereby a previously functioning city , or part of a city , falls into disrepair and decrepitude . It may feature deindustrialization , depopulation or changing population , restructuring , abandoned buildings , high local unemployment , fragmented families , political disenfranchisement , crime , and a desolate , inhospitable city landscape . Since the 1970s and 1980s , urban decay has been associated with Western cities , especially in North America and parts of Europe ( mostly Britain and France ) . Since then , major structural changes in global economies , transportation , and government policy created the economic and then the social conditions resulting in urban decay . The effects counter the development of most of Europe and North America ; in other continents , urban decay is manifested in the peripheral slums at the outskirts of a metropolis , while the city center and the inner city retain high real estate values and sustain a steadily increasing populace . In contrast , North American and British cities often experience population flights to the suburbs and exurb commuter towns ; often in the form of white flight . Another characteristic of urban decay is blight -- the visual , psychological , and physical effects of living among empty lots , buildings and condemned houses . Such desolate properties are socially dangerous to the community because they attract criminals and street gangs , contributing to the volume of crime . Urban decay has no single cause ; it results from combinations of inter-related socio-economic conditions -- including the city 's urban planning decisions , tight rent control , the poverty of the local populace , the construction of freeway roads and rail road lines that bypass the area , depopulation by suburbanization of peripheral lands , real estate neighborhood redlining , and immigration restrictions . |
United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification | The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification , Particularly in Africa ( UNCCD ) is a Convention to combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought through national action programs that incorporate long-term strategies supported by international cooperation and partnership arrangements . The Convention , the only convention stemming from a direct recommendation of the Rio Conference 's Agenda 21 , was adopted in Paris , France on 17 June 1994 and entered into force in December 1996 . It is the only internationally legally binding framework set up to address the problem of desertification . The Convention is based on the principles of participation , partnership and decentralization -- the backbone of Good Governance and Sustainable Development . It has 196 parties , making it near universal in reach . To help publicise the Convention , 2006 was declared `` International Year of Deserts and Desertification '' but debates have ensued regarding how effective the International Year was in practice . |
USA-211 | USA-211 , or Wideband Global Satcom 3 ( WGS-3 ) is an American military communications satellite operated by the United States Air Force as part of the Wideband Global Satcom programme . Launched in 2009 , it was the third WGS satellite , and final Block I spacecraft , to reach orbit . It is stationed at 12 ° west in Geostationary orbit . Built by Boeing , USA-211 is based on the BSS-702 satellite bus . It had a mass at launch of 5987 kg , and was expected to operate for fourteen years . The spacecraft is equipped with two solar arrays to generate power for its communications payload , which consists of cross-band X and Ka band transponders . Propulsion is provided by an R-4D-15 apogee motor , with four XIPS-25 ion engines for stationkeeping . USA-211 was launched by United Launch Alliance , who placed it into orbit using an Delta IV rocket , which flew for the first time in the Medium + ( 5,4 ) configuration . The launch took place from Space Launch Complex 37B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , with at 01:47:00 UTC on 6 December 2009 . The launch was successful , placing the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit , from which it raised itself into geostationary orbit using its propulsion system . Following launch , the satellite was designated USA-211 under the US military 's designation system , and received the International Designator 2009-068A and Satellite Catalog Number 36108 . |
Universe | The Universe is all of time and space and its content , which includes planets , moons , minor planets , stars , galaxies , the contents of intergalactic space and all matter and energy . While the size of the entire Universe is still unknown , the earliest scientific models of the Universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric , placing Earth at the center of the Universe . Over the centuries , more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus ( 1473 -- 1543 ) to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System . In developing the law of universal gravitation , Sir Isaac Newton ( NS : 1643 -- 1727 ) built upon Copernicus 's work as well as observations by Tycho Brahe ( 1546 -- 1601 ) and Johannes Kepler 's ( 1571 -- 1630 ) laws of planetary motion . Further observational improvements led to the realization that our Solar System is located in the Milky Way galaxy , which is one of many galaxies in the Universe . It is assumed that galaxies are distributed uniformly and the same in all directions , meaning that the Universe has neither an edge nor a center . Discoveries in the early 20th century have suggested that the Universe had a beginning and that it is expanding at an increasing rate . The majority of mass in the Universe appears to exist in an unknown form called dark matter . The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological description of the development of the Universe . Under this theory , space and time emerged together ago with a fixed amount of energy and matter that has become less dense as the Universe has expanded . After the initial expansion , the Universe cooled , allowing the first subatomic particles to form and then simple atoms . Giant clouds later merged through gravity to form galaxies , stars , and everything else seen today . There are many competing hypotheses about the ultimate fate of the Universe and about what , if anything , preceded the Big Bang , while other physicists and philosophers refuse to speculate , doubting that information about prior states will ever be accessible . Some physicists have suggested various multiverse hypotheses , in which the Universe might be one among many universes that likewise exist . |
Underdevelopment | Underdevelopment , relating to international development , reflects a broad condition or phenomena defined and critiqued by theorists in fields such as economics , development studies , and postcolonial studies . Used primarily to distinguish states along benchmarks concerning human development -- such as macro-economic growth , health , education , and standards of living -- an `` underdeveloped '' state is framed as the antithesis of a `` developed '' , modern , or industrialized state . Popularized , dominant images of underdeveloped states include those that have less stable economies , less democratic political regimes , greater poverty , malnutrition , and poorer public health and education systems . |
United_States_Geological_Survey | The United States Geological Survey ( USGS , formerly simply Geological Survey ) is a scientific agency of the United States government . The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States , its natural resources , and the natural hazards that threaten it . The organization has four major science disciplines , concerning biology , geography , geology , and hydrology . The USGS is a fact-finding research organization with no regulatory responsibility . The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior ; it is that department 's sole scientific agency . The USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston , Virginia . The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood , Colorado , at the Denver Federal Center , and Menlo Park , California . The current motto of the USGS , in use since August 1997 , is `` science for a changing world . '' The agency 's previous slogan , adopted on the occasion of its hundredth anniversary , was `` Earth Science in the Public Service . '' |
United_States_Senate_election_in_California,_2016 | The 2016 United States Senate election in California was held on November 8 , 2016 , to elect a member of the United States Senate to represent the State of California , concurrently with the 2016 U.S. presidential election , as well as other elections to the United States Senate in other states and elections to the United States House of Representatives and various state and local elections . Under California 's nonpartisan blanket primary law , all candidates appear on the same ballot , regardless of party . In the primary , voters may vote for any candidate , regardless of their party affiliation . In the California system , the top two finishers -- regardless of party -- advance to the general election in November , even if a candidate manages to receive a majority of the votes cast in the primary election . Washington and Louisiana have similar `` jungle primary '' style processes for Senators . Incumbent Democratic Senator Barbara Boxer decided to not run for re-election to a fifth term in office . This was the first open seat Senate election in California in 24 years . In the primary on June 7 , 2016 , California Attorney General Kamala Harris and U.S. Representative Loretta Sanchez , both Democrats , finished in first and second place , respectively , and contested the general election . The highest Republican finisher in the primary won only 7.8 percent of the vote ; this marked the first time since direct elections to the Senate began after the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913 that a Republican did not appear on the general election ballot for the U.S. Senate in California . In the general election , Harris defeated Sanchez in a landslide , carrying all but Glenn and Imperial counties . |
Ursus_americanus_carlottae | The Haida Gwaii black bear ( Ursus americanus carlottae ) is a morphologically distinct subspecies of the American black bear . The most significant morphological differences are its large size , massive cranium , and large molars . This subspecies is endemic to the Haida Gwaii ( Queen Charlotte Islands ) and is considered a `` keystone species '' because of the bears transportation of salmon remains into surrounding forests of Haida Gwaii . |
Typhoon_Haiyan | Typhoon Haiyan , known as Super Typhoon Yolanda in the Philippines , was one of the most intense tropical cyclones on record . On making landfall , Haiyan devastated portions of Southeast Asia , particularly the Philippines . It is the deadliest Philippine typhoon on record , killing at least 6,300 people in that country alone . In terms of 1-minute sustained winds , Haiyan is the strongest landfalling tropical cyclone on record . In January 2014 , bodies were still being found . The thirtieth named storm of the 2013 Pacific typhoon season , Haiyan originated from an area of low pressure several hundred kilometers east-southeast of Pohnpei in the Federated States of Micronesia on November 2 , 2013 . Tracking generally westward , environmental conditions favored tropical cyclogenesis and the system developed into a tropical depression the following day . After becoming a tropical storm and attaining the name Haiyan at 0000 UTC on November 4 , the system began a period of rapid intensification that brought it to typhoon intensity by 1800 UTC on November 5 . By November 6 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) assessed the system as a Category 5-equivalent super typhoon on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale ; the storm passed over the island of Kayangel in Palau shortly after attaining this strength . Thereafter , it continued to intensify ; at 1200 UTC on November 7 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded the storm 's maximum ten-minute sustained winds to 230 km/h ( 145 mph ) , the highest in relation to the cyclone . The Hong Kong Observatory put the storm 's maximum ten-minute sustained winds at 285 km/h ( 180 mph ) prior to landfall in the central Philippines , while the China Meteorological Administration estimated the maximum two-minute sustained winds at the time to be around 78 m/s ( 280 km/h or 175 mph ) . At the same time , the JTWC estimated the system 's one-minute sustained winds to 315 km/h ( 195 mph ) , unofficially making Haiyan the strongest tropical cyclone ever observed based on wind speed , a record which would then be surpassed by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 at 345 km/h ( 215 mph ) . Haiyan is also the strongest tropical cyclone in the Eastern Hemisphere by wind speed ; several others have recorded lower central pressure readings . Several hours later , the eye of the cyclone made its first landfall in the Philippines at Guiuan , Eastern Samar . Gradually weakening , the storm made five additional landfalls in the country before emerging over the South China Sea . Turning northwestward , the typhoon eventually struck northern Vietnam as a severe tropical storm on November 10 . Haiyan was last noted as a tropical depression by the JMA the following day . The cyclone caused catastrophic destruction in the Visayas , particularly on Samar and Leyte . According to UN officials , about 11 million people have been affected -- many have been left homeless . |
Variable_star | A variable star is a star whose brightness as seen from Earth ( its apparent magnitude ) fluctuates . This variation may be caused by a change in emitted light or by something partly blocking the light , so variable stars are classified as either : Intrinsic variables , whose luminosity actually changes ; for example , because the star periodically swells and shrinks . Extrinsic variables , whose apparent changes in brightness are due to changes in the amount of their light that can reach Earth ; for example , because the star has an orbiting companion that sometimes eclipses it . Many , possibly most , stars have at least some variation in luminosity : the energy output of our Sun , for example , varies by about 0.1 % over an 11-year solar cycle . |
Upstate | The term upstate may refer to the northerly portions of several U.S. states . It also can refer to parts of states that have a higher elevation , away from sea level . These regions tend to be rural ; an exception is Delaware . On the east coast , `` upstate '' generally refers to places away from the Atlantic Ocean . Maine , except for `` Down East '' Upstate California , a 2001 marketing campaign to promote the northern half of Northern California Upstate New York , an area of New York north of the New York City metropolitan area SUNY Upstate Medical University , often referred to as `` Upstate '' Upstate University Hospital , Syracuse , New York Upstate South Carolina , the northwestern `` corner '' of South Carolina Upstate Pennsylvania , a tourism region that includes much of Northeastern Pennsylvania A term used to refer to going to the penitentiary in New York or California , as all of New York 's state prison 's are Upstate , and the majority of California 's are as well . |
Ultraviolet | Ultraviolet ( UV ) is an electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm ( 30 PHz ) to 400 nm ( 750 THz ) , shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays . UV radiation constitutes about 10 % of the total light output of the Sun , and is thus present in sunlight . It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights , such as mercury-vapor lamps , tanning lamps , and black lights . Although it is not considered an ionizing radiation because its photons lack the energy to ionize atoms , long-wavelength ultraviolet radiation can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce . Consequently , the biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects , and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules . Suntan , freckling and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure , along with higher risk of skin cancer . Living things on dry land would be severely damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earth 's atmosphere . More-energetic , shorter-wavelength `` extreme '' UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground . Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone-strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates , including humans . The UV spectrum thus has effects both beneficial and harmful to human health . Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans : the lens in a human eye ordinarily filters out UVB frequencies or higher , and humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays . Under some conditions , children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm , and people with aphakia ( missing lens ) or replacement lens can also see some UV wavelengths . Near-UV radiation is visible to some insects , mammals , and birds . Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays ; this gives birds `` true '' UV vision . Reindeer use near-UV radiation to see polar bears , who are poorly visible in regular light because they blend in with the snow . UV also allows mammals to see urine trails , which is helpful for prey animals to find food in the wild . The males and females of some butterfly species look identical to the human eye but very different to UV-sensitive eyes -- the males sport bright patterns in order to attract the females . |
