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Solar_eclipse_of_June_30,_1954 | A total solar eclipse occurred on June 30 , 1954 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality began at sunrise over the United States over Nebraska , South Dakota , Minnesota , and Wisconsin , and crossed into Canada , across southern Greenland , Iceland and Faroe Islands , then into Europe , across Norway , Sweden , and eastern Europe . It ended before sunset over Iran , Afghanistan , Pakistan , and ending in northwestern India . |
Spaceflight | Spaceflight ( also written space flight ) is ballistic flight into or through outer space . Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board . Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program , as well as the ongoing International Space Station . Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit , as well as satellites in orbit around Earth , such as communications satellites . These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous . Spaceflight is used in space exploration , and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications . Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories , reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites . A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch , which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth . Once in space , the motion of a spacecraft -- both when unpropelled and when under propulsion -- is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics . Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely , some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry , and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact . |
Skeptical_movement | The skeptical movement ( also spelled sceptical ) is a modern social movement promoting the idea of scientific skepticism ( also called rational skepticism ) . Scientific skepticism is the application of skeptical philosophy , critical thinking skills , and knowledge of science and its methods to empirical claims , while remaining agnostic or neutral to non-empirical claims ( except those that directly impact the practice of science ) . The movement has the goal of investigating claims made on fringe topics and determining if they are supported by empirical research and are reproducible , as part of a methodological norm pursuing `` the extension of certified knowledge '' . The process followed is sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry . Roots of the movement can be found in the 19th century when questions began to be publicly raised regarding the unquestioned acceptance of claims of spiritism , various widely held superstitions , and pseudoscience . Medical quackery was also targeted by publications such as the Dutch Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij ( 1881 ) . The Belgian Comité Para ( 1949 ) has been deemed the oldest `` broad mandate '' skeptical organization . Using that organization as a template , in 1976 , Paul Kurtz and Marcello Truzzi founded the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry in Amherst , New York . The North American skeptical organization , which provides journals and publications , inspired similar associations worldwide . |
Spheroid | A spheroid , or ellipsoid of revolution , is a quadric surface obtained by rotating an ellipse about one of its principal axes ; in other words , an ellipsoid with two equal semi-diameters . If the ellipse is rotated about its major axis , the result is a prolate ( elongated ) spheroid , shaped like an American football or rugby ball . If the ellipse is rotated about its minor axis , the result is an oblate ( flattened ) spheroid , shaped like a lentil . If the generating ellipse is a circle , the result is a sphere . A spheroid has circular symmetry . Because of the combined effects of gravity and rotation , the Earth 's shape is not quite a sphere but instead is slightly flattened in the direction of its axis of rotation . For that reason , in cartography the Earth is often approximated by an oblate spheroid instead of a sphere . The current World Geodetic System model uses a spheroid whose radius is 6,378.137 km at the equator and 6,356.752 km at the poles . The word `` spheroid '' originally meant `` an approximately spherical body '' , admitting irregularities even beyond the bi - or tri-axial ellipsoidal shape , and that is how the term is used in some older papers on geodesy ( for example , referring to truncated spherical harmonic expansions of the Earth ) . |
Solstice | The Solstice occurs twice each year ( around June 21 and December 22 ) as the Sun reaches its most northerly or southerly excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere . The seasons of the year are directly connected to both the solstices and the equinoxes . The term solstice can also be used in a broader sense , as the day when this occurs . The day of the solstice has either the most sunlight of the year ( summer solstice ) or the least sunlight of the year ( winter solstice ) for any place other than the equator . Alternative terms , with no ambiguity as to which hemisphere is the context , are June solstice and December solstice , referring to the months of year in which they take place . At latitudes outside the tropics , the summer solstice marks the day when the sun appears highest in the sky . Within the tropics , the sun appears directly overhead ( called the subsolar point ) from days to months before the solstice and again after the solstice , which means the subsolar point occurs twice each year . The word solstice is derived from the Latin sol ( sun ) and sistere ( to stand still ) , because at the solstices , the Sun stands still in declination ; that is , the seasonal movement of the Sun 's path ( as seen from Earth ) comes to a stop before reversing direction . |
Smoothing | In statistics and image processing , to smooth a data set is to create an approximating function that attempts to capture important patterns in the data , while leaving out noise or other fine-scale structures/rapid phenomena . In smoothing , the data points of a signal are modified so individual points ( presumably because of noise ) are reduced , and points that are lower than the adjacent points are increased leading to a smoother signal . Smoothing may be used in two important ways that can aid in data analysis ( 1 ) by being able to extract more information from the data as long as the assumption of smoothing is reasonable and ( 2 ) by being able to provide analyses that are both flexible and robust . Many different algorithms are used in smoothing . Smoothing may be distinguished from the related and partially overlapping concept of curve fitting in the following ways : curve fitting often involves the use of an explicit function form for the result , whereas the immediate results from smoothing are the `` smoothed '' values with no later use made of a functional form if there is one ; the aim of smoothing is to give a general idea of relatively slow changes of value with little attention paid to the close matching of data values , while curve fitting concentrates on achieving as close a match as possible . smoothing methods often have an associated tuning parameter which is used to control the extent of smoothing . Curve fitting will adjust any number of parameters of the function to obtain the ` best ' fit . However , the terminology used across applications is mixed . For example , use of an interpolating spline fits a smooth curve exactly through the given data points and is sometimes called `` smoothing '' . |
Solar_eclipse_of_March_9,_2016 | A total solar eclipse took place on March 8 -- 9 , 2016 . If viewed from east of the International Date Line ( for instance from Hawaii ) , the eclipse took place on March 8 ( local time ) and elsewhere on March 9 . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's and the apparent path of the Sun and Moon intersect , blocking all direct sunlight and turning daylight into darkness ; the sun appears to be black with a halo around it . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The eclipse of March 8 -- 9 , 2016 had a magnitude of 1.0450 visible across an area of Pacific Ocean , which started in the Indian Ocean , and ended in the northern Pacific Ocean . The eclipse was clearly visible in many parts of Indonesia , including Central Sulawesi and Ternate , but obscured by clouds and smokes in Palembang , the largest city on the path of totality . The eclipse coincided with Nyepi , a public holiday in Indonesia and the end of the Balinese saka calendar . Because Nyepi is normally a day of silence , Muslims in Bali had to be given special dispensation to attend special prayer services during the eclipse . |
Solar_eclipse_of_January_15,_2010 | The solar eclipse of January 15 , 2010 was an annular eclipse of the Sun with a magnitude of 0.9190 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun 's , blocking most of the Sun 's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus ( ring ) . An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide . It was the longest annular solar eclipse of the millennium , and the longest until December 23 , 3043 , with a maximum length of 11 minutes , 7.8 seconds . This is about 4 minutes longer than total solar eclipses could ever get . ( The solar eclipse of January 4 , 1992 , was longer , at 11 minutes , 41 seconds , occurring in the middle of the Pacific Ocean . ) The eclipse was visible as only a partial eclipse in much of Africa , Eastern Europe , the Middle East and Asia . It was seen as an annular eclipse within a narrow stretch of 300 km width across Central Africa , Maldives , South Kerala ( India ) , South Tamil Nadu ( India ) , Sri Lanka and parts of Bangladesh , Burma and China . |
Southern_Europe | Southern Europe is the southern region of the European continent . Most definitions of Southern Europe , also known as Mediterranean Europe , include the countries of the Iberian peninsula ( Spain and Portugal ) , the Italian peninsula , Greece and Malta . Other definitions sometimes include the Balkan countries of Southeast Europe , which are geographically technically in the southern part of Europe , but which have different historical , political , economic , and cultural backgrounds that commonly places them in the category of Eastern Europe . Different methods can be used to define Southern Europe , including its political , economic , and cultural attributes . Southern Europe can also be defined by its natural features -- its geography , climate , and flora . |
Solar_power_in_the_United_States | Solar power in the United States includes utility-scale solar power plants as well as local distributed generation , mostly from rooftop photovoltaics . As of the end of 2016 , the U.S. had 40 gigawatts ( GW ) of installed photovoltaic capacity , having almost doubled in capacity from the previous year . In the twelve months through March 2017 , utility scale solar power generated 38.3 terawatt-hours ( TWh ) , 0.94 % of total U.S. electricity . During the same time period total solar generation , including estimated distributed solar photovoltaic generation , was 59.8 TWh , 1.47 % of total U.S. electricity . In terms of total installed capacity , by year end 2015 the USA ranked 4th in the world behind China , Germany , and Japan . In 2016 , 39 % of all new electricity generation capacity in the country came from solar , more than any other source and ahead of natural gas ( 29 % ) . By 2015 , solar employment had overtaken oil and gas as well as coal employment in the U.S. The United States conducted much early research in photovoltaics and concentrated solar power . The U.S. is among the top countries in the world in electricity generated by the Sun and several of the world 's largest utility-scale installations are located in the desert Southwest . The oldest solar power plant in the world is the 354-megawatt ( MW ) SEGS thermal power plant , in California . The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in the California Mojave Desert , 40 miles ( 64 km ) southwest of Las Vegas , with a gross capacity of 392 MW . The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend , Arizona , about 70 mi southwest of Phoenix , completed in 2013 . When commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy storage . There are plans to build many other large solar plants in the United States . Many states have set individual renewable energy goals with solar power being included in various proportions . Governor Jerry Brown has signed legislation requiring California 's utilities to obtain 50 percent of their electricity from renewable energy sources by the end of 2030 . |
Sodium_hydroxide | Sodium hydroxide , also known as lye and caustic soda , is an inorganic compound with formula NaOH . It is a white solid , a salt ( ionic compound ) , consisting of sodium cations and hydroxide anions . Sodium hydroxide is a highly caustic base and alkali , that decomposes proteins at ordinary ambient temperatures and may cause severe chemical burns . It is highly soluble in water and readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from the air . It forms a series of hydrates NaOH · n . The monohydrate NaOH · cystallizes from water solutions between 12.3 and 61.8 ° C . The commercially available `` sodium hydroxide '' is often this monohydrate , and published data may refer to it instead of the anhydrous compound . Sodium hydroxide is used in many industries in the manufacture of pulp and paper , textiles , drinking water , soaps and detergents and as a drain cleaner . Worldwide production in 2004 was approximately 60 million tonnes , while demand was 51 million tonnes . |
Space_Shuttle_Atlantis | Space Shuttle Atlantis ( Orbiter Vehicle Designation : OV‑104 ) is a Space Shuttle orbiter belonging to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) , the spaceflight and space exploration agency of the United States . Constructed by the Rockwell International company in Southern California and delivered to the Kennedy Space Center in Eastern Florida in April 1985 , Atlantis is the fourth operational and the second-to-last Space Shuttle built . Its maiden flight was STS-51-J from 3 to 7 October 1985 . Atlantis embarked on its 33rd and final mission , also the final mission of a space shuttle , STS-135 , on 8 July 2011 . STS-134 by -LSB- -LSB- Space Shuttle Endeavour | Endeavour -RSB- -RSB- was expected to be the final flight before STS-135 was authorized in October 2010 . STS-135 took advantage of the processing for the STS-335 Launch On Need mission that would have been necessary if STS-134 's crew became stranded in orbit.Atlantis landed for the final time at the Kennedy Space Center on 21 July 2011 . By the end of its final mission , Atlantis had orbited the Earth a total of 4,848 times , traveling nearly 126000000 mi or more than 525 times the distance from the Earth to the Moon.Atlantis '' is named after RV Atlantis , a two-masted sailing ship that operated as the primary research vessel for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution from 1930 to 1966 . |
Stellar_atmosphere | The stellar atmosphere is the outer region of the volume of a star , lying above the stellar core , radiation zone and convection zone . It is divided into several regions of distinct character : The photosphere , which is the atmosphere 's lowest and coolest layer , is normally its only visible part . Light escaping from the surface of the star stems from this region and passes through the higher layers . The Sun 's photosphere has a temperature in the 5,770 K to 5,780 K range . Starspots , cool regions of disrupted magnetic field lie on the photosphere . Above the photosphere lies the chromosphere . This part of the atmosphere first cools down and then starts to heat up to about 10 times the temperature of the photosphere . Above the chromosphere lies the transition region , where the temperature increases rapidly on a distance of only around 100 km . The outermost part of the stellar atmosphere is the corona , a tenuous plasma which has a temperature above one million Kelvin . While all stars on the main sequence feature transition regions and coronae , not all evolved stars do so . It seems that only some giants , and very few supergiants , possess coronae . An unresolved problem in stellar astrophysics is how the corona can be heated to such high temperatures . The answer lies in magnetic fields , but the exact mechanism remains unclear . During a total solar eclipse , the photosphere of the Sun is obscured , revealing its atmosphere 's other layers . Observed during eclipse , the sun 's chromosphere appears ( briefly ) as a thin pinkish arc , and its corona is seen as a tufted halo . The same phenomenon in eclipsing binaries can make the chromosphere of giant stars visible . |
Sustainable_development | Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depends . The desirable end result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems . While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1987 Brundtland Report , it is also rooted in earlier ideas about sustainable forest management and twentieth century environmental concerns . As the concept developed , it has shifted to focus more on economic development , social development and environmental protection for future generations . It has been suggested that `` the term ` sustainability ' should be viewed as humanity 's target goal of human-ecosystem equilibrium ( homeostasis ) , while ` sustainable development ' refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end point of sustainability '' . The concept of sustainable development has been -- and still is -- subject to criticism . What , exactly , is to be sustained in sustainable development ? It has been argued that there is no such thing as a sustainable use of a non-renewable resource , since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of Earth 's finite stock ; this perspective renders the Industrial Revolution as a whole unsustainable . It has also been argued that the meaning of the concept has opportunistically been stretched from ` conservation management ' to ` economic development ' , and that the Brundtland Report promoted nothing but a business as usual strategy for world development , with an ambiguous and insubstantial concept attached as a public relations slogan ( see below ) . |
Steam_locomotive | A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine . These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material -- usually coal , wood , or oil -- to produce steam in a boiler . The steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotive 's main wheels ( drivers ) . Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive , either on the locomotive itself or in wagons ( tenders ) pulled behind . The first steam locomotive , made by Richard Trevithick , first operated on 21 February 1804 , three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801 . The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop . Built by George Stephenson and his son Robert 's company Robert Stephenson and Company , the Locomotion No. 1 is the first steam locomotive to carry passengers on a public rail line , the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 . Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century . From the early 1900s they were gradually superseded by electric and diesel locomotives , with full conversions to electric and diesel power beginning in the late 1930s . The majority of steam locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s , though several continue to run on tourist and heritage lines . |
Stratosphere | The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes . |
State_Grid_Corporation_of_China | The State Grid Corporation of China ( SGCC ; ) , commonly known as the State Grid , is the state-owned electric utility monopoly of China and the largest utility company in the world . It is the second largest company by revenue in the world according to the 2016 Fortune Global 500 ranking . It has 927,839 employees , 1.1 billion customers and revenue of 329.6 billion dollars . After the electricity `` Plant-Grid Separation '' reform in early 2002 , the assets of State Electric Power Corporation were divided into the five `` power generation groups '' that retained the power plants and five regional subsidiaries belonging to the State Grid Corporation of China in Beijing . The company is headquartered in Xicheng District , Beijing . |
Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean | The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change . |
Swiss_cheese_model | The Swiss Cheese model of accident causation is a model used in risk analysis and risk management , including aviation safety , engineering , healthcare , emergency service organizations , and as the principle behind layered security , as used in computer security and defense in depth . It likens human systems to multiple slices of swiss cheese , stacked side by side , in which the risk of a threat becoming a reality is mitigated by the differing layers and types of defenses which are `` layered '' behind each other . Therefore , in theory , lapses and weaknesses in one defense do not allow a risk to materialize , since other defenses also exist , to prevent a single point of weakness . The model was originally formally propounded by Dante Orlandella and James T. Reason of the University of Manchester , and has since gained widespread acceptance . It is sometimes called the cumulative act effect . Although the Swiss cheese model is respected and considered to be a useful method of relating concepts , it has been subject to criticism that it is used over broadly , and without enough other models or support . |
Stack_(geology) | -RSB- A stack or sea stack is a geological landform consisting of a steep and often vertical column or columns of rock in the sea near a coast , formed by wave erosion . Stacks are formed over time by wind and water , processes of coastal geomorphology . They are formed when part of a headland is eroded by hydraulic action , which is the force of the sea or water crashing against the rock . The force of the water weakens cracks in the headland , causing them to later collapse , forming free-standing stacks and even a small island . Without the constant presence of water , stacks also form when a natural arch collapses under gravity , due to sub-aerial processes like wind erosion . Erosion causes the arch to collapse , leaving the pillar of hard rock standing away from the coast -- the stack . Eventually , erosion will cause the stack to collapse , leaving a stump . Stacks can provide important nesting locations for seabirds , and many are popular for rock climbing . Isolated steep-sided , rocky oceanic islets , typically of volcanic origin , are also loosely called `` stacks '' or `` volcanic stacks '' . |
Subatomic_particle | In the physical sciences , subatomic particles are particles much smaller than atoms . There are two types of subatomic particles : elementary particles , which according to current theories are not made of other particles ; and composite particles . Particle physics and nuclear physics study these particles and how they interact . In particle physics , the concept of a particle is one of several concepts inherited from classical physics . But it also reflects the modern understanding that at the quantum scale matter and energy behave very differently from what much of everyday experience would lead us to expect . The idea of a particle underwent serious rethinking when experiments showed that light could behave like a stream of particles ( called photons ) as well as exhibit wave-like properties . This led to the new concept of wave -- particle duality to reflect that quantum-scale `` particles '' behave like both particles and waves ( also known as wavicles ) . Another new concept , the uncertainty principle , states that some of their properties taken together , such as their simultaneous position and momentum , can not be measured exactly . In more recent times , wave -- particle duality has been shown to apply not only to photons but to increasingly massive particles as well . Interactions of particles in the framework of quantum field theory are understood as creation and annihilation of quanta of corresponding fundamental interactions . This blends particle physics with field theory . |
Subtropical_cyclone | A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical and an extratropical cyclone . As early as the 1950s , meteorologists were unclear whether they should be characterized as tropical or extratropical cyclones . They were officially recognized by the National Hurricane Center in 1972 . Subtropical cyclones began to receive names from the official tropical cyclone lists in the North Atlantic , South-west Indian Ocean and South Atlantic basins . There are two definitions currently used for subtropical cyclones . Across the north Atlantic and southwest Indian Ocean , they require central convection fairly near the center and a warming core in the mid-levels of the troposphere . Across the eastern half of the northern Pacific , they require a mid-tropospheric cyclone to cut off from the main belt of the westerlies and only a weak surface circulation . Subtropical cyclones have broad wind patterns with maximum sustained winds located farther from the center than typical tropical cyclones , and have no weather fronts linked into their center . Since they form from initially extratropical cyclones which have colder temperatures aloft than normally found in the tropics , the sea surface temperatures required for their formation are lower than the tropical cyclone threshold by 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) , lying around 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) . This also means that subtropical cyclones are more likely to form outside the traditional bounds of the North Atlantic hurricane season . Subtropical cyclones are also observed to form in the South Atlantic ; South Atlantic subtropical cyclones are observed in all months . |
Subtropics | The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropics at latitude 23.5 ° ( the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn ) and temperate zones ( normally referring to latitudes 35 -- 66.5 ° ) north and south of the Equator . Subtropical climates are often characterized by warm to hot summers and cool to mild winters with infrequent frost . Most subtropical climates fall into two basic types : 1 - Humid Subtropical , where rainfall is often concentrated in the warmest months ( for example Brisbane , Australia or Jacksonville , Florida ) and 2 - Dry summer ( or Mediterranean ) where seasonal rainfall is concentrated in the cooler months ( for example Naples , Italy or Los Angeles , California ) . Subtropical climates can occur at high elevations within the tropics , such as in the southern end of the Mexican Plateau and in Vietnam and Taiwan . Six climate classifications use the term to help define the various temperature and precipitation regimes for the planet Earth . A great portion of the world 's deserts are located within the subtropics , due to the development of the subtropical ridge . Within savanna regimes in the subtropics , a wet season is seen annually during the summer , which is when most of the yearly rainfall falls . Within Mediterranean climate regimes , the wet season occurs during the winter . Areas bordering warm oceans are prone to locally heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones , which can contribute a significant percentage of the annual rainfall . Plants such as palms , citrus , mango , lychee , and avocado are grown within the subtropics . |
Sulfate_aerosol | The term sulfate aerosols is used for a suspension of fine solid particles of a sulfate or tiny droplets of a solution of a sulfate or of sulfuric acid ( which is not technically a sulfate ) . They are produced by chemical reactions in the atmosphere from gaseous precursors ( with the exception of sea salt sulfate and gypsum dust particles ) . The two main sulfuric acid precursors are sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) from anthropogenic sources and volcanoes , and dimethyl sulfide ( DMS ) from biogenic sources , especially marine plankton . These aerosols can cause a cooling effect on earth . However the UNFCCC has noted that sulfate aerosols remain in the atmosphere for only a short amount of time in comparison to other greenhouse gases , and therefore their cooling is localized and temporary . Other side effects of sulfate aerosols in the environment include poor air quality . |
Swiss_cheese_features | Swiss cheese features ( SCFs ) are curious pits in the south polar ice cap of Mars ( Mare Australe quadrangle ) named from their similarity to the holes in Swiss cheese . They were first seen in 2000 using Mars Orbiter Camera imagery . They are typically a few hundred meters across and 8 metres deep , with a flat base and steep sides . They tend to have similar bean-like shapes with a cusp pointing towards the south pole , indicating that insolation is involved in their formation . The angle of the Sun probably contributes to their roundness . Near the Martian summer solstice , the Sun can remain continuously just above the horizon ; as a result the walls of a round depression will receive more intense sunlight , and sublimate much more rapidly than the floor . The walls sublimate and recede , while the floor remains the same . As the seasonal frost disappears , the pit walls appear to darken considerably relative to the surrounding terrain . The SCFs have been observed to grow in size , year by year , at an average rate of 1 to 3 meters , suggesting that they are formed in a thin layer ( 8m ) of carbon dioxide ice lying on top of water ice . Later research with HiRISE showed that the pits are in a 1-10 meter thick layer of dry ice that is sitting on a much larger water ice cap . Pits have been observed to begin with small areas along faint fractures . The circular pits have steep walls that work to focus sunlight , thereby increasing erosion . For a pit to develop , a steep wall of about 10 cm and a length of over 5 meters in necessary . |
Sustainability_science | Sustainability science has emerged in the 21st century as a new academic discipline . This new field of science was officially introduced with a `` Birth Statement '' at the World Congress `` Challenges of a Changing Earth 2001 '' in Amsterdam organized by the International Council for Science ( ICSU ) , the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ( IGBP ) , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and the World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP ) . The field reflects a desire to give the generalities and broad-based approach of `` sustainability '' a stronger analytic and scientific underpinning as it : ... brings together scholarship and practice , global and local perspectives from north and south , and disciplines across the natural and social sciences , engineering , and medicine -- it can be usefully thought of as `` neither `` basic '' nor `` applied '' research but as a field defined by the problems it addresses rather than by the disciplines it employs ; it serves the need for advancing both knowledge and action by creating a dynamic bridge between the two . `` The field is focused on examining the interactions between human , environmental , and engineered systems to understand and contribute to solutions for complex challenges that threaten the future of humanity and the integrity of the life support systems of the planet , such as climate change , biodiversity loss , pollution and land and water degradation . Sustainability science , like sustainability itself , derives some impetus from the concepts of sustainable development and environmental science . Sustainability science provides a critical framework for sustainability while sustainability measurement provides the evidence-based quantitative data needed to guide sustainability governance . |
Sublimation_(phase_transition) | Sublimation is the phase transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase without passing through the intermediate liquid phase . Sublimation is an endothermic process that occurs at temperatures and pressures below a substance 's triple point in its phase diagram . The reverse process of sublimation is deposition or desublimation , in which a substance passes directly from a gas to a solid phase . Sublimation has also been used as a generic term to describe a solid-to-gas transition ( sublimation ) followed by a gas-to-solid transition ( deposition ) . At normal pressures , most chemical compounds and elements possess three different states at different temperatures . In these cases , the transition from the solid to the gaseous state requires an intermediate liquid state . The pressure referred to is the partial pressure of the substance , not the total ( e.g. atmospheric ) pressure of the entire system . So , all solids that possess an appreciable vapor pressure at a certain temperature usually can sublimate in air ( e.g. water ice just below 0 ° C ) . For some substances , such as carbon and arsenic , sublimation is much easier than evaporation from the melt , because the pressure of their triple point is very high , and it is difficult to obtain them as liquids . The term sublimation refers to a physical change of state and is not used to describe transformation of a solid to a gas in a chemical reaction . For example , the dissociation on heating of solid ammonium chloride into hydrogen chloride and ammonia is not sublimation but a chemical reaction . Similarly the combustion of candles , containing paraffin wax , to carbon dioxide and water vapor is not sublimation but a chemical reaction with oxygen . Sublimation requires additional energy and is an endothermic change . The enthalpy of sublimation ( also called heat of sublimation ) can be calculated by adding the enthalpy of fusion and the enthalpy of vaporization . |
Standard_solar_model | The standard solar model ( SSM ) is a mathematical treatment of the Sun as a spherical ball of gas ( in varying states of ionisation , with the hydrogen in the deep interior being a completely ionised plasma ) . This model , technically the spherically symmetric quasi-static model of a star , has stellar structure described by several differential equations derived from basic physical principles . The model is constrained by boundary conditions , namely the luminosity , radius , age and composition of the Sun , which are well determined . The age of the Sun can not be measured directly ; one way to estimate it is from the age of the oldest meteorites , and models of the evolution of the Solar System . The composition in the photosphere of the modern-day Sun , by mass , is 74.9 % hydrogen and 23.8 % helium . All heavier elements , called metals in astronomy , account for less than 2 percent of the mass . The SSM is used to test the validity of stellar evolution theory . In fact , the only way to determine the two free parameters of the stellar evolution model , the helium abundance and the mixing length parameter ( used to model convection in the Sun ) , are to adjust the SSM to `` fit '' the observed Sun . |
Sun_chart | A Sun chart is a graph of the ecliptic of the Sun through the sky throughout the year at a particular latitude . Most sun charts plot azimuth versus altitude throughout the days of the winter solstice and summer solstice , as well as a number of intervening days . Since the apparent movement of the Sun as viewed from Earth is nearly symmetrical about the solstice , plotting dates for one half of the year gives a good approximation for the rest of the year . Thus , to simplify the diagram , some sun charts show days for different months as the same , e.g. March 21 equals September 21 . The accompanying sun chart for Berlin accounts for deviations in symmetry between the two halves of the year through the use of the analemma , represented by each figure eight on the chart . The graph may show the entire horizon or only that half of the horizon closest to the equator . Sky view obstructions can be superimposed upon a Sun chart to obtain the insolation of a location . |
