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Membrane | A membrane is a selective barrier ; it allows some things to pass through but stops others . Such things may be molecules , ions , or other small particles . Biological membranes include cell membranes ( outer coverings of cells or organelles that allow passage of certain constituents ) ; nuclear membranes , which cover a cell nucleus ; and tissue membranes , such as mucosae and serosae . Synthetic membranes are made by humans for use in laboratories and industry ( such as chemical plants ) . This concept of a membrane has been known since the eighteenth century , but was used little outside of the laboratory until the end of World War II . Drinking water supplies in Europe had been compromised by the war and membrane filters were used to test for water safety . However , due to the lack of reliability , slow operation , reduced selectivity and elevated costs , membranes were not widely exploited . The first use of membranes on a large scale was with micro-filtration and ultra-filtration technologies . Since the 1980s , these separation processes , along with electrodialysis , are employed in large plants and , today , a number of experienced companies serve the market . The degree of selectivity of a membrane depends on the membrane pore size . Depending on the pore size , they can be classified as microfiltration ( MF ) , ultrafiltration ( UF ) , nanofiltration ( NF ) and reverse osmosis ( RO ) membranes . Membranes can also be of various thickness , with homogeneous or heterogeneous structure . Membranes can be neutral or charged , and particle transport can be active or passive . The latter can be facilitated by pressure , concentration , chemical or electrical gradients of the membrane process . Membranes can be generally classified into synthetic membranes and biological membranes . |
Missouri | Missouri ( see pronunciations ) is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States , achieving statehood in 1821 . With over six million residents , it is the eighteenth most populous state and host to the mean center of United States population . The largest urban areas are St. Louis , Kansas City , Springfield , and Columbia . The capitol is in Jefferson City on the Missouri River . The state is the twenty-first most extensive by area and is geographically diverse . The Northern Plains were once covered by glaciers , then tallgrass prairie , and now the deep soils yield great agricultural productivity . In the South are the Ozarks , a forested highland , providing timber , minerals , and recreation . The Mississippi River forms the eastern border of the state , eventually flowing into the swampy Missouri Bootheel . Humans have inhabited the land now known as Missouri for at least 12,000 years . The Mississippian culture built cities and mounds , before declining in the 1300s . When European explorers arrived in the 1600s they encountered the Osage and Missouria nations . The French established Louisiana , a part of New France , and founded Ste. Genevieve in 1735 and St. Louis in 1764 . After a brief period of Spanish rule , the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 . Americans from the Upland South , including enslaved African Americans , rushed into the new Missouri Territory . Many from Virginia , Kentucky , and Tennessee settled in the Boonslick area of Mid-Missouri . Soon after , heavy German immigration formed the Missouri Rhineland . Missouri played a central role in the westward expansion of the United States , as memorialized by the Gateway Arch . The Pony Express , Oregon Trail , Santa Fe Trail , and California Trail all began in Missouri . As a border state , Missouri 's role in the American Civil War was complex and there were many conflicts within . After the war , both Greater St. Louis and the Kansas City metropolitan area became centers of industrialization and business . Today , the state is divided into 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis . Missouri 's culture blends elements from the Midwestern and Southern United States . The musical styles of ragtime , Kansas City jazz , and St. Louis Blues , developed in Missouri . The well-known Kansas City-style barbecue , and lesser-known St. Louis-style barbecue can be found across the state and beyond . St. Louis is also a major center of beer brewing ; Anheuser-Busch is the largest producer in the world . Missouri wine is produced in the nearby Missouri Rhineland and Ozarks . Missouri 's alcohol laws are among the most permissive in the United States . Outside of the large cities popular tourist destinations include the Lake of the Ozarks and Branson . U.S. President Harry S. Truman is from Missouri . Other well known Missourians include Mark Twain , Walt Disney , Chuck Berry and Nelly . Some of the largest companies based in the state include Cerner , Express Scripts , Monsanto , Emerson Electric , Edward Jones , H&R Block , Wells Fargo Advisors and O'Reilly Auto Parts . Missouri has been called the `` Mother of the West '' and the `` Cave State '' ; however , Missouri 's most famous nickname is the `` Show Me State '' , as Missourians are known for being skeptical . |
Microorganism | A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism , which may be single-celled or multicellular . The study of microorganisms is called microbiology , a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek . Robert Hooke coined the term `` cell '' after viewing plant cells under his microscope . Later , in the 19th century , Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage , debunking the theory of spontaneous generation . In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases . Microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria , archaea and most protozoa . This group also contains some fungi , algae , and some micro-animals such as rotifers . Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages . Some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms , but others consider these as nonliving . In July 2016 , scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor of all life , including microorganisms , living on Earth . Microorganisms live in every part of the biosphere , including soil , hot springs , inside rocks at least 12 mi deep underground , the deepest parts of the ocean , and at least 40 mi high in the atmosphere . Microorganisms , under certain test conditions , have been observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space . Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined . The mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon , out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons . Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench , the deepest spot in the Earth 's oceans . Other researchers reported related studies that microorganisms thrive inside rocks up to 580 m below the sea floor under 2590 m of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States , as well as 2400 m beneath the seabed off Japan . In August 2014 , scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica . According to one researcher , `` You can find microbes everywhere -- they 're extremely adaptable to conditions , and survive wherever they are . '' Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers . As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen , they are a vital part of the nitrogen cycle , and recent studies indicate that airborne microorganisms may play a role in precipitation and weather . Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology , both in traditional food and beverage preