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Rio_Grande | The Rio Grande ( -LSB- ˈriːoʊ_ˈɡrænd -RSB- or -LSB- ˈriːoʊ_ˈɡrɑːndɛ -RSB- Río Bravo del Norte , -LSB- ˈri.o ˈβɾaβo ðel ˈnorte -RSB- or simply Río Bravo ) is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico ( the other being the Colorado River ) . The Rio Grande begins in south-central Colorado in the United States and flows to the Gulf of Mexico . Along the way , it forms part of the Mexico -- United States border . According to the International Boundary and Water Commission , its total length was 1896 mi in the late 1980s , though course shifts occasionally result in length changes . Depending on how it is measured , the Rio Grande is either the fourth - or fifth-longest river system in North America . The river serves as part of the natural border between the U.S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas . A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U.S. states of Texas and New Mexico . Since the mid -- 20th century , heavy water consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20 % of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf . Near the river 's mouth , the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region . The Rio Grande is one of 19 Great Waters recognized by America 's Great Waters Coalition . The Rio Grande 's watershed covers 182200 sqmi . Many endorheic basins are situated within , or adjacent to , the Rio Grande 's basin , and these are sometimes included in the river basin 's total area , increasing its size to about 336000 sqmi . |
Rossby_number | The Rossby number ( Ro ) named for Carl-Gustav Arvid Rossby , is a dimensionless number used in describing fluid flow . The Rossby number is the ratio of inertial force to Coriolis force , terms and in the Navier -- Stokes equations , respectively . It is commonly used in geophysical phenomena in the oceans and atmosphere , where it characterizes the importance of Coriolis accelerations arising from planetary rotation . It is also known as the Kibel number . The Rossby number ( Ro and not Ro ) is defined as : where U and L are , respectively , characteristic velocity and length scales of the phenomenon and f = 2 Ω sin φ is the Coriolis frequency , where Ω is the angular frequency of planetary rotation and φ the latitude . A small Rossby number signifies a system which is strongly affected by Coriolis forces , and a large Rossby number signifies a system in which inertial and centrifugal forces dominate . For example , in tornadoes , the Rossby number is large ( ≈ 103 ) , in low-pressure systems it is low ( ≈ 0.1 -- 1 ) and in oceanic systems it is of the order of unity , but depending on the phenomena can range over several orders of magnitude ( ≈ 10 − 2 -- 102 ) . As a result , in tornadoes the Coriolis force is negligible , and balance is between pressure and centrifugal forces ( called cyclostrophic balance ) . Cyclostrophic balance also commonly occurs in the inner core of a tropical cyclone . In low-pressure systems , centrifugal force is negligible and balance is between Coriolis and pressure forces ( called geostrophic balance ) . In the oceans all three forces are comparable ( called cyclogeostrophic balance ) . For a figure showing spatial and temporal scales of motions in the atmosphere and oceans , see Kantha and Clayson . When the Rossby number is large ( either because f is small , such as in the tropics and at lower latitudes ; or because L is small , that is , for small-scale motions such as flow in a bathtub ; or for large speeds ) , the effects of planetary rotation are unimportant and can be neglected . When the Rossby number is small , then the effects of planetary rotation are large and the net acceleration is comparably small allowing the use of the geostrophic approximation . |
Rosenfeld's_law | Rosenfeld 's law is an axiom relating physics to economics , that states that the amount of energy required to produce one dollar of GDP has decreased by about one percent per year since 1845 . The original quote by Arthur H. Rosenfeld is : From 1845 to the present , the amount of energy required to produce the same amount of gross national product has steadily decreased at the rate of about 1 percent per year . This is not quite as spectacular as Moore 's Law of integrated circuits , but it has been tested over a longer period of time . One percent per year yields a factor of 2.7 when compounded over 100 years . It took 56 BTUs ( 59,000 joules ) of energy consumption to produce one ( 1992 ) dollar of GDP in 1845 . By 1998 , the same dollar required only 12.5 BTUs ( 13,200 joules ) . |
Risk_(magazine) | Risk magazine provides news and analysis covering the financial industry , with a particular focus on risk management , derivatives and complex finance . It includes articles and papers on credit risk , market risk , risk systems , swap option pricing , derivatives risk and pricing , regulation , asset management . Articles include news , comment and mathematical papers on an aspect of derivatives risk and pricing . Risk has a tradition of covers featuring pieces of abstract modern art . It has been described as Incisive Media 's `` flagship financial management title '' . It was founded by Peter Field in 1987 . It was owned by Risk Waters Group , then was acquired by Incisive Media , the owners of Post Magazine , Waters ( magazine ) and Investment Week . Journalists include : Mauro Cesa , Fiona Maxwell , and Peter Madigan , with Duncan Wood as Editor . Energy Risk -- a sister title that covers energy trading and risk management -- was spun off in 1994 . Risk magazine has a number of sister publications these include Asia Risk , Energy Risk , Insurance Risk , Hedge Funds Review , Operational Risk & Regulation and Structured Products . Risk also runs industry specific events including the annual Risk awards and has an extensive global conferences and training programme . In 2003 Risk magazine launched Risk.net a financial risk management website which provides news updates as a digital subscription . |
Russian_News_Agency_TASS | Russian News Agency TASS ( -LSB- Информационное агентство России ТАСС , Informatsionnoye agentstvo Rossii TASS -RSB- ) , abbr . TASS is a major news agency in Russia , founded in 1902 . Tass is the largest Russian news agency , and the fourth largest in the world after Reuters , the Associated Press ( AP ) and Agence France-Presse ( AFP ) . TASS is registered as a Federal State Unitary Enterprise , owned by the Government of Russia . Headquartered in Moscow , TASS has 70 offices in Russia and in the Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ) , as well as 68 bureaus around the world . The TASS name comes from the former Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union ( Телеграфное агентство Советского Союза , Tyelyegrafnoye agyentstvo Sovyetskogo Soyuza ) which was the central agency for news collection and distribution for all Soviet newspapers , radio and television stations . After the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the agency was renamed `` Information Telegraph Agency of Russia '' ( ITAR-TASS ) in 1992 , but regained the simpler TASS name in 2014 . |
Risk_analysis | Risk analysis can be defined in many different ways , and much of the definition depends on how risk analysis relates to other concepts . Risk analysis can be `` broadly defined to include risk assessment , risk characterization , risk communication , risk management , and policy relating to risk , in the context of risks of concern to individuals , to public - and private-sector organizations , and to society at a local , regional , national , or global level . '' A useful construct is to divide risk analysis into two components : ( 1 ) risk assessment ( identifying , evaluating , and measuring the probability and severity of risks ) and ( 2 ) risk management ( deciding what to do about risks ) . Some books take a slightly different approach and define risk management as the overarching concept , where risk analysis is the component that seeks to identify and measure the risks and risk mitigation is determining what to do about the risks . Risk analysis can be qualitative or quantitative . Qualitative risk analysis uses words or colors to identify and evaluate risks or presents a written description of the risk , and quantitative risk analysis ( QRA ) calculates numerical probabilities over the possible consequences . |
RiskLab | RiskLab is a laboratory that conducts research in financial risk management . The first was created in 1994 at Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich in Zurich , Switzerland . In 1996 , another one was created independently at the University of Toronto , this time sponsored by the private company Algorithmics Incorporated . Shortly afterwards , and also in partnership with Algorithmics Inc , others were created in Munich ( 1997 ) , at Cornell University ( 1998 ) , at Cambridge University ( 1998 ) , at the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid ( 2000 ) , and at the Cyprus International Institute of Management , in Nicosia ( 2001 ) . Risklab China Research Center was also created in 2006 . Further , in 2013 , a Finnish section of Risklab was independently created at Åbo Akademi University in Turku and Arcada University of Applied Sciences in Helsinki . In 2010 , growing out of the RiskLab international network , RiskLabs built the strategic alliance named RiskLab Global . The ethos of all existing RiskLabs is a fusion of academic research , industrial innovation and governmental oversight in financial risk management . RiskLab-Toronto , a divisional center at the University of Toronto at Mississauga ( UTM ) , was featured in Research Means Business , a directory of `` cutting-edge research leading to industrial innovation and the creation of new business enterprises '' . In October 2007 , The RiskLab was awarded the NSERC Synergy Award for Innovation . The award was delivered by Dr. Colin Carrie , Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Industry , on behalf of the Honourable Jim Prentice , Minister of Industry and Minister responsible for the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada ( NSERC ) , and by Dr. Suzanne Fortier , President of NSERC . |
Royal_Institute_of_Chemistry | The Royal Institute of Chemistry was a British scientific organisation . Founded in 1877 as the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain , its role was to focus on qualifications and the professional status of chemists , and its aim was to ensure that consulting and analytical chemists were properly trained and qualified . It awarded qualifications : AIC ( Associate of the Institute of Chemistry ) indicating full training , and FIC ( fellow ) indicating professional competence . It received its first Royal Charter in 1885 . As well as insisting on thorough professional qualifications , it also laid down strict ethical standards . Its main qualifications were Licentiate ( LRIC ) ( professional training following a course of practical study to a standard lower than an honours degree ) , Graduate ( GRIC ) ( completion of study equivalent to at least second class honours degree ) , Associate ( ARIC ) ( LRIC plus professional experience ) , Member ( MRIC ) ( GRIC plus professional experience ) and Fellow ( FRIC ) ( more experience and standing than MRIC ) of the Royal Institute of Chemistry . Following a supplemental Charter in 1975 , Members and Fellows were permitted to use the letters CChem ( Chartered Chemist ) . It published Royal Institute of Chemistry Reviews from 1968 to 1971 , when it combined to form Chemical Society Reviews , and the Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry . At the same time , the Chemical Society had concentrated on the science of chemistry , and publishing learned journals . In 1972 these two organisations , together with the Faraday Society and the Society for Analytical Chemistry , started the process of merger , becoming the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1980 . |
Risk–benefit_ratio | A risk -- benefit ratio is the ratio of the risk of an action to its potential benefits . Risk -- benefit analysis is analysis that seeks to quantify the risk and benefits and hence their ratio . Analyzing a risk can be heavily dependent on the human factor . A certain level of risk in our lives is accepted as necessary to achieve certain benefits . For example , driving an automobile is a risk most people take daily , also since it is mitigated by the controlling factor of their perception of their individual ability to manage the risk-creating situation . When individuals are exposed to involuntary risk ( a risk over which they have no control ) , they make risk aversion their primary goal . Under these circumstances individuals require the probability of risk to be as much as one thousand times smaller than for the same situation under their perceived control ( a notable example being the common bias in the perception of risk in flying vs. driving ) . |
Risk_assessment | Risk assessment is the determination of quantitative or qualitative estimate of risk related to a well-defined situation and a recognized threat ( also called hazard ) . Quantitative risk assessment requires calculations of two components of risk ( R ) : the magnitude of the potential loss ( L ) , and the probability ( p ) that the loss will occur . An acceptable risk is a risk that is understood and tolerated usually because the cost or difficulty of implementing an effective countermeasure for the associated vulnerability exceeds the expectation of loss . `` Health risk assessment '' includes variations , such as risk as the type and severity of response , with or without a probabilistic context . In all types of engineering of complex systems sophisticated risk assessments are often made within safety engineering and reliability engineering when it concerns threats to life , environment or machine functioning . The agriculture , nuclear , aerospace , oil , rail and military industries have a long history of dealing with risk assessment . Also , medical , hospital , social service and food industries control risks and perform risk assessments on a continual basis . Methods for assessment of risk may differ between industries and whether it pertains to general financial decisions or environmental , ecological , or public health risk assessment . |
Risk_(game) | Risk is a strategy board game of diplomacy , conflict and conquest for two to six players . The standard version is played on a board depicting a political map of the earth , divided into forty-two territories , which are grouped into six continents . Turn rotates among players who control armies of playing pieces with which they attempt to capture territories from other players , with results determined by dice rolls . Players may form and dissolve alliances during the course of the game . The goal of the game is to occupy every territory on the board and in doing so , eliminate the other players . The game can be lengthy , requiring several hours to multiple days to finish . European versions are structured so that each player has a limited `` secret mission '' objective that shortens the game . Risk was invented by a French filmmaker in 1957 , and went on to become one of the most popular board games in history , inspiring other popular games like Axis & Allies and Settlers of Catan . The simple rules but complex interactions make it appealing to adults as well as children and families . It is still in production by Hasbro with numerous editions and variants with popular media themes and different rules including PC software versions , video games and mobile apps . |
Ring_of_Fire | The Ring of Fire is a major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur . In a 40,000 km horseshoe shape , it is associated with a nearly continuous series of oceanic trenches , volcanic arcs , and volcanic belts and/or plate movements . It has 452 volcanoes ( more than 75 % of the world 's active and dormant volcanoes ) . The Ring of Fire is sometimes called the circum-Pacific belt . About 90 % of the world 's earthquakes and 81 % of the world 's largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire . The next most seismically active region ( 5 -- 6 % of earthquakes and 17 % of the world 's largest earthquakes ) is the Alpide belt , which extends from Java to the northern Atlantic Ocean via the Himalayas and southern Europe . All but three of the world 's 25 largest volcanic eruptions of the last 11,700 years occurred at volcanoes in the Ring of Fire . The Ring of Fire is a direct result of plate tectonics : the movement and collisions of lithospheric plates . The eastern section of the ring is the result of the Nazca Plate and the Cocos Plate being subducted beneath the westward-moving South American Plate . The Cocos Plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate , in Central America . A portion of the Pacific Plate and the small Juan de Fuca Plate are being subducted beneath the North American Plate . Along the northern portion , the northwestward-moving Pacific plate is being subducted beneath the Aleutian Islands arc . Farther west , the Pacific plate is being subducted along the Kamchatka Peninsula arcs on south past Japan . The southern portion is more complex , with a number of smaller tectonic plates in collision with the Pacific plate from the Mariana Islands , the Philippines , Bougainville , Tonga , and New Zealand ; this portion excludes Australia , since it lies in the center of its tectonic plate . Indonesia lies between the Ring of Fire along the northeastern islands adjacent to and including New Guinea and the Alpide belt along the south and west from Sumatra , Java , Bali , Flores , and Timor . The famous and very active San Andreas Fault zone of California is a transform fault which offsets a portion of the East Pacific Rise under southwestern United States and Mexico . The motion of the fault generates numerous small earthquakes , at multiple times a day , most of which are too small to be felt . The active Queen Charlotte Fault on the west coast of the Haida Gwaii , British Columbia , has generated three large earthquakes during the 20th century : a magnitude 7 event in 1929 ; a magnitude 8.1 in 1949 ( Canada 's largest recorded earthquake ) ; and a magnitude 7.4 in 1970 . |