Straw_man | A straw man is a common form of argument and is an informal fallacy based on giving the impression of refuting an opponent 's argument , while refuting an argument that was not advanced by that opponent . One who engages in this fallacy is said to be `` attacking a straw man '' . The typical straw man argument creates the illusion of having completely refuted or defeated an opponent 's proposition through the covert replacement of it with a different proposition ( i.e. , `` stand up a straw man '' ) and the subsequent refutation of that false argument ( `` knock down a straw man '' ) instead of the opponent 's proposition . This technique has been used throughout history in polemical debate , particularly in arguments about highly charged emotional issues where a fiery `` battle '' and the defeat of an `` enemy '' may be more valued than critical thinking or an understanding of both sides of the issue . Allegedly , straw man tactics were once known in some parts of the United Kingdom as an Aunt Sally , after a pub game of the same name where patrons threw sticks or battens at a post to knock off a skittle balanced on top . |
Super-Earth | A super-Earth is an extrasolar planet with a mass higher than Earth 's , but substantially below the masses of the Solar System 's ice giants , Uranus and Neptune , which contain 15 and 17 Earth masses respectively . The term super-Earth refers only to the mass of the planet , and so does not imply anything about the surface conditions or habitability . The alternative term gas dwarfs may be more accurate for those at the higher end of the mass scale , as suggested by MIT professor Sara Seager , although mini-Neptunes is a more common term . |
Statistical_model | A statistical model is a class of mathematical model , which embodies a set of assumptions concerning the generation of some sample data , and similar data from a larger population . A statistical model represents , often in considerably idealized form , the data-generating process . The assumptions embodied by a statistical model describe a set of probability distributions , some of which are assumed to adequately approximate the distribution from which a particular data set is sampled . The probability distributions inherent in statistical models are what distinguishes statistical models from other , non-statistical , mathematical models . A statistical model is usually specified by mathematical equations that relate one or more random variables and possibly other non-random variables . As such , `` a model is a formal representation of a theory '' ( Herman Adèr quoting Kenneth Bollen ) . All statistical hypothesis tests and all statistical estimators are derived from statistical models . More generally , statistical models are part of the foundation of statistical inference . |
Summer_of_1976_(Europe) | The summer of 1976 was considered to be one of the hottest summers in Europe ( and especially the United Kingdom ) within recent memory . A large high-pressure area dominated most of Europe for all of the summer months . The pressure system moved into place in late May 1976 and remained until the first traces of rain were recorded on August 27 . Rainfall throughout the July -- August period was down by half the annual average . During this spell of hot weather temperatures exceeded 32 ° C ( 89.6 ° F ) at several weather stations within the United Kingdom every day and the town of Cheltenham had eleven , including seven successive days from the 1st of July - recording 35.9 ° C ( 96.6 ° F ) on the 3rd . For the entire period much of Europe was bathed in continual sunshine with the United Kingdom seeing an average of more than 14 hours of sunshine per day . 1976 was dubbed `` The year of the Ladybird '' in that country due to the rise in the mass numbers of ladybirds brought on by the long hot period . `` The long hot summer of 1976 which eventually ended in September of that year , was the culmination of a 16-week dry spell - the longest recorded over England and Wales since 1727 . `` Quote From Met Office The summer of 1976 is by now a firmly established reference point for discussion in the UK of contemporary hot spells . |
Sun | The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System . It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma , with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process . It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth . Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth , and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth , accounting for about 99.86 % of the total mass of the Solar System . About three quarters of the Sun 's mass consists of hydrogen ( ~ 73 % ) ; the rest is mostly helium ( ~ 25 % ) , with much smaller quantities of heavier elements , including oxygen , carbon , neon , and iron . The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star ( G2V ) based on its spectral class . As such , it is informally referred to as a yellow dwarf . It formed approximately 4.6 billionAll numbers in this article are short scale . One billion is 109 , or 1,000,000,000 . years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud . Most of this matter gathered in the center , whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System . The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core . It is thought that almost all stars form by this process . The Sun is roughly middle-aged ; it has not changed dramatically for more than four billion years , and will remain fairly stable for more than another five billion years . After hydrogen fusion in its core has diminished to the point at which it is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium , the core of the Sun will experience a marked increase in density and temperature while its outer layers expand to eventually become a red giant . It is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large to engulf the current orbits of Mercury and Venus , and render Earth uninhabitable . The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times , and the Sun has been regarded by some cultures as a deity . The synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of the solar calendar , which is the predominant calendar in use today . |
Sunda_Arc | The Sunda Arc is a volcanic arc that produced the islands of Sumatra and Java , the Sunda Strait and the Lesser Sunda Islands . A chain of volcanoes forms the topographic spine of these islands . The Sunda Arc marks an active convergent boundary between the East Eurasian plates that underlie Indonesia , especially the Sunda Plate and the Burma Plate , with the India and Australian Plates that form the seabed of the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal . The Sunda Arc is a classic example of a volcanic island arc , in which all the elements of such geodynamic features can be identified . The India and Australian Plates are subducting beneath the Sunda and Burma plates along the Sunda Arc . The tectonic deformation along this subduction zone in the Java Trench ( also known as the Sunda Trench ) caused the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake of December 26 , 2004 . |
Supersymmetry | In particle physics , supersymmetry ( SUSY ) is a proposed type of spacetime symmetry that relates two basic classes of elementary particles : bosons , which have an integer-valued spin , and fermions , which have a half-integer spin . Each particle from one group is associated with a particle from the other , known as its superpartner , the spin of which differs by a half-integer . In a theory with perfectly `` unbroken '' supersymmetry , each pair of superpartners would share the same mass and internal quantum numbers besides spin . For example , there would be a `` selectron '' ( superpartner electron ) , a bosonic version of the electron with the same mass as the electron , that would be easy to find in a laboratory . Thus , since no superpartners have been observed , if supersymmetry exists it must be a spontaneously broken symmetry so that superpartners may differ in mass . Spontaneously-broken supersymmetry could solve many mysterious problems in particle physics including the hierarchy problem . The simplest realization of spontaneously-broken supersymmetry , the so-called Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model , is one of the best studied candidates for physics beyond the Standard Model . There is only indirect evidence and motivation for the existence of supersymmetry . Direct confirmation would entail production of superpartners in collider experiments , such as the Large Hadron Collider ( LHC ) . The first run of the LHC found no evidence for supersymmetry ( all results were consistent with the Standard Model ) , and thus set limits on superpartner masses in supersymmetric theories . While some remain enthusiastic about supersymmetry , this first run at the LHC led some physicists to explore other ideas . One of the former enthusiastic supporters of supersymmetry theory in the 1980s Mikhail Shifman in his article ( dated October 2012 ) pledged the theoretical community to search for the new ideas and acknowledge the reality , the failure of supersymmetry theory in order to help the new generation of theoreticians ( to avoid the useless work and becoming a lost generation ) . The LHC resumed its search for supersymmetry and other new physics in its second run . |
Strawberry | The garden strawberry ( or simply strawberry ; Fragaria × ananassa ) is a widely grown hybrid species of the genus Fragaria , collectively known as the strawberries . It is cultivated worldwide for its fruit . The fruit is widely appreciated for its characteristic aroma , bright red color , juicy texture , and sweetness . It is consumed in large quantities , either fresh or in such prepared foods as preserves , fruit juice , pies , ice creams , milkshakes , and chocolates . Artificial strawberry flavorings and aromas are also widely used in many products like lip gloss , candy , hand sanitizers , perfume , and many others . The garden strawberry was first bred in Brittany , France , in the 1750s via a cross of Fragaria virginiana from eastern North America and Fragaria chiloensis , which was brought from Chile by Amédée-François Frézier in 1714 . Cultivars of Fragaria × ananassa have replaced , in commercial production , the woodland strawberry ( Fragaria vesca ) , which was the first strawberry species cultivated in the early 17th century . The strawberry is not , from a botanical point of view , a berry . Technically , it is an aggregate accessory fruit , meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the plant 's ovaries but from the receptacle that holds the ovaries . Each apparent `` seed '' ( achene ) on the outside of the fruit is actually one of the ovaries of the flower , with a seed inside it . |
Submarine | A submarine ( or simply sub ) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater . It differs from a submersible , which has more limited underwater capability . The term most commonly refers to a large , crewed vessel . It is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots , as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels , such as the midget submarine and the wet sub . The noun submarine evolved as a shortened form of submarine boat ; by naval tradition , submarines are usually referred to as `` boats '' rather than as `` ships '' , regardless of their size ( boat is usually reserved for seagoing vessels of relatively small size ) . Although experimental submarines had been built before , submarine design took off during the 19th century , and they were adopted by several navies . Submarines were first widely used during World War I ( 1914 -- 1918 ) , and now figure in many navies large and small . Military uses include attacking enemy surface ships ( merchant and military ) , attacking other submarines , aircraft carrier protection , blockade running , ballistic missile submarines as part of a nuclear strike force , reconnaissance , conventional land attack ( for example using a cruise missile ) , and covert insertion of special forces . Civilian uses for submarines include marine science , salvage , exploration and facility inspection and maintenance . Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair . Submarines are also used in tourism , and for undersea archaeology . Most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ( or conical ) ends and a vertical structure , usually located amidships , which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes . In modern submarines , this structure is the `` sail '' in American usage , and `` fin '' in European usage . A `` conning tower '' was a feature of earlier designs : a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes . There is a propeller ( or pump jet ) at the rear , and various hydrodynamic control fins . Smaller , deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout . Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water and air in ballast tanks to change buoyancy for submerging and surfacing . Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel . They range from small autonomous examples and one - or two-person vessels that operate for a few hours , to vessels that can remain submerged for six months -- such as the Russian , the biggest submarines ever built . Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers . Modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe , which in turn evolved from the diving bell . |
Starfish | Starfish or sea stars are star-shaped echinoderms belonging to the class Asteroidea . Common usage frequently finds these names being also applied to ophiuroids , which are correctly referred to as brittle stars or `` basket stars '' . About 1,500 species of starfish occur on the seabed in all the world 's oceans , from the tropics to frigid polar waters . They are found from the intertidal zone down to abyssal depths , 6000 m below the surface . Starfish are marine invertebrates . They typically have a central disc and five arms , though some species have a larger number of arms . The aboral or upper surface may be smooth , granular or spiny , and is covered with overlapping plates . Many species are brightly coloured in various shades of red or orange , while others are blue , grey or brown . Starfish have tube feet operated by a hydraulic system and a mouth at the centre of the oral or lower surface . They are opportunistic feeders and are mostly predators on benthic invertebrates . Several species have specialized feeding behaviours including eversion of their stomachs and suspension feeding . They have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually . Most can regenerate damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defence . The Asteroidea occupy several significant ecological roles . Starfish , such as the ochre sea star ( Pisaster ochraceus ) and the reef sea star ( Stichaster australis ) , have become widely known as examples of the keystone species concept in ecology . The tropical crown-of-thorns starfish ( Acanthaster planci ) is a voracious predator of coral throughout the Indo-Pacific region , and the northern Pacific sea star is considered to be one of the world 's 100 worst invasive species . The fossil record for starfish is ancient , dating back to the Ordovician around 450 million years ago , but it is rather poor , as starfish tend to disintegrate after death . Only the ossicles and spines of the animal are likely to be preserved , making remains hard to locate . With their appealing symmetrical shape , starfish have played a part in literature , legend , design and popular culture . They are sometimes collected as curios , used in design or as logos , and in some cultures , despite possible toxicity , they are eaten . |
Surigao_City | Surigao City ( -LSB- sů-rēh-GAŮ -RSB- ) , officially the City of Surigao ( Lungsod ng Surigao Surigaonon : Siyudad nan Surigao ; Dakbayan sa Surigao ) , is located at the north-easternmost tip of Mindanao in the Philippines and the capital of the province of Surigao del Norte . It has a total land area of 245.34 km2 which is roughly 1.4 % of Caraga region . According to the , it has a population of with an annual growth rate of 1.77 % over the period 2010-2015 . The absence of a fort in Surigao belies its significance and sphere of influence during the Spanish period . It was the capital of the expansive province of the same name from 1750 until its dissolution in 1911 , covering a third of Mindanao Island 's total land area . It is one of the oldest port towns in Mindanao , founded by Spanish colonizers in 1655 . It has abundant mineral reserves including gold , iron , manganese , silica , cobalt , copper , chromite and among the world 's largest nickel deposits in Nonoc Island . The Asian Institute of Management ranks the city as among the most competitive small-sized cities in the Philippines , with an estimated total income of 600 million pesos in 2012 . The city serves as a jump off point to visitors of nearby Siargao , Dinagat and Bucas Grande islands . It is Mindanao 's closest landmass to the Visayas region . Eleven nautical miles across Surigao Strait separates the city from Panaon Island in the Visayas . Surigao is the center of politics , commerce , banking , industry and education of Surigao del Norte and Dinagat Islands as well as parts of neighboring provinces of Surigao del Sur , Agusan del Norte and Southern Leyte . |