United_States | The United States of America ( USA ) , commonly known as the United States ( U.S. ) or America , is a constitutional federal republic composed of 50 states , a federal district , five major self-governing territories , and various possessions . Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico . The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America , bordered by Canada to the east and across the Bering Strait from Russia to the west . The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean . The U.S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea . Nine time zones are covered . The geography , climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse . At 3.8 million square miles ( 9.8 million km2 ) and with over 324 million people , the United States is the world 's third - or fourth-largest country by total area , third-largest by land area , and the third-most populous . It is one of the world 's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations , and is home to the world 's largest immigrant population . The capital is Washington , D.C. , and the largest city is New York City ; nine other major metropolitan areas -- each with at least 4.5 million inhabitants and the largest having more than 13 million people -- are Los Angeles , Chicago , Dallas , Houston , Philadelphia , Miami , Atlanta , Boston , and San Francisco . Paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago . European colonization began in the 16th century . The United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast . Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the colonies following the Seven Years ' War led to the American Revolution , which began in 1775 . On July 4 , 1776 , during the course of the American Revolutionary War , the colonies unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence . The war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain , representing the first successful war of independence against a European power . The current constitution was adopted in 1788 , after the Articles of Confederation , adopted in 1781 , were felt to have provided inadequate federal powers . The first ten amendments , collectively named the Bill of Rights , were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties . The United States embarked on a vigorous expansion across North America throughout the 19th century , displacing Native American tribes , acquiring new territories , and gradually admitting new states until it spanned the continent by 1848 . During the second half of the 19th century , the American Civil War led to the end of legal slavery in the country . By the end of that century , the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean , and its economy , driven in large part by the Industrial Revolution , began to soar . The Spanish -- American War and confirmed the country 's status as a global military power . The United States emerged from as a global superpower , the first country to develop nuclear weapons , the only country to use them in warfare , and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council . The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the world 's sole superpower . The U.S. is a founding member of the United Nations , World Bank , International Monetary Fund , Organization of American States ( OAS ) , and other international organizations . The United States is a highly developed country , with the world 's largest economy by nominal GDP and second-largest economy by PPP . Though its population is only 4.3 % of the world total , Americans hold nearly 40 % of the total wealth in the world . The United States ranks among the highest in several measures of socioeconomic performance , including average wage , human development , per capita GDP , and productivity per person . While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial , characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy , the manufacturing sector remains the second-largest in the world . Accounting for approximately a quarter of global GDP and a third of global military spending , the United States is the world 's foremost economic and military power . The United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally , and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations . |
Unemployment_in_the_United_States | Unemployment in the United States discusses the causes and measures of U.S. unemployment and strategies for reducing it . Job creation and unemployment are affected by factors such as economic conditions , global competition , education , automation , and demographics . These factors can affect the number of workers , the duration of unemployment , and wage levels . |
United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change | The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies . |
United_Launch_Alliance | United Launch Alliance ( ULA ) is a joint venture of Lockheed Martin Space Systems and Boeing Defense , Space & Security . ULA was formed in December 2006 by combining the teams at these companies which provide spacecraft launch services to the government of the United States . U.S. government launch customers include both the Department of Defense and NASA , as well as other organizations . With ULA , Lockheed and Boeing held a monopoly on military launches for more than a decade , until the US Air Force awarded a GPS satellite contract to SpaceX in 2016 . ULA provides launch services using three expendable launch systems -- Delta II , Delta IV and Atlas V . The Atlas and Delta launch system families have been used for more than 50 years to carry a variety of payloads including weather , telecommunications and national security satellites , as well as deep space and interplanetary exploration missions in support of scientific research . ULA also provides launch services for non-government satellites : Lockheed Martin retains the rights to market Atlas commercially . Beginning in October 2014 , ULA announced that they intended to undertake a substantial restructuring of the company , its products and processes , in the coming years in order to decrease launch costs . ULA is planning on building a new rocket that will be a successor to the Atlas V , using a new rocket engine on the first stage . In April 2015 , they unveiled the new vehicle as the Vulcan , with the first flight of a new first stage no earlier than 2019 . |
Typhoon_Imbudo | Typhoon Imbudo , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Harurot , was a powerful typhoon that struck the Philippines and southern China in July 2003 . The seventh named storm and fourth typhoon of the season , Imbudo formed on July 15 to the east of the Philippines . The storm moved generally west-northward for much of its duration due to a ridge to the north . Favorable conditions allowed Imbudo to intensify , gradually at first before undergoing rapid deepening on July 19 . After reaching typhoon status , Imbudo strengthened further to peak 10 -- minute sustained winds of 165 km/h ( 105 mph ) on July 20 . The typhoon made landfall on northern Luzon near peak intensity on July 22 , but quickly weakened over land . Once in the South China Sea , Imbudo re-intensified slightly before making its final landfall in southern China near Yangjiang on July 24 , dissipating the next day . In the Philippines , Imbudo was the strongest typhoon in five years , causing widespread flooding and power outages in the Cagayan Valley for weeks . Damage was heaviest in Isabela province near where the storm struck . Most of the banana crop was destroyed , and other crops sustained similar but lesser damage . Imbudo disrupted transportation across much of Luzon . Nationwide , the storm damaged or destroyed 62,314 houses , causing P4 .7 billion ( PHP , $ 86 million USD ) in damage , mostly in the Cagayan Valley . There were also 64 deaths in the country . In Hong Kong , strong winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform . In China , damage was heaviest in Guangdong where the storm struck . Thousands of trees fell , and 595,000 houses were wrecked . Hundreds of canceled flights stranded travelers across the region . In Guangxi , high rainfall increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels . In Guangxi and Guangdong , collectively 20 people were killed , and damage reached about ¥ 4.45 billion ( CNY , $ 297 million USD ) . |
United_States_presidential_election_in_California,_1964 | In the 1964 United States presidential election , the state of California voted for the incumbent Democratic President , Lyndon B. Johnson , in a landslide over the Republican nominee , Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona . As Johnson won nationally in a massive landslide , taking 61.05 percent of the vote nationwide , and dominating many Northeastern and Midwestern states by record landslide margins , California weighed in as about 4 percent more Republican than the national average in the 1964 election . Johnson dominated in more liberal Northern California , breaking 60 % in many counties and even breaking 70 % in Plumas County and the city of San Francisco . However the Western conservative Goldwater , from neighboring Arizona , did hold some appeal in more conservative Southern California , where Johnson failed to break his nationwide vote average in a single county . Goldwater indeed won seven congressional districts in the south coastal area and carried two heavily populated Southern California counties , Orange County , and San Diego County , thus holding Johnson below the 60 % mark statewide . Although California has become a strongly Democratic state in recent elections , this was the only presidential election between 1952 and 1988 where the state was carried by a Democrat . Johnson is also the last Democrat to carry the counties of Calaveras , Colusa , Glenn , Inyo , Kern , Modoc and Tulare , and the last to win the majority of the vote in Butte , El Dorado , Kings , Mariposa , Siskiyou and Tuolumne counties , although one or more of Hubert Humphrey , Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton have won a plurality in those counties . This was the last election in which California did not register the most votes cast by state . |
Unemployment_benefits | Unemployment benefits ( depending on the jurisdiction also called unemployment insurance or unemployment compensation ) are social welfare payments made by the state or other authorized bodies to unemployed people . Benefits may be based on a compulsory para-governmental insurance system . Depending on the jurisdiction and the status of the person , those sums may be small , covering only basic needs , or may compensate the lost time proportionally to the previous earned salary . Unemployment benefits are generally given only to those registering as unemployed , and often on conditions ensuring that they seek work and do not currently have a job . In some countries , a significant proportion of unemployment benefits are distributed by trade/labour unions , an arrangement known as the Ghent system . |
United_States_rainfall_climatology | The characteristics of United States rainfall climatology differ significantly across the United States and those under United States sovereignty . Late summer and fall extratropical cyclones bring a majority of the precipitation which falls across western , southern , and southeast Alaska annually . During the winter , and spring , Pacific storm systems bring Hawaii and the western United States most of their precipitation . Nor'easter s moving down the East coast bring cold season precipitation to the Carolinas , Mid-Atlantic and New England states . Lake-effect snows add to precipitation potential downwind of the Great Lakes , as well as Great Salt Lake and the Finger Lakes during the cold season . The snow to liquid ratio across the contiguous United States averages 13:1 , meaning 13 in of snow melts down to 1 in of water . During the summer , the North American monsoon combined with Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico moisture moving around the subtropical ridge in the Atlantic Ocean bring the promise of afternoon and evening air-mass thunderstorms to the southern tier of the country as well as the Great Plains . Equatorward of the subtropical ridge , tropical cyclones enhance precipitation across southern and eastern sections of the country , as well as Puerto Rico , the United States Virgin Islands , the Northern Mariana Islands , Guam , and American Samoa . Over the top of the ridge , the jet stream brings a summer precipitation maximum to the Great Lakes . Large thunderstorm areas known as mesoscale convective complexes move through the Plains , Midwest , and Great Lakes during the warm season , contributing up to 10 % of the annual precipitation to the region . The El Niño -- Southern Oscillation affects the precipitation distribution , by altering rainfall patterns across the West , Midwest , the Southeast , and throughout the tropics . There is also evidence that global warming is leading to increased precipitation to the eastern portions of North America , while droughts are becoming more frequent in the western portions . |
Uncertainty_analysis | For a much more detailed treatment , see Experimental uncertainty analysis Uncertainty analysis investigates the uncertainty of variables that are used in decision-making problems in which observations and models represent the knowledge base . In other words , uncertainty analysis aims to make a technical contribution to decision-making through the quantification of uncertainties in the relevant variables . In physical experiments uncertainty analysis , or experimental uncertainty assessment , deals with assessing the uncertainty in a measurement . An experiment designed to determine an effect , demonstrate a law , or estimate the numerical value of a physical variable will be affected by errors due to instrumentation , methodology , presence of confounding effects and so on . Experimental uncertainty estimates are needed to assess the confidence in the results . A related field is design of experiments . Likewise in numerical experiments and modelling uncertainty analysis draws upon a number of techniques for determining the reliability of model predictions , accounting for various sources of uncertainty in model input and design . A related field is sensitivity analysis . A calibrated parameter does not necessarily represent reality , as reality is much more complex . Any prediction has its own complexities of reality that can not be represented uniquely in the calibrated model ; therefore , there is a potential error . Such error must be accounted for when making management decisions on the basis of model outcomes . |
Unparticle_physics | In theoretical physics , unparticle physics is a speculative theory that conjectures a form of matter that can not be explained in terms of particles using the Standard Model of particle physics , because its components are scale invariant . Howard Georgi proposed this theory in two 2007 papers , `` Unparticle Physics '' and `` Another Odd Thing About Unparticle Physics '' . His papers were followed by further work by other researchers into the properties and phenomenology of unparticle physics and its potential impact on particle physics , astrophysics , cosmology , CP violation , lepton flavour violation , muon decay , neutrino oscillations , and supersymmetry . |
UH88 | The University of Hawai'i 88-inch ( 2.2-meter ) telescope called UH88 , UH2 .2 , or simply 88 by members of the local astronomical community is situated at the Mauna Kea Observatories and operated by the University 's Institute for Astronomy . It was constructed in 1968 , and entered service in 1970 , at which point it was known as `` The Mauna Kea Observatory . '' It became one of the first professional telescope to be controlled by a computer . The telescope was built with funding from NASA , to support Solar System missions and is controlled by the University of Hawai'i . The success of the telescope helped demonstrate the value of Mauna Kea for astronomical observations . On December 4 , 1984 it became the first telescope to make optical closure phase measurements on an astronomical source using an aperture mask . UH88 is a Cassegrain reflector tube telescope with an f/10 focal ratio , supported by a large open fork equatorial mount . It was the last telescope on Mauna Kea to use a tube design rather than an open truss , and is the largest in the complex to use an open fork mount , with neighboring telescopes in the 3-meter class using English fork designs . As the only research telescope controlled solely by the University , UH88 has long been the primary telescope used by its professors , postdoctoral scholars and graduate students , and as a result , the site of numerous discoveries . David C. Jewitt and Jane X. Luu discovered the first Kuiper belt object , 1992 QB1 using UH88 , and a team led by Jewitt and Scott S. Sheppard discovered 45 of the known moons of Jupiter , as well as moons of Saturn , Uranus and Neptune . The Institute for Astronomy also makes agreements with other organizations for portions of available observing time . Currently , the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan uses UH88 for some research projects for which its far larger and more expensive Subaru Observatory , also on Mauna Kea , would be overkill . The Nearby Supernova Factory project , based at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , also has its Supernova Integrated Field Spectrograph ( SNIFS ) instrument mounted on UH88 . In June 2011 , the telescope and its weather station were struck by lightning , damaging many systems and disabling it , but the telescope was repaired by August 2011 Some of the systems at the observatory were 41 years old at the time of the damage and had to be reverse engineered to be fixed.The weather station is currently under development . |