Royal_jelly | Royal jelly is a honey bee secretion that is used in the nutrition of larvae , as well as adult queens . It is secreted from the glands in the hypopharynx of worker bees , and fed to all larvae in the colony , regardless of sex or caste . When worker bees decide to make a new queen , because the old one is either weakening or dead , they choose several small larvae and feed them with copious amounts of royal jelly in specially constructed queen cells . This type of feeding triggers the development of queen morphology , including the fully developed ovaries needed to lay eggs . Royal jelly has long been sold as both a dietary supplement and alternative medicine . Both the European Food Safety Authority and United States Food and Drug Administration have concluded that the current evidence does not support the claim of health benefits , and have actively discouraged the sale and consumption of the jelly . In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration has taken legal action against companies that have used unfounded claims of health benefits to market royal jelly products . There have also been documented cases of allergic reactions , namely hives , asthma , and anaphylaxis , due to consumption of royal jelly . |
Sakurajima | Sakurajima ( 桜島 , lit . `` Cherry blossom Island '' ) is an active composite volcano ( stratovolcano ) and a former island in Kagoshima Prefecture in Kyushu , Japan . The lava flows of the 1914 eruption caused the former island to be connected with the Osumi Peninsula . The volcanic activity still continues , dropping large amounts of volcanic ash on the surroundings . Earlier eruptions built the white sands highlands in the region . As of September 2015 , the volcano is under a Level 3 ( orange ) alert by the Japan Meteorological Agency , signifying the volcano is active and should not be approached . The most recent eruption started on February 5 , 2016 . On September 13 , 2016 a team of experts from Bristol University and the Sakurajima Volcano Research Centre in Japan suggested that the volcano could have a major eruption within 30 years . Sakurajima is a stratosphereic-volcano . Its summit has three peaks , Kita-dake ( northern peak ) , Naka-dake ( central peak ) and Minami-dake ( southern peak ) which is active now . Kita-dake is Sakurajima 's highest peak , rising to 1117 m above sea level . The mountain is located in a part of Kagoshima Bay known as Kinkō-wan . The former island is part of the city of Kagoshima . The surface of this volcanic peninsula is about 77 km2 . |
Sahara | The Sahara ( الصحراء الكبرى , , ` the Greatest Desert ' ) is the largest hot desert and the third largest desert in the world after Antarctica and the Arctic . Its area of 9200000 km2 is comparable to the area of the United States . The desert comprises much of North Africa , excluding the fertile region on the Mediterranean Sea coast , the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb , and the Nile Valley in Egypt and Sudan . It stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the west , where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains . To the south , it is bounded by the Sahel , a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna around the Niger River valley and the Sudan Region of Sub-Saharan Africa . The Sahara can be divided into several regions including : the western Sahara , the central Ahaggar Mountains , the Tibesti Mountains , the Aïr Mountains , the Ténéré desert , and the Libyan Desert . The name ` Sahara ' is derived from ( , pronounced -LSB- / / ˈSaHa : ra : -RSB- ) , the plural of the Arabic word for `` desert '' . |
Sander_Greenland | Sander Greenland ( born January 16 , 1951 ) is an American statistician and epidemiologist known for his contributions to epidemiologic methods , meta-analysis , Bayesian inference and causal inference , among other topics . Educated at the University of California , Berkeley and the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , he has held a professorship in epidemiology at UCLA School of Public Health since 1989 , and additionally a professorship in statistics at UCLA College of Letters and Science since 1999 . Greenland has published over 300 scientific papers , two of which have been cited over 500 times . He is the co-author of one of the major textbooks on epidemiology currently in its 3rd edition . He was made a Fellow of the American Statistical Association in 1998 . He is also an Associate Editor of the Dictionary of Epidemiology sponsored by the International Epidemiological Association . |
Schön_scandal | The Schön scandal concerns German physicist Jan Hendrik Schön ( born August 1970 in Verden an der Aller , Lower Saxony , Germany ) who briefly rose to prominence after a series of apparent breakthroughs with semiconductors that were later discovered to be fraudulent . Before he was exposed , Schön had received the Otto-Klung-Weberbank Prize for Physics and the Braunschweig Prize in 2001 as well as the Outstanding Young Investigator Award of the Materials Research Society in 2002 , both of which were later rescinded . The scandal provoked discussion in the scientific community about the degree of responsibility of coauthors and reviewers of scientific papers . The debate centered on whether peer review , traditionally designed to find errors and determine relevance and originality of papers , should also be required to detect deliberate fraud . |
Salt | Table salt or common salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride ( NaCl ) , a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts ; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite . Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater , where it is the main mineral constituent . The open ocean has about 35 g of solids per litre , a salinity of 3.5 % . Salt is essential for life in general , and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes . The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues . Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings , and salting is an important method of food preservation . Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 8,000 years ago , when people living in an area in what is now known as the country of Romania were boiling spring water to extract the salts ; a salt-works in China dates to approximately the same period . Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews , the Greeks , the Romans , the Byzantines , the Hittites , Egyptians , and the Indians . Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea , along specially built salt roads , and across the Sahara in camel caravans . The scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues . Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural significance . Salt is processed from salt mines , or by the evaporation of seawater ( sea salt ) or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools . Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine , and is used in many industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride , plastics , paper pulp and many other products . Of the annual global production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt , only about 6 % is used for human consumption . Other uses include water conditioning processes , de-icing highways , and agricultural use . Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency . As well as its use in cooking and at the table , salt is present in many processed foods . Sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute . Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases , such as hypertension , in children and adults . Such health effects of salt have long been studied . Accordingly , numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods . The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium , equivalent to 5 grams of salt per day . |
SOLAR_(ISS) | SOLAR is an ESA science observatory on the Columbus Laboratory , which is part of the International Space Station . SOLAR was launched with Columbus on February 2008 aboard STS-122 . It was externally mounted to Columbus with the European Technology Exposure Facility ( EuTEF ) . SOLAR has three main space science instruments : SOVIM , SOLSPEC and SOL-ACES . Together they provide detailed measurements of the Sun 's spectral irradiance . The SOLAR platform and its instruments are controlled from the Belgian User Support and Operations Centre ( B.USOC ) , located at the Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy ( BISA ) in Uccle , Belgium . SOVIM ( Solar Variantions and Irradiance Monitor ) instrument is based on an earlier instrument ( SOVA ) which flew aboard the European Retrievable Carrier , launched on STS-46 in 1992 . It is designed to measure solar radiation with wavelengths from 200 nanometers - 100 micrometers . This covers near-ultraviolet , visible and infrared areas of the spectrum . SOLSPEC ( Solar Spectral irradiance measurements ) is designed to measure the solar spectral irradiance in the 165 - to 3000-nanometer range with high spectral resolution . SOL-ACES ( Auto-calibrating Extreme Ultraviolet and Ultraviolet spectrometers ) consists of four grazing incidence grating spectrometers . They are designed to measure the EUV/UV spectral regime ( 17 nanometers - 220 nanometers ) with moderate spectral resolution . The mission was originally planned for a 2003 launch , but was delayed following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster . Some other components are also planned to be mounted externally on Columbus on future missions , including the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space ( ACES ) . Another name for SOLAR may be Solar Monitoring Observatory or SMO . In 2012 , the entire 450-tonne station was rotated so SOLAR could observe a full rotation of the Sun continuously . A Solar rotation takes about 24 -- 28 days depending on the latitude . |
Satellite_temperature_measurements | The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . |
Satellite_navigation | A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning . It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location ( longitude , latitude , and altitude/elevation ) to high precision ( within a few metres ) using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites . The system can be used for providing position , navigation or for tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver ( satellite tracking ) . The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high precision , which allows time synchronisation . Satnav systems operate independently of any telephonic or internet reception , though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the positioning information generated . A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system ( GNSS ) . only the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System ( GPS ) , the Russian GLONASS and the European Union 's Galileo are global operational GNSSs . The European Union 's Galileo GNSS is scheduled to be fully operational by 2020 . China is in the process of expanding its regional BeiDou Navigation Satellite System into the global BeiDou-2 GNSS by 2020 . India currently has satellite-based augmentation system , GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation ( GAGAN ) , which enhances the accuracy of NAVSTAR GPS and GLONASS positions . India has already launched the IRNSS , with an operational name NAVIC ( Navigation with Indian Constellation ) , a constellation of satellites for navigation in and around the Indian Subcontinent . It is expected to be fully operational by June 2016 . France and Japan are in the process of developing regional navigation systems as well . Global coverage for each system is generally achieved by a satellite constellation of 18 -- 30 medium Earth orbit ( MEO ) satellites spread between several orbital planes . The actual systems vary , but use orbital inclinations of > 50 ° and orbital periods of roughly twelve hours ( at an altitude of about 20000 km ) . |
Scenario_analysis | Scenario analysis is a process of analyzing possible future events by considering alternative possible outcomes ( sometimes called `` alternative worlds '' ) . Thus , scenario analysis , which is one of the main forms of projection , does not try to show one exact picture of the future . Instead , it presents several alternative future developments . Consequently , a scope of possible future outcomes is observable . Not only are the outcomes observable , also the development paths leading to the outcomes . In contrast to prognoses , the scenario analysis is not based on extrapolation of the past or the extension of past trends . It does not rely on historical data and does not expect past observations to remain valid in the future . Instead , it tries to consider possible developments and turning points , which may only be connected to the past . In short , several scenarios are fleshed out in a scenario analysis to show possible future outcomes . Each scenario normally combines optimistic , pessimistic , and more and less probable developments . However , all aspects of scenarios should be plausible . Although highly discussed , experience has shown that around three scenarios are most appropriate for further discussion and selection . More scenarios risks making the analysis overly complicated . |
Science | Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe . Contemporary science is typically subdivided into the natural sciences , which study the material universe ; the social sciences , which study people and societies ; and the formal sciences , which study logic and mathematics . The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations . Disciplines which use science , like engineering and medicine , may also be considered to be applied sciences . From classical antiquity through the 19th century , science as a type of knowledge was more closely linked to philosophy than it is now , and in the Western world the term `` natural philosophy '' once encompassed fields of study that are today associated with science , such as astronomy , medicine , and physics . However , during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the scientific method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics . While the classification of the material world by the ancient Indians and Greeks into air , earth , fire and water was more philosophical , medieval Middle Easterns used practical and experimental observation to classify materials . In the 17th and 18th centuries , scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws . Over the course of the 19th century , the word `` science '' became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world . It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology , chemistry , and physics reached their modern shapes . That same time period also included the origin of the terms `` scientist '' and `` scientific community '' , the founding of scientific institutions , and the increasing significance of their interactions with society and other aspects of culture . |
Science_(journal) | Science , also widely referred to as Science Magazine , is the peer-reviewed academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) and one of the world 's top academic journals . It was first published in 1880 , is currently circulated weekly and has a print subscriber base of around 130,000 . Because institutional subscriptions and online access serve a larger audience , its estimated readership is 570,400 people . The major focus of the journal is publishing important original scientific research and research reviews , but Science also publishes science-related news , opinions on science policy and other matters of interest to scientists and others who are concerned with the wide implications of science and technology . Unlike most scientific journals , which focus on a specific field , Science and its rival Nature cover the full range of scientific disciplines . According to the Journal Citation Reports , Sciences 2015 impact factor was 34.661 . Although it is the journal of the AAAS , membership in the AAAS is not required to publish in Science . Papers are accepted from authors around the world . Competition to publish in Science is very intense , as an article published in such a highly cited journal can lead to attention and career advancement for the authors . Fewer than 7 % of articles submitted are accepted for publication . Science is based in Washington , D.C. , United States , with a second office in Cambridge , England . |