Svalbard | Svalbard ( -LSB- ˈsʋɑ lbɑː -RSB- ; formerly known by its Dutch name Spitsbergen ) is a Norwegian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean . Situated north of mainland Europe , it is about midway between continental Norway and the North Pole . The islands of the group range from 74 ° to 81 ° north latitude , and from 10 ° to 35 ° east longitude . The largest island is Spitsbergen , followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya . Administratively , the archipelago is not part of any Norwegian county , but forms an unincorporated area administered by a governor appointed by the Norwegian government . Since 2002 , Svalbard 's main settlement , Longyearbyen , has had an elected local government , somewhat similar to mainland municipalities . Other settlements include the Russian mining community of Barentsburg , the research station of Ny-Ålesund , and the mining outpost of Sveagruva . Ny-Ålesund is the northernmost settlement in the world with a permanent civilian population . Other settlements are farther north , but are populated only by rotating groups of researchers . The islands were first taken into use as a whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries , after which they were abandoned . Coal mining started at the beginning of the 20th century , and several permanent communities were established . The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty , and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway . They also established Svalbard as a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone . The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol remain the only mining companies in place . Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries , with the University Centre in Svalbard ( UNIS ) and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault playing critical roles . No roads connect the settlements ; instead snowmobiles , aircraft and boats serve inter-community transport . Svalbard Airport , Longyear serves as the main gateway . The archipelago features an Arctic climate , although with significantly higher temperatures than other areas at the same latitude . The flora take advantage of the long period of midnight sun to compensate for the polar night . Svalbard is a breeding ground for many seabirds , and also features polar bears , reindeer , the Arctic fox , and certain marine mammals . Seven national parks and twenty-three nature reserves cover two-thirds of the archipelago , protecting the largely untouched , yet fragile , natural environment . Approximately 60 % of the archipelago is covered with glaciers , and the islands feature many mountains and fjords . Svalbard and Jan Mayen are collectively assigned the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code `` SJ '' . Both areas are administered by Norway , though they are separated by a distance of over 950 km and have very different administrative structures . |
Station_model | In meteorology , station models are symbolic illustrations showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in atmospheric pressure , temperature , wind speed & direction , cloud cover , precipitation , and other parameters . The most common station plots depict surface weather observations although upper air plots at various mandatory levels are also frequently depicted . Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation . |
Stromboli | Stromboli ( -LSB- ˈstromboli -RSB- ; Struògnuli , Ancient Greek : Στρογγύλη , Strongulē ) is a small island in the Tyrrhenian Sea , off the north coast of Sicily , containing one of the three active volcanoes in Italy . It is one of the eight Aeolian Islands , a volcanic arc north of Sicily . This name is derived from the Ancient Greek name Strongulē which was given to it because of its round swelling form . The island 's population is about 500 . The volcano has erupted many times and is constantly active with minor eruptions , often visible from many points on the island and from the surrounding sea , giving rise to the island 's nickname `` Lighthouse of the Mediterranean '' . The most recent major eruption was on 13 April 2009 . Stromboli stands 926 m ( 3,034 ft ) above sea level , and over 2,700 m ( 8,860 ft ) on average above the sea floor . There are three active craters at the peak . A significant geological feature of the volcano is the Sciara del Fuoco ( `` stream of fire '' ) , a big horseshoe-shaped depression generated in the last 13,000 years by several collapses on the northwestern side of the cone . Two kilometers to the northeast lies Strombolicchio , the volcanic plug remnant of the original volcano . |
Street_News | Street News was a street newspaper sold by homeless people in New York City , New York , the USA . Established in 1989 , it is the earliest modern street paper still extant and the beginning of the American street newspaper movement . It aimed to provide a way of self-sufficiency to the many homeless and unemployed people in New York . The creation of Street News quickly inspired the founding of many other street newspapers , including Chicago 's StreetWise and Britain 's The Big Issue ; the paper has been called a `` pioneer '' for the street paper movement . Street News and The Big Issue have become prototypes of street papers worldwide . the editor was John Levi `` Indio '' Washington Jr. . Street News prints 3,000 copies of six issues per year , sold by 15 people getting 75 cents out of the $ 1.25 price . As of current time , Street News is no longer an active publication and New York City has no official street paper . |
SumbandilaSat | SumbandilaSat ( formerly ZASAT-002 , AMSAT designation SO-67 ) , is a South African micro earth observation satellite , launched on 17 September 2009 on a Soyuz-2 launch vehicle from the Baikonur Cosmodrome . The first part of the name , Sumbandila , is from the Venda language and means `` lead the way '' . The University of Stellenbosch , SunSpace and the CSIR ( Council for Scientific and Industrial Research ) were key players in constructing SumbandilaSat . The CSIR 's Satellite Application Centre ( CSIR-SAC ) was responsible for operations , telemetry , tracking , control as well as data capturing . SumbandilaSat is part of a closely integrated South African space programme and will serve as a research tool to investigate the viability of affordable space technology . Furthermore , the data will be used to , amongst others , monitor and manage disasters such as flooding , oil spills and fires within Southern Africa . In June 2011 the satellite was damaged during a solar storm . The damage caused the on-board computer and the camera to stop functioning . This has caused it to stop fulfilling its primary objective and has been written off as a loss by SunSpace , its builder . |
Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008 | The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . '' |
Substantial_truth | Substantial truth is a legal doctrine affecting libel and slander laws in common law jurisdictions such as the United States or the United Kingdom . Under the United States law , a statement can not be held to be actionable as slanderous or libelous if the statement is true ; the substantial truth doctrine extends this protection by holding that a statement with `` slight inaccuracies of expression '' do not make the alleged libel false . This doctrine is applied in matters in which truth is used as an absolute defense to a defamation claim brought against a public figure , but only false statements made with `` actual malice '' are subject to sanctions . A defendant using truth as a defense in a defamation case is not required to justify every word of the alleged defamatory statements . It is sufficient to prove that `` the substance , the gist , the sting , of the matter is true . '' |
Suncadia,_Washington | Suncadia is a planned unincorporated community and resort in Kittitas County , Washington , covering an area of 6,300 acres ( 25.5 km ² ) . It is located approximately 80 miles ( 130 km ) east of Seattle in the Cascade Mountains between Roslyn , Cle Elum , and the Mountains to Sound Greenway section of Interstate 90 . The resort is a joint undertaking between Jeld-Wen and managing partner Lowe Enterprises . The $ 1 billion project features a 4-star rated mountain lodge with convention center facilities , a mountain springs themed spa , a sports center with indoor and outdoor swimming pools , an outdoor venue amphitheater/lake with winter ice skating , trails and recreational areas , 2,000 residential units , and three golf courses . A village center with restaurants and shops will be completed by 2016 . Over 500 single-family homesites were sold in 2004 , generating more than $ 125 million in gross revenue . The community 's open space includes a 1200 acre corridor along the Cle Elum River , which remains open to the public under a partnership ( called the Suncadia Conservancy ) that also includes Washington 's Department of Fish and Wildlife and the Yakama Nation . The interests of local citizens in aspects of the development that included the corridor were represented by RIDGE , a grassroots group . Suncadia , originally called `` MountainStar , '' is being built on former forest lands purchased in 1996 from Plum Creek Timber Company by Jeld-Wen 's Trendwest Investments . |
Superfund | Superfund is a United States federal government program designed to fund the cleanup of sites contaminated with hazardous substances and pollutants . It was established as the Comprehensive Environmental Response , Compensation , and Liability Act of 1980 ( CERCLA ) . It authorizes federal natural resource agencies , primarily the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , states and Native American tribes to recover natural resource damages caused by hazardous substances , though most states have and most often use their own versions of CERCLA . CERCLA created the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ( ATSDR ) . The EPA may identify parties responsible for hazardous substances releases to the environment ( polluters ) and either compel them to clean up the sites , or it may undertake the cleanup on its own using the Superfund ( a trust fund ) and costs recovered from polluters by referring to the U.S. Department of Justice . Approximately 70 percent of Superfund cleanup activities historically have been paid for by parties responsible ( PRPs ) for the cleanup of contamination . The exceptions occur when the responsible party either can not be found or is unable to pay for the cleanup . Until the mid-1990s , most of the funding came from a tax on the petroleum and chemical industries , reflecting the polluter pays principle , but since 2001 , most of the funding for cleanups of hazardous waste sites has come from taxpayers . Despite the name , the program has suffered from under-funding , and Superfund cleanups have decreased to a mere 8 in 2014 . As a result , the EPA typically negotiates consent orders with PRPs to study sites and develop cleanup alternatives , subject to EPA oversight and approval of all such activities . The EPA and state agencies use the Hazard Ranking System ( HRS ) to calculate a site score ( ranging from 0 to 100 ) based on the actual or potential release of hazardous substances from a site . A score of 28.5 places a site on the National Priorities List , eligible for long-term remedial action ( i.e. , cleanup ) under the Superfund program . , there were 1,328 sites listed ; an additional 391 had been delisted , and 55 new sites have been proposed . The preliminary 2018 Trump Administration budget would cut Superfund by $ 330 million out of its nearly $ 1.1 billion budget , a 30 % reduction to the Environmental Protection Agency program . |
Street_hierarchy | The street hierarchy is an urban planning technique for laying out road networks that exclude automobile through-traffic from developed areas . It is conceived as a hierarchy of roads that embeds the link importance of each road type in the network topology ( the connectivity of the nodes to each other ) . Street hierarchy restricts or eliminates direct connections between certain types of links , for example residential streets and arterial roads , and allows connections between similar order streets ( e.g. arterial to arterial ) or between street types that are separated by one level in the hierarchy ( e.g. arterial to highway and collector to arterial . ) By contrast , in many regular , traditional grid plans , as laid out , higher order roads ( e.g. arterials ) are connected by through streets of both lower order levels ( e.g. local and collector . ) An ordering of roads and their classification can include several levels and finer distinctions as , for example , major and minor arterials or collectors . At the lowest level of the hierarchy , cul-de-sac streets , by definition non-connecting , link with the next order street , a primary or secondary `` collector '' -- either a ring road that surrounds a neighbourhood , or a curvilinear `` front-to-back '' path -- which in turn links with the arterial . Arterials then link with the intercity highways at strictly specified intervals at intersections that are either signalized or grade separated . In places where grid networks were laid out in the pre-automotive 19th century , such as in the American Midwest , larger subdivisions have adopted a partial hierarchy , with two to five entrances off one or two main roads ( arterials ) thus limiting the links between them and , consequently , traffic through the neighbourhood . Since the 1960s , street hierarchy has been the dominant network configuration of suburbs and exurbs in the United States , Canada , Australia , and the UK . It is less popular in Latin America , Western Europe , and China . Large subdivisions may have three - or even four-tiered hierarchies , feeding into one or two wide arterials , which can be as wide as the Champs-Élysées with ten lanes or Wilshire Boulevard . Arterials at this level of traffic volume generally require no fewer than four lanes in width ; and in large contemporary suburbs , such as Naperville , Illinois , or Irvine , California , are often eight or ten lanes wide . Adjacent street hierarchies are rarely connected to one another . |
Supervolcano | A supervolcano is an informal term that describes a volcano which has erupted more than 1015 kg ( 1012 t ) of ejecta . This corresponds to larger eruptions of Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) 7 , and all eruptions of VEI-8 and higher , or around 500 km3 or more of ejecta . A supervolcanic eruption may be a single short-term event , or a long-term massive lava flow lasting up to millions of years . Supervolcanoes occur when magma in the mantle rises into the crust but is unable to break through it and pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure . This can occur at hotspots ( for example , Yellowstone Caldera ) or at subduction zones ( for example , Toba ) . Another setting for the eruption of very large amounts of volcanic material is in large igneous provinces , which can cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash , causing long-lasting climate change ( such as the triggering of a small ice age or global warming ) , which can threaten species with extinction . The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand 's Taupo Volcano ( around 25,360 years ago ) was the world 's most recent supereruption and a VEI-8 eruption . |
Strong_objectivity | Strong objectivity , is a term coined by feminist scholar Sandra Harding , also known for her work on feminist standpoint theory which is a method of research that is grounded in women 's experiences . For strong objectivity , Harding suggests that starting research from the lives of women `` actually strengthens standards of objectivity '' . Strong objectivity can be contrasted with the ` weak objectivity ' of supposed value-neutral research Primarily , though strong objectivity is posited in contrast to scientific objectivity since strong objectivity takes into consideration researcher bias , something that Harding argues can never really be removed ; a researcher 's life experiences will always be a lens through which they view the world and subsequently their research . From a feminist standpoint , the question of objectivity stems from what kinds of knowledge projects are objective and which are n't , and why ; whether or not objectivity is necessary ; and how , or if , it is possible to achieve objectivity . These considerations arise at least in part from concerns about sexism and androcentric bias in dominant scientific life and studies . Strong objectivity argues that there is androcentric bias in research because male researchers attempt to be a neutral researcher , where Harding argues that is not possible . Harding suggests researcher reflexivity , or consideration of the researcher 's positionality , and how that affects their research , as a `` stronger '' objectivity than researchers claiming to be completely neutral . Knowledge and the biases affecting it must be equally judged by the scientific community and located in social history . |
Sure-thing_principle | In decision theory , the sure-thing principle states that a decision maker who would take a certain action if he knew that event E obtained , and also if he knew that the negation of E obtained , should also take that same action if he knows nothing about E. The principle was coined by L.J. Savage : He formulated the principle as a dominance principle , but it can also be framed probabilistically . Jeffrey and later Pearl showed that Savage 's principle is only valid when the probability of the event considered ( e.g. , the winner of the election ) is unaffected by the action ( buying the property ) . Under such conditions , the sure-thing principle is a theorem in the do-calculus ( see Bayes networks ) . Blyth constructed a counterexample to the sure-thing principle using sequential sampling in the context of Simpson 's paradox , but this example violates the required action-independence provision . The principle is closely related to independence of irrelevant alternatives , and equivalent under the axiom of truth ( everything the agent knows is true ) . It is similarly targeted by the Ellsberg and Allais paradoxes , in which actual people 's choices seem to violate this principle . |
Svante_Arrhenius | Svante August Arrhenius ( 19 February 1859 -- 2 October 1927 ) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist , originally a physicist , but often referred to as a chemist , and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry . He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 , becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate , and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death . His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation , Arrhenius definition of an acid , lunar crater Arrhenius , the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University , all named after him . He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase Earth 's surface temperature through the Arrhenius effect , leading Keeling to conclude that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming . |
Statistics_Canada | Statistics Canada ( Statistique Canada ) , which was formed in 1971 , is the Government of Canada government agency commissioned with producing statistics to help better understand Canada , its population , resources , economy , society , and culture . Its headquarters is in Ottawa . The bureau is commonly called StatCan or StatsCan . StatCan is the official abbreviation . It has regularly been considered the best statistical organization in the world by The Economist , such as in the 1991 and 1993 `` Good Statistics '' surveys . Public Policy Forum and others have also ranked it first . Statistics is a federal responsibility in Canada and Statistics Canada produces statistics for all the provinces as well as the federal government . In addition to conducting about 350 active surveys on virtually all aspects of Canadian life , Statistics Canada undertakes a country-wide census every five years on the first and sixth year of each decade . By law , every household must complete the Canada Census form . In May 2006 , an Internet version of the census was made widely available for the first time . The most recent completed census was held in May 2011 , again with the internet being the primary method for statistical data collection . The most recent census was held in May 2016 , with the internet being the primary method for statistical data collection . Its data is scheduled for release beginning in February 2017 . |
Surface_weather_analysis | Surface weather analysis is a special type of weather map that provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground-based weather stations . Weather maps are created by plotting or tracing the values of relevant quantities such as sea level pressure , temperature , and cloud cover onto a geographical map to help find synoptic scale features such as weather fronts . The first weather maps in the 19th century were drawn well after the fact to help devise a theory on storm systems . After the advent of the telegraph , simultaneous surface weather observations became possible for the first time , and beginning in the late 1840s , the Smithsonian Institution became the first organization to draw real-time surface analyses . Use of surface analyses began first in the United States , spreading worldwide during the 1870s . Use of the Norwegian cyclone model for frontal analysis began in the late 1910s across Europe , with its use finally spreading to the United States during World War II . Surface weather analyses have special symbols that show frontal systems , cloud cover , precipitation , or other important information . For example , an H may represent high pressure , implying clear skies and relatively warm weather . An L , on the other hand , may represent low pressure , which frequently accompanies precipitation . Various symbols are used not just for frontal zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps , but also to depict the present weather at various locations on the weather map . Areas of precipitation help determine the frontal type and location . |
Substitute_natural_gas | Substitute natural gas ( SNG ) , or synthetic natural gas , is a fuel gas that can be produced from fossil fuels such as lignite coal , oil shale , or from biofuels ( when it is named bio-SNG ) or from renewable electrical energy . The Great Plains Synfuels Plant injects approximately 4.1 million m3/day of SNG from lignite coal into the United States national gas grid . The production process of SNG at the Great Plains plant involves gasification , gas cleaning , shift , and methanation . China is constructing nearly 30 nos massive SNG production plants from coal / lignite with aggregate annual capacity of 120 billion standard cubic meters of SNG . SNG in the form of LNG or CNG can be used in road , rail , air and marine transport vehicles as a substitute for costly diesel , petrol , etc. . The carbon footprint of SNG derived from coal is comparable to petroleum products . Bio-SNG has a much smaller carbon footprint when compared to petroleum products . LPG can also be produced by synthesising SNG with partial reverse hydrogenation at high pressure and low temperature . LPG is more easily transportable than SNG , more suitable as fuel in two wheeler or smaller HP vehicles / engines and also fetches higher price in international market due to short supply . Renewable electrical energy can also be used to create SNG ( methane ) via for example electrolysis of water or via a PEM fuel cell in reverse to create hydrogen which is then reacted with from for example CSS/U Utilisation in the Sabatier reaction . + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O |
Statistical_Abstract_of_the_United_States | The Statistical Abstract of the United States was a publication of the United States Census Bureau , an agency of the United States Department of Commerce . Published annually since 1878 , the statistics described social and economic conditions in the United States . The U.S. Census Bureau stopped publishing the Statistical Abstract of the United States with the 2012 edition . It stopped compiling the data on which it is based , along with the supplemental products , as of October 1 , 2011 . The Census Bureau said : Washington Post columnist Robert J. Samuelson wrote , `` This is a mighty big loss for a mighty small saving . '' The agency 's 2012 budget would eliminate the Statistical Compendia Branch , which compiles the Statistical Abstract and other publications ( such as the `` County and City Data Book '' ) . This would save $ 2.9 million and cut 24 jobs . Both the book and online versions of the Statistical Abstract would vanish . The American Library Association , representing about 16,700 public libraries and more than 100,000 academic and school libraries , is arguing to keep the Statistical Abstract . Alesia McManus , library director at Howard Community College in Columbia , started a Facebook page and launched a petition dedicated to reversing the decision , wrote Samuelson . He quoted one librarian as writing , `` If the library were on fire , this would be the reference book I would try and save first , '' and another saying , The `` Statistical Abstract has for years been one of the top five reference books used by students and faculty at South Dakota State University . '' Samuelson said he did n't think the librarians ' protest would have much effect . Joseph Dionne and Paul Krugman published columns agreeing with Samuelson . ProQuest has announced it will continue the series , in co-operation with Bernan Press . In 1975 a two volume Historical Statistics of the United States , Colonial Times to 1970 Bicentennial Edition was published . The 2010 ( 129th Edition ) Statistical Abstract of the United States contains 30 sections , 926 pages and over 1300 individual tables covering over 200 topics including income and wealth , imports-exports , agriculture , energy production and consumption , natural resources and some international comparisons . All information is downloadable in PDF and Excel spreadsheet formats . The statistical abstract is the standard summary of statistics on the social , political , and economic organization of the United States . It is also designed to serve as a guide to other statistical publications and sources . |
Sub-Saharan_Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa is , geographically , the area of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara . According to the UN , it consists of all African countries that are fully or partially located south of the Sahara . It contrasts with North Africa , whose territories are part of the League of Arab states within the Arab world . Somalia , Djibouti , Comoros and Mauritania are geographically in Sub-Saharan Africa , but are likewise Arab states and part of the Arab world . The Sahel is the transitional zone between the Sahara and the tropical savanna ( the Sudan region ) and forest-savanna mosaic to the south . Since probably 3500 BCE , the Saharan and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa have been separated by the extremely harsh climate of the sparsely populated Sahara , forming an effective barrier interrupted by only the Nile in Sudan , though the Nile was blocked by the river 's cataracts . The Sahara pump theory explains how flora and fauna ( including Homo sapiens ) left Africa to penetrate the Middle East and beyond . African pluvial periods are associated with a `` wet Sahara '' phase during which larger lakes and more rivers existed . The use of the term has been criticized because it refers to the South only by cartography conventions and projects a connotation of inferiority ; a vestige of colonialism , which some say , divided Africa into European terms of homogeneity . |
Subfossil | A subfossil ( as opposed to a fossil ) is a bone or other part of an organism that has not fully fossilized . This may be because not enough time has elapsed since the animal died , or because the conditions in which the remains were deposited were not optimal for fossilization . For remains such as molluscan seashells , which frequently do not change their chemical composition over geological time , and may occasionally even retain such features as the original color markings for millions of years , the label `` subfossil '' is applied to shells that are understood to be thousands of years old , but are of Holocene age , and therefore are not old enough to be from the Pleistocene epoch . Unfossilized or partially fossilized remains can include bones , exoskeletons , nests , skin imprints , or fecal deposits . Subfossils of vertebrates are often found in caves or other shelters , where the remains have been preserved for thousands of years . The main importance of these vertebrate subfossil ( versus fully fossilized ) remains is that they contain organic material , which can be used for radiocarbon dating or the extraction and sequencing of DNA , protein , or other biomolecules . Additionally , isotope ratios can provide information about the ecological conditions under which extinct animals lived . Subfossils are useful for studying the evolutionary history of an environment and can be important to studies in paleoclimatology . Subfossils are also often found in depositionary environments , such as lake sediments , oceanic sediments , and soils . Once deposited , physical and chemical weathering may alter the state of preservation , and small subfossils can also be ingested by living organisms . Subfossil remains that date from the Mesozoic are exceptionally rare , are usually in an advanced state of decay , and are consequently much disputed . The vast bulk of subfossil material comes from Quaternary sediments , including many subfossilized chironomid head capsules , ostracod carapaces , diatoms , and foraminifera . |
Study_of_Environmental_Arctic_Change | Study of Environmental ARctic CHange ( SEARCH ) is an interdisciplinary , multiscale program , managed at the Arctic Research Consortium of the U.S. in Fairbanks , Alaska , USA . Eight U.S. federal agencies participate in SEARCH , including the National Science Foundation , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , and NASA . One of the core aims of SEARCH is to understand and predict change in the arctic system . Major topics of study include sea ice , permafrost , land ice , and implications for society and policy . |
Supercell | A supercell is a thunderstorm characterized by the presence of a mesocyclone : a deep , persistently rotating updraft . For this reason , these storms are sometimes referred to as rotating thunderstorms . Of the four classifications of thunderstorms ( supercell , squall line , multi-cell , and single-cell ) , supercells are the overall least common and have the potential to be the most severe . Supercells are often isolated from other thunderstorms , and can dominate the local weather up to 32 km away . Supercells are often put into three classification types : Classic , Low-precipitation ( LP ) , and High-precipitation ( HP ) . LP supercells are usually found in climates that are more arid , such as the high plains of the United States , and HP supercells are most often found in moist climates . Supercells can occur anywhere in the world under the right pre-existing weather conditions , but they are most common in the Great Plains of the United States in an area known as Tornado Alley and in the Tornado Corridor of Argentina , Uruguay and southern Brazil . |
Sun_(supermarket_tabloid) | Sun was a supermarket tabloid owned by American Media , Inc. . It ceased publication in the summer of 2012 with the issue bearing a July 2 , 2012 cover date . Its contents often came under question and widely regarded as `` sensationalistic writing . '' Since a 1992 invasion of privacy case , a small-print disclaimer printed beneath the masthead warned readers to `` suspend belief for the sake of enjoyment . '' The paper was founded by Mike Rosenbloom , then-publisher of Globe Magazine , in 1983 as a competitor to Weekly World News , and its early contents reflected the same kind of imaginative journalism . When both papers were consolidated under American Media Inc. ownership in 1999 , Sun 's content came to specialize in recurring stories on Bible prophecy , Nostradamus , global warming , the apocalypse , epidemics , and future war . Sun also featured health articles dealing with miracle cures of diseases such as chronic pain and arthritis , as well as numerous `` strange but true '' articles from across the country -- in fact , the strange but true stories made up the bulk of the paper 's content , although they were almost never featured on the front page . Following the 2007 discontinuation of Weekly World News as a separate publication , Sun began printing a small `` pull-out '' insert of Weekly World News stories and columns . Sun photo editor Robert Stevens became the first victim of the 2001 anthrax attacks . He died as a result of a letter sent to the offices of American Media , the parent company of Sun , The National Enquirer , and other supermarket tabloids . |
State_(polity) | In terms of a political entity , a state is any politically organized community living under a single system of government . States may or may not be sovereign . For instance , federated states are members of a federal union , and may have only partial sovereignty , but are , nonetheless , states . Some states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony , in which ultimate sovereignty lies in another state . States that are sovereign are known as sovereign states . The term `` state '' can also refer to the secular branches of government within a state , often as a manner of contrasting them with churches and civilian institutions . Speakers of American English often use the terms state and government as synonyms , The two are especially synonymous when phrased as `` the state '' and `` the government . '' See `` government '' under List of words having different meanings in American and British English : A -- L. with both words referring to an organized political group that exercises authority over a particular territory . Many human societies have been governed by states for millennia , but many have been stateless societies . Over time a variety of different forms developed , employing a variety of justifications of legitimacy for their existence ( such as the divine right of kings , the theory of social contract , etc. ) . In the 21st century , the modern nation-state is the predominant form of state to which people are subjected . |
Sun_Belt | The Sun Belt is a region of the United States generally considered to stretch across the Southeast and Southwest . Another rough definition of the region is the area south of the 36th parallel . The main defining feature of the Sun Belt is its warm climate , with extended summers and brief , relatively mild winters . Within the region , desert/semi-desert ( California , Nevada , Arizona , New Mexico , Oklahoma , and Texas ) , Mediterranean ( California ) , humid subtropical ( Oklahoma , Texas , Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , Arkansas , Florida , Georgia , South Carolina , North Carolina , and Tennessee ) , and tropical ( Florida ) climates can be found . The Sun Belt has seen substantial population growth since the 1960s from an influx of people seeking a warm and sunny climate , a surge in retiring baby boomers , and growing economic opportunities . The advent of air conditioning made it easier for people to deal with the summertime heat in the Desert Southwest , where triple-digit temperatures in Fahrenheit ( higher than 37.7 Celsius ) are common . In recent years , water shortages , droughts , and drug trafficking near the Mexican border have become problems in the Southwest . |
Surplus_killing | Surplus killing , also known as excessive killing and henhouse syndrome , is a common behavior exhibited by predators , in which they kill more prey than they can immediately eat and then cache or abandon the remainder . The term was invented by Dutch biologist Hans Kruuk after studying spotted hyenas in Africa and red foxes in England . Other than humans , surplus killing has been observed among zooplankton , damselfly naiads , predaceous mites , martens , weasels , honey badgers , wolves , orcas , red foxes , leopards , lions , spotted hyenas , spiders , brown and black and polar bears , coyotes , lynx , mink , raccoons , dogs , and house cats . There are many documented examples of predators exhibiting surplus killing . For example , researchers in Canada 's Northwest Territories once found the bodies of 34 neonatal caribou calves that had been killed by wolves and scattered -- some half-eaten and some completely untouched -- over 3 km2 . In Australia , over several days a single fox once killed eleven wallabies and 74 penguins , eating almost none . One leopard in Cape Province , South Africa killed 51 sheep and lambs in a single incident . Similarly , two caracal in Cape Province killed 22 sheep in one night , eating only part of the buttock of one carcass . Up to 19 spotted hyenas once killed 82 Thomson 's gazelle and badly injured 27 , eating just 16 % . In late autumn , least weasels often surplus kill vole and then dig them up and eat them on winter days when it is too cold to hunt . Surplus killing by wolves has mainly been observed when snow is unusually deep in late winter or early spring , and the wolves have frequently cached their prey for eating days or weeks later . On February 7 , 1991 , in Denali National Park , six wolves killed at least 17 caribou and left many untouched . By February 12 , 30 -- 95 % of each carcass had been eaten or cached , and by April 16 , several had been dug up and fed upon again . In March 2016 , a Wyoming wolf pack of 9 wolves were found to have slaughtered 19 Elk . John Lund from the Wyoming Game and Fish Department , claimed to have never documented surplus killings to that extreme . In surplus killing , predators eat only the most-preferred animals and animal parts . Bears engaging in surplus killing of salmon are likelier to eat unspawned fish because of their higher muscle quality , and high-energy parts such as brains and eggs . Surplus killing can deplete the overall food supply , waste predator energy and risk them being injured . Nonetheless , researchers say animals surplus kill whenever they can , in order to procure food for offspring and others , to gain valuable killing experience , and to create the opportunity to eat the carcass later when they are hungry again . |