Typhoon_Pat_(1985) | Typhoon Pat , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Luming , was a powerful typhoon that struck Japan during the summer of 1985 . Pat is also one of three storms in the Western Pacific which interacted with each other . Originating from a monsoon trough towards the end of August , Pat first formed on August 24 several hundred miles east of the Philippines . It gradually intensified , and two days later , Pat was upgraded into a tropical storm . The cyclone initially moved east-northeast while continuing to deepen . However , Pat leveled off in intensity on August 27 . After turning northwest , Pat attained typhoon intensity on August 28 . Pat accelerated towards the north , and reached its peak intensity of 80 mph on August 30 . The next day , the storm crossed the southern Japanese islands and entered the Sea of Japan . Gradually weakening , Pat transitioned into an extratropical cyclone later on August 31 . Early the next day , the storm moved ashore along northeastern Japan . The system dissipated on September 2 after reentering the Pacific Ocean . A total of 23 perished due to Typhoon Pat and 12 others were rendered as missing . Additionally , 79 people were injured . Furthermore , 38 houses in Japan were demolished , 110 were damaged , and over 2,000 were flooded . More than 160,000 homes lost power . A total of 165 flights were cancelled . |
U.S._Route_97_in_Oregon | In the U.S. state of Oregon , U.S. Route 97 is a major north -- south United States highway which runs through the state of Oregon ( among other states ) . In Oregon , it runs from the Oregon-California border , south of Klamath Falls , to the Oregon-Washington border on the Columbia River , between Biggs Junction , Oregon and Maryhill , Washington . Other than the northernmost stretch ( which is known as the Sherman Highway ) , US 97 ( along with U.S. Route 197 ) is known as The Dalles-California Highway . In May 2009 , Oregon Senate passed a bill to rename U.S. Route 97 as `` World War II Veterans Historic Highway '' . With the exception of Interstate 5 , US 97 is the most important north -- south highway corridor in the state . It serves two major population centers ( Klamath Falls and Bend ) , and is the main corridor east of the Cascade Mountains . While much of the highway remains in two-lane undivided configuration , significant sections have been upgraded to expressway or freeway status . |
Typhoon_Higos_(2002) | Typhoon Higos was considered the third strongest typhoon to affect Tokyo since World War II . The 21st named storm of the 2002 Pacific typhoon season , Higos developed on September 25 east of the Northern Marianas Islands . It tracked west-northwestward for its first few days , steadily intensifying into a powerful typhoon by September 29 . Higos subsequently weakened and turned to the north-northeast toward Japan , making landfall in that country 's Kanagawa Prefecture on October 1 . It weakened while crossing Honshu , and shortly after striking Hokkaidō , Higos became extratropical on October 2 . The remnants passed over Sakhalin and dissipated on October 4 . Before striking Japan , Higos produced strong winds in the Northern Marianas Islands while passing to their north . These winds damaged the food supply on two islands . Later , Higos moved across Japan with wind gusts as strong as 161 km/h ( 100 mph ) , including record gusts at several locations . A total of 608,130 buildings in the country were left without power , and two people were electrocuted in the storm 's aftermath . The typhoon also dropped heavy rainfall that peaked at 346 mm ( 13.6 in ) . The rains flooded houses across the country and caused mudslides . High waves washed 25 boats ashore and killed one person along the coast . Damage in the country totaled $ 2.14 billion ( ¥ 261 billion 2002 JPY ) , and there were five deaths in the country . Later , the remnants of Higos affected the Russian Far East , killing seven people involved in two shipwrecks offshore Primorsky Krai . |
United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency | The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA or sometimes USEPA ) is an agency of the Federal government of the United States which was created for the purpose of protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress . President Richard Nixon proposed the establishment of EPA and it began operation on December 2 , 1970 , after Nixon signed an executive order . The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House and Senate . The agency is led by its Administrator , who is appointed by the President and approved by Congress . The current Administrator is Scott Pruitt . The EPA is not a Cabinet department , but the Administrator is normally given cabinet rank . The EPA has its headquarters in Washington , D.C. , regional offices for each of the agency 's ten regions , and 27 laboratories . The agency conducts environmental assessment , research , and education . It has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws , in consultation with state , tribal , and local governments . It delegates some permitting , monitoring , and enforcement responsibility to U.S. states and the federally recognized tribes . EPA enforcement powers include fines , sanctions , and other measures . The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a wide variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy conservation efforts . In 2016 , the agency had 15,376 full-time employees . More than half of EPA 's employees are engineers , scientists , and environmental protection specialists ; other employees include legal , public affairs , financial , and information technologists . In 2017 the Trump administration proposed a 31 % cut to the EPA 's budget to $ 5.7 billion from $ 8.1 billion and to eliminate a quarter of the agency jobs . |
Validity_(statistics) | Validity is the extent to which a concept , conclusion or measurement is well-founded and corresponds accurately to the real world . The word `` valid '' is derived from the Latin validus , meaning strong . The validity of a measurement tool ( for example , a test in education ) is considered to be the degree to which the tool measures what it claims to measure ; in this case , the validity is an equivalent to accuracy . In psychometrics , validity has a particular application known as test validity : `` the degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores '' ( `` as entailed by proposed uses of tests '' ) . It is generally accepted that the concept of scientific validity addresses the nature of reality and as such is an epistemological and philosophical issue as well as a question of measurement . The use of the term in logic is narrower , relating to the truth of inferences made from premises . Validity is important because it can help determine what types of tests to use , and help to make sure researchers are using methods that are not only ethical , and cost-effective , but also a method that truly measures the idea or construct in question . |
United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference | The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are yearly conferences held in the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . They serve as the formal meeting of the UNFCCC Parties ( Conference of the Parties , COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change , and beginning in the mid-1990s , to negotiate the Kyoto Protocol to establish legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions . From 2005 the Conferences have also served as the `` Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol '' ( CMP ) ; also parties to the Convention that are not parties to the Protocol can participate in Protocol-related meetings as observers . From 2011 the meetings have also been used to negotiate the Paris Agreement as part of the Durban platform activities until its conclusion in 2015 , which created a general path towards climate action . The first UN Climate Change Conference was held in 1995 in Berlin . |
United_States_Census_Bureau | The United States Census Bureau ( USCB ; officially the Bureau of the Census , as defined in Title ) is a principal agency of the U.S. Federal Statistical System , responsible for producing data about the American people and economy . The Census Bureau is part of the U.S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States . The Census Bureau 's primary mission is conducting the U.S. Census every ten years , which allocates the seats of the U.S. House of Representatives to the states based on their population . The Bureau 's various censuses and surveys help allocate over $ 400 billion in federal funds every year and it helps states , local communities , and businesses make informed decisions . The information provided by the census informs decisions on where to build and maintain schools , hospitals , transportation infrastructure , and police and fire departments . In addition to the decennial census , the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys , including the American Community Survey , the U.S. Economic Census , and the Current Population Survey . Furthermore , economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau . |
United_Farm_Workers | The United Farm Workers of America , or more commonly just United Farm Workers ( UFW ) , is a labor union for farmworkers in the United States . It originated from the merger of two workers ' rights organizations , the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee ( AWOC ) led by organizer Larry Itliong , and the National Farm Workers Association ( NFWA ) led by César Chávez and Dolores Huerta . They became allied and transformed from workers ' rights organizations into a union as a result of a series of strikes in 1965 , when the mostly Filipino farmworkers of the AWOC in Delano , California initiated a grape strike , and the NFWA went on strike in support . As a result of the commonality in goals and methods , the NFWA and the AWOC formed the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee on August 22 , 1966 . This organization was accepted into the AFL-CIO in 1972 and changed its name to the United Farmworkers Union . |
Walrus | The walrus ( Odobenus rosmarus ) is a large flippered marine mammal with a discontinuous distribution about the North Pole in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas of the Northern Hemisphere . The walrus is the only living species in the family Odobenidae and genus Odobenus . This species is subdivided into three subspecies : the Atlantic walrus ( O. r. rosmarus ) which lives in the Atlantic Ocean , the Pacific walrus ( O. r. divergens ) which lives in the Pacific Ocean , and O. r. laptevi , which lives in the Laptev Sea of the Arctic Ocean . Adult walruses are easily recognized by their prominent tusks , whiskers , and bulkiness . Adult males in the Pacific can weigh more than 2000 kg and , among pinnipeds , are exceeded in size only by the two species of elephant seals . Walruses live mostly in shallow waters above the continental shelves , spending significant amounts of their lives on the sea ice looking for benthic bivalve mollusks to eat . Walruses are relatively long-lived , social animals , and they are considered to be a `` keystone species '' in the Arctic marine regions . The walrus has played a prominent role in the cultures of many indigenous Arctic peoples , who have hunted the walrus for its meat , fat , skin , tusks , and bone . During the 19th century and the early 20th century , walruses were widely hunted and killed for their blubber , walrus ivory , and meat . The population of walruses dropped rapidly all around the Arctic region . Their population has rebounded somewhat since then , though the populations of Atlantic and Laptev walruses remain fragmented and at low levels compared with the time before human interference . |
Virtual_power_plant | Virtual Power Plant ( VPP ) is a cloud-based central or distributed control center that takes advantage of information and communication technologies ( ICTs ) and Internet of things ( IoT ) devices to aggregate the capacity of heterogeneous Distributed Energy Resources ( DERs ) including different types of dispatchable and non-dispatchable distributed generation ( DG ) units ( e.g. , CHPs , natural gas-fired reciprocating engines , small-scale wind power plants ( WPPs ) , photovoltaics ( PVs ) , run-of-river hydroelectricity plants , biomass , etc. ) , energy storage systems ( ESS ) , and controllable or flexible loads ( CL or FL ) and form a coalition of heterogeneous DERs for the purpose of energy trading in the wholesale electricity markets and/or providing ancillary services for system operators on behalf of non-eligible individual DERs . In another definition , VPP is a system that integrates several types of power sources , ( such as microCHP , wind-turbines , small hydro , photovoltaics , back-up gensets , and batteries ) so as to give a reliable overall power supply . The sources are often a cluster of distributed generation systems , and are often orchestrated by a central authority . The new paradigm of power system operation allows a multitude of DERs , including distributed generators , flexible / controllable loads , and energy storage facilities , to be coordinated under the umbrella of Virtual Power Plants ( VPPs ) . A VPP acts as an intermediary between DERs and the wholesale market and trades energy on behalf of DER owners who are not able to participate in the electricity market alone . In fact , the VPP aggregates the capacity of DGs , ESSs , and FLs to form a coalition of heterogeneous technologies in the hope of trading in the wholesale electricity market . The VPP behaves as a conventional dispatchable power plant in the viewpoint of other market participants , although it is indeed a cluster of many diverse DERs . Also , in the competitive electricity markets , a virtual power plant acts as an arbitrageur by exercising arbitrage between diverse energy trading floors ( i.e. , bilateral and PPA contracts , forward and futures markets , and the pool ) . So far , for risk management purposes , five different risk-hedging strategies ( i.e. , IGDT , RO , CVaR , FSD , and SSD ) have been applied to the decision-making problems of VPPs in the research articles to measure the level of conservatism of VPPs ' decisions in diverse energy trading floors ( e.g. , day-ahead electricity market , derivatives exchange market , and bilateral contracts ) : IGDT : Information Gap Decision Theory RO : Robust optimization CVaR : Conditional Value at Risk FSD : First-order Stochastic Dominance SSD : Second-order Stochastic Dominance |
Voice_of_America | Voice of America ( VOA ) is a United States government-funded multimedia news source and the official external broadcasting institution of the United States . VOA provides programming for broadcast on radio , television , and the Internet outside of the U.S. , in English and some foreign languages such as Persian and French . The VOA charter -- signed into law in 1976 by President Gerald Ford -- requires VOA to `` serve as a consistently reliable and authoritative source of news '' and `` be accurate , objective and comprehensive '' . The Voice of America headquarters is located at 330 Independence Avenue SW , Washington , D.C. , 20237 . The VOA is fully funded by the U.S. government ; the Congress appropriates funds for it annually under the same budget for embassies and consulates . In 2016 the network reportedly had a taxpayer-funded annual budget of $ 218.5 million , 1000 people of personnel and reached 236.6 million people wordwide . VOA radio and television broadcasts are distributed by satellite , cable and on FM , AM , and shortwave radio frequencies . They are streamed on individual language service websites , social media sites and mobile platforms . VOA has affiliate and contract agreements with radio and television stations and cable networks worldwide . Some scholars and commentators consider Voice of America to be a form of propaganda , although this label is disputed by others . |
Wage_labour | Wage labour ( also wage labor in American English ) is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer , where the worker sells his or her labour power under a formal or informal employment contract . These transactions usually occur in a labour market where wages are market determined . In exchange for the wages paid , the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer , except for special cases such as the vesting of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually vested in the employee personally responsible for the invention . A wage labourer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labour power in this way . In modern mixed economies such as those of the OECD countries , it is currently the most common form of work arrangement . Although most labour is organised as per this structure , the wage work arrangements of CEOs , professional employees , and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with class assignments , so that `` wage labour '' is considered to apply only to unskilled , semi-skilled or manual labour . |