Scale_invariance | In physics , mathematics , statistics , and economics , scale invariance is a feature of objects or laws that do not change if scales of length , energy , or other variables , are multiplied by a common factor , thus represent a universality . The technical term for this transformation is a dilatation ( also known as dilation ) , and the dilatations can also form part of a larger conformal symmetry . In mathematics , scale invariance usually refers to an invariance of individual functions or curves . A closely related concept is self-similarity , where a function or curve is invariant under a discrete subset of the dilatations . It is also possible for the probability distributions of random processes to display this kind of scale invariance or self-similarity . In classical field theory , scale invariance most commonly applies to the invariance of a whole theory under dilatations . Such theories typically describe classical physical processes with no characteristic length scale . In quantum field theory , scale invariance has an interpretation in terms of particle physics . In a scale-invariant theory , the strength of particle interactions does not depend on the energy of the particles involved . In statistical mechanics , scale invariance is a feature of phase transitions . The key observation is that near a phase transition or critical point , fluctuations occur at all length scales , and thus one should look for an explicitly scale-invariant theory to describe the phenomena . Such theories are scale-invariant statistical field theories , and are formally very similar to scale-invariant quantum field theories . Universality is the observation that widely different microscopic systems can display the same behaviour at a phase transition . Thus phase transitions in many different systems may be described by the same underlying scale-invariant theory . In general , dimensionless quantities are scale invariant . The analogous concept in statistics are standardized moments , which are scale invariant statistics of a variable , while the unstandardized moments are not . |
SBUV/2 | The Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer , or SBUV/2 , is a series of operational remote sensors on NOAA weather satellites in Sun-synchronous orbits which have been providing global measurements of stratospheric total ozone , as well as ozone profiles , since March 1985 . The SBUV/2 instruments were developed from the SBUV experiment flown on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft which improved on the design of the original BUV instrument on Nimbus-4 . These are nadir viewing radiometric instruments operating at mid to near UV wavelengths . SBUV/2 data sets overlap with data from SBUV and TOMS instruments on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft . These extensive data sets ( January 1979 to the present ) measure the density and vertical distribution of ozone in the Earth 's atmosphere from six to 30 miles . SBUV/2 looks down at the Earth 's atmosphere and the reflected sunlight at wavelengths characteristic of ozone . The SBUV/2 wavelength `` channels '' range from 252 nanometer ( nm ) to 340 nm . Ozone is measured as a ratio of sunlight incident on the atmosphere to the amount of sunlight scattered back into space . From this information , the total ozone between the instrument and the ground can be calculated . The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance ( backscattered solar energy ) in the near ultraviolet spectrum ( 160 to 400 nm ) . The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent ; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent ; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of `` trace '' constituents on the ozone layer . The Ball Aerospace-built SBUV/2 helped to discover the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1987 , and continues to monitor this phenomenon . Atmospheric ozone absorbs the sun 's ultraviolet rays , which are believed to cause gene mutations , skin cancer , and cataracts in humans . Ultraviolet rays may also damage crops and aquatic ecosystems . The first SBUV/2 instrument was launched on NOAA-9 in December 1984 and the last instrument in this series was launched in February 2009 aboard the NOAA-19 spacecraft . |
Satellite_watching | Satellite watching or satellite spotting is a hobby which consists of the observation and tracking of Earth artificial satellites . People with this hobby are variously called satellite watchers , trackers , spotters , observers , etc. . Amateur satellite spotting traces back to the days of early artificial satellites when the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory launched the Operation Moonwatch ( 1956 ) , a program to enlist amateur astronomers in the effort to track Soviet sputniks , in an analogy with the World War II Ground Observer Corps program to spot enemy bombers . Moonwatch was crucial until professional stations were deployed in 1958 . The program was discontinued in 1975 . There are many planetarium and satellite tracking computer programs to aid satellite spotting . More recently , accompanied by the development of Augmented Reality technologies , satellite watching mobile programs have been developed . During the 64th International Astronautical Congress 2013 in Beijing a citizen science method to track satellite beacon signals by a Distributed Ground Station Network ( DGSN ) was presented . The purpose of this network is to support small satellites and cubesats of universities . In February 2008 the front page of The New York Times hosted an article about an amateur satellite watcher Ted Molczan in relation to the story about falling American spy satellite USA 193 . American officials were reluctant to provide information about the satellite , and instead , Ted Molczan , as the article says , `` uncovers some of the deepest of the government 's expensive secrets and shares them on the Internet . '' NASA 's Orbital Information Group have been providing free information about over 10,000 objects in Earth orbit . Recently this has been identified as a security threat , and a pilot program was launched in 2008 to replace the OIG website with a US Air Force site with more restrictive access . |
Saint_Helena | Saint Helena ( -LSB- ˌseɪnt_həˈliːnə -RSB- ) is a volcanic tropical island in the South Atlantic Ocean , 4,000 km east of Rio de Janeiro and 1,950 km west of the Cunene River , which marks the border between Namibia and Angola in southwestern Africa . It is part of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena , Ascension and Tristan da Cunha . Saint Helena measures about 16 by and has a population of 4,534 ( 2016 census ) . It was named after Saint Helena of Constantinople . The island , one of the most remote islands in the world , was uninhabited when discovered by the Portuguese in 1502 . It was an important stopover for ships sailing to Europe from Asia and South Africa for centuries . Napoleon was imprisoned there in exile by the British , as were Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo ( for leading a Zulu army against British rule ) and more than 5,000 Boers taken prisoner during the second Boer War . Between 1791 and 1833 , Saint Helena became the site of a series of experiments in conservation , reforestation and attempts to boost rainfall artificially . This environmental intervention was closely linked to the conceptualisation of the processes of environmental change and helped establish the roots of environmentalism . Saint Helena is Britain 's second-oldest remaining overseas territory after Bermuda . |
Scandinavian_Peninsula | The Scandinavian Peninsula ( Skandinaviska halvön Den skandinaviske halvøy Skandinavian niemimaa ? Скандинавский полуостров , Skandinavsky poluostrov ) is a peninsula in Northern Europe , which generally comprises the mainland of Sweden , the mainland of Norway ( with the exception of a small coastal area bordering Russia ) , the northwestern area of Finland , as well as a narrow area in the west of the Pechengsky District of Russia . The name of the peninsula is derived from the term Scandinavia , the cultural region of Denmark , Norway and Sweden . That cultural name is in turn derived from the name of Scania , the region at the southern extremity of the peninsula which has during periods been part of Denmark , which is the ancestral home of the Danes , and which is now part of Sweden . The derived term `` Scandinavian '' also refers to the Germanic peoples who speak North Germanic languages , considered to be a dialect continuum derived from Old Norse . These modern North Germanic languages found in Scandinavia are Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish ; additionally Faroese and Icelandic belong to the same language group , but they are not part of the modern Scandinavian dialect continuum and are not intelligible with the other languages . The Scandinavian Peninsula is the largest peninsula of Europe , larger than the Balkan , the Iberian and the Italian peninsulas . During the Ice Ages , the sea level of the Atlantic Ocean dropped so much that the Baltic Sea , the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland disappeared , and the countries now surrounding them , including Germany , Poland , the other Baltic countries and Scandinavia , were directly joined by land . |
Santa_Clara_Valley | The Santa Clara Valley runs south-southeast from the southern end of San Francisco Bay in Northern California in the United States . The northern , urbanized end of the valley is part of a region locally known as the `` South Bay '' and also part of the electronics , research , and manufacturing area known as Silicon Valley . Most of the Santa Clara Valley is in Santa Clara County , including its county seat , San Jose . The valley , named after the Spanish Mission Santa Clara , was for a time known as the Valley of Heart 's Delight for its high concentration of orchards , flowering trees , and plants . Until the 1960s it was the largest fruit production and packing region in the world with 39 canneries . |
Science_(disambiguation) | Science ( from the Latin scientia , meaning `` knowledge '' ) usually describes the effort to understand how the universe works through the scientific method , with observable evidence as the basis of that understanding ; a way of understanding the world through thought and experimentation . The sciences tend to be positivistic in their approach to truth and knowledge , in contrast to the humanities which tend toward relativism . Historically and also in common use , the word `` science '' is often used as a shorthand for natural science , but other recognized science fields are social sciences , behavioral sciences , applied sciences , and formal sciences - but not to humanities . `` Science '' may refer to any knowledge which has been reduced to an algorithmic system , and does not involve the need for an indescribable skill or mastery , such as a fine art . The general term art , and particularly the technical arts have some overlap with science , in this latter sense . Disciplines referred to as `` science '' ( the branches of science ) : Natural science , the use of the scientific method to study the universe Social science , the use of the scientific method to study society Formal sciences , study of rules , logic , and formal systems of information.Publications : Science ( journal ) , the academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Science ( magazine ) , initially named Science 80 ( in 1980 , then Science 81 ... ) it was a general science magazine published by the American Association for the Advancement of Science , until it was merged into Discover in 1986 . The Sciences , a popular science magazine published by the New York Academy of Sciences from 1961 to 2001In music : Chico Science ( 1966-1997 ) , a Brazilian singer and composer S.C.I.E.N.C.E. , a 1997 album by Incubus Science ( album ) , a 2006 music album by the Norwegian singer -- songwriter Thomas Dybdahl `` Science '' , a song on the album Toxicity by System of a DownOther uses : '' ' Science Ltd , a company founded and owned by artist Damien Hirst Kieron `` Science '' Harvey , a `` Housemate '' in Big Brother 2005 Science ( TV channel ) , a television channel owned by Discovery Networks |
Saskatchewan | Saskatchewan ( -LSB- səˈskætʃəwᵻn -RSB- or -LSB- - ˌwɑːn -RSB- ) is a prairie and boreal province in western Canada , the only province without natural borders . It has an area of 651900 km2 , nearly 10 percent of which ( 59366 km2 ) is fresh water , composed mostly of rivers , reservoirs , and the province 's 100,000 lakes . Saskatchewan is bordered on the west by Alberta , on the north by the Northwest Territories , on the east by Manitoba , to the northeast by Nunavut , and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dakota . As of December 2013 , Saskatchewan 's population was estimated at 1,114,170 . Residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province , while the northern boreal half is mostly forested and sparsely populated . Of the total population , roughly half live in the province 's largest city , Saskatoon , or the provincial capital , Regina . Other notable cities include Prince Albert , Moose Jaw , Yorkton , Swift Current , North Battleford , and the border city Lloydminster ( partially within Alberta ) . Saskatchewan is a landlocked province with large distances to moderating bodies of waters . As a result , its climate is extremely continental , rendering severe winters throughout the province . Southern areas have very warm or hot summers . Midale and Yellow Grass near the U.S. border are tied for the highest ever recorded temperatures in Canada with 45 C observed at both locations on July 5 , 1937 . In winter , temperatures below -45 C are possible even in the south during extreme cold snaps . Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups , and first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774 . It became a province in 1905 , carved out from the vast North-West Territories , which had until then included most of the Canadian Prairies . In the early 20th century the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy ; North America 's first social-democratic government was elected in 1944 . The province 's economy is based on agriculture , mining , and energy . Saskatchewan 's current premier is Brad Wall and its lieutenant-governor is Vaughn Solomon Schofield . In 1992 , the federal and provincial governments signed a historic land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan . The First Nations received compensation and were permitted to buy land on the open market for the tribes ; they have acquired about 3079 km2 , now reserve lands . Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas , including Saskatoon . |
SS_Arctic | SS Arctic was a 2,856-ton paddle steamer , one of the Collins Line , which operated a transatlantic passenger and mail steamship service during the 1850s . She was the largest of a fleet of four , built with the aid of US government subsidies to challenge the transatlantic supremacy of the British-backed Cunard Line . During its four-year period of service , the ship was renowned both for its speed and for the luxury of its accommodation . In September 1854 , while on passage to New York from Liverpool , Arctic collided in fog with the French steamer Vesta off the coast of Newfoundland , and sank four hours later . Arctic 's lifeboat capacity was around 180 , enough for less than half those on board ; the boats were launched in an atmosphere of panic and disorder , and the principle of `` women and children first '' was ignored . From around 400 on board ( 250 passengers , 150 crew ) , 24 male passengers and 61 crew survived ; all the women and children died . No one was called to account for the disaster , and no official enquiry was held . Lifeboat provision on passenger-carrying ships remained inadequate until well into the 20th century . |
STS-2 | STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA , and the second flight of the orbiter Columbia . The mission launched on 12 November 1981 and landed two days later on 14 November . STS-2 marked the first time in history that a manned , reusable orbital vehicle returned to space for a second time . This mission tested the Shuttle Imaging Radar as part of the OSTA-1 payload , along with a wide range of other experiments including the Shuttle robotic arm , commonly known as Canadarm . Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer , Feature Identification and Location Experiment , Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites , Ocean Color Experiment , Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning , Heflex Bioengineering Test , and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package ( ACIP ) . One of the feats accomplished was various tests on the OMS including starting and restarting the rocket engines while in orbit and various adjustments to its orbit . The OMS tests also help adjust the Shuttle 's orbit for use of the radar . During the mission , President Reagan called the crew of STS-2 from Mission Control in Houston , Texas while they were in orbit . In the early planning stages of the Space Shuttle program , STS-2 was intended to be a reboost mission for the aging Skylab space station . However , such a mission was impeded by delays with the shuttle 's development and the deteriorating orbit of Skylab . Skylab ultimately de-orbited on 11 July 1979 , two years before the launch of STS-2 . |