Stochastic | The word stochastic is an adjective in English that describes something that was randomly determined . The word first appeared in English to describe a mathematical object called a stochastic process , but now in mathematics the terms stochastic process and random process are considered interchangeable . The word , with its current definition meaning random , came from German , but it originally came from the Greek word στόχος ( stokhos , `` aim '' ) . The term stochastic is used in many different fields , particularly where stochastic or random processes are used to represent systems or phenomena that seem to change in a random way . Examples of such fields include the physical sciences such as biology , chemistry , ecology , neuroscience , and physics as well as technology and engineering fields such as image processing , signal processing , information theory , computer science , cryptography and telecommunications . It is also used , due to seemingly random changes in financial markets in finance . |
Surrender_of_Japan | The surrender of Imperial Japan was announced on August 15 and formally signed on September 2 , 1945 , bringing the hostilities of World War II to a close . By the end of July 1945 , the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) was incapable of conducting major operations and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent . Together with the British Empire and China , the United States called for the unconditional surrender of the Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on July 26 , 1945 -- the alternative being `` prompt and utter destruction '' . While publicly stating their intent to fight on to the bitter end , Japan 's leaders ( the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War , also known as the `` Big Six '' ) were privately making entreaties to the still-neutral Soviet Union to mediate peace on terms more favorable to the Japanese . Meanwhile , the Soviets were preparing to attack Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea ( in addition to South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands ) in fulfillment of promises they had secretly made to the United States and the United Kingdom at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences . On August 6 , 1945 , at 8:15 AM local time , the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima . Sixteen hours later , American President Harry S. Truman called again for Japan 's surrender , warning them to `` expect a rain of ruin from the air , the like of which has never been seen on this earth . '' Late in the evening of August 8 , 1945 , in accordance with the Yalta agreements , but in violation of the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact , the Soviet Union declared war on Japan , and soon after midnight on August 9 , 1945 , the Soviet Union invaded the Imperial Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo . Later in the day , the United States dropped a second atomic bomb , this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki . Following these events , Emperor Hirohito intervened and ordered the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War to accept the terms the Allies had set down in the Potsdam Declaration for ending the war . After several more days of behind-the-scenes negotiations and a failed coup d'état , Emperor Hirohito gave a recorded radio address across the Empire on August 15 . In the radio address , called the , he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies . On August 28 , the occupation of Japan by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers began . The surrender ceremony was held on September 2 , aboard the United States Navy battleship , at which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender , thereby ending the hostilities . Allied civilians and military personnel alike celebrated V-J Day , the end of the war ; however , some isolated soldiers and personnel from Imperial Japan 's far-flung forces throughout Asia and the Pacific islands refused to surrender for months and years afterwards , some even refusing into the 1970s . The role of the atomic bombings in Japan 's unconditional surrender , and the ethics of the two attacks , is still debated . The state of war formally ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into force on April 28 , 1952 . Four more years passed before Japan and the Soviet Union signed the Soviet -- Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 , which formally brought an end to their state of war . |
Supernova | A supernova is an astronomical event that occurs during the last stellar evolutionary stages of a massive star 's life , whose dramatic and catastrophic destruction is marked by one final titanic explosion . This causes the sudden appearance of a `` new '' bright star , before slowly fading from sight over several weeks or months . Supernovae are more energetic than novae . In Latin , nova means `` new '' , referring astronomically to what appears to be a temporary new bright star . Adding the prefix `` super - '' distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae , which are far less luminous . The word supernova was coined by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1931 . It is pronounced -LSB- ˌsuːpɚnoʊvə -RSB- with the plural supernovae -LSB- ˌsuːpɚnoʊviː -RSB- or supernovas ( abbreviated SN , plural SNe after `` supernovae '' ) . Only three Milky Way naked-eye supernova events have been observed during the last thousand years , though many have been seen in other galaxies using telescopes . The most recent directly observed supernova in the Milky Way was Kepler 's Supernova in 1604 , but the remnants of two more recent supernovae have also been found . Statistical observations of supernovae in other galaxies suggest they occur on average about three times every century in the Milky Way , and that any galactic supernova would almost certainly be observable with modern astronomical telescopes . Supernovae may expel much , if not all , of the material away from a star , at velocities up to or 10 % of the speed of light . This drives an expanding and fast-moving shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium , and in turn , sweeping up an expanding shell of gas and dust , which is observed as a supernova remnant . Supernovae create , fuse and eject the bulk of the chemical elements produced by nucleosynthesis . Supernovae play a significant role in enriching the interstellar medium with the heavier atomic mass chemical elements . Furthermore , the expanding shock waves from supernovae can trigger the formation of new stars . Supernova remnants are expected to accelerate a large fraction of galactic primary cosmic rays , but direct evidence for cosmic ray production was found only in a few of them so far . They are also potentially strong galactic sources of gravitational waves . Theoretical studies indicate that most supernovae are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms : the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a degenerate star or the sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star 's core . In the first instance , a degenerate white dwarf may accumulate sufficient material from a binary companion , either through accretion or via a merger , to raise its core temperature enough to trigger runaway nuclear fusion , completely disrupting the star . In the second case , the core of a massive star may undergo sudden gravitational collapse , releasing gravitational potential energy as a supernova . While some observed supernovae are more complex than these two simplified theories , the astrophysical collapse mechanics have been established and accepted by most astronomers for some time . Due to the wide range of astrophysical consequences of these events , astronomers now deem supernovae research , across the fields of stellar and galactic evolution , as an especially important area for investigation . |
Standard_day | The term standard day is used throughout meteorology , aviation , and other sciences and disciplines as a way of defining certain properties of the atmosphere in a manner which allows those who use our atmosphere to effectively calculate and communicate its properties at any given time . For example , a temperature deviation of +8 ° C means that the air at any given altitude is 8 ° C ( 14 ° F ) warmer than what standard day conditions and the measurement altitude would predict , and would indicate a higher density altitude . These variations are extremely important to both meteorologists and aviators , as they strongly determine the different properties of the atmosphere . For example , on a cool day , an airliner might have no problem safely departing a medium-altitude runway , but on a warmer day , the density altitude might require a higher true airspeed , which would require more acceleration , and more runway . The pilot may be forced to reduce fuel or cargo , or even add an intermediate fuel stop , delaying the flight arrival time . In meteorology , departure from standard day conditions is what gives rise to all weather phenomena , including thunderstorms , fronts , clouds , even the heating and cooling of our planet . |
Statistical_significance | In statistical hypothesis testing , a result has statistical significance when it is very unlikely to have occurred given the null hypothesis . More precisely , the significance level defined for a study , α , is the probability of the study rejecting the null hypothesis , given that it were true ; and the p-value of a result , p , is the probability of obtaining a result at least as extreme , given that the null hypothesis were true . The result is statistically significant , by the standards of the study , when p < α . The significance level for a study is chosen before data collection , and typically set to 5 % or much lower , depending on the field of study . In any experiment or observation that involves drawing a sample from a population , there is always the possibility that an observed effect would have occurred due to sampling error alone . But if the p-value of an observed effect is less than the significance level , an investigator may conclude that the effect reflects the characteristics of the whole population , thereby rejecting the null hypothesis . This technique for testing the significance of results was developed in the early 20th century . The term significance does not imply importance here , and the term statistical significance is not the same as research , theoretical , or practical significance . For example , the term clinical significance refers to the practical importance of a treatment effect . |
Surf_break | A surf break ( also break , shore break , or big wave break ) is a permanent ( or semi permanent ) obstruction such as a coral reef , rock , shoal , or headland that causes a wave to break , forming a barreling wave or other wave that can be surfed , before it eventually collapses . The topography of the seabed determines the shape of the wave and type of break . Since shoals can change size and location , affecting the break , it takes commitment and skill to find good breaks . Some surf breaks are quite dangerous , since the surfer can collide with a reef or rocks below the water . Surf breaks may be defended vehemently by surfers , as human activities and constructions can have unintended and unpredictable consequences which can be either positive , negative , or unknown . In 2008 , surfers and environmentalists opposed a toll road project in Orange County , California that would have changed sediment patterns and affected the world-class Trestles surf break north of San Onofre State Beach which attracted 400,000 surfers in 2007 . In 2007 , the NSW Geographical Names Register began formally recognizing names of surf breaks in Australia , defining a surf break as a `` permanent obstruction such as a reef , headland , bombora , rock or sandbar , which causes waves to break '' . One of the largest surf breaks in the world is the Jaws surf break in Maui , Hawaii , with waves that reach a maximum height of 40 - . However waves which break off Nazare in Portugal have been recorded to exceed 80 feet , with estimates of waves ridden up to over 100 feet , from trough to peak . The peculiar ocean bathymetry off Nazare is largely responsible for the very large wave faces . |
Storm | A storm is any disturbed state of an environment or astronomical body 's atmosphere especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . It may be marked by significant disruptions to normal conditions such as strong wind , hail , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation ( snowstorm , rainstorm ) , heavy freezing rain ( ice storm ) , strong winds ( tropical cyclone , windstorm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere as in a dust storm , blizzard , sandstorm , etc. . Storms have the potential to harm lives and property via storm surge , heavy rain or snow causing flooding or road impassibility , lightning , wildfires , and vertical wind shear ; however , systems with significant rainfall and duration help alleviate drought in places they move through . Heavy snowfall can allow special recreational activities to take place which would not be possible otherwise , such as skiing and snowmobiling . The English word comes from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz meaning `` noise , tumult '' . |
Statistical_murder | When a business or regulator uses limited funds to take an action that saves a limited number of lives , instead of an alternative action that would save more lives , this decision is sometimes called statistical murder . This phrase is currently primarily a term of political advocacy , used to draw attention to unwise decision making that either is not the most effective available or is potentially even harmful . This phrase is a diffuse neologism . The phrase originated in the early 1990s with Professor John D. Graham , a tenured professor of policy and decision sciences at Harvard University 's school of Public Health and director of the Harvard Center for Risk Analysis . This phrase appears in the Congressional Record in February , 1995 where he is quoted thus `` John Graham , a Harvard professor , who said , ` Sound science means saving the most lives and achieving the most ecological protection with our scarce budgets . Without sound science , we are engaging in a form of `` statistical murder , '' where we squander our resources on phantom risks when our families continue to be endangered by real risks . '' In 2001 he was appointed the head of the U.S. Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs in the Office of Management and Budget by George W. Bush , making him the top regulator for the United States . Because the analysis underlying the term was controversial among those interested in U.S. government policy , the senate confirmation process for nomination made the term more widely known . To show that something is statistical murder requires that a comparative risk analysis be done on the available alternatives . This is akin to a cost-benefit analysis but does not entail the translation of lives and health into dollars . However , if other types of benefits are to also be evaluated , the comparative risk analysis approach is not viable , so a cost-benefit analysis must be done . Additionally , the concept implies that the inefficiently spent resources could in fact be transferred to a more effective alternative . This requires that regulators and policy makers with budgetary authority at least allow such transfers and preferably use cost-benefit analysis to plan the budgeting . This was not the practice at the time the phrase was coined , and has not yet become standard practice in the U.S. |
Sunda_megathrust | The Sunda megathrust is a fault that extends approximately 5,500 km ( 3300 mi ) from Myanmar ( Burma ) in the north , running along the southwestern side of Sumatra , to the south of Java and Bali before terminating near Australia . It is a megathrust , located at a convergent plate boundary where it forms the interface between the overriding Eurasian plate and the subducting Indo-Australian plate . It is one of the most seismogenic structures on Earth , being responsible for many great and giant earthquakes , including the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed over 230,000 people . The Sunda megathrust can be divided into the Andaman Megathrust , Sumatra ( n ) Megathrust and Java ( n ) Megathrust . The Bali-Sumbawa segment is much less active and therefore does not have the `` megathrust '' term associated with it . |
Stern_Review | The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind . The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . '' The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change . There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) . |