Washington_(state) | Washington ( -LSB- ˈwɒʃɪŋtən -RSB- ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States located north of Oregon , west of Idaho , and south of the Canadian province of British Columbia on the coast of the Pacific Ocean . Named after George Washington , the first President of the United States , the state was made out of the western part of the Washington Territory , which had been ceded by Britain in 1846 in accordance with the Oregon Treaty in the settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute . It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889 . Olympia is the state capital . Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington , D.C. , the capital of the U.S. , which is often shortened to Washington . Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles ( 184,827 sq km ) , and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people . Approximately 60 percent of Washington 's residents live in the Seattle metropolitan area , the center of transportation , business , and industry along the Puget Sound region of the Salish Sea , an inlet of the Pacific Ocean consisting of numerous islands , deep fjords , and bays carved out by glaciers . The remainder of the state consists of deep temperate rainforests in the west , mountain ranges in the west , central , northeast and far southeast , and a semi-arid basin region in the east , central , and south , given over to intensive agriculture . Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States , after California . Mount Rainier , an active stratovolcano , is the state 's highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet ( 4,392 m ) and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States . Washington is a leading lumber producer . Its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir , hemlock , ponderosa pine , white pine , spruce , larch , and cedar . The state is the biggest producer of apples , hops , pears , red raspberries , spearmint oil , and sweet cherries , and ranks high in the production of apricots , asparagus , dry edible peas , grapes , lentils , peppermint oil , and potatoes . Livestock and livestock products make important contributions to total farm revenue , and the commercial fishing of salmon , halibut , and bottomfish makes a significant contribution to the state 's economy . Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles , shipbuilding and other transportation equipment , lumber , food processing , metals and metal products , chemicals , and machinery . Washington has over 1,000 dams , including the Grand Coulee Dam , built for a variety of purposes including irrigation , power , flood control , and water storage . |
Views_on_the_Kyoto_Protocol | This article is about certain views on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . A 2007 study by Gupta et al. assessed the literature on climate change policy which showed no authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its Protocol , that assert these agreements have , or will , succeed in fully solving the climate problem . It was assumed that the UNFCCC or its Protocol would not be changed . The Framework Convention and its Protocol , include provisions for future policy actions to be taken . Some environmentalists have supported the Kyoto Protocol because it is `` the only game in town , '' and possibly because they expect that future emission reduction commitments may demand more stringent emission reductions ( Aldy et al. . , 2003 , p. 9 ) . Some environmentalists and scientists have criticized the existing commitments for being too weak ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 5 ) . On the other hand , many economists think that the commitments are stronger than is justified . Particularly in the US , many economists have also been critical of the failure to include quantified commitments for developing countries ( Grubb , 2000 , p. 31 ) . |
War_risk_insurance | War risk insurance is a type of insurance which covers damage due to acts of war , including invasion , insurrection , rebellion and hijacking . Some policies also cover damage due to weapons of mass destruction . It is most commonly used in the shipping and aviation industries . War risk insurance generally has two components : War Risk Liability , which covers people and items inside the craft and is calculated based on the indemnity amount ; and War Risk Hull , which covers the craft itself and is calculated based on the value of the craft . The premium varies based on the expected stability of the countries to which the vessel will travel . Private war risk insurance policies for aircraft were temporarily cancelled following the September 11 , 2001 attacks and later reinstated with substantially lower indemnities . In the wake of this cancellation , the US federal government set up a terror insurance program to cover commercial airlines . The International Air Transport Association has argued that airlines operating in states which do not provide war risk insurance are at a competitive disadvantage in this area . A detailed study of the Insurance of War Risks and Terrorism , including related perils such as Strikes , Riots , Civil Commotion , and Military or Usurped Power is available from the Insurance Institute of London ( Research Study Group Report 258 ) . |
Volkswagen_emissions_scandal | The Volkswagen emissions scandal ( also called `` emissionsgate '' or `` dieselgate '' ) started on 18 September 2015 , when the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued a notice of violation of the Clean Air Act to German automaker Volkswagen Group . The agency had found that Volkswagen had intentionally programmed turbocharged direct injection ( TDI ) diesel engines to activate certain emissions controls only during laboratory emissions testing . The programming caused the vehicles ' output to meet US standards during regulatory testing but emit up to 40 times more in real-world driving . Volkswagen deployed this programming in about eleven million cars worldwide , and 500,000 in the United States , during model years 2009 through 2015 . The findings stemmed from a study on emissions discrepancies between European and US models of vehicles commissioned in 2014 by the International Council on Clean Transportation ( ICCT ) , summing up the data from three different sources on 15 vehicles . Among the research groups was a group of five scientists at West Virginia University , who detected additional emissions during live road tests on two out of three diesel cars . ICCT also purchased data from two other sources . The new road testing data and the purchased data were generated using Portable Emissions Measurement Systems ( PEMS ) developed by multiple individuals in the mid-late 1990 's . The findings were provided to the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) in May 2014 . Volkswagen became the target of regulatory investigations in multiple countries , and Volkswagen 's stock price fell in value by a third in the days immediately after the news . Volkswagen Group CEO Martin Winterkorn resigned , and the head of brand development Heinz-Jakob Neusser , Audi research and development head Ulrich Hackenberg , and Porsche research and development head Wolfgang Hatz were suspended . Volkswagen announced plans to spend ( later raised to , ) on rectifying the emissions issues , and planned to refit the affected vehicles as part of a recall campaign . The scandal raised awareness over the higher levels of pollution being emitted by all vehicles built by a wide range of car makers , which under real world driving conditions are prone to exceed legal emission limits . A study conducted by ICCT and ADAC showed the biggest deviations from Volvo , Renault , Jeep , Hyundai , Citroën and Fiat , resulting in investigations opening into other potential diesel emissions scandals . A discussion was sparked that software-controlled machinery will generally be prone to cheating , and a way out would be to make the software source code accessible to the public . On April 21 , 2017 , a US federal judge ordered Volkswagen `` to pay a $ 2.8 billion criminal fine for rigging diesel-powered vehicles to cheat on government emissions tests . '' The `` unprecedented '' plea deal formalized a punishment that Volkswagen AG agreed to earlier in 2017 . |
Wage_curve | The wage curve is the negative relationship between the levels of unemployment and wages that arises when these variables are expressed in local terms . According to David Blanchflower and Andrew Oswald ( 1994 , p. 5 ) , the wage curve summarizes the fact that `` A worker who is employed in an area of high unemployment earns less than an identical individual who works in a region with low joblessness . '' |
Vulnerability_(computing) | In computer security , a vulnerability is a weakness which allows an attacker to reduce a system 's information assurance . Vulnerability is the intersection of three elements : a system susceptibility or flaw , attacker access to the flaw , and attacker capability to exploit the flaw . To exploit a vulnerability , an attacker must have at least one applicable tool or technique that can connect to a system weakness . In this frame , vulnerability is also known as the attack surface . Vulnerability management is the cyclical practice of identifying , classifying , remediating , and mitigating vulnerabilities . This practice generally refers to software vulnerabilities in computing systems . Using vulnerability as an method of criminal activity or to create civil unrest falls under US Code Chapter 113B on terrorism A security risk may be classified as a vulnerability . The use of vulnerability with the same meaning of risk can lead to confusion . The risk is tied to the potential of a significant loss . Then there are vulnerabilities without risk : for example when the affected asset has no value . A vulnerability with one or more known instances of working and fully implemented attacks is classified as an exploitable vulnerability -- a vulnerability for which an exploit exists . The window of vulnerability is the time from when the security hole was introduced or manifested in deployed software , to when access was removed , a security fix was available/deployed , or the attacker was disabled -- see zero-day attack . Security bug ( security defect ) is a narrower concept : there are vulnerabilities that are not related to software : hardware , site , personnel vulnerabilities are examples of vulnerabilities that are not software security bugs . Constructs in programming languages that are difficult to use properly can be a large source of vulnerabilities . |
Vernacular_geography | Vernacular geography is the sense of place that is revealed in ordinary people 's language . Current research by the Ordnance Survey is attempting to understand the landmarks , streets , open spaces , water bodies , landforms , fields , woods , and many other topological features . These commonly used descriptive terms do not necessarily use the official or current names for features ; and often these concepts of places do n't have clear , rigid boundaries . For example , sometimes the same name may refer to more than one feature , and sometimes people in a locality use more than one name for the same feature . When people refer to geographical regions in a vernacular form they are commonly referred to as imprecise regions . Regions can include large areas of a country such as the American Midwest , the British Midlands , the Swiss Alps , the south east of England and southern California ; or smaller areas such as Silicon Valley in northern California . Commonly used descriptions of areas of cities such as a city 's downtown district , New York 's Upper East Side , London 's square mile or the Latin Quarter of Paris can also be viewed as imprecise regions . |
Volcanic_winter | A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation . |
Vertical_disintegration | Vertical disintegration refers to a specific organizational form of industrial production . As opposed to vertical integration , in which production occurs within a singular organization , vertical disintegration means that various diseconomies of scale or scope have broken a production process into separate companies , each performing a limited subset of activities required to create a finished product . Filmed entertainment was once highly vertically integrated into a studio system whereby a few large studios handled everything from production to theatrical presentation . After the second world war , the industry was broken into small fragments , each specializing on particular tasks within the division of labor required to produce and show a finished piece of filmed entertainment . Hollywood became highly vertically disintegrated , with specialized firms who only performed certain tasks such as editing , special effects , trailers etc. . Bell System divestiture had a similar effect on a larger industry later in the 20th century . One major reason for vertical disintegration is to share risk . Also , in some cases , smaller firms can be more responsive to changes in market conditions . Vertical disintegration is thus more likely when operating in volatile markets . Stability and standardized products more typically engender integration , as it provides the benefits of scale economies . The geography of a disintegrated industry is not a given . Economic geographers typically differentiate between knowledge-intensive , volatile , unstandardized activities , and standardized , routinized production . The former tend to be clustered in space , as they require proximity to build a common conceptual framework and share new ideas . The latter can be far flung and are exemplified by global commodity chains such as apparel and automotive industries . Even in those industries however , design and other creative and non-repetitive tasks tend to exhibit some geographical clustering . |
Venus | Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° . Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism . As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC . As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions . |
Victoria_Land | Victoria Land is a region of Antarctica which fronts the western side of the Ross Sea and the Ross Ice Shelf , extending southward from about 70 ° 30 'S to 78 ° 00 'S , and westward from the Ross Sea to the edge of the Antarctic Plateau . It was discovered by Captain James Clark Ross in January 1841 and named after the UK 's Queen Victoria . The rocky promontory of Minna Bluff is often regarded as the southernmost point of Victoria Land , and separates the Scott Coast to the north from the Hillary Coast of the Ross Dependency to the south . The region includes ranges of the Transantarctic Mountains and the McMurdo Dry Valleys ( the highest point being Mount Abbott in the Northern Foothills ) , and the flatlands known as the Labyrinth . Early explorers of Victoria Land include James Clark Ross and Douglas Mawson . |
Virginia_Beach,_Virginia | Virginia Beach is an independent city located in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States . As of the 2010 census , the population was 437,994 . In 2015 , the population was estimated to be 452,745 . Although mostly suburban in character , it is the most populous city in Virginia and the 41st most populous city in the nation . Located on the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay , Virginia Beach is included in the Hampton Roads metropolitan area . This area , known as `` America 's First Region '' , also includes the independent cities of Chesapeake , Hampton , Newport News , Norfolk , Portsmouth , and Suffolk , as well as other smaller cities , counties , and towns of Hampton Roads . Virginia Beach is a resort city with miles of beaches and hundreds of hotels , motels , and restaurants along its oceanfront . Every year the city hosts the East Coast Surfing Championships as well as the North American Sand Soccer Championship , a beach soccer tournament . It is also home to several state parks , several long-protected beach areas , three military bases , a number of large corporations , two universities , International headquarters and site of the television broadcast studios for Pat Robertson 's Christian Broadcasting Network ( CBN ) , Edgar Cayce 's Association for Research and Enlightenment , and numerous historic sites . Near the point where the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean meet , Cape Henry was the site of the first landing of the English colonists , who eventually settled in Jamestown , on April 26 , 1607 . The city is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as having the longest pleasure beach in the world . It is located at the southern end of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel , the longest bridge-tunnel complex in the world . |