ST-1 | ST-1 is a communications satellite owned by Singapore Telecom and Taiwan 's Chunghwa Telecom Company , Ltd. . It was placed launched on 25 August 1998 , by an Ariane 4 rocket . The two companies jointly operate the spacecraft from control centres located in Seletar , Singapore and Taipei , Taiwan , respectively . ST-1 carries 16 high-power transponders and 14 medium-power C-band transponders . Weighing over 3,000 kg ( 6,600 lb . ) at launch , ST-1 generates more than 6,500 Watts of electrical power . The satellite 's broad C-band coverage beam extends from the Middle East to Japan , including all of Southeast Asia . ST-1 also features two Ku-band spot beams : a `` K1 '' beam that stretches from Taiwan to Singapore and from Indonesia to Malaysia and a `` K2 '' beam centred over the Indian subcontinent . The ST-1 satellite currently delivers telephony , digital DTH broadcasting , VSAT and other business services throughout the region . Singapore Telecom and Taiwan 's Chunghwa Telecom Company are currently operating the replacement satellite ST-2 after ST-1 has reached its mission duration in 2011 . |
Saiga_antelope | The saiga antelope ( -LSB- ˈsaɪɡə -RSB- , Saiga tatarica ) is a critically endangered antelope that originally inhabited a vast area of the Eurasian steppe zone from the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains and Caucasus into Dzungaria and Mongolia . They also lived in Beringian North America during the Pleistocene . Today , the dominant subspecies ( S. t. tatarica ) is only found in one location in Russia ( in The Republic of Kalmykia ) and three areas in Kazakhstan ( the Ural , Ustiurt and Betpak-Dala populations ) . A proportion of the Ustiurt population migrates south to Uzbekistan and occasionally Turkmenistan in winter . It is extinct in People 's Republic of China and southwestern Mongolia . It was hunted extensively in Romania and Moldova until it became extinct in those regions in the end of the 18th century . The Mongolian subspecies ( S. t. mongolica ) is found only in western Mongolia . |
San_Joaquin_River | The San Joaquin River -LSB- ˈsæn_wɑːˈkiːn -RSB- is the longest river of Central California in the United States . The 366 mi long river starts in the high Sierra Nevada , and flows through the rich agricultural region of the northern San Joaquin Valley before reaching Suisun Bay , San Francisco Bay , and the Pacific Ocean . An important source of irrigation water as well as a wildlife corridor , the San Joaquin is among the most heavily dammed and diverted of California 's rivers . People have inhabited the San Joaquin Valley for more than 8,000 years , and it was long one of the major population centers of pre-Columbian California . Starting in the late 18th century , successive waves of explorers then settlers , mainly Spanish and American , emigrated to the San Joaquin basin , first exploiting then driving out the indigenous tribes . The newcomers quickly appropriated the rich natural and hydrologic resources of the watershed for use in farms and cities , but found themselves plagued by flood and drought . Because of the uniform topography of the San Joaquin Valley , floods once transformed much of the lower river into a huge inland sea . In the 20th century , many levees and dams were built on the San Joaquin and all of its major tributaries . These engineering works changed the fluctuating nature of the river forever , and cut off the Tulare Basin from the rest of the San Joaquin watershed . Once habitat for hundreds of thousands of spawning salmon and millions of migratory birds , today the river is subject to tremendous water-supply , navigation and regulation works by various federal agencies , which have dramatically reduced the flow of the river since the 20th century . |
Satellite_system_(astronomy) | A satellite system is a set of gravitationally bound objects in orbit around a planetary mass object or minor planet . Generally speaking , it is a set of natural satellites ( moons ) , although such systems may also consist of bodies such as circumplanetary disks , ring systems , moonlets , minor-planet moons and artificial satellites any of which may themselves have satellite systems of their own . Some bodies also possess quasi-satellites that have orbits gravitationally influenced by their primary , but are generally not considered to be part of a satellite system . Satellite systems can have complex interactions including magnetic , tidal , atmospheric and orbital interactions such as orbital resonances and libration . Individually major satellite objects are designated in Roman numerals . Satellite systems are referred to either by the possessive adjectives of their primary ( e.g. `` Jovian system '' ) , or less commonly by the name of their primary ( e.g. `` Jupiter system '' ) . Where only one satellite is known , or it is a binary orbiting a common centre of gravity , it may be referred to using the hyphenated names of the primary and major satellite ( e.g. the `` Earth-Moon system '' ) . Many Solar System objects are known to possess satellite systems , though their origin is still unclear . Notable examples include the largest satellite system , the Jovian system , with 67 known moons ( including the large Galilean moons ) and the Saturnian System with 62 known moons ( and the most visible ring system in the Solar System ) . Both satellite systems are large and diverse . In fact all of the giant planets of the Solar System possess large satellite systems as well as planetary rings , and it is inferred that this is a general pattern . Several objects farther from the Sun also have satellite systems consisting of multiple moons , including the complex Plutonian system where multiple objects orbit a common center of mass , as well as many asteroids and plutinos . Apart from the Earth-Moon system and Mars ' system of two tiny natural satellites , the other terrestrial planets are generally not considered satellite systems , although some have been orbited by artificial satellites originating from Earth . Little is known of satellite systems beyond the Solar System , although it is inferred that natural satellites are common . J1407b is an example of an extrasolar satellite system . It is also theorised that Rogue planets ejected from their planetary system could retain a system of satellites . |
Saint_Lawrence_Lowlands | The Great Lakes-St . Lawrence Lowland is a bowl-shaped area located near to the Great Lakes ( excluding Lake shed the land in the area downwards , depositing soil deeper into the earth , With this process no longer in effect , the deposited soil and land is currently rising up ) . The Great Lakes basin area effectively became a lake after the ice sheet melted . However , due to the presence of a deep faultline , all of this water was eventually siphoned into the ocean . Thus , the primary defining historic feature of the lowlands the presence of deep soils within the watershed and estuary of the St. Lawrence River . This feature occurs in more than one distinct Peninsular Ontario south and west of and the surrounding area , including the lower Ottawa Valley and the St Lawrence below the Thousand Islands as far as Quebec City A narrow ribbon of land along both shores of the lower St Lawrence Estuary , hemmed in on the north shore by the Canadian Shield and on the south which faces into the flow of the river , has accreted alluvial soils from the Great Lakes basin . The lowlands are split into these sub-regions by intrusions from adjacent physiographic regions . Peninsular Ontario lowlands are separated from the lowlands of the lower St Lawrence at the Thousand Islands by the geologic feature called the Frontenac Axis , where ancient granites of the Canadian Shield cross over and become the Adirondacks . The next notable pinching occurs at Quebec City , where again the Shield meets the shore . Anticosti and Newfoundland , both being islands , are separated by stretches of open salt water . There are animals such as warblers , wolves , snowshoe hares , blue birds , white-tailed deer , red-winged black birds , coyotes , frogs , eagles , and beavers . |
Santiago | Santiago de Chile -LSB- sanˈtjaɣo ðe ˈtʃile -RSB- , or simply Santiago , is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas . It is the center of Chile 's largest and the most densely populated conurbation . The city is entirely located in the country 's central valley , at an elevation of 520 m above mean sea level . Founded in 1541 , Santiago has been the capital city of Chile since colonial times . The city has a downtown core of 19th-century neoclassical architecture and winding side-streets , dotted by art deco , neo-gothic , and other styles . Santiago 's cityscape is shaped by several stand-alone hills and the fast-flowing Mapocho River , lined by parks such as Parque Forestal . The Andes Mountains can be seen from most points in the city . These mountains contribute to a considerable smog problem , particularly during winter . The city outskirts are surrounded by vineyards and Santiago is within a few hours of both the mountains and the Pacific Ocean . Santiago is the cultural , political and financial center of Chile and is home to the regional headquarters of many multinational corporations . The Chilean executive and judiciary are located in Santiago , but Congress meets mostly in nearby Valparaíso . Santiago is named after the biblical figure St. James . |
Science_communication | Science communication generally refers to public communication presenting science-related topics to non-experts . This often involves professional scientists ( called `` outreach '' or `` popularization '' ) , but has also evolved into a professional field in its own right . It includes science exhibitions , journalism , policy or media production . Science communication also includes communication between scientists ( for instance through scientific journals ) , as well as between scientists and non-scientists ( especially during public controversies over science and in citizen science initiatives . Science communication may generate support for scientific research or study , or to inform decision making , including political and ethical thinking . There is increasing emphasis on explaining methods rather than simply findings of science . This may be especially critical in addressing scientific misinformation , which spreads easily because it is not subject to the constraints of scientific method . Science communicators can use entertainment and persuasion including humour , storytelling and metaphors . Scientists can be trained in some of the techniques used by actors to improve their communication . |
S&P_500_Index | The Standard & Poor 's 500 , often abbreviated as the S&P 500 , or just `` the S&P '' , is an American stock market index based on the market capitalizations of 500 large companies having common stock listed on the NYSE or NASDAQ . The S&P 500 index components and their weightings are determined by S&P Dow Jones Indices . It differs from other U.S. stock market indices , such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average or the Nasdaq Composite index , because of its diverse constituency and weighting methodology . It is one of the most commonly followed equity indices , and many consider it one of the best representations of the U.S. stock market , and a bellwether for the U.S. economy . The National Bureau of Economic Research has classified common stocks as a leading indicator of business cycles . The S&P 500 was developed and continued to be maintained by S&P Dow Jones Indices , a joint venture majority-owned by S&P Global . S&P Dow Jones Indices publishes many stock market indices such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average , S&P MidCap 400 , the S&P SmallCap 600 , and the S&P Composite 1500 . It is a free-float capitalization-weighted index , and has many ticker symbols , such as : ^ GSPC , INX , and $ SPX . |
Santa_Ana_winds | The Santa Ana winds are strong , extremely dry down-slope winds that originate inland and affect coastal Southern California and northern Baja California . They originate from cool , dry high-pressure air masses in the Great Basin . Santa Ana winds are known for the hot dry weather that they bring in the fall ( often the hottest of the year ) , but they can arise at other times of the year . They often bring the lowest relative humidities of the year to coastal Southern California . These low humidities , combined with the warm , compressionally-heated airmass , plus high wind speeds , create critical fire weather conditions . Known as `` devil winds '' , Santa Anas are infamous for fanning regional wildfires . |
San_Bernardino_County,_California | San Bernardino County , officially the County of San Bernardino , is a county located in the southern portion of the U.S. state of California . As of the 2010 census , the population was 2,035,210 , making it the fifth-most populous county in California , and the 12th-most populous in the United States . The county seat is San Bernardino . San Bernardino County is included in the Riverside-San Bernardino-Ontario , CA Metropolitan Statistical Area , also known as the Inland Empire , as well as the Los Angeles-Long Beach , CA Combined Statistical Area . With an area of 20,105 square miles , San Bernardino County is the largest county in the United States by area , although some of Alaska 's boroughs and census areas are larger . It is larger than each of the nine smallest states , larger than the four smallest states combined , and larger than 70 different sovereign nations . Located in southeast California , the thinly populated deserts and mountains of this vast county stretch from where the bulk of the county population resides in two Census County Divisions , some 1,422,745 people as of the 2010 Census , covering the 450 square miles ( 1,166 km2 ) south of the San Bernardino Mountains in San Bernardino Valley , to the Nevada border and the Colorado River . |
Salar_de_Uyuni | Salar de Uyuni ( or Salar de Tunupa ) is the world 's largest salt flat at 10,582 square kilometers ( 4,086 sq mi ) . It is located in the Daniel Campos Province in Potosí in southwest Bolivia , near the crest of the Andes and is at an elevation of 3,656 meters ( 11,995 ft ) above sea level . The Salar was formed as a result of transformations between several prehistoric lakes . It is covered by a few meters of salt crust , which has an extraordinary flatness with the average elevation variations within one meter over the entire area of the Salar . The crust serves as a source of salt and covers a pool of brine , which is exceptionally rich in lithium . It contains 50 to 70 % of the world 's known lithium reserves , which is in the process of being extracted . The large area , clear skies , and exceptional flatness of the surface make the Salar an ideal object for calibrating the altimeters of Earth observation satellites . The Salar serves as the major transport route across the Bolivian Altiplano and is a major breeding ground for several species of flamingos . Salar de Uyuni is also a climatological transitional zone since the towering tropical cumulus congestus and cumulonimbus incus clouds that form in the eastern part of the salt flat during the summer can not permeate beyond its drier western edges , near the Chilean border and the Atacama Desert . |
Scientific_citation | Scientific citation is providing detailed reference in a scientific publication , typically a paper or book , to previous published ( or occasionally private ) communications which have a bearing on the subject of the new publication . The purpose of citations in original work is to allow readers of the paper to refer to cited work to assist them in judging the new work , source background information vital for future development , and acknowledge the contributions of earlier workers . Citations in , say , a review paper bring together many sources , often recent , in one place . To a considerable extent the quality of work , in the absence of other criteria , is judged on the number of citations received , adjusting for the volume of work in the relevant topic . While this is not necessarily a reliable measure , counting citations is trivially easy ; judging the merit of complex work can be very difficult . Previous work may be cited regarding experimental procedures , apparatus , goals , previous theoretical results upon which the new work builds , theses , and so on . Typically such citations establish the general framework of influence and the mindset of research , and especially as `` part of what science '' it is , and to help determine who conducts the peer review . Disciplined citation of prior works in mathematics and science is known at least as far back as Euclid . Late in the first millennium , Islamic scholars developed their practice of isnad , or `` backing '' , which established the validity of sayings of Muhammad in the hadith . The Asharite school of early Muslim philosophy extended this into fiqh or jurisprudence , while the Mutazilite school used the traditional methods and applied them to science . In some form , then , achieving authority for new work by citing accepted authorities is a near-universal idea among the peoples of the Mediterranean , whose educated people were exposed to one or other of these practices well before the European Renaissance and the emergence of the formal scientific method . |