Summer_solstice | The summer solstice ( or estival solstice ) , also known as midsummer , occurs when a planet 's rotational axis , in either northern or southern hemispheres , is most inclined toward the star that it orbits . Earth 's maximum axial tilt toward the Sun is 23 ° 26 ′ . This happens twice each year ( once in each hemisphere ) , at which times the Sun reaches its highest position in the sky as seen from the north or the south pole . The summer solstice occurs during the hemisphere 's summer . This is the northern solstice in the northern hemisphere and the southern solstice in the southern hemisphere . Depending on the shift of the calendar , the summer solstice occurs some time between June 20 and June 22 in the northern hemisphere and between December 20 and December 23 each year in the southern hemisphere . The same dates in the opposite hemisphere are referred to as the winter solstice . When on a geographic pole , the Sun reaches its greatest height at the moment of solstice . It can be noon only along that longitude which at that moment lies in the direction of the Sun from the pole . For other longitudes , it is not noon . Noon has either passed or has yet to come . Hence the notion of a solstice day is useful . The term is colloquially used like `` midsummer '' to refer to the day on which solstice occurs . The summer solstice day has the longest period of daylight -- except in the polar regions , where daylight is continuous , from a few days to six months around the summer solstice . 2016 was the first time in nearly 70 years that a full moon and the Northern Hemisphere 's summer solstice concur on the same day . The 2016 summer solstice 's full moon rose just as the Sun set . Worldwide , interpretation of the event has varied among cultures , but most recognize the event in some way with holidays , festivals , and rituals around that time with themes of religion or fertility . In some regions , the summer solstice is seen as the beginning of summer and the end of spring . In other cultural conventions , the solstice is closer to the middle of summer . Solstice is derived from the Latin words sol ( sun ) and sistere ( to stand still ) . |
Sun-synchronous_orbit | A Sun-synchronous orbit ( SSO , also called a heliosynchronous orbit ) is a geocentric orbit that combines altitude and inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planet 's surface at the same local solar time . Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging , spy , and weather satellites . More technically , it is an orbit arranged in such a way that it precesses once a year . The surface illumination angle will be nearly the same every time that the satellite is overhead . This consistent lighting is a useful characteristic for satellites that image the Earth 's surface in visible or infrared wavelengths ( e.g. weather and spy satellites ) and for other remote sensing satellites ( e.g. those carrying ocean and atmospheric remote sensing instruments that require sunlight ) . For example , a satellite in sun-synchronous orbit might ascend across the equator twelve times a day each time at approximately 15:00 mean local time . This is achieved by having the osculating orbital plane precess ( rotate ) approximately one degree each day with respect to the celestial sphere , eastward , to keep pace with the Earth 's movement around the Sun . The uniformity of Sun angle is achieved by tuning the inclination to the altitude of the orbit ( see Technical details ) such that the extra mass near the equator causes the orbital plane of the spacecraft to precess with the desired rate : the plane of the orbit is not fixed in space relative to the distant stars , but rotates slowly about the Earth 's axis . Typical sun-synchronous orbits are about 600 -- 800 km in altitude , with periods in the 96 -- 100 minute range , and inclinations of around 98 ° ( i.e. slightly retrograde compared to the direction of Earth 's rotation : 0 ° represents an equatorial orbit and 90 ° represents a polar orbit ) . Special cases of the sun-synchronous orbit are the noon/midnight orbit , where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around noon or midnight , and the dawn/dusk orbit , where the local mean solar time of passage for equatorial longitudes is around sunrise or sunset , so that the satellite rides the terminator between day and night . Riding the terminator is useful for active radar satellites as the satellites ' solar panels can always see the Sun , without being shadowed by the Earth . It is also useful for some satellites with passive instruments that need to limit the Sun 's influence on the measurements , as it is possible to always point the instruments towards the night side of the Earth . The dawn/dusk orbit has been used for solar observing scientific satellites such as Yohkoh , TRACE , Hinode and PROBA2 , affording them a nearly continuous view of the Sun . Sun-synchronous orbits can happen around other oblate planets , such as Mars . A satellite around the almost spherical Venus , for example , will need an outside push to be in a sun-synchronous orbit . |
Sturgeon | Sturgeon is the common name for the 27 species of fish belonging to the family Acipenseridae . Their evolution dates back to the Triassic some 245 to 208 million years ago . The family is grouped into four genera : Acipenser , Huso , Scaphirhynchus and Pseudoscaphirhynchus . Four species may now be extinct . Two closely related species , Polyodon spathula ( paddlefish ) and Psephurus gladius ( Chinese paddlefish , possibly extinct ) are of the same order , Acipenseriformes , but are in the family Polyodontidae and are not considered to be `` true '' sturgeons . Both sturgeons and paddlefish have been referred to as `` primitive fishes '' because their morphological characteristics have remained relatively unchanged since the earliest fossil record . Sturgeons are native to subtropical , temperate and sub-Arctic rivers , lakes and coastlines of Eurasia and North America . Sturgeons are long-lived , late-maturing fishes with distinctive characteristics , such as a heterocercal caudal fin similar to that of sharks , and an elongated spindle-like body that is smooth-skinned , scaleless and armored with 5 lateral rows of bony plates called scutes . Several species can grow quite large , typically ranging 7 -- 12 feet ( 2-3 1/2 m ) in length . The largest sturgeon on record was a Beluga female captured in the Volga estuary in 1827 , weighing 1,571 kg and 7.2 m long . Most sturgeons are anadromous bottom-feeders which migrate upstream to spawn but spend most of their lives feeding in river deltas and estuaries . Some species inhabit freshwater environments exclusively while others primarily inhabit marine environments near coastal areas , and are known to venture into open ocean . Several species of sturgeon are harvested for their roe which is processed into caviar -- a luxury food and the reason why caviar producing sturgeons are among the most valuable of all wildlife resources . They are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation and other threats , including pollution and habitat fragmentation . Most species of sturgeon are considered to be at risk of extinction , making them more critically endangered than any other group of species . In art , a sturgeon is the symbol on the coat of arms for Saint Amalberga of Temse . |
Sunlight | Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun , in particular infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . On Earth , sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere , and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon . When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds , it is experienced as sunshine , a combination of bright light and radiant heat . When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects , it is experienced as diffused light . The World Meteorological Organization uses the term `` sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter . Other sources indicate an `` Average over the entire earth '' of `` 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day '' . The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen . Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun . A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface . Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis , the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy , normally from the Sun , into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities . |
Sustainable_energy | Sustainable energy is energy that is consumed at insignificant rates compared to its supply and with manageable collateral effects , especially environmental effects . Another common definition of sustainable energy is an energy system that serves the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs . The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development , which includes the four interconnected domains : ecology , economics , politics and culture . Sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science . Technologies promote sustainable energy including renewable energy sources , such as hydroelectricity , solar energy , wind energy , wave power , geothermal energy , bioenergy , tidal power and also technologies designed to improve energy efficiency . Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years , and continue to fall . Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so . Increasingly , effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding . Considerable progress is being made in the energy transition from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems , to the point where many studies support 100 % renewable energy . |
Subarctic_climate | The subarctic climate ( also called subpolar climate , subalpine climate , or boreal climate ) is a climate characterised by long , usually very cold winters , and short , cool to mild summers . It is found on large landmasses , away from the moderating effects of an ocean , generally at latitudes from 50 ° to 70 ° N poleward of the humid continental climates . These climates represent Köppen climate classification Dfc , Dwc , Dsc , Dfd , Dwd and Dsd . In very small areas at high altitudes around the Mediterranean Basin , Iran , Kyrgyzstan , Tajikistan , Turkey , Alaska and other parts of the northwestern United States ( Eastern Washington , Eastern Oregon and Idaho ) the climate is classified as Dsc with a dry summer climate , such as in Seneca , Oregon . |
Stephen_Schneider | Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California . |
Superbird-A | Superbird-A , also identified as Superbird-1 before launch , was a geostationary communications satellite designed and manufactured by Ford Aerospace ( now SSL MDA ) on the SSL 1300 platform . It was originally ordered by Space Communications Corporation ( SCC ) , which later merged into the SKY Perfect JSAT Group . It had a mixed Ku band , Ka band and X band payload and operated on the 158 ° E longitude . It was ordered in 1985 along Superbird-B , Superbird-A1 and Superbird-B1 on the very first order of the SSL 1300 platform . It was also the first satellite of SCC and the second commercial satellite of Japan after JCSAT-1 . It was used for video distribution , news gathering , remote publishing and high definition TV service to the main islands of Japan and Okinawa . |
Survivalism | Survivalism is a primarily American movement of individuals or groups ( called survivalists or preppers ) who are actively preparing for emergencies , including possible disruptions in social or political order , on scales from local to international . Survivalists often acquire emergency medical and self-defense training , stockpile food and water , prepare to become self-sufficient , and build structures ( e.g. , a survival retreat or an underground shelter ) that may help them survive a catastrophe . Use of the term survivalist dates from 1976 . The terms prepper and prep #Verb are derived from the word prepare #Verb , and have grown in popularity since the 1990s , partly as a reaction to terrorists like Ted Kaczynski and Timothy McVeigh and stereotypes connected with them . |
Station_building | A station building , also known as a head house , is the main building of a passenger railway station . It is typically used principally to provide services to passengers . A station building is not to be confused with the station itself . Whereas the latter is the whole facility giving passenger access to trains at a particular location ( and includes the tracks , platforms , and often also , e.g. , a subway , train shed , etc. ) , a station building is a specific well-defined element of the station of which it forms part . Normally , a station building will be of adequate size for the type of service that is to be performed . It may range from a simple single-storey building with limited services to passengers to a large building with many indoor spaces providing many services . Some station buildings are of monumental proportions and styles . Both in the past and in recent times , especially when constructed for a modern high-speed rail network , a station building may even be a true masterpiece of architecture . A typical railway station building will have a side entrance hall off the road or square where the station is located . Near the entrance will be a ticket counter , ticket machines , or both . There will also be one or more waiting rooms , often divided by class , and equipped with seats and luggage stands . From the waiting rooms , there will usually be direct access to rail passenger services . Medium to large size station buildings will often also have offices for rail staff involved in the management and operation of trains . Smaller or more rural stations will have no station building at all . |
Sulfuric_acid | Sulfuric acid ( alternative spelling sulphuric acid ) is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H2SO4 and molecular weight 98.079 g/mol . It is a pungent-ethereal , colorless to slightly yellow viscous liquid that is soluble in water at all concentrations . Sometimes , it is dyed dark brown during production to alert people to its hazards . The historical name of this acid is oil of vitriol . Sulfuric acid is a diprotic acid and shows different properties depending upon its concentration . Its corrosiveness on other materials , like metals , living tissues or even stones , can be mainly ascribed to its strong acidic nature and , if concentrated , strong dehydrating and oxidizing properties . It is also hygroscopic , readily absorbing water vapour from the air . Sulfuric acid at a high concentration can cause very serious damage upon contact , since not only does it cause chemical burns via hydrolysis , but also secondary thermal burns through dehydration . It can lead to permanent blindness if splashed onto eyes and irreversible damage if swallowed . Sulfuric acid has a wide range of applications including in domestic acidic drain cleaners , as an electrolyte in lead-acid batteries and in various cleaning agents . It is also a central substance in the chemical industry . Principal uses include mineral processing , fertilizer manufacturing , oil refining , wastewater processing , and chemical synthesis . It is widely produced with different methods , such as contact process , wet sulfuric acid process , lead chamber process and some other methods . |
Stationary_process | In mathematics and statistics , a stationary process ( a strict ( ly ) stationary process or strong ( ly ) stationary process ) is a stochastic process whose joint probability distribution does not change when shifted in time . Consequently , parameters such as mean and variance , if they are present , also do not change over time . Since stationarity is an assumption underlying many statistical procedures used in time series analysis , non-stationary data is often transformed to become stationary . The most common cause of violation of stationarity are trends in mean , which can be due either to the presence of a unit root or of a deterministic trend . In the former case of a unit root , stochastic shocks have permanent effects and the process is not mean-reverting . In the latter case of a deterministic trend , the process is called a trend stationary process , and stochastic shocks have only transitory effects which are mean-reverting ( i.e. , the mean returns to its long-term average , which changes deterministically over time according to the trend ) . A trend stationary process is not strictly stationary , but can easily be transformed into a stationary process by removing the underlying trend , which is solely a function of time . Similarly , processes with one or more unit roots can be made stationary through differencing . An important type of non-stationary process that does not include a trend-like behavior is a cyclostationary process , which is a stochastic process that varies cyclically with time . A `` stationary process '' is not the same thing as a `` process with a stationary distribution '' . Indeed , there are further possibilities for confusion with the use of the term `` stationary '' in the context of stochastic processes ; for example a `` time-homogeneous '' Markov chain is sometimes said to have `` stationary transition probabilities '' . Besides , all stationary Markov random processes are time-homogeneous . |
Supercontinent | In geology , a supercontinent is the assembly of most or all of Earth 's continental blocks or cratons to form a single large landmass . However , the definition of a supercontinent can be ambiguous . Many earth scientists use the term `` supercontinent '' to mean `` a clustering of nearly all continents '' . This definition leaves room for interpretation when labeling a continental body and is easier to apply to Precambrian times . Using the first definition provided here , Gondwana is not considered a supercontinent , because the landmasses of Baltica , Laurentia and Siberia also existed at the same time but physically separate from each other . The landmass of Pangaea is the collective name describing all of these continental masses when they were most recently in proximity to one another . This would classify Pangaea as a supercontinent . According to the modern definitions , a supercontinent does not exist today . Supercontinents have assembled and dispersed multiple times in the geologic past ( see table ) . The positions of continents have been accurately determined back to the early Jurassic . However , beyond , continental positions are much less certain . |
Sunda_Trench | The Sunda Trench , earlier known as , and sometimes still indicated as the Java Trench , is located near Sumatra , formed where the Australian Plate subducts under a part of the Eurasian Plate . With a length of 3200 km . The maximum depth of 7725 m ( at 10 ° 19 'S , 109 ° 58 ` E , about 320 km south of Yogyakarta ) , is the deepest point in the Indian Ocean . The trench stretches from the Lesser Sunda Islands past Java , around the southern coast of Sumatra on to the Andaman Islands , and forms the boundary between Indo-Australian Plate and Eurasian plate ( more specifically , Sunda Plate ) . The trench is considered to be part of the Pacific Ring of Fire as well as one of a ring of oceanic trenches around the northern edges of the Australian Plate . There is scientific evidence that the 2004 earthquake activity in the area of the Java Trench could lead to further catastrophic shifting within a relatively short period of time , perhaps less than a decade . This threat has resulted in international agreements to establish a tsunami warning system in place along the Indian Ocean coast . |