Volcanology_of_Iceland | The volcano system in Iceland that started activity on August 17 , 2014 , and ended on February 27 , 2015 , is Bárðarbunga . The volcano in Iceland that erupted in May 2011 is Grímsvötn . Volcanology of Iceland includes a high concentration of active volcanoes due to Iceland 's location on the mid-Atlantic Ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary , and also due to its location over a hot spot . The island has 30 active volcanic systems , of which 13 have erupted since the settlement of Iceland in AD 874 . Of these 30 active volcanic systems , the most active/volatile is Grímsvötn . Over the past 500 years , Iceland 's volcanoes have erupted a third of the total global lava output . The most fatal volcanic eruption of Iceland 's history was the so-called Skaftáreldar ( fires of Skaftá ) in 1783-84 . The eruption was in the crater row Lakagígar ( craters of Laki ) southwest of Vatnajökull glacier . The craters are a part of a larger volcanic system with the subglacial Grímsvötn as a central volcano . Roughly a quarter of the Icelandic nation died because of the eruption . Most died not because of the lava flow or other direct effects of the eruption , but from indirect effects , including changes in climate and illnesses in livestock in the following years caused by the ash and poisonous gases from the eruption . The 1783 eruption in Lakagígar is thought to have erupted the largest quantity of lava from a single eruption in historic times . The eruption under Eyjafjallajökull ( `` glacier of Eyjafjöll '' ) in 2010 was notable because the volcanic ash plume disrupted air travel in northern Europe for several weeks ; however this volcano is minor in Icelandic terms . In the past , eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have been followed by eruption of the larger volcano Katla , but after the 2010 eruption no signs of an imminent eruption of Katla were seen . The eruption in May 2011 at Grímsvötn under the Vatnajökull glacier sent thousands of tonnes of ash into the sky in a few days , raising concerns of a repeat of the travel chaos seen across northern Europe . |
Volcanoes_of_the_Galápagos_Islands | The Galápagos Islands are an isolated set of volcanoes , consisting of shield volcanoes and lava plateaus , located 1200 km west of Ecuador . They are driven by the Galápagos hotspot , and are between 4.2 million and 700,000 years of age . The largest island , Isabela , consists of six coalesced shield volcanoes , each delineated by a large summit caldera . Española , the oldest island , and Fernandina , the youngest , are also shield volcanoes , as are most of the other islands in the chain . The Galápagos Islands are perched on a large lava plateau known as the Galápagos Platform , which creates a shallow-water depth of 360 to at the base of the islands , which stretch over a 174 mi-long diameter . Since Charles Darwin 's famous visit to the islands in 1835 , over 60 recorded eruptions have occurred in the islands , from six different shield volcanoes . Of the 21 emergent volcanoes , 13 are considered active . The Galápagos are geologically young for such a big chain , and the pattern of their rift zones follows one of two trends , one north-northwest , and one east-west . The composition of the lavas of the Galápagos shields are strikingly similar to those of the Hawaiian volcanoes . Curiously , they do not form the same volcanic `` line '' associated with most hotspots . They are not alone in this regard ; the Cobb-Eickelberg Seamount chain in the North Pacific is another example of such a delineated chain . In addition , no clear pattern of age is seen between the volcanoes , suggesting a complicated , irregular pattern of creation . How exactly the islands were formed remains a geological mystery , although several theories have been posited . |
Virtual_globe | A virtual globe is a three-dimensional ( 3D ) software model or representation of the Earth or another world . A virtual globe provides the user with the ability to freely move around in the virtual environment by changing the viewing angle and position . Compared to a conventional globe , virtual globes have the additional capability of representing many different views on the surface of the Earth . These views may be of geographical features , man-made features such as roads and buildings , or abstract representations of demographic quantities such as population . On November 20 , 1997 , Microsoft released an offline virtual globe in the form of Encarta Virtual Globe 98 , followed by Cosmi 's 3D World Atlas in 1999 . The first widely publicized online virtual globes were NASA World Wind ( released in mid-2004 ) and Google Earth ( mid-2005 ) . NOAA released its virtual globe , Science On A Sphere ( SOS ) Explorer , in September 2015 . |
Vulcano_(band) | Vulcano is an extreme metal band from Santos , São Paulo , Brazil . Founded in 1981 , it is one of the first Brazilian heavy metal bands of note ; with reference to their influence on the South American black metal scene , Terrorizer reported that `` many believe that Vulcano not only kick-started musical blasphemy in Brazil , but throughout the whole of Latin America '' . Vulcano is noted as an influence on Sepultura . |
Veganism | Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products , particularly in diet , and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals . A follower of either the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan ( pronounced ) . Distinctions are sometimes made between several categories of veganism . Dietary vegans ( or strict vegetarians ) refrain from consuming animal products , not only meat but also eggs , dairy products and other animal-derived substances . The term ethical vegan is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives , and oppose the use of animals for any purpose . Another term is environmental veganism , which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the harvesting or industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable . Donald Watson coined the term vegan in 1944 when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England . At first he used it to mean `` non-dairy vegetarian '' , but from 1951 the society defined it as `` the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals '' . Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s . More vegan stores opened , and vegan options became increasingly available in supermarkets and restaurants in many countries . Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fibre , magnesium , folic acid , vitamin C , vitamin E , iron and phytochemicals , and lower in dietary energy , saturated fat , cholesterol , long-chain omega-3 fatty acids , vitamin D , calcium , zinc and vitamin B12 . Well-planned vegan diets can reduce the risk of some types of chronic disease , including heart disease . They are regarded as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics . The German Society for Nutrition cautions against vegan diets for children , and during pregnancy and lactation . Because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12 ( which is produced by microorganisms such as bacteria ) , researchers agree that vegans should eat B12-fortified foods or take a supplement . |
Waste-to-energy_plant | A waste-to-energy plant is a waste management facility that combusts wastes to produce electricity . This type of power plant is sometimes called a trash-to-energy , municipal waste incineration , energy recovery , or resource recovery plant . Modern waste-to-energy plants are very different from the trash incinerators that were commonly used until a few decades ago . Unlike modern ones , those plants usually did not remove hazardous or recyclable materials before burning . These incinerators endangered the health of the plant workers and the nearby residents , and most of them did not generate electricity . Waste-to-energy generation is being increasingly looked at as a potential energy diversification strategy , especially by Sweden , which has been a leader in waste-to-energy production over the past 20 years . The typical range of net electrical energy that can be produced is about 500 to 600 kWh of per ton of waste incinerated . Thus , the incineration of about 2,200 tons per day of waste will produce about 50 MW of electrical power . |
Vertisol | In both the FAO and USDA soil taxonomy , a vertisol ( Vertosol in the Australian Soil Classification ) is a soil in which there is a high content of expansive clay known as montmorillonite that forms deep cracks in drier seasons or years . Alternate shrinking and swelling causes self-mulching , where the soil material consistently mixes itself , causing vertisols to have an extremely deep A horizon and no B horizon . ( A soil with no B horizon is called an A/C soil ) . This heaving of the underlying material to the surface often creates a microrelief known as gilgai . Vertisols typically form from highly basic rocks , such as basalt , in climates that are seasonally humid or subject to erratic droughts and floods , or that impeded drainage . Depending on the parent material and the climate , they can range from grey or red to the more familiar deep black ( known as `` black earths '' in Australia , `` black gumbo '' in East Texas , and `` black cotton '' soils in East Africa ) . Vertisols are found between 50 ° N and 45 ° S of the equator . Major areas where vertisols are dominant are eastern Australia ( especially inland Queensland and New South Wales ) , the Deccan Plateau of India , and parts of southern Sudan , Ethiopia , Kenya , and Chad ( the Gezira ) , and the lower Paraná River in South America . Other areas where vertisols are dominant include southern Texas and adjacent Mexico , central India , northeast Nigeria , Thrace , New Caledonia and parts of eastern China . The natural vegetation of vertisols is grassland , savanna , or grassy woodland . The heavy texture and unstable behaviour of the soil makes it difficult for many tree species to grow , and forest is uncommon . The shrinking and swelling of vertisols can damage buildings and roads , leading to extensive subsidence . Vertisols are generally used for grazing of cattle or sheep . It is not unknown for livestock to be injured through falling into cracks in dry periods . Conversely , many wild and domestic ungulates do not like to move on this soil when inundated . However , the shrink-swell activity allows rapid recovery from compaction . When irrigation is available , crops such as cotton , wheat , sorghum and rice can be grown . Vertisols are especially suitable for rice because they are almost impermeable when saturated . Rainfed farming is very difficult because vertisols can be worked only under a very narrow range of moisture conditions : they are very hard when dry and very sticky when wet . However , in Australia , vertisols are highly regarded , because they are among the few soils that are not acutely deficient in available phosphorus . Some , known as `` crusty vertisols '' , have a thin , hard crust when dry that can persist for two to three years before they have crumbled enough to permit seeding . In the USA soil taxonomy , vertisols are subdivided into : Aquerts : Vertisols which are subdued aquic conditions for some time in most years and show redoximorphic features are grouped as Aquerts . Because of the high clay content , the permeability is slowed down and aquic conditions are likely to occur . In general , when precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration , ponding may occur . Under wet soil moisture conditions , iron and manganese are mobilized and reduced . The manganese may be partly responsible for the dark color of the soil profile . Cryerts ( not classified as vertisols in the FAO classification ) : They have a cryic soil temperature regime . Cryerts are most extensive in the grassland and forest-grassland transitions zones of the Canadian Prairies and at similar latitudes in Russia . Xererts : They have a thermic , mesic , or frigid soil temperature regime . They show cracks that are open at least 60 consecutive days during the summer , but are closed at least 60 consecutive days during winter . Xererts are most extensive in the eastern Mediterranean and parts of California . Torrerts : They have cracks that are closed for less than 60 consecutive days when the soil temperature at 50 cm is above 8 ° C . These soils are not extensive in the U.S. , and occur mostly in west Texas , New Mexico , Arizona , and South Dakota , but are the most extensive suborder of Vertisols in Australia . Usterts : They have cracks that are open for at least 90 cumulative days per year . Globally , this suborder is the most extensive of the Vertisols order , encompassing the Vertisols of the tropics and monsoonal climates in Australia , India , and Africa . In the U.S. the Usterts are common in Texas , Montana , Hawaii , and California . Uderts : They have cracks that are open less than 90 cumulative days per year and less than 60 consecutive days during the summer . In some areas , cracks open only in drought years . Uderts are of small extent globally , being most abundant in Uruguay and eastern Argentina , but also found in parts of Queensland and the `` Black Belt '' of Mississippi and Alabama . |
Volcano | A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object , such as Earth , that allows hot lava , volcanic ash , and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface . Earth 's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major , rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter , softer layer in its mantle . Therefore , on Earth , volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging , and most are found underwater . For example , a mid-oceanic ridge , such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart ; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together . Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust 's , e.g. , in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America . This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of `` plate hypothesis '' volcanism . Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes . These so-called `` hotspots '' , for example Hawaii , are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core -- mantle boundary , 3,000 km deep in the Earth . Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another . Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards , not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption . One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft , in particular those with jet engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature ; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape , disrupting the operation of the turbine . Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth 's lower atmosphere ( or troposphere ) ; however , they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth , thereby warming the upper atmosphere ( or stratosphere ) . Historically , so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines . |
Venera | The Venera ( , -LSB- vʲɪˈnʲɛrə -RSB- ) series space probes were developed by the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1984 to gather data from Venus , Venera being the Russian name for Venus . As with some of the Soviet Union 's other planetary probes , the later versions were launched in pairs with a second vehicle being launched soon after the first of the pair . Ten probes from the Venera series successfully landed on Venus and transmitted data from the surface of Venus , including the two Vega program and Venera-Halley probes . In addition , thirteen Venera probes successfully transmitted data from the atmosphere of Venus . Among the other results , probes of the series became the first human-made devices to enter the atmosphere of another planet ( Venera 4 on October 18 , 1967 ) , to make a soft landing on another planet ( Venera 7 on December 15 , 1970 ) , to return images from the planetary surface ( Venera 9 on June 8 , 1975 ) , and to perform high-resolution radar mapping studies of Venus ( Venera 15 on June 2 , 1983 ) . The later probes in the Venera series successfully carried out their mission , providing the first direct observations of the surface of Venus . Since the surface conditions on Venus are extreme , the probes only survived on the surface for durations varying between 23 minutes ( initial probes ) up to about two hours ( final probes ) . |
Visalia,_California | Visalia ( -LSB- vaɪˈseɪljə -RSB- ) is a city situated in the agricultural San Joaquin Valley of California , approximately 230 mi southeast of San Francisco , 190 mi north of Los Angeles , 36 mi west of Sequoia National Park and 43 mi south of Fresno . The population was 130,104 at the 2015 census . Visalia is the 5th largest city in the San Joaquin Valley after Fresno , Bakersfield , Stockton and Modesto , the 44th most populous in California , and 198th in the United States . As the county seat of Tulare County , Visalia serves as the economic and governmental center to one of the most productive single agricultural counties in the country . Yosemite , Sequoia , and Kings Canyon National Parks are located in the nearby Sierra Nevada mountains , the highest mountain range in the contiguous United States . |
WECT_tower | The WECT Tower was a 1905 ft - tall mast used as antenna for TV-broadcasting , including broadcasting the analog television signal of WECT channel 6 . It was built in 1969 and was situated along NC 53 south of White Lake in Colly Township in Bladen County , North Carolina , United States . Before demolition , WECT Tower was , along with several other masts , the seventh tallest man-made structure ever created ; and was not only the tallest structure in North Carolina , but also the tallest in the United States east of the Mississippi River . On September 8 , 2008 , WECT ceased regular transmission of their analog signal from the Bladen County tower , relying instead on its newer digital transmitter in Winnabow . Following the switch , the analog signal remained on air until the end of September as a `` Nightlight '' , broadcasting an instructional video explaining installation of converters and UHF antennas , but many who were able to receive WECT 's former VHF analog signal would no longer be able to receive the station at all digitally , due to a shift to a UHF channel and a vastly smaller coverage area . WECT continued to utilize the former analog tower for electronic news-gathering purposes before donating the tower and 77 acre site to the Green Beret Foundation in 2011 . On September 20 , 2012 , the tower was demolished to be scrapped . Proceeds from the sale of the land and the scrap metal of the tower will go to the foundation . |