Secession_in_the_United_States | In the context of the United States , secession primarily refers to the withdrawal of one or more States from the Union that constitutes the United States ; but may loosely refer to leaving a State or territory to form a separate territory or new State , or to the severing of an area from a city or county within a State . Threats and aspirations to secede from the United States , or arguments justifying secession , have been a feature of the country 's politics almost since its birth . Some have argued for secession as a constitutional right and others as from a natural right of revolution . In Texas v. White , the United States Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession unconstitutional , while commenting that revolution or consent of the States could lead to a successful secession . The most serious attempt at secession was advanced in the years 1860 and 1861 as eleven southern States each declared secession from the United States , and joined together to form the Confederate States of America . This movement collapsed in 1865 with the defeat of Confederate forces by Union armies in the American Civil War . A 2008 Zogby International poll found that 22 % of Americans believed that `` any state or region has the right to peaceably secede and become an independent republic '' . A 2014 Reuters/Ipsos poll showed 24 % of Americans supported their state seceding from the union if necessary ; 53 % opposed the idea . Republicans were somewhat more supportive than Democrats . Respondents cited issues like gridlock , governmental overreach , the Affordable Care Act and a loss of faith in the federal government as reasons for secession . |
Sensitivity_analysis | Sensitivity analysis is the study of how the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model or system ( numerical or otherwise ) can be apportioned to different sources of uncertainty in its inputs . A related practice is uncertainty analysis , which has a greater focus on uncertainty quantification and propagation of uncertainty ; ideally , uncertainty and sensitivity analysis should be run in tandem . The process of recalculating outcomes under alternative assumptions to determine the impact of a variable under sensitivity analysis can be useful for a range of purposes , including : Testing the robustness of the results of a model or system in the presence of uncertainty . Increased understanding of the relationships between input and output variables in a system or model . Uncertainty reduction , through the identification of model inputs that cause significant uncertainty in the output and should therefore be the focus of attention in order to increase robustness ( perhaps by further research ) . Searching for errors in the model ( by encountering unexpected relationships between inputs and outputs ) . Model simplification -- fixing model inputs that have no effect on the output , or identifying and removing redundant parts of the model structure . Enhancing communication from modelers to decision makers ( e.g. by making recommendations more credible , understandable , compelling or persuasive ) . Finding regions in the space of input factors for which the model output is either maximum or minimum or meets some optimum criterion ( see optimization and Monte Carlo filtering ) . In case of calibrating models with large number of parameters , a primary sensitivity test can ease the calibration stage by focusing on the sensitive parameters . Not knowing the sensitivity of parameters can result in time being uselessly spent on non-sensitive ones . To seek to identify important connections between observations , model inputs , and predictions or forecasts , leading to the development of better models . |
Shrub | A shrub or bush is a small to medium-sized woody plant . It is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and shorter height , usually under 6 m ( 20 ft ) tall . Plants of many species may grow either into shrubs or trees , depending on their growing conditions . Small , low shrubs , generally less than 2 m ( 6.6 ft ) tall , such as lavender , periwinkle and most small garden varieties of roses , are often termed subshrubs . An area of cultivated shrubs in a park or a garden is known as a shrubbery . When clipped as topiary , suitable species or varieties of shrubs develop dense foliage and many small leafy branches growing close together . Many shrubs respond well to renewal pruning , in which hard cutting back to a `` stool '' results in long new stems known as `` canes '' . Other shrubs respond better to selective pruning to reveal their structure and character . Shrubs in common garden practice are generally considered broad-leaved plants , though some smaller conifers such as mountain pine and common juniper are also shrubby in structure . Species that grow into a shrubby habit may be either deciduous or evergreen . |
Severe_thunderstorm_watch | A Severe Thunderstorm Watch ( SAME code : SVA ) is issued when weather conditions are favorable for the development of severe thunderstorms . If thunderstorms are expected to be of sufficient strength such that there is a significant risk that they may produce tornadoes , then a Tornado Watch ( which also automatically implies that severe thunderstorms are possible ) is issued . A Severe Thunderstorm Watch can also be upgraded to a Tornado Watch if conditions originally forecasted for limited to no tornadic development change to allow possible tornado formation ( in which case the existing severe thunderstorm watch , or a portion of it , would be replaced ) . A watch must not be confused with a Severe Thunderstorm Warning . A watch does not necessarily mean that severe weather is actually occurring , only that atmospheric conditions have created a significant risk for severe weather to occur . If severe weather actually does occur , a severe thunderstorm warning or tornado warning will be issued , and urgent action should be taken immediately . While a severe thunderstorm watch does not imply in its name the risk for tornadoes , the risk for tornadoes in such a scenario is not necessarily zero as severe thunderstorms can and occasionally do spawn tornadoes even after only a severe thunderstorm watch has been issued . In the United States , the Storm Prediction Center ( a national guidance center of the National Weather Service ( NWS ) ) issues watches for areas of the lower 48 states that are likely to produce tornadoes and/or severe thunderstorms . The local NWS forecast offices in Hawaii and Alaska issue their own Severe Thunderstorm and Tornado Watches . The terms `` blue box '' and `` yellow box '' refer to the assigned coloring used for watch box outlines used in Storm Prediction Center and National Weather Service products as well as by television broadcast media ( in the case of the latter , blue is typically assigned to highlight severe thunderstorm watches whereas yellow is often assigned to severe thunderstorm warnings ) . The watch boxes ( or weather watches , WWs ) are usually issued in the format of x miles north and south , or east and west , or either side of a line from y miles direction of city , state , to z miles another direction of another city , state . For example : `` 50 miles either side of a line from 10 miles northeast of Columbia , South Carolina to 15 miles south-southwest of Montgomery , Alabama '' . ( `` Either side '' means perpendicular to the center line . ) When displayed on a map , they are usually shown as either a blue or yellow outline , depending on the source . In addition , a list of all counties included in its area of responsibility is now issued by each local NWS forecast office for each watch . In the event that a Severe Thunderstorm Watch is likely to lead to very destructive winds or hail ( usually from a major derecho event ) , enhanced wording with the words Particularly Dangerous Situation ( PDS ) can be added to the watch . This is rare with Severe Thunderstorm Watches , since the tornado threat has to remain low enough to only warrant a Severe Thunderstorm Watch and a higher tornado threat would warrant a normal Tornado Watch despite the extreme wind or hail threat . It is far more common with Tornado Watches . Similar watches and warnings are issued by Environment Canada 's Meteorological Service of Canada from their offices in Vancouver , Edmonton , Toronto , Montreal and Dartmouth , Nova Scotia . |
Siberian_High | The Siberian High ( also Siberian Anticyclone ) is a massive collection of cold dry air that accumulates in the northeastern part of Eurasia from September until April . It is usually centered on Lake Baikal . It reaches its greatest size and strength in the winter when the air temperature near the center of the high-pressure cell is often lower than -40 ° C . The atmospheric pressure is often above 1040 mbar . The Siberian High is the strongest semi-permanent high in the northern hemisphere and is responsible for both the lowest temperature in the Northern Hemisphere , of -67.8 ° C on 15 January 1885 at Verkhoyansk , and the highest pressure , 1083.8 mbar ( 108.38 kPa , 32.01 inHg ) at Agata , Krasnoyarsk Krai on 31 December 1968 , ever recorded . The Siberian High is responsible both for severe winter cold and attendant dry conditions with little snow and few or no glaciers across Siberia , Mongolia , and China . During the summer , the Siberian High is largely replaced by the Asiatic low . |
Sea_level | Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) . |
Sea_surface_temperature | Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites . |
Shuttle_Radar_Topography_Mission | The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission ( SRTM ) is an international research effort that obtained digital elevation models on a near-global scale from 56 ° S to 60 ° N , to generate the most complete high-resolution digital topographic database of Earth prior to the release of the ASTER GDEM in 2009 . SRTM consisted of a specially modified radar system that flew on board the Space Shuttle Endeavour during the 11-day STS-99 mission in February 2000 , based on the older Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-band Synthetic Aperture Radar ( SIR-C/X-SAR ) , previously used on the Shuttle in 1994 . To acquire topographic data , the SRTM payload was outfitted with two radar antennas . One antenna was located in the Shuttle 's payload bay , the other -- a critical change from the SIR-C/X-SAR , allowing single-pass interferometry -- on the end of a 60-meter ( 200-foot ) mast that extended from the payload bay once the Shuttle was in space . The technique employed is known as interferometric synthetic aperture radar . The elevation models are arranged into tiles , each covering one degree of latitude and one degree of longitude , named according to their south western corners . For example , `` n45e006 '' stretches from 45 ° N 6 ° E to 46 ° N 7 ° E and `` s45w006 '' from 45 ° S 6 ° W to 44 ° S 5 ° W . The resolution of the raw data is one arcsecond ( 30 m ) , but this has only been released over United States territory . A derived one arcsecond dataset with trees and other non-terrain features removed covering Australia was made available in November 2011 ; the raw data are restricted for government use . For the rest of the world , only three arcsecond ( 90 m ) data are available . Each one arcsecond tile has 3,601 rows , each consisting of 3,601 16 bit bigendian cells . The dimensions of the three arcsecond tiles are 1201 x 1201 . The original SRTM elevations were calculated relative to the WGS84 ellipsoid and then the EGM96 geoid separation values were added to convert to heights relative to the geoid for all the released products . The elevation models derived from the SRTM data are used in geographic information systems . They can be downloaded freely over the Internet , and their file format ( . hgt ) is widely supported . The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission is an international project spearheaded by the U.S. National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency ( NGA ) and the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) . NASA transferred the SRTM payload to the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in 2003 ; the canister , mast , and antenna are now on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly , Virginia . |
Scriptural_geologist | Scriptural geologists ( or Mosaic geologists ) were a heterogeneous group of writers in the early nineteenth century , who claimed `` the primacy of literalistic biblical exegesis '' and a short Young Earth time-scale . Their views were marginalised and ignored by the scientific community of their time . They `` had much the same relationship to ` philosophical ' ( or scientific ) geologists as their indirect descendants , the twentieth-century creationists . '' Paul Wood describes them as `` mostly Anglican evangelicals '' with `` no institutional focus and little sense of commonality '' . They generally lacked any background in geology , and had little influence even in church circles . |
Season | A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather , ecology and hours of daylight . Seasons result from the yearly orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to the plane of the orbit . In temperate and polar regions , the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth 's surface , variations of which may cause animals to go into hibernation or to migrate , and plants to be dormant . During May , June , and July , the northern hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the sun . The same is true of the southern hemisphere in November , December , and January . It is the tilt of the Earth that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months which increases the solar flux . However , due to seasonal lag , June , July , and August are the hottest months in the northern hemisphere and December , January , and February are the hottest months in the southern hemisphere . In temperate and subpolar regions , four calendar-based seasons are generally recognized : spring , autumn or fall , and winter . Ecologists often use a six-season model for temperate climate regions : prevernal , vernal , estival , serotinal , autumnal , and hibernal . Many tropical regions have two seasons : the rainy , wet , or monsoon season and the dry season . Some have a third cool , mild , or harmattan season . Seasons often held special significance for agrarian societies , whose lives revolved around planting and harvest times , and the change of seasons was often attended by ritual . In some parts of the world , some other `` seasons '' capture the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season , tornado season , and wildfire season . The most historically important of these are the three seasons -- flood , growth , and low water -- which were previously defined by the former annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt . |
Sea_level_rise | A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems . |
Scientific_method | The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena , acquiring new knowledge , or correcting and integrating previous knowledge . To be termed scientific , a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning . The Oxford Dictionaries Online define the scientific method as `` a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century , consisting in systematic observation , measurement , and experiment , and the formulation , testing , and modification of hypotheses '' . Experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses . The most important part of the scientific method is the experiment . The scientific method is a continuous process , which usually begins with observations about the natural world . Human beings are naturally inquisitive , so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear and often develop ideas ( hypotheses ) about why things are the way they are . The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways , including making further observations about nature . In general , the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data . Depending on how well the tests match the predictions , the original hypothesis may require refinement , alteration , expansion or even rejection . If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a general theory may be developed . Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another , identifiable features are frequently shared in common between them . The overall process of the scientific method involves making conjectures ( hypotheses ) , deriving predictions from them as logical consequences , and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions . A hypothesis is a conjecture , based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question . The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad . Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments . Under modern interpretations , a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable , implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis ; otherwise , the hypothesis can not be meaningfully tested . The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis . Experiments can take place anywhere from a college lab to CERN 's Large Hadron Collider . There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method , however . Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps , it represents rather a set of general principles . Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry ( or to the same degree ) , and are not always in the same order . Some philosophers and scientists have argued that there is no scientific method , such as Lee Smolin and Paul Feyerabend ( in his Against Method ) . Nola and Sankey remark that `` For some , the whole idea of a theory of scientific method is yester-year 's debate '' . |
Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation | A shutdown or slowdown of the thermohaline circulation is an effect of global warming on a major ocean circulation . Data from 2010 NASA suggested that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation has not slowed down , but may have actually sped up slightly in the recent past . However , this has been superseded by a 2015 study that suggests ` that the Gulf Stream has weakened by 15-20 % ' |
Sea_ice | Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs . |
Secondary_atmosphere | A secondary atmosphere is an atmosphere of a planet that did not form by accretion during the formation of the planet 's star . A secondary atmosphere instead forms from internal volcanic activity , or by accumulation of material from comet impacts . It is characteristic of terrestrial planets , which includes the other terrestrial planets in the Solar System : Mercury , Venus , and Mars . Secondary atmospheres are relatively thin compared to primary atmospheres like Jupiter 's . Further processing of a secondary atmosphere , for example by the processes of biological life , can produce a tertiary atmosphere , such as that of Earth . |
Shore | A shore or a shoreline is the fringe of land at the edge of a large body of water , such as an ocean , sea , or lake . In physical oceanography , a shore is the wider fringe that is geologically modified by the action of the body of water past and present , while the beach is at the edge of the shore , representing the intertidal zone where there is one . In contrast to a coast , a shore can border any body of water , while the coast must border an ocean ; in that sense a coast is a type of shore ; however , coast often refers to an area far wider than the shore , often streaching miles into the interior . Shores are influenced by the topography of the surrounding landscape , as well as by water induced erosion , such as waves . The geological composition of rock and soil dictates the type of shore which is created . |
Science_policy | Science policy is concerned with the allocation of resources for the conduct of science towards the goal of best serving the public interest . Topics include the funding of science , the careers of scientists , and the translation of scientific discoveries into technological innovation to promote commercial product development , competitiveness , economic growth and economic development . Science policy focuses on knowledge production and role of knowledge networks , collaborations and the complex distributions of expertise , equipment and know-how . Understanding the processes and organizational context of generating novel and innovative science and engineering ideas is a core concern of science policy . Science policy topics include weapons development , health care and environmental monitoring . Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve science . A large and complex web of factors influences the development of science and engineering that includes government science policy makers , private firms ( including both national and multi-national firms ) , social movements , media , non-governmental organizations , universities , and other research institutions . In addition , science policy is increasingly international as defined by the global operations of firms and research institutions as well as by the collaborative networks of non-governmental organizations and of the nature of scientific inquity itself . |
Scientific_revolution | The scientific revolution is a concept used by historians to describe the emergence of modern science during the early modern period , when developments in mathematics , physics , astronomy , biology ( including human anatomy ) and chemistry transformed the views of society about nature . The scientific revolution took place in Europe towards the end of the Renaissance period and continued through the late 18th century , influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment . While its dates are debated , the publication in 1543 of Nicolaus Copernicus 's De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ( On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres ) is often cited as marking the beginning of the scientific revolution . The concept of a scientific revolution 's taking place over an extended period emerged in the eighteenth century in the work of Jean Sylvain Bailly , who saw a two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new . The beginning of the scientific revolution , the Scientific Renaissance , was focused on the recovery of the knowledge of the ancients ; this is generally considered to have ended in 1632 with publication of Galileo 's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems . The completion of the scientific revolution is attributed to the `` grand synthesis '' of Isaac Newton 's 1687 Principia , that formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation , and completed the synthesis of a new cosmology . By the end of the 18th century , the scientific revolution had given way to the `` Age of Reflection . '' |
Seneca_Lake_(New_York) | Seneca Lake is the largest of the glacial Finger Lakes of the U.S. state of New York , and the deepest lake entirely within the state . It is promoted as being the lake trout capital of the world , and is host of the National Lake Trout Derby . Because of its depth and relative ease of access , the US Navy uses Seneca Lake to perform test and evaluation of equipment ranging from single element transducers to complex sonar arrays and systems . The lake takes its name from the Seneca nation of Native Americans . At the north end of Seneca Lake is the city of Geneva , New York , home of Hobart and William Smith Colleges and the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station , a division of Cornell University . At the south end of the lake is the village of Watkins Glen , New York , famed for auto racing and waterfalls . Due to Seneca Lake 's unique macroclimate it is home to over 50 wineries , many of them farm wineries and is the location of the Seneca Lake AVA . ( See Seneca Lake wine trail ) . |
Secularization | Secularization is the transformation of a society from close identification and affiliation with religious values and institutions toward nonreligious values and secular institutions . The secularization thesis refers to the belief that as societies progress , particularly through modernization and rationalization , religion loses its authority in all aspects of social life and governance . The term secularization is also used in the context of the lifting of the monastic restrictions from a member of the clergy . Secularization refers to the historical process in which religion loses social and cultural significance . As a result of secularization the role of religion in modern societies becomes restricted . In secularized societies faith lacks cultural authority , and religious organizations have little social power . Secularization has many levels of meaning , both as a theory and a historical process . Social theorists such as Karl Marx , Sigmund Freud , Max Weber , and Émile Durkheim , postulated that the modernization of society would include a decline in levels of religiosity . Study of this process seeks to determine the manner in which , or extent to which religious creeds , practices and institutions are losing social significance . Some theorists argue that the secularization of modern civilization partly results from our inability to adapt broad ethical and spiritual needs of mankind to the increasingly fast advance of the physical sciences . The term also has additional meanings , primarily historical and religious . Applied to church property , historically it refers to the seizure of monastic lands and buildings , such as Henry VIII 's Dissolution of the Monasteries in England and the later acts during the French Revolution as well as by various anti-clerical European governments during the 18th and 19th centuries , which resulted in the expulsion and suppression of the religious communities which occupied them . The 19th-century Kulturkampf in Germany and similar events in many other countries also were expressions of secularization . Still another form of Secularization refers to the act of Prince-Bishops or holders of a position in a Monastic or Military Order - holding a combined religious and secular authority under the Catholic Church - who broke away and made themselves into completely secular ( typically , Protestant ) hereditary rulers . For example , Gotthard von Kettler , the last Master of the Livonian Order , converted to Lutheranism , secularised ( and took to himself ) the lands of Semigallia and Courland which he had held on behalf of the order - which enabled him to marry and leave to his descendants the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia . In the 1960s there was a dramatic shift toward secularization in Western Europe , North America ( especially Québec ) , Australia , and New Zealand . This transformation was intertwined with major social factors : economic prosperity , youth rebelling against the rules and conventions of society , women 's liberation , radical theology , and radical politics . |
Shrubland | Shrubland , scrubland , scrub or brush is a plant community characterised by vegetation dominated by shrubs , often also including grasses , herbs , and geophytes . Shrubland may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity . It may be the mature vegetation type in a particular region and remain stable over time , or a transitional community that occurs temporarily as the result of a disturbance , such as fire . A stable state may be maintained by regular natural disturbance such as fire or browsing . Shrubland may be unsuitable for human habitation because of the danger of fire . The term `` shrubland '' was coined in 1903 . Shrubland species generally show a wide range of adaptations to fire , such as heavy seed production , lignotubers , and fire-induced germination . |
Scientific_information_from_the_Mars_Exploration_Rover_mission | NASA 's 2003 Mars Exploration Rover Mission has amassed an enormous amount of scientific information related to the Martian geology and atmosphere , as well as providing some astronomical observations from Mars . This article covers information gathered by the Opportunity rover during the initial phase of its mission . Information on science gathered by Spirit can be found mostly in the Spirit rover article . The ongoing unmanned Mars exploration mission , commenced in 2003 sent two robotic rovers , Spirit and Opportunity , to explore the Martian surface and geology . The mission was led by Project Manager Peter Theisinger of NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Principal Investigator Steven Squyres , professor of astronomy at Cornell University . Primary among the mission 's scientific goals is to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars . In recognition of the vast amount of scientific information amassed by both rovers , two asteroids have been named in their honor : 37452 Spirit and 39382 Opportunity . On January 24 , 2014 , NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will now be searching for evidence of ancient life , including a biosphere based on autotrophic , chemotrophic or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms , as well as ancient water , including fluvio-lacustrine environments ( plains related to ancient rivers or lakes ) that may have been habitable . The search for evidence of habitability , taphonomy ( related to fossils ) , and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective . |
Sierra_Nevada_(U.S.) | The Sierra Nevada ( -LSB- siˈɛrə_nᵻˈvɑːdə -RSB- or -LSB- nᵻˈvædə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈsjera neˈβaða -RSB- , snowy range ) is a mountain range in the Western United States , between the Central Valley of California and the Basin and Range Province . The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California , although the Carson Range spur lies primarily in Nevada . The Sierra Nevada is part of the American Cordillera , a chain of mountain ranges ( cordillera ) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western `` backbone '' of North America , Central America , South America and Antarctica . The Sierra runs 400 mi north-to-south , and is approximately 70 mi across east-to-west . Notable Sierra features include Lake Tahoe , the largest alpine lake in North America ; Mount Whitney at 14505 ft , the highest point in the contiguous United States ; and Yosemite Valley , sculpted by glaciers out of one-hundred-million-year-old granite . The Sierra is home to three national parks , twenty wilderness areas , and two national monuments . These areas include Yosemite , Sequoia , and Kings Canyon National Parks ; and Devils Postpile National Monument . The character of the range is shaped by its geology and ecology . More than one hundred million years ago during the Nevadan orogeny , granite formed deep underground . The range started to uplift four M.A. ( million years ) ago , and erosion by glaciers exposed the granite and formed the light-colored mountains and cliffs that make up the range . The uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada , which are reflected by the presence of five life zones . Uplift continues due to faulting caused by tectonic forces , creating spectacular fault block escarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra . The Sierra Nevada has a significant history . The California Gold Rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855 . Due to inaccessibility , the range was not fully explored until 1912 . |
Sign | A sign is an object , quality , event , or entity whose presence or occurrence indicates the probable presence or occurrence of something else . A natural sign bears a causal relation to its object -- for instance , thunder is a sign of storm , or medical symptoms signify a disease . A conventional sign signifies by agreement , as a full stop signifies the end of a sentence ; similarly the words and expressions of a language , as well as bodily gestures , can be regarded as signs , expressing particular meanings . The physical objects most commonly referred to as signs ( notices , road signs , etc. , collectively known as signage ) generally inform or instruct using written text , symbols , pictures or a combination of these . The philosophical study of signs and symbols is called semiotics ; this includes the study of semiosis , which is the way in which signs ( in the semiotic sense ) operate . |
Shale_gas | Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' . |
Seven_Seas | The `` Seven Seas '' ( as in the idiom `` sail the Seven Seas '' ) is an ancient phrase for all the world 's oceans . Since the 19th century , the term has been taken to include seven oceanic bodies of water : the Arctic Ocean the North Atlantic Ocean the South Atlantic Ocean the Indian Ocean the North Pacific Ocean the South Pacific Ocean the Southern ( or Antarctic ) Ocean The World Ocean is also collectively known as just `` the sea '' . The International Hydrographic Organization lists over 70 distinct bodies of water called seas . |
Scientific_journal | In academic publishing , a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science , usually by reporting new research . There are thousands of scientific journals in publication , and many more have been published at various points in the past ( see list of scientific journals ) . Most journals are highly specialized , although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields . Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed , in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal 's standards of quality , and scientific validity . If the journal 's editor considers the paper appropriate , at least two researchers preferably from the same field check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument , and must agree to publish it . Although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines , they are actually quite different . Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually , as one would read a magazine . The publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method . If they are describing experiments or calculations , they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results . Each such journal article becomes part of the permanent scientific record . The history of scientific journals dates from 1665 , when the French Journal des sçavans and the English Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first began systematically publishing research results . Over a thousand , mostly ephemeral , were founded in the 18th century , and the number has increased rapidly after that . Articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education . Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field and direct their own research . An essential part of a scientific article is citation of earlier work . The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations ( citation impact ) . Some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles , and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper . Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written usually only on established topics , while the latest research and more obscure topics are only accessible through scientific articles . In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs . Academic credentials for promotion into academic ranks are established in large part by the number and impact of scientific articles published , and many doctoral programs allow for thesis by publication , where the candidate is required to publish a certain number of scientific articles . The standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely . Some journals , such as Nature , Science , PNAS , and Physical Review Letters , have a reputation of publishing articles that mark a fundamental breakthrough in their respective fields . In many fields , a formal or informal hierarchy of scientific journals exists ; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of the articles it will select for publication , and usually will also have the highest impact factor . In some countries , journal rankings can be utilized for funding decisions and even evaluation of individual researchers , although they are poorly suited for that purpose . It is also common for journals to have a regional focus , specializing in publishing papers from a particular country or other geographic region , like African Invertebrates . Articles tend to be highly technical , representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the field of science covered by the journal . They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field and advanced students . In some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content . Usually , rigorous rules of scientific writing are enforced by the editors ; however , these rules may vary from journal to journal , especially between journals from different publishers . Articles are usually either original articles reporting completely new results or reviews of current literature . There are also scientific publications that bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors . |
Silent_Spring | Silent Spring is an environmental science book by Rachel Carson . The book was published on 27 September 1962 and it documented the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides . Carson accused the chemical industry of spreading disinformation and public officials of accepting industry claims unquestioningly . In the late 1950s , Carson turned her attention to conservation , especially environmental problems that she believed were caused by synthetic pesticides . The result was Silent Spring ( 1962 ) , which brought environmental concerns to the American public . Silent Spring was met with fierce opposition by chemical companies , but it spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy , led to a nationwide ban on DDT for agricultural uses , and inspired an environmental movement that led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . In 1996 , a follow-up book , Beyond Silent Spring , co-written by H.F. van Emden and David Peakall , was published . In 2006 , Silent Spring was named one of the 25 greatest science books of all time by the editors of Discover Magazine . |
Scientific_modelling | Scientific modelling is a scientific activity , the aim of which is to make a particular part or feature of the world easier to understand , define , quantify , visualize , or simulate by referencing it to existing and usually commonly accepted knowledge . It requires selecting and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in the real world and then using different types of models for different aims , such as conceptual models to better understand , operational models to operationalize , mathematical models to quantify , and graphical models to visualize the subject . Modelling is an essential and inseparable part of many scientific disciplines , each of which have their own ideas about specific types of modelling . There is also an increasing attention to scientific modelling in fields such as science education , philosophy of science , systems theory , and knowledge visualization . There is growing collection of methods , techniques and meta-theory about all kinds of specialized scientific modelling . |
Silent_majority | The silent majority is an unspecified large group of people in a country or group who do not express their opinions publicly . The term was popularized by U.S. President Richard Nixon in a November 3 , 1969 , speech in which he said , `` And so tonight -- to you , the great silent majority of my fellow Americans -- I ask for your support . '' In this usage it referred to those Americans who did not join in the large demonstrations against the Vietnam War at the time , who did not join in the counterculture , and who did not participate in public discourse . Nixon along with many others saw this group of Middle Americans as being overshadowed in the media by the more vocal minority . Preceding Nixon by half a century , it was employed in 1919 by Warren Harding 's campaign for the 1920 presidential nomination . Before that , the phrase was used in the 19th century as a euphemism referring to all the people who have died , and others have used it before and after Nixon to refer to groups of voters in various nations of the world . |
Self-sufficiency | Self-sufficiency ( also called self-containment ) is the state of not requiring any aid , support , or interaction for survival ; it is a type of personal or collective autonomy . On a national scale , a totally self-sufficient economy that does not trade with the outside world is called an autarky . Self-sufficiency is a type of sustainable living in which nothing is consumed other than what is produced by the self-sufficient individuals . Examples of attempts at self-sufficiency in North America include simple living , homesteading , off-the-grid , survivalism , DIY ethic and the back-to-the-land movement . Practices that enable or aid self-sufficiency include autonomous building , permaculture , sustainable agriculture , and renewable energy . The term is also applied to limited forms of self-sufficiency , for example growing one 's own food or becoming economically independent of state subsidies . The self-sufficiency of an electrical installation measures its degree of grid independence and is defined as the ratio between the amount of locally produced energy that is locally consumed , either directly or after storage , and the total consumption . |
Scientific_consensus | Scientific consensus is the collective judgment , position , and opinion of the community of scientists in a particular field of study . Consensus implies general agreement , though not necessarily unanimity . Consensus is normally achieved through communication at conferences , the publication process , replication ( reproducible results by others ) , and peer review . These lead to a situation in which those within the discipline can often recognize such a consensus where it exists , but communicating to outsiders that consensus has been reached can be difficult , because the ` normal ' debates through which science progresses may seem to outsiders as contestation . On occasion , scientific institutes issue position statements intended to communicate a summary of the science from the `` inside '' to the `` outside '' of the scientific community . In cases where there is little controversy regarding the subject under study , establishing what the consensus is can be quite straightforward . Scientific consensus may be invoked in popular or political debate on subjects that are controversial within the public sphere but which may not be controversial within the scientific community , such as evolution or the claimed linkage of MMR vaccinations and autism . |
Seawater | Seawater , or salt water , is water from a sea or ocean . On average , seawater in the world 's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5 % ( 35 g/L , or 0.600 M ) This means that every kilogram ( roughly one litre by volume ) of seawater has approximately 35 g of dissolved salts ( predominantly sodium and chloride ions ) . Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L . Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water ( density 1.0 kg/L at 4 C ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume . The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases . At typical salinity , it freezes at about -2 C . The coldest seawater ever recorded ( in a liquid state ) was in 2010 , in a stream under an Antarctic glacier , and measured -2.6 C. Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4 . However , there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units . |
Sea | A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land . More broadly , `` the sea '' is the interconnected system of Earth 's salty , oceanic waters -- considered as one global ocean or as several principal oceanic divisions . The sea moderates Earth 's climate and has important roles in the water cycle , carbon cycle , and nitrogen cycle . Although the sea has been traveled and explored since prehistory , the modern scientific study of the sea -- oceanography -- dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s . The sea is conventionally divided into up to five large oceanic sections -- including the International Hydrographic Organization 's four named oceans ( the Atlantic , Pacific , Indian , and Arctic ) and the Southern Ocean ; smaller , second-order sections , such as the Mediterranean , are known as seas . Owing to the present state of continental drift , the Northern Hemisphere is now fairly equally divided between land and sea ( a ratio of about 2:3 ) but the South is overwhelmingly oceanic ( 1:4.7 ) . Salinity in the open ocean is generally in a narrow band around 3.5 % by mass , although this can vary in more landlocked waters , near the mouths of large rivers , or at great depths . About 85 % of the solids in the open sea are sodium chloride . Deep-sea currents are produced by differences in salinity and temperature . Surface currents are formed by the friction of waves produced by the wind and by tides , the changes in local sea level produced by the gravity of the Moon and Sun . The direction of all of these is governed by surface and submarine land masses and by the rotation of the Earth ( the Coriolis effect ) . Former changes in sea levels have left continental shelves , shallow areas in the sea close to land . These nutrient-rich waters teem with life , which provide humans with substantial supplies of food -- mainly fish , but also shellfish , mammals , and seaweed -- which are both harvested in the wild and farmed . The most diverse areas surround great tropical coral reefs . Whaling in the deep sea was once common but whales ' dwindling numbers prompted international conservation efforts and finally a moratorium on most commercial hunting . Oceanography has established that not all life is restricted to the sunlit surface waters : even under enormous depths and pressures , nutrients streaming from hydrothermal vents support their own unique ecosystem . Life may have started there and aquatic microbial mats are generally credited with the oxygenation of Earth 's atmosphere ; both plants and animals first evolved in the sea . The sea is an essential aspect of human trade , travel , mineral extraction , and power generation . This has also made it essential to warfare and left major cities exposed to earthquakes and volcanoes from nearby faults ; powerful tsunami waves ; and hurricanes , typhoons , and cyclones produced in the tropics . This importance and duality has affected human culture , from early sea gods to the epic poetry of Homer to the changes induced by the Columbian Exchange , from burial at sea to Basho 's haikus to hyperrealist marine art , and inspiring music ranging from the shanties in The Complaynt of Scotland to Rimsky-Korsakov 's `` The Sea and Sinbad 's Ship '' to A-mei 's `` Listen to the Sea '' . It is the scene of leisure activities including swimming , diving , surfing , and sailing . However , population growth , industrialization , and intensive farming have all contributed to present-day marine pollution . Atmospheric carbon dioxide is being absorbed in increasing amounts , lowering its pH in a process known as ocean acidification . The shared nature of the sea has made overfishing an increasing problem . |
Scurvy | Scurvy is a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C. Early symptoms include weakness , feeling tired , curly hair , and sore arms and legs . Without treatment , decreased red blood cells , gum disease , and bleeding from the skin may occur . As scurvy worsens there can be poor wound healing , personality changes , and finally death from infection or bleeding . Scurvy is caused by not enough vitamin C in the diet . It typically takes at least a month of little to no vitamin C before symptoms occur . In modern times , it occurs most commonly in people with mental disorders , unusual eating habits , alcoholism , and old people who live alone . Other risk factors include intestinal malabsorption and dialysis . Humans and certain other animals require vitamin C in their diets to make the building blocks for collagen . Diagnosis is typically based on physical signs , X-rays , and improvement after treatment . Treatment is with vitamin C supplements taken by mouth . Improvement often begins in a few days with complete recovery in a few weeks . Sources of vitamin C in the diet include citrus fruit and a number of vegetables such as tomatoes and potatoes . Cooking often decreases vitamin C in foods . Scurvy is currently rare . It occurs more often in the developing world in association with malnutrition . Rates among refugees are reported at 5 % to 45 % . Scurvy was described as early as the time of ancient Egypt . It was a limiting factor in long distance sea travel , often killing large numbers of people . A Scottish surgeon in the Royal Navy , James Lind , was the first to prove it could be treated with citrus fruit in a 1753 publication . His experiments represented the first controlled trial . It took another 40 years before the British Navy began giving out lemon juice routinely . |
Seed_predation | Seed predation , often referred to as granivory , is a type of plant-animal interaction in which granivores ( seed predators ) feed on the seeds of plants as a main or exclusive food source , in many cases leaving the seeds damaged and not viable . Granivores are found across many families of vertebrates ( especially mammals and birds ) as well as invertebrates ( mainly insects ) ; thus , seed predation occurs in virtually all terrestrial ecosystems . Seed predation is commonly divided into two distinctive temporal categories , pre-dispersal and post-dispersal predation , which may involve different strategies and requirements and have different implications at the individual and population level . Nevertheless , regardless of timing , seed predation has great implications for plant population dynamics . To counterbalance effects of predation , plants have evolved defenses such as seed morphology ( size , shape , toughness ) and chemical defenses ( secondary compounds such as tannins and alkaloids ) to defend against their seed predators . However , as plants have adapted defenses to seed predation ( e.g. , chemical compounds ) , so have seed predators adapted to plant defenses ( e.g. , ability to detoxify chemical compounds ) . Thus , many interesting examples of coevolution arise from this dynamic relationship . Most humans are predominantly granivores , even if they eat a wide variety of other foods . |
Severnaya_Zemlya | Severnaya Zemlya ( Се́верная Земля́ ( Northern Land ) , -LSB- ˈsʲevʲɪrnəjə zʲɪˈmlʲa -RSB- ) is a 37,000 km2 archipelago in the Russian high Arctic . It lies off Siberia 's Taymyr Peninsula , separated from the mainland by the Vilkitsky Strait . This archipelago separates two marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean , the Kara Sea in the west and the Laptev Sea in the east . The largest glacier in the Russian Federation , the Academy of Sciences Glacier , is located in Severnaya Zemlya . Severnaya Zemlya was first noted in 1913 and first charted in 1930 -- 32 , making it the last sizeable archipelago on Earth to be explored . Administratively , the islands form part of Russia 's Krasnoyarsk Krai federal subject . In Soviet times there were a number of research stations in different locations , but currently there are no human inhabitants in Severnaya Zemlya except for the Prima Polar Station near Cape Baranov . Severnaya Zemlya is notable in connection with the ongoing multi-year Arctic sea ice decline . Until recently , ice joined the islands to Eurasia even at its smallest extent during the late summer melt season , blocking the Northeast Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific . By the late summer of 2012 , however , the permanent ice had reached a record low extent and open water appeared to the north of the archipelago . |
Sensationalism | Sensationalism is a type of editorial bias in mass media in which events and topics in news stories and pieces are overhyped to present biased impressions on events , which may cause a manipulation to the truth of a story . Sensationalism may include reporting about generally insignificant matters and events that do not influence overall society and biased presentations of newsworthy topics in a trivial or tabloid manner contrary to the standards of professional journalism . Some tactics include being deliberately obtuse , appealing to emotions , being controversial , intentionally omitting facts and information , being loud and self-centered and acting to obtain attention . Trivial information and events are sometimes misrepresented and exaggerated as important or significant and often include stories about the actions of individuals and small groups of people , the content of which is often insignificant and irrelevant relative to the macro-level day-to-day events that occur globally . Furthermore , the content and subject matter typically affect neither the lives of the masses nor society and instead is broadcast and printed to attract viewers and readers . Examples include press coverage about the Bill Clinton/Monica Lewinsky scandal , Casey Anthony Trial , Tonya Harding 's role in the attack of Nancy Kerrigan , the Elian Gonzalez affair and the O.J. Simpson murder case . |