Supply-side_economics | Supply-side economics is a macroeconomic theory that argues economic growth can be most effectively created by investing in capital and by lowering barriers on the production of goods and services . It was started by economist Robert Mundell during the Ronald Reagan administration . According to supply-side economics , consumers will then benefit from a greater supply of goods and services at lower prices ; furthermore , the investment and expansion of businesses will increase the demand for employees and therefore create jobs . Typical policy recommendations of supply-side economists are lower marginal tax rates and less government regulation . The Laffer curve is one of the main theoretical constructs of supply-side economics . It is the idea that lowering tax rates may generate more government revenue than would otherwise be expected at the lower tax rate because moving off of a prohibitively high tax system could generate more economic activity , which would lead to increased opportunities for tax revenues . Economists are divided on whether lowering tax rates is a viable model , and critics typically charge either ( 1 ) that there has never been a time when a tax-rate cut caused economic growth or ( 2 ) that `` now '' is not such a time . The term supply-side economics was thought , for some time , to have been coined by journalist Jude Wanniski in 1975 , but according to Robert D. Atkinson 's Supply-Side Follies , the term `` supply side '' ( `` supply-side fiscalists '' ) was first used by Herbert Stein , a former economic adviser to President Nixon , in 1976 , and only later that year was this term repeated by Jude Wanniski . Its use connotes the ideas of economists Robert Mundell and Arthur Laffer . Others prefer the term trickle-down economics . |
Storm_drain | A storm drain , storm sewer ( US ) , surface water drain/sewer ( UK ) , or stormwater drain ( Australia and New Zealand ) is designed to drain excess rain and ground water from impervious surfaces such as paved streets , car parks , parking lots , footpaths , sidewalks , and roofs . Storm drains vary in design from small residential dry wells to large municipal systems . They are fed by street gutters on most motorways , freeways and other busy roads , as well as towns in areas which experience heavy rainfall , flooding and coastal towns which experience regular storms . Even the gutters from houses and buildings can be connected to the storm drain . Many storm drainage systems are designed as gravity sewers draining untreated storm water into rivers or streams . As a result , it is not acceptable to pour certain types of chemicals into the drains . Some storm drains lead to a mixing of stormwater ( rainwater ) with sewage , either intentionally -- in the case of combined sewers -- or unintentionally . |
Star_Tribune | The Star Tribune is the largest newspaper in the U.S. state of Minnesota . It originated as the Minneapolis Tribune in 1867 and the competing Minneapolis Daily Star in 1920 . During the 1930s and 1940s Minneapolis 's competing newspapers were consolidated , with the Tribune published in the morning and the Star in the evening . They merged in 1982 , creating the Star Tribune . After a tumultuous period in which the newspaper was sold and re-sold and filed for bankruptcy protection in 2009 , it was purchased by local businessman Glen Taylor in 2014 . The Star Tribune serves Minneapolis and is distributed throughout the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul metropolitan area , the state of Minnesota and the Upper Midwest . It typically contains a mixture of national , international and local news , sports , business and lifestyle content . Journalists from the Star Tribune and its predecessor newspapers have won six Pulitzer Prizes , including two in 2013 . The newspaper 's headquarters is in downtown Minneapolis . |
Sun_Herald | The Sun Herald is a U.S. newspaper based in Biloxi , Mississippi , that serves readers along the Mississippi Gulf Coast . The paper 's current headquarters is in the city of Gulfport . It is owned by The McClatchy Company , one of the largest newspaper publishers in the United States . The Daily Herald of Biloxi was purchased in 1968 by The State Record Company . In 1973 , the South Mississippi Sun was launched . In 1986 , the Sun-Herald owner , was acquired by Knight Ridder in 1986 . The Sun Herald offices and printing presses were squarely hit by Hurricane Katrina in August 2005 , but the newspaper never missed an edition . Some of the staff evacuated in advance of the storm to Columbus , Georgia , where then-owner Knight Ridder owned the Ledger-Enquirer . From the Columbus paper 's newsroom , The Sun Herald editors and designers , with the help of Knight Ridder journalists from across the country , produced daily editions of The Sun Herald for eleven days , until power could be restored to Biloxi and the newspaper could be produced at its plant there . The Sun Herald was awarded the 2006 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service , along with The Times-Picayune of New Orleans , for coverage of Hurricane Katrina and its aftermath . It is the first Pulitzer for the newspaper . The same year , Knight Ridder was purchased by McClatchy . |
Steam_engine | A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid . Steam engines are external combustion engines , where the working fluid is separated from the combustion products . Non-combustion heat sources such as solar power , nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used . The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle . In the cycle , water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure . When expanded through pistons or turbines , mechanical work is done . The reduced pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere , or condensed and pumped back into the boiler . In general usage , the term steam engine can refer to either the integrated steam plants ( including boilers etc. ) such as railway steam locomotives and portable engines , or may refer to the piston or turbine machinery alone , as in the beam engine and stationary steam engine . Specialized devices such as steam hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler . The use of boiling water to produce mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years , but early devices were not highly practical . The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for a rudimentary steam-powered water pump in 1606 . In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped . Savery 's steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber , and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water . Thomas Newcomen 's atmospheric engine was the first commercial true steam engine using a piston , and was used in 1712 for pumping in a mine . They became popular for mining and 104 were in use by 1733 , eventually over two thousand of them were installed . In 1781 Scottish engineer James Watt patented a steam engine that produced continuous rotary motion . Watt 's ten-horsepower engines enabled a wide range of manufacturing machinery to be powered . The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained . By 1883 , engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible . The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution , allowing factories to locate where water power was unavailable . The atmospheric engines of Newcomen and Watt were large compared to the amount of power they produced , but high-pressure steam engines were light enough to be applied to vehicles such as traction engines and the railway locomotives . Reciprocating piston type steam engines remained the dominant source of power until the early 20th century , when advances in the design of electric motors and internal combustion engines gradually resulted in the replacement of reciprocating ( piston ) steam engines in commercial usage , and the ascendancy of steam turbines in power generation . Considering that the great majority of worldwide electric generation is produced by turbine type steam engines , the `` steam age '' is continuing with energy levels far beyond those of the turn of the 19th and 20th century . |
Sustainability | In ecology , sustainability ( from sustain and ability ) is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinite #Adjective . Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems . In more general terms , sustainability is the endurance of systems and processes . The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development , which includes the four interconnected domains : ecology , economics , politics and culture . Sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science . Sustainability can also be defined as a socio-ecological process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal . An ideal is by definition unattainable in a given time and space . However , by persistently and dynamically approaching it , the process results in a sustainable system . Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans and other organisms . Ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering , environmental resources management and environmental protection . Information is gained from green chemistry , earth science , environmental science and conservation biology . Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems . Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and national law , urban planning and transport , local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism . Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from reorganizing living conditions ( e.g. , ecovillages , eco-municipalities and sustainable cities ) , reappraising economic sectors ( permaculture , green building , sustainable agriculture ) , or work practices ( sustainable architecture ) , using science to develop new technologies ( green technologies , renewable energy and sustainable fission and fusion power ) , or designing systems in a flexible and reversible manner , and adjusting individual lifestyles that conserve natural resources . `` The term ` sustainability ' should be viewed as humanity 's target goal of human-ecosystem equilibrium ( homeostasis ) , while ` sustainable development ' refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end point of sustainability . '' ( 305 ) Despite the increased popularity of the use of the term `` sustainability '' , the possibility that human societies will achieve environmental sustainability has been , and continues to be , questioned -- in light of environmental degradation , climate change , overconsumption , population growth and societies ' pursuit of unlimited economic growth in a closed system . |
Tetanus | Tetanus , also known as lockjaw , is an infection characterized by muscle spasms . In the most common type , the spasms begin in the jaw and then progress to the rest of the body . These spasms usually last a few minutes each time and occur frequently for three to four weeks . Spasms may be so severe that bone fractures may occur . Other symptoms may include fever , sweating , headache , trouble swallowing , high blood pressure , and a fast heart rate . Onset of symptoms is typically three to twenty-one days following infection . It may take months to recover . About 10 % of those infected die . Tetanus is caused by an infection with the bacterium Clostridium tetani , which is commonly found in soil , saliva , dust , and manure . The bacteria generally enter through a break in the skin such as a cut or puncture wound by a contaminated object . They produce toxins that interfere with muscle contractions , resulting in the typical symptoms . Diagnosis is based on the presenting signs and symptoms . The disease does not spread between people . Infection can be prevented by proper immunization with the tetanus vaccine . In those who have a significant wound and less than three doses of the vaccine both immunization and tetanus immune globulin are recommended . The wound should be cleaned and any dead tissue should be removed . In those who are infected tetanus immune globulin or , if it is not available , intravenous immunoglobulin ( IVIG ) is used . Muscle relaxants may be used to control spasms . Mechanical ventilation may be required if a person 's breathing is affected . Tetanus occurs in all parts of the world but is most frequent in hot and wet climates where the soil contains a lot of organic matter . In 2015 there were about 209,000 infections and about 59,000 deaths . This is down from 356,000 deaths in 1990 . Description of the disease by Hippocrates exists from at least as far back as the 5th century BC . The cause of the disease was determined in 1884 by Antonio Carle and Giorgio Rattone at the University of Turin , with a vaccine being developed in 1924 . |
Tax | A tax ( from the Latin en : taxo #Latin ) is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer ( an individual or legal entity ) by a state or the functional equivalent of a state to fund various public expenditures . A failure to pay , or evasion of or resistance to taxation , is usually punishable by law . Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent . Most countries have a tax system in place to pay for public/common/agreed national needs and government functions : some levy a flat percentage rate of taxation on personal annual income , some on a scale based on annual income amounts , and some countries impose almost no taxation at all , or a very low tax rate for a certain area of taxation . Some countries charge a tax both on corporate income and dividends ; this is often referred to as double taxation as the individual shareholder ( s ) receiving this payment from the company will also be levied some tax on that personal income . |
Thasos | Thasos or Thassos is a Greek island , geographically part of the North Aegean Sea , but administratively part of the Kavala regional unit . It is the northernmost Greek island , and 12th largest by area . Thasos is also the name of the largest town of the island ( officially known as Limenas Thasou , `` Port of Thasos '' ) , situated at the northern side , opposite the mainland and about 10 km from Keramoti . Thassos island is known from ancient times for its termae making it a climatic and balneoclimateric resort area . Thasos ' economy relies on timber ( it is rich in forests ) , marble quarries , olive oil and honey . Tourism has also become important since the 1960s , although not to the level of other Greek islands . |
Telecommuting | Telecommuting , also called remote work , telework , or teleworking , is a work arrangement in which employees do not commute or travel ( e.g. by bus or car ) to a central place of work , such as an office building , warehouse or store . Teleworkers in the 2000s often use mobile telecommunications technology such as Wi-Fi-equipped laptop or tablet computers and smartphones to work from coffee shops ; others may use a desktop computer and a landline phone at their home . According to a Reuters poll , approximately `` one in five workers around the globe , particularly employees in the Middle East , Latin America and Asia , telecommute frequently and nearly 10 percent work from home every day . '' In the 2000s , annual leave or vacation in some organizations is seen as absence from the workplace rather than ceasing work , and some office employees use telework to continue to check work e-mails while on vacation . Although the concepts of `` telecommuting '' and `` telework '' are closely related , there is a difference between the two . All types of technology-assisted work conducted outside of a centrally located work space ( including work undertaken in the home , outside calls , etc. ) are regarded as telework . Telecommuters often maintain a traditional office and usually work from an alternative work site from 1 to 3 days a week . Telecommuting refers more specifically to work undertaken at a location that reduces commuting time . These locations can be inside the home or at some other remote workplace , which is facilitated through a broadband connection , computer or phone lines , or any other electronic media used to interact and communicate . As a broader concept than telecommuting , telework has four dimensions in its definitional framework : work location , that can be anywhere outside of a centralized organizational work place ; usage of ICTs ( information and communication technologies ) as technical support for telework ; time distribution , referring to the amount of time replaced in the traditional workplace ; and the diversity of employment relationships between employer and employee , ranging from contract work to traditional full-time employment . In the 1990s , telecommuting became the subject of pop culture attention . In 1995 , the motto that `` work is something you do , not something you travel to '' was coined . Variations of this motto include : `` Work is something we DO , not a place that we GO '' and `` Work is what we do , not where we are . '' Telecommuting has been adopted by a range of businesses , governments and not-for-profit organizations . Organizations may use telecommuting to reduce costs ( telecommuting employees do not require an office or cubicle , a space which has to be rented or purchased , provided with lighting and climate control , etc. ) . Some organizations adopt telecommuting to improve workers ' quality of life , as teleworking typically reduces commuting time and time stuck in traffic jams . As well , teleworking may make it easier for workers to balance their work responsibilities with family roles ( e.g. , caring for children or elderly parents ) . Some organizations adopt teleworking for environmental reasons , as telework can reduce congestion and air pollution , as it can reduce the number of cars on the roads . |