Vegetation | Vegetation is assemblages of plant species and the ground cover they provide . It is a general term , without specific reference to particular taxa , life forms , structure , spatial extent , or any other specific botanical or geographic characteristics . It is broader than the term flora which refers to species composition . Perhaps the closest synonym is plant community , but vegetation can , and often does , refer to a wider range of spatial scales than that term does , including scales as large as the global . Primeval redwood forests , coastal mangrove stands , sphagnum bogs , desert soil crusts , roadside weed patches , wheat fields , cultivated gardens and lawns ; all are encompassed by the term vegetation . The vegetation type is defined by characteristic dominant species , or a common aspect of the assemblage , such as an elevation range or environmental commonality . The contemporary use of vegetation approximates that of ecologist Frederic Clements ' term earth cover , an expression still used by the Bureau of Land Management . Natural vegetation refers to plant life undisturbed by humans in its growth and which is controlled by the climatic conditions of that region . |
Visions_of_the_21st_century | `` Visions of the 21st Century '' is a speech delivered by Carl Sagan at the fiftieth anniversary celebration of the United Nations on October 24 , 1995 ( United Nations Day ) in New York in the Cathedral of St. John the Divine . In the introduction , Sagan discusses the human unity that is present in the world despite its vast human diversity . He points out that we as humans are all cousins that can be traced back through human ancestry in east Africa . The theme of Sagan 's speech promoted the importance of fostering a Global Community . This theme of Visions of the 21st Century represents the overarching theme of the U.N. 's fiftieth anniversary celebration which was `` We The Peoples of the United Nations ... United for a Better World '' . He stresses the importance of maintaining a healthy Global Environment , as changes in the global environment are a common threat to all of humanity . The change in the Global Environment he focuses on is climate change . He also elaborates on the great power that modern technology allows each to nation to possess . He praises the advances in medical technology of the world particularly . Yet , Sagan warns that the mix of technological power and ignorance has the potential to lead to disaster . Thus , this enormous power must be guarded against misuse . To do this , Sagan suggests that widespread knowledge of science and technology is beneficial . Sagan discusses the minuscule presence of the Earth within the vast scale of the cosmos , and how it is a delusion to believe we as humans are somehow elite in the universe . Sagan implores humanity to protect and cherish this earth that we know , as it is solely the responsibility of humanity alone . |
Washington_Times-Herald | The Washington Times-Herald ( 1939 -- 1954 ) was an American daily newspaper published in Washington , D.C. . It was created by Eleanor `` Cissy '' Patterson of the Medill -- McCormick -- Patterson family ( long-time owners of the Chicago Tribune and the New York Daily News and founding later Newsday on New York 's Long Island ) when she bought the Washington Times and the Herald from the syndicate newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst ( 1863 -- 1951 ) , and merged them . The result was a `` 24-hour '' newspaper , with 10 editions per day , from morning to evening . |
Volcanology_of_Venus | The surface of Venus is dominated by volcanic features and has more volcanoes than any other planet in the Solar System . It has a surface that is 90 % basalt , and about 65 % of the planet consists of a mosaic of volcanic lava plains , indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface . There are more than 1000 volcanic structures and possible periodic resurfacing of Venus by floods of lava . The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago , from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface . Venus has a carbon dioxide rich atmosphere , with a density that is 90 times greater than Earth . Even though there are over 1,600 major volcanoes on Venus , none are known to be erupting at present and most are probably long extinct . However , radar sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus 's highest volcano Maat Mons , in the form of ash flows near the summit and on the northern flank . Although many lines of evidence suggest that Venus is likely to be volcanically active , present-day eruptions at Maat Mons have not been confirmed . |
ViaSat-1 | ViaSat-1 is a high throughtput communications satellite owned by ViaSat Inc. and Telesat Canada . Launched October 19 , 2011 aboard a Proton rocket , it holds the Guinness record for the world 's highest capacity communications satellite with a total capacity in excess of 140 Gbit/s , more than all the satellites covering North America combined , at the time of its launch . ViaSat-1 is capable of two-way communications with small dish antennas at higher speeds and a lower cost-per-bit than any satellite before . The satellite will be positioned at the Isle of Man registered 115.1 degrees West longitude geostationary orbit point , with 72 Ka-band spot beams ; 63 over the U.S. ( Eastern and Western states , Alaska and Hawaii ) , and nine over Canada . The Canadian beams are owned by satellite operator Telesat and will be used for the Xplornet broadband service to consumers in rural Canada . The US beams will provide fast Internet access called Exede , ViaSat 's satellite Internet service . ViaSat-1 is part of a new satellite system architecture created by ViaSat Inc. . The objective is to create a better satellite broadband user experience , making satellite competitive with DSL and wireless broadband alternatives for the first time . |
West_Virginia | West Virginia -LSB- wɛst_vərˈdʒɪnjə -RSB- is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States . It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast , Kentucky to the southwest , Ohio to the northwest , Pennsylvania to the north ( and , slightly , east ) , and Maryland to the northeast . West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area , is ranked 38th in population , and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States . The capital and largest city is Charleston . West Virginia became a state following the Wheeling Conventions of 1861 , in which delegates from some Unionist counties of northwestern Virginia decided to break away from Virginia during the American Civil War , although they included many secessionist counties in the new state . West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20 , 1863 , and was a key Civil War border state . West Virginia was the only state to form by separating from a Confederate state , the first to separate from any state since Maine separated from Massachusetts , and was one of two states formed during the American Civil War ( the other being Nevada ) . The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States . The northern panhandle extends adjacent to Pennsylvania and Ohio , with the West Virginia cities of Wheeling and Weirton just across the border from the Pittsburgh metropolitan area , while Bluefield is less than 70 mi from North Carolina . Huntington in the southwest is close to the states of Ohio and Kentucky , while Martinsburg and Harpers Ferry in the Eastern Panhandle region are considered part of the Washington metropolitan area , in between the states of Maryland and Virginia . The unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions , including the Mid-Atlantic , the Upland South , and the Southeastern United States . It is the only state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission ; the area is commonly defined as `` Appalachia '' . The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills , its historically significant logging and coal mining industries , and its political and labor history . It is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world , making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research . The karst lands contribute to much of the state 's cool trout waters . It is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities , including skiing , whitewater rafting , fishing , hiking , backpacking , mountain biking , rock climbing , and hunting . |
Weight_loss | Weight loss , in the context of medicine , health , or physical fitness , refers to a reduction of the total body mass , due to a mean loss of fluid , body fat or adipose tissue or lean mass , namely bone mineral deposits , muscle , tendon , and other connective tissue . Weight loss can either occur unintentionally due to malnourishment or an underlying disease or arise from a conscious effort to improve an actual or perceived overweight or obese state . `` Unexplained '' weight loss that is not caused by reduction in calorific intake or exercise is called cachexia and may be a symptom of a serious medical condition . Intentional weight loss is commonly referred to as slimming . |
Winds_of_Provence | The Winds of Provence , the region of southeast France along the Mediterranean from the Alps to the mouth of the Rhone River , are an important feature of Provençal life , and each one has a traditional local name , in the Provençal language . The most famous Provençal winds are : The Mistral , a cold dry north or northwest wind , which blows down through the Rhone Valley to the Mediterranean , and can reach speeds of ninety kilometers an hour . The Levant , a very humid east wind , which brings moisture from the eastern Mediterranean . The Tramontane , a strong , cold and dry north wind , similar to the Mistral , which blows from the Massif Central mountains toward the Mediterranean to the west of the Rhone . The Marin , a strong , wet and cloudy south wind , which blows in from the Gulf of Lion . The Sirocco , a southeast wind coming from the Sahara desert in Africa , can reach hurricane force , and brings either reddish dust or heavy rains . The Provençal names for the winds are very similar to the names in the Catalan language : Tramontane ( Pr . ) = Tramuntana ( Catalan ) Levant ( Pr . ) = Llevant ( Catalan ) Mistral ( Pr . ) = Mestral ( Catalan ) |
Winter_1985_cold_wave | The Winter 1985 cold wave was a meteorological event , the result of the shifting of the polar vortex further south than is normally seen . Blocked from its normal movement , polar air from the north pushed into nearly every section of the eastern half of the United States and Canada , shattering record lows in a number of areas . The event was preceded by unusually warm weather in the eastern U.S. in December 1984 , suggesting that there was a build-up of cold air that was suddenly released from the Arctic , a meteorological event known as a Mobile Polar High , a weather process identified by Professor Marcel Leroux . |
Weather_map | A weather map displays various Meteorological features across a particular area at a particular point in time and has various symbols which all have specific meanings . Such maps have been in use since the mid-19th century and are used for research and weather forecasting purposes . Maps using isotherms show temperature gradients , which can help locate weather fronts . Isotach maps , analyzing lines of equal wind speed , on a constant pressure surface of 300 mb or 250 mb show where the jet stream is located . Use of constant pressure charts at the 700 and 500 hPa level can indicate tropical cyclone motion . Two-dimensional streamlines based on wind speeds at various levels show areas of convergence and divergence in the wind field , which are helpful in determining the location of features within the wind pattern . A popular type of surface weather map is the surface weather analysis , which plots isobars to depict areas of high pressure and low pressure . Cloud codes are translated into symbols and plotted on these maps along with other meteorological data that are included in synoptic reports sent by professionally trained observers . |
World_Energy_Outlook | The annual World Energy Outlook is the International Energy Agency 's flagship publication , widely recognised as the most authoritative source for global energy projections and analysis . It represents the leading source for medium to long-term energy market projections , extensive statistics , analysis and advice for both governments and the energy business . It is produced by the Office of the Chief Economist , presently under the direction of Dr. Fatih Birol . Using a Reference Scenario based on no change in current policies , it enables policy-makers to evaluate their current path . The WEO has also developed an alternative scenario that puts the global energy systems on a trajectory to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions in line with limiting the increase in temperature to 2 ° C. |
Wind_power_in_Pennsylvania | There are more than twenty wind power projects operating in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania . The most productive wind energy regions generally fall in mountain or coastal terrains . The northern portion of the Appalachian chain , including most of Southwestern Pennsylvania , is one of the areas with the highest potential for wind energy in the Eastern United States . The mountain ridges of central and northeastern Pennsylvania , including the Poconos in the eastern part of the state , offer some of the best wind resources in the region . If all wind energy potential in Pennsylvania was developed with utility-scale wind turbines , the power produced each year would be enough to supply 6.4 % of the state 's current electricity consumption . In 2006 , Pennsylvania 's legislature ruled that wind turbines and related equipment may not be included in property-tax assessments . Instead , the sites of wind facilities are assessed for their income-capitalization value . In 2007 , Montgomery County became the first wind-powered county in the nation , with a two-year commitment to buy 100 percent of its electricity from a combination of wind energy and renewable energy credits derived from wind energy . In 2009 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency honored Swarthmore , Pennsylvania as a Green Power Community -- the only one in the Eastern United States - for its commitment to buy clean energy generated from wind turbines in mountainous region of western Pennsylvania . In 2012 , a coalition of wind farm developers , owner , operators , their supporters , and retail suppliers joined together to form ChoosePAWind . This coalition 's goal is to educate Pennsylvanians about the environmental and economic benefits of supplying energy from local wind farms . Many smaller wind farms in Pennsylvania are operated by NextEra Energy Resources , based in Florida . |
Water_resources | Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful . Uses of water include agricultural , industrial , household , recreational and environmental activities . The majority of human uses require fresh water . 97 % of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water ; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps . The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater , with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air . Fresh water is a renewable resource , yet the world 's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing , with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia , South America and North America , although it is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this usage , and whether ecosystems are threatened . The framework for allocating water resources to water users ( where such a framework exists ) is known as water rights . |
World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow | The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations . |
Windcatcher | A windtower ( wind catcher ) ( بادگیر bâdgir : bâd `` wind '' + gir `` catcher '' ) is a traditional Persian architectural element to create natural ventilation in buildings . Windcatchers come in various designs : uni-directional , bi-directional , and multi-directional . The devices were used in ancient Egyptian architecture . Windcatchers remain present in many countries and can be found in traditional Persian-influenced architecture throughout the Middle East , including in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf ( mostly Bahrain and The United Arab Emirates ) , Pakistan , and Afghanistan . |