Scientific_Alliance | The Scientific Alliance is a British industry-friendly organization that promotes biotechnology , genetically modified food , with links to groups involved in climate change denial activities . Its stated aim is to `` bring together both scientists and non-scientists committed to rational discussion and debate on the challenges facing the environment today . '' The group was created in 2001 by quarryman Robert Durward , director of the British Aggregates Association , and political consultant Mark Adams of the public relations firm , Foresight Communications . The Scotsman newspaper has reported that on contacting the Alliance to ask about Durward 's role , ` after some uncertainty , the switchboard it shares with a number of other firms denied any knowledge of Mr Durward 's existence . Matthew Drinkwater , the one person responding to calls to its offices , could also be contacted by ringing the offices of Foresight Communications . ' Foresight Communications is a PR firm established by Mark Adams in January 2001 . As well as The Scientific Alliance , its client list includes the British Aggregates Association and the New Party ( formerly known as the `` Peoples Alliance '' ( sic ) ) which was also established by Durward and Adams . Bob May of the Royal Society has criticized the Scientific Alliance for holding a forum for groups involved in climate change denial and for its links to the George C. Marshall Institute , saying that the `` climate change denial lobby '' had a `` poisonous '' influence on the media . In December 2004 the organization published a joint report with the George C. Marshall Institute in Washington , a thinktank that has received $ 715,000 in funding from the U.S. oil company , ExxonMobil . The Alliance 's director , Martin Livermore , wrote that `` The Scientific Alliance has never received money from ExxonMobil '' and according to the Alliance , `` donations are only accepted without conditions and afford no influence over -LSB- the group 's -RSB- policy '' . |
Scott_Pruitt | Edward Scott Pruitt ( born May 9 , 1968 ) is an American lawyer and Republican politician from the state of Oklahoma who is currently the 14th Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency . Nominated by President Donald Trump in December 2016 , Pruitt was confirmed by the Senate to lead the EPA on February 17 , 2017 . Pruitt represented Tulsa and Wagoner Counties in the Oklahoma Senate from 1998 until 2006 . In 2006 , Pruitt narrowly lost to Oklahoma Speaker of the House Todd Hiett in a bid for the Republican nomination for Lieutenant Governor of Oklahoma . In 2010 , Pruitt was elected Attorney General of Oklahoma . In that role , he was viewed as a proponent of federalism , supporting religious freedom laws and opposing abortion rights , same-sex marriage , the Affordable Care Act , and environmental regulations as a self-described `` leading advocate against the EPA 's activist agenda '' . He fought the agency 's efforts on climate and clear air in several lawsuits , often closely coordinating with the fossil fuel industry , which supported him with almost $ 300,000 in campaign contributions . In 2012 , Pruitt was elected as chairman of the Republican Attorneys General Association , and re-elected for a second term in February 2013 . Pruitt rejects the scientific consensus that human activities are a primary contributor to climate change . He specifically rejects the stance of the scientific community , including US agencies NASA and NOAA , that carbon dioxide is the primary contributor . |
Selection_bias | Selection bias is the bias introduced by the selection of individuals , groups or data for analysis in such a way that proper randomization is not achieved , thereby ensuring that the sample obtained is not representative of the population intended to be analyzed . It is sometimes referred to as the selection effect . The phrase `` selection bias '' most often refers to the distortion of a statistical analysis , resulting from the method of collecting samples . If the selection bias is not taken into account , then some conclusions of the study may not be accurate . |
Sexagenary_cycle | The sexagenary cycle , also known as the Stems-and-Branches or ganzhi , is a cycle of sixty terms used for reckoning time in China and the East Asian cultural sphere . It appears as a means of recording days in the first Chinese written texts , the Shang oracle bones of the late second millennium BC . Its use to record years began around the middle of the 3rd century BC . The cycle and its variations have been an important part of the traditional calendrical systems in Chinese-influenced Asian states and territories , particularly those of Japan , Korea , and Vietnam , with the old Chinese system still in use in Taiwan . This traditional method of numbering days and years no longer has any significant role in modern Chinese time keeping or the official calendar . However , the sexagenary cycle is still used in names of many historical events , such as the Chinese Xinhai Revolution , the Japanese Boshin War , and the Korean Imjin War . It also continues to have a role in contemporary Chinese astrology and fortune telling . |
Sedimentation | Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier . This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them : these forces can be due to gravity , centrifugal acceleration , or electromagnetism . In geology , sedimentation is often used as the opposite of erosion , i.e. , the terminal end of sediment transport . In that sense , it includes the termination of transport by saltation or true bedload transport . Settling is the falling of suspended particles through the liquid , whereas sedimentation is the termination of the settling process . In estuarine environments , settling can be influenced by the presence or absence of vegetation . Trees such as mangroves are crucial to the attenuation of waves or currents , promoting the settlement of suspended particles . Sedimentation may pertain to objects of various sizes , ranging from large rocks in flowing water to suspensions of dust and pollen particles to cellular suspensions to solutions of single molecules such as proteins and peptides . Even small molecules supply a sufficiently strong force to produce significant sedimentation . The term is typically used in geology to describe the deposition of sediment which results in the formation of sedimentary rock , but it is also used in various chemical and environmental fields to describe the motion of often-smaller particles and molecules . This process is also used in the biotech industry to separate cells from the culture media . |
Sea_breeze | A sea breeze or onshore breeze is any wind that blows from a large body of water toward or onto a landmass ; it develops due to differences in air pressure created by the differing heat capacities of water and dry land . As such sea breezes are more localised than prevailing winds . Because land absorbs solar radiation far more quickly than water , a sea breeze is a common occurrence along coasts after sunrise . By contrast , a land breeze or offshore breeze is the reverse effect : dry land also cools more quickly than water and , after sunset , a sea breeze dissipates and the wind instead flows from the land towards the sea . Sea breezes and land breezes are both important factors in coastal regions ' prevailing winds . The term offshore wind may refer to any wind over open water . Wind farms are often situated near a coast to take advantage of the normal daily fluctuations of wind speed resulting from sea or land breezes . While many onshore wind farms and offshore wind farms do not rely on these winds , a nearshore wind farm is a type of offshore wind farm located on shallow coastal waters to take advantage of both sea and land breezes . ( For practical reasons , other offshore wind farms are situated further out to sea and rely on prevailing winds rather than sea breezes . ) |
Shale_oil_extraction | Shale oil extraction is an industrial process for unconventional oil production . This process converts kerogen in oil shale into shale oil by pyrolysis , hydrogenation , or thermal dissolution . The resultant shale oil is used as fuel oil or upgraded to meet refinery feedstock specifications by adding hydrogen and removing sulfur and nitrogen impurities . Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground ( ex situ processing ) by mining the oil shale and then treating it in processing facilities . Other modern technologies perform the processing underground ( on-site or in situ processing ) by applying heat and extracting the oil via oil wells . The earliest description of the process dates to the 10th century . In 1684 , Great Britain granted the first formal extraction process patent . Extraction industries and innovations became widespread during the 19th century . The industry shrank in the mid-20th century following the discovery of large reserves of conventional oil , but high petroleum prices at the beginning of the 21st century have led to renewed interest , accompanied by the development and testing of newer technologies . As of 2010 , major long-standing extraction industries are operating in Estonia , Brazil , and China . Its economic viability usually requires a lack of locally available crude oil . National energy security issues have also played a role in its development . Critics of shale oil extraction pose questions about environmental management issues , such as waste disposal , extensive water use , waste water management , and air pollution . |
Season_creep | In phenology , season creep is observed changes in the timing of the seasons , such as earlier indications of spring widely observed in temperate areas across the Northern Hemisphere . Phenological records analyzed by climate scientists have shown significant temporal trends in the observed time of seasonal events , from the end of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century . In Europe , season creep has been associated with the arrival of spring moving up by approximately one week in a recent 30-year period . Other studies have put the rate of season creep measured by plant phenology in the range of 2 -- 3 days per decade advancement in spring , and 0.3 -- 1.6 days per decade delay in autumn , over the past 30 -- 80 years . Observable changes in nature related to season creep include birds laying their eggs earlier and buds appearing on some trees in late winter . In addition to advanced budding , flowering trees have been blooming earlier , for example the culturally important cherry blossoms in Japan , and Washington , D.C. Northern hardwood forests have been trending toward leafing out sooner , and retaining their green canopies longer . The agricultural growing season has also expanded by 10 -- 20 days over the last few decades . The effects of season creep have been noted by non-scientists as well , including gardeners who have advanced their spring planting times , and experimented with plantings of less hardy warmer climate varieties of non-native plants . While summer growing seasons are expanding , winters are getting warmer and shorter , resulting in reduced winter ice cover on bodies of water , earlier ice-out , earlier melt water flows , and earlier spring lake level peaks . Some spring events , or `` phenophases '' , have become intermittent or unobservable ; for example , bodies of water that once froze regularly most winters now freeze less frequently , and formerly migratory birds are now seen year-round in some areas . |
Scientific_community | The scientific community is a diverse network of interacting scientists . It includes many `` sub-communities '' working on particular scientific fields , and within particular institutions ; interdisciplinary and cross-institutional activities are also significant . Objectivity is expected to be achieved by the scientific method . Peer review , through discussion and debate within journals and conferences , assists in this objectivity by maintaining the quality of research methodology and interpretation of results . |
Scientocracy | Scientocracy is the practice of basing public policies on science . |
Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change | The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions . |
Seasonal_adjustment | Seasonal adjustment is a statistical method for removing the seasonal component of a time series that exhibits a seasonal pattern . It is usually done when wanting to analyse the trend , and cyclical deviations from trend , of a time series independently of the seasonal components . It is normal to report seasonally adjusted data for unemployment rates to reveal the underlying trends and cycles in labor markets . Many economic phenomena have seasonal cycles , such as agricultural production and consumer consumption , e.g. greater consumption leading up to Christmas . It is necessary to adjust for this component in order to understand what underlying trends are in the economy and so official statistics are often adjusted to remove seasonal components . |
Sedimentary_rock | Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the Earth 's surface and within bodies of water . Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles ( detritus ) to settle in place . The particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called sediment . Before being deposited , the sediment was formed by weathering and erosion from the source area , and then transported to the place of deposition by water , wind , ice , mass movement or glaciers , which are called agents of denudation . Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension . The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earth 's crust is extensive ( 73 % of the Earth 's current land surface ) , but the total contribution of sedimentary rocks is estimated to be only 8 % of the total volume of the crust . Sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks . Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata , forming a structure called bedding . The study of sedimentary rocks and rock strata provides information about the subsurface that is useful for civil engineering , for example in the construction of roads , houses , tunnels , canals or other structures . Sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like coal , fossil fuels , drinking water or ores . The study of the sequence of sedimentary rock strata is the main source for an understanding of the Earth 's history , including palaeogeography , paleoclimatology and the history of life . The scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of sedimentary rocks is called sedimentology . Sedimentology is part of both geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the Earth sciences , such as pedology , geomorphology , geochemistry and structural geology . Sedimentary rocks have also been found on Mars . |
Siderian | The Siderian Period ( -LSB- pronsaɪˈdɪəriən -RSB- sideros , meaning `` iron '' ) is the first geologic period in the Paleoproterozoic Era and lasted from Ma to Ma ( million years ago ) . Instead of being based on stratigraphy , these dates are defined chronometrically . The laying down of the banded iron formations ( BIFs ) peaked early this period . BIFs were formed as anaerobic algae produced waste oxygen that combined with iron , forming magnetite ( Fe3O4 , an iron oxide ) . This process cleared iron from the oceans , presumably turning greenish seas clear . Eventually , without an oxygen sink in the oceans , the process allowed the build up of an oxygen-rich atmosphere . This event is known as the oxygen catastrophe , which according to some geologists triggered the Huronian glaciation . For the time period from 2420 Ma to 2250 Ma , an alternative period based on stratigraphy rather than chronometry , named the Oxygenian , was suggested in the geological timescale review 2012 edited by Gradstein et al. , but , this has not yet been officially adopted by the IUGS . |
Sea_state | In oceanography , a sea state is the general condition of the free surface on a large body of water -- with respect to wind waves and swell -- at a certain location and moment . A sea state is characterized by statistics , including the wave height , period , and power spectrum . The sea state varies with time , as the wind conditions or swell conditions change . The sea state can either be assessed by an experienced observer , like a trained mariner , or through instruments like weather buoys , wave radar or remote sensing satellites . In case of buoy measurements , the statistics are determined for a time interval in which the sea state can be considered to be constant . This duration has to be much longer than the individual wave period , but smaller than the period in which the wind and swell conditions vary significantly . Typically , records of one hundred to one thousand wave-periods are used to determine the wave statistics . The large number of variables involved in creating the sea state can not be quickly and easily summarized , so simpler scales are used to give an approximate but concise description of conditions for reporting in a ship 's log or similar record . |
Severe_weather | Severe weather refers to any dangerous meteorological phenomena with the potential to cause damage , serious social disruption , or loss of human life . Types of severe weather phenomena vary , depending on the latitude , altitude , topography , and atmospheric conditions . High winds , hail , excessive precipitation , and wildfires are forms and effects of severe weather , as are thunderstorms , downbursts , lightning , tornadoes , waterspouts , tropical cyclones , and extratropical cyclones . Regional and seasonal severe weather phenomena include blizzards , snowstorms , ice storms , and duststorms . |