Wind_power_by_country | As of the end of 2016 , the worldwide total cumulative installed electricity generation capacity from wind power amounted to 486,790 MW , an increase of 12.5 % compared to the previous year . installations increased by 54,642 MW , 63,330 MW , 51,675 MW and 36,023 MW in 2016 , 2015 , 2014 and 2013 respectively . Since 2010 more than half of all new wind power was added outside of the traditional markets of Europe and North America , mainly driven by the continuing boom in China and India . At the end of 2015 , China had 145 GW of wind power installed . In 2015 , China installed close to half of the world 's added wind power capacity . Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration , such as 39 % of stationary electricity production in Denmark , 18 % in Portugal , 16 % in Spain , 14 % in Ireland and 9 % in Germany in 2010 . As of 2011 , 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis . Wind power 's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1 % . |
White_Sea | The White Sea ( Белое море , Beloye more ; Karelian and Vienanmeri , lit . Dvina Sea ; Сэрако ямʼ , Serako yam ) is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea located on the northwest coast of Russia . It is surrounded by Karelia to the west , the Kola Peninsula to the north , and the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast . The whole of the White Sea is under Russian sovereignty and considered to be part of the internal waters of Russia . Administratively , it is divided between Arkhangelsk and Murmansk Oblasts and the Republic of Karelia . The major port of Arkhangelsk is located on the White Sea . For much of Russia 's history this was Russia 's main centre of international maritime trade , conducted by the so-called Pomors ( `` seaside settlers '' ) from Kholmogory . In the modern era it became an important Soviet naval and submarine base . The White Sea-Baltic Canal connects the White Sea with the Baltic Sea . The White Sea is one of four seas named in English ( and in other languages such as Russian ) after common colour terms -- the others being the Black Sea , the Red Sea , and the Yellow Sea . |
Western_United_States | The Western United States , commonly referred to as the American West , the Far West , or simply the West , traditionally refers to the region comprising the westernmost states of the United States . Because European settlement in the U.S. expanded westward after its founding , the meaning of the West has evolved over time . Prior to about 1800 , the crest of the Appalachian Mountains was seen as the western frontier . Since then , the frontier generally moved westward and eventually lands west of the Mississippi River came to be referred to as the West . Though no consensus exists , even among experts , for the definition of the West as a region , the U.S. Census Bureau 's definition of the 13 westernmost states includes the Rocky Mountains and the Great Basin to the West Coast , and the outlying states of Hawaii and Alaska . The West contains several major biomes . It is known for arid to semi-arid plateaus and plains , particularly in the American Southwest -- forested mountains , including the major ranges of the American Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains -- the massive coastal shoreline of the American Pacific Coast -- and the rainforests of the Pacific Northwest . |
West_Java | West Java ( Jawa Barat , abbreviated as `` Jabar '' , Jawa Kulon ) is a province of Indonesia . It is located in the western part of the island of Java and its capital and largest urban center is Bandung , although much of its population in the northwest corner of the province live in areas suburban to the even larger urban area of Jakarta , even though that city itself lies outside the administrative province . The province 's population is 46.3 million ( in 2014 ) and it is the most populous and most densely populated of Indonesia 's provinces . The central areas of Bogor , a city in West Java , has one of the highest population density worldwide , while Bekasi and Depok are respectively the 7th and 10th most populated suburbs in the world ( Tangerang in adjacent Banten province is the 9th ) ; in 2014 Bekasi had 2,510,951 and Depok 1,869,681 inhabitants . All these cities are suburban to Jakarta . |
Woolly_mammoth | The woolly mammoth ( Mammuthus primigenius ) is a species of mammoth that lived during the Pleistocene epoch , and was one of the last in a line of mammoth species , beginning with Mammuthus subplanifrons in the early Pliocene . The woolly mammoth diverged from the steppe mammoth about 400,000 years ago in East Asia . Its closest extant relative is the Asian elephant . The appearance and behaviour of this species are among the best studied of any prehistoric animal because of the discovery of frozen carcasses in Siberia and Alaska , as well as skeletons , teeth , stomach contents , dung , and depiction from life in prehistoric cave paintings . Mammoth remains had long been known in Asia before they became known to Europeans in the 17th century . The origin of these remains was long a matter of debate , and often explained as being remains of legendary creatures . The mammoth was identified as an extinct species of elephant by Georges Cuvier in 1796 . The woolly mammoth was roughly the same size as modern African elephants . Males reached shoulder heights between 2.7 and and weighed up to 6 tonne . Females reached 2.6 - in shoulder heights and weighed up to 4 tonne . A newborn calf weighed about 90 kg . The woolly mammoth was well adapted to the cold environment during the last ice age . It was covered in fur , with an outer covering of long guard hairs and a shorter undercoat . The colour of the coat varied from dark to light . The ears and tail were short to minimise frostbite and heat loss . It had long , curved tusks and four molars , which were replaced six times during the lifetime of an individual . Its behaviour was similar to that of modern elephants , and it used its tusks and trunk for manipulating objects , fighting , and foraging . The diet of the woolly mammoth was mainly grass and sedges . Individuals could probably reach the age of 60 . Its habitat was the mammoth steppe , which stretched across northern Eurasia and North America . The woolly mammoth coexisted with early humans , who used its bones and tusks for making art , tools , and dwellings , and the species was also hunted for food . It disappeared from its mainland range at the end of the Pleistocene 10,000 years ago , most likely through climate change and consequent shrinkage of its habitat , hunting by humans , or a combination of the two . Isolated populations survived on St. Paul Island until 5,600 years ago and Wrangel Island until 4,000 years ago . After its extinction , humans continued using its ivory as a raw material , a tradition that continues today . It has been proposed the species could be recreated through cloning , but this method is as yet infeasible because of the degraded state of the remaining genetic material . |
Water_purification | Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals , biological contaminants , suspended solids and gases from water . The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose . Most water is disinfected for human consumption ( drinking water ) , but water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes , including fulfilling the requirements of medical , pharmacological , chemical and industrial applications . The methods used include physical processes such as filtration , sedimentation , and distillation ; biological processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon ; chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light . Purifying water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including suspended particles , parasites , bacteria , algae , viruses , fungi , as well as reducing the amount of a range of dissolved and particulate material derived from the surfaces that come from runoff due to rain . The standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or by international standards . These standards usually include minimum and maximum concentrations of contaminants , depending on the intended purpose of water use . Visual inspection can not determine if water is of appropriate quality . Simple procedures such as boiling or the use of a household activated carbon filter are not sufficient for treating all the possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source . Even natural spring water -- considered safe for all practical purposes in the 19th century -- must now be tested before determining what kind of treatment , if any , is needed . Chemical and microbiological analysis , while expensive , are the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the appropriate method of purification . According to a 2007 World Health Organization ( WHO ) report , 1.1 billion people lack access to an improved drinking water supply , 88 % of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene , while 1.8 million people die from diarrheal diseases each year . The WHO estimates that 94 % of these diarrheal cases are preventable through modifications to the environment , including access to safe water . Simple techniques for treating water at home , such as chlorination , filters , and solar disinfection , and storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year . Reducing deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries . |
Weather_Research_and_Forecasting_Model | The Weather Research and Forecasting ( WRF ) Model -LSB- ˈwɔrf -RSB- is a numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) system designed to serve both atmospheric research and operational forecasting needs . NWP refers to the simulation and prediction of the atmosphere with a computer model , and WRF is a set of software for this . WRF features two dynamical ( computational ) cores ( or solvers ) , a data assimilation system , and a software architecture allowing for parallel computation and system extensibility . The model serves a wide range of meteorological applications across scales ranging from meters to thousands of kilometers . The effort to develop WRF began in the latter part of the 1990s and was a collaborative partnership principally among the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( represented by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP ) and the ( then ) Forecast Systems Laboratory ( FSL ) ) , the Air Force Weather Agency ( AFWA ) , the Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) , the University of Oklahoma ( OU ) , and the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) . The bulk of the work on the model has been performed or supported by NCAR , NOAA , and AFWA . WRF allows researchers to produce simulations reflecting either real data ( observations , analyses ) or idealized atmospheric conditions . WRF provides operational forecasting a flexible and robust platform , while offering advances in physics , numerics , and data assimilation contributed by the many research community developers . WRF is currently in operational use at NCEP and other forecasting centers internationally . WRF has grown to have a large worldwide community of users ( over 30,000 registered users in over 150 countries ) , and workshops and tutorials are held each year at NCAR . WRF is used extensively for research and real-time forecasting throughout the world . WRF offers two dynamical solvers for its computation of the atmospheric governing equations , and the variants of the model are known as WRF-ARW ( Advanced Research WRF ) and WRF-NMM ( Nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model ) . The Advanced Research WRF ( ARW ) is supported to the community by the NCAR Mesoscale and Microscale Meteorology Division . The WRF-NMM solver variant was based on the Eta Model , and later Nonhydrostatic Mesoscale Model , developed at NCEP . The WRF-NMM ( NMM ) is supported to the community by the Developmental Testbed Center ( DTC ) . The WRF serves as the basis for the Rapid Refresh model , an operational forecast model run regularly at NCEP . A version of WRF-NMM tailored for hurricane forecasting , HWRF ( Hurricane Weather Research and Forecasting ) , became operational in 2007 . In 2009 , a polar optimized WRF was released through the Byrd Polar Research Center at the Ohio State University . |
Wood_fuel | Wood fuel ( or fuelwood ) is a fuel , such as firewood , charcoal , chips , sheets , pellets , and sawdust . The particular form used depends upon factors such as source , quantity , quality and application . In many areas , wood is the most easily available form of fuel , requiring no tools in the case of picking up dead wood , or few tools , although as in any industry , specialized tools , such as skidders and hydraulic wood splitters , have been developed to mechanize production . Sawmill waste and construction industry by-products also include various forms of lumber tailings . The discovery of how to make fire for the purpose of burning wood is regarded as one of humanity 's most important advances . The use of wood as a fuel source for heating is much older than civilization and is assumed to have been used by Neanderthals . Today , burning of wood is the largest use of energy derived from a solid fuel biomass . Wood fuel can be used for cooking and heating , and occasionally for fueling steam engines and steam turbines that generate electricity . Wood may be used indoors in a furnace , stove , or fireplace , or outdoors in a furnace , campfire , or bonfire . In permanent structures and in caves , hearths were constructed or established -- surfaces of stone or another noncombustible material upon which a fire could be built . Smoke escaped through a smoke hole in the roof . In contrast to civilizations in relatively arid regions ( such as Mesopotamia and Egypt ) , the Greeks , Romans , Celts , Britons , and Gauls all had access to forests suitable for using as fuel . Over the centuries there was a partial deforestation of climax forests and the evolution of the remainder to coppice with standards woodland as the primary source of wood fuel . These woodlands involved a continuous cycle of new stems harvested from old stumps , on rotations between seven and thirty years . One of the earliest printed books on woodland management , in English , was John Evelyn 's `` Sylva , or a discourse on forest trees '' ( 1664 ) advising landowners on the proper management of forest estates . H. L. Edlin , in `` Woodland Crafts in Britain '' , 1949 outlines the extraordinary techniques employed , and range of wood products that have been produced from these managed forests since pre-Roman times . And throughout this time the preferred form of wood fuel was the branches of cut coppice stems bundled into faggots . Larger , bent or deformed stems that were of no other use to the woodland craftsmen were converted to the end of World War two . Since then much of these woodlands have been converted to broadscale agriculture . Total demand for fuel increased considerably with the industrial revolution but most of this increased demand was met by the new fuel source coal , which was more compact and more suited to the larger scale of the new industries . During the Edo period of Japan , wood was used for many purposes , and the consumption of wood led Japan to develop a forest management policy during that era . Demand for timber resources was on the rise not only for fuel , but also for construction of ships and buildings , and consequently deforestation was widespread . As a result , forest fires occurred , along with floods and soil erosion . Around 1666 , the shogun made it a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees . This policy decreed that only the shogun , or a daimyō , could authorize the use of wood . By the 18th century , Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about silviculture and plantation forestry . |
Westerlies | The westerlies , anti-trades , or prevailing westerlies , are prevailing winds from the west toward the east in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude . They originate from the high-pressure areas in the horse latitudes and tend towards the poles and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner . Tropical cyclones which cross the subtropical ridge axis into the westerlies recurve due to the increased westerly flow . The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere . The westerlies are strongest in the winter hemisphere and times when the pressure is lower over the poles , while they are weakest in the summer hemisphere and when pressures are higher over the poles . The westerlies are particularly strong , especially in the Southern Hemisphere , in areas where land is absent , because land amplifies the flow pattern , making the current more north-south oriented , slowing the westerlies . The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the roaring forties , between 40 and 50 degrees latitude . The westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm , equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents , especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse . |
Wind_power_in_the_United_States | Wind power in the United States is a branch of the energy industry that has expanded quickly over the latest several years . For calendar year 2016 , wind power in the United States amounted to 226.5 terawatt-hours , or 5.55 % of all generated electrical energy . As of January 2017 , the U.S. nameplate generating capacity for wind power was 82,183 megawatts ( MW ) . This capacity is exceeded only by China and the European Union . Thus far , wind power 's largest growth in capacity was in 2012 , when 11,895 MW of wind power was installed , representing 26.5 % of new power capacity . In 2016 , Nebraska became the eighteenth state to have installed over 1,000 MW of wind power capacity . Texas , with over 20,000 MW of capacity , had the most installed wind power capacity of any U.S. state at the end of 2016 . Texas also had more under construction than any other state currently has installed . The state generating the highest percentage of energy from wind power is Iowa . North Dakota has the most per capita wind generation . The Alta Wind Energy Center in California is the largest wind farm in the United States with a capacity of 1548 MW . GE Energy is the largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer . |
Wilson_Doctrine | The Wilson Doctrine is a convention in the United Kingdom that restricts the police and intelligence services from tapping the telephones of Members of the House of Commons and House of Lords . It was introduced in 1966 and named after Harold Wilson , the Labour Prime Minister who established the rule . Since it was established , the development of new forms of communication , such as the mobile phone and email , and election of members to the European Parliament and the new devolved legislatures had led to extensions of the doctrine . In July 2015 , it emerged that the application of the doctrine to Members of the European Parliament and devolved legislatures had been ended and in October 2015 , the Investigatory Powers Tribunal ruled that the doctrine had no legal force . In November 2015 , the Prime Minister made a statement clarifying how the `` Government continues to apply the doctrine in the twenty first century '' . The Investigatory Powers Bill includes a provision to place the Wilson doctrine on a statutory footing for the first time . |
Wind_tunnel | A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to study the effects of air moving past solid objects . A wind tunnel consists of a tubular passage with the object under test mounted in the middle . Air is made to move past the object by a powerful fan system or other means . The test object , often called a wind tunnel model , is instrumented with suitable sensors to measure aerodynamic forces , pressure distribution , or other aerodynamic-related characteristics . The earliest wind tunnels were invented towards the end of the 19th century , in the early days of aeronautic research , when many attempted to develop successful heavier-than-air flying machines . The wind tunnel was envisioned as a means of reversing the usual paradigm : instead of the air standing still and an object moving at speed through it , the same effect would be obtained if the object stood still and the air moved at speed past it . In that way a stationary observer could study the flying object in action , and could measure the aerodynamic forces being imposed on it . The development of wind tunnels accompanied the development of the airplane . Large wind tunnels were built during World War II . Wind tunnel testing was considered of strategic importance during the Cold War development of supersonic aircraft and missiles . Later on , wind tunnel study came into its own : the effects of wind on man made structures or objects needed to be studied when buildings became tall enough to present large surfaces to the wind , and the resulting forces had to be resisted by the building 's internal structure . Determining such forces was required before building codes could specify the required strength of such buildings and such tests continue to be used for large or unusual buildings . Still later , wind-tunnel testing was applied to automobiles , not so much to determine aerodynamic forces per se but more to determine ways to reduce the power required to move the vehicle on roadways at a given speed . In these studies , the interaction between the road and the vehicle plays a significant role , and this interaction must be taken into consideration when interpreting the test results . In an actual situation the roadway is moving relative to the vehicle but the air is stationary relative to the roadway , but in the wind tunnel the air is moving relative to the roadway , while the roadway is stationary relative to the test vehicle . Some automotive-test wind tunnels have incorporated moving belts under the test vehicle in an effort to approximate the actual condition , and very similar devices are used in wind tunnel testing of aircraft take-off and landing configurations . The advances in computational fluid dynamics ( CFD ) modelling on high speed digital computers has reduced the demand for wind tunnel testing . However , CFD results are still not completely reliable and wind tunnels are used to verify CFD predictions . |
Weather_front | A weather ( state of atmosphere ) front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities , and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena outside the tropics . In surface weather analyses , fronts are depicted using various colored triangles and half-circles , depending on the type of front . The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity . Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . The weather usually clears quickly after a front 's passage . Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness , although there is invariably a wind shift . Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to east , while warm fronts move poleward . Because of the greater density of air in their wake , cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions . Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts . When a front becomes stationary , and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes , the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity , known as a shearline . This is most common over the open ocean . |
Western_Oregon | Western Oregon is a geographical term that is generally taken to mean the part of Oregon within 120 mi of the Oregon Coast , on the west side of the crest of the Cascade Range . The term is applied somewhat loosely however , and is sometimes taken to exclude the southwestern areas of the state , which are often referred to as `` Southern Oregon '' . In that case , `` Western Oregon '' means only the counties west of the Cascades and north of and including Lane County . Western Oregon , being 120 by in area , is about the same size as Connecticut , Massachusetts , Rhode Island , Vermont , and New Hampshire put together . Unlike the climate of Eastern Oregon , which is primarily dry and continental , the climate of Western Oregon is generally a moderate rain forest climate . |
Weather_station | A weather station is a facility , either on land or sea , with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate . The measurements taken include temperature , atmospheric pressure , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation amounts . Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible , while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation , or insolation . Manual observations are taken at least once daily , while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour . Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys , which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature ( SST ) , wave height , and wave period . Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount . |
Winds_aloft | Winds aloft , officially known as the winds and temperatures aloft forecast , ( known as `` FD '' in the US , but becoming known as `` FB '' , following the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) nomenclature ) , is a forecast of specific atmospheric conditions in terms of wind and temperature at certain altitudes , typically measured in feet ( ft ) above mean sea level ( MSL ) . The forecast is specifically used for aviation purposes . The components of a winds and temperatures aloft forecast are displayed as DDss + / - TT : Wind direction ( DD ) and wind speed ( ss ) , displayed as a 4-digit number , e.g. 3127 , indicating a wind direction of 310 degrees true north and a wind speed of 27 knots . Note that wind direction is rounded to the nearest 10 degrees and the trailing zero is excluded . Temperature ( TT ) , displayed as a + / - two-digit number , indicating temperature in degrees Celsius . |
Wawona_Tree | The Wawona Tree , also known as the Wawona Tunnel Tree , was a famous giant sequoia that stood in Mariposa Grove , Yosemite National Park , California , USA , until February 1969 . It had a height of 227 ft and was 26 ft in diameter at the base . The origin of the word Wawona is not known . A popular story claims Wawō ` na was the Miwok word for `` big tree '' , or for `` hoot of the owl '' , birds are considered the sequoia trees ' spiritual guardian . |
Wind_power | Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power . Wind power , as an alternative to burning fossil fuels , is plentiful , renewable , widely distributed , clean , produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation , consumes no water , and uses little land . The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources . Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network . Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power , competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants . Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land , and offshore farms have less visual impact , but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher . Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations . Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales . It is therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply . As the proportion of wind power in a region increases , a need to upgrade the grid , and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur . Power management techniques such as having excess capacity , geographically distributed turbines , dispatchable backing sources , sufficient hydroelectric power , exporting and importing power to neighboring areas , using vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low , can in many cases overcome these problems . In addition , weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur . As of 2015 , Denmark generates 40 % of its electric power from wind , and at least 83 other countries around the world are using wind power to supply their electric power grids . In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16 % to 369,553 MW . Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4 % of worldwide electric power usage , 11.4 % in the EU . |
Weddell_Gyre | The Weddell Gyre is one of the two gyres that exist within the Southern Ocean . The gyre is formed by interactions between the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and the Antarctic Continental Shelf . The gyre is located in the Weddell Sea , and rotates clockwise . South of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current ( ACC ) and spreading northeast from the Antarctic Peninsula , the gyre is an extended large cyclone . Where the northeastern end , ends at 30 ° E , which is marked by the southward turn of the ACC . The northern part of the gyre spreads over the Southern Scotia Sea and goes northward to the South Sandwich Arc . Axis of the gyre is over the southern flanks of the South Scotia , America-Antarctic , and Southwest Indian Ridges . In the southern part of the gyre , the westward return flow is about 66Sv , while in the northern rim current , there is an eastward flow of 61Sv . |
Water_on_Mars | Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice , though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil . The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap . Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate latitudes . More than five million cubic kilometers of ice have been identified at or near the surface of modern Mars , enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters . Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface . Some liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today , but only under certain conditions . No large standing bodies of liquid water exist , because the atmospheric pressure at the surface averages just 600 Pa -- about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure -- and because the global average temperature is far too low ( 210 K ) , leading to either rapid evaporation ( sublimation ) or rapid freezing . Before about 3.8 billion years ago , Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures , allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface , possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet . Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars ' history . On December 9 , 2013 , NASA reported that , based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus , Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life . Many lines of evidence indicate that water is abundant on Mars and has played a significant role in the planet 's geologic history . The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft imagery , remote sensing techniques ( spectroscopic measurements , radar , etc. ) , and surface investigations from landers and rovers . Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods , ancient river valley networks , deltas , and lakebeds ; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface that could only have formed in liquid water . Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice ( permafrost ) and the movement of ice in glaciers , both in the recent past and present . Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars , although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past . Although the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago , the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing , probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms . In addition , Mars lacks a thick atmosphere , ozone layer , and magnetic field , allowing solar and cosmic radiation to strike the surface unimpeded . The damaging effects of ionizing radiation on cellular structure is another one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life on the surface . Therefore , the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be in subsurface environments . On November 22 , 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice on the planet Mars -- the volume of water detected is equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Understanding water on Mars is vital to assess the planet 's potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration . For this reason , ` Follow the Water ' was the science theme of NASA 's Mars Exploration Program ( MEP ) in the first decade of the 21st century . Discoveries by the 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Exploration Rovers ( MERs ) , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) , and Mars Phoenix lander have been instrumental in answering key questions about water 's abundance and distribution on Mars . The ESA 's Mars Express orbiter has also provided essential data in this quest . The Mars Odyssey , Mars Express , MER Opportunity rover , MRO , and Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover are still sending back data from Mars , and discoveries continue to be made . |
Wibjörn_Karlén | Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . |
World_Bank_Group | The World Bank Group ( WBG ) is a family of five international organizations that make leveraged loans to developing countries . It is the largest and most famous development bank in the world and is an observer at the United Nations Development Group . The bank is based in Washington , D.C. and provided around $ 61 billion in loans and assistance to `` developing '' and transition countries in the 2014 fiscal year . The bank 's stated mission is to achieve the twin goals of ending extreme poverty and building shared prosperity . Total lending as of 2015 for the last 10 years through Development Policy Financing was approximately $ 117 billion . Its five organizations are the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) , the International Development Association ( IDA ) , the International Finance Corporation ( IFC ) , the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency ( MIGA ) and the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes ( ICSID ) . The World Bank 's ( the IBRD and IDA 's ) activities are focused on developing countries , in fields such as human development ( e.g. education , health ) , agriculture and rural development ( e.g. irrigation and rural services ) , environmental protection ( e.g. pollution reduction , establishing and enforcing regulations ) , infrastructure ( e.g. roads , urban regeneration , and electricity ) , large industrial construction projects , and governance ( e.g. anti-corruption , legal institutions development ) . The IBRD and IDA provide loans at preferential rates to member countries , as well as grants to the poorest countries . Loans or grants for specific projects are often linked to wider policy changes in the sector or the country 's economy as a whole . For example , a loan to improve coastal environmental management may be linked to development of new environmental institutions at national and local levels and the implementation of new regulations to limit pollution , or not , such as in the World Bank financed constructions of paper mills along the Rio Uruguay in 2006 . The World Bank has received various criticisms over the years and was tarnished by a scandal with the bank 's then President Paul Wolfowitz and his aide , Shaha Riza , in 2007 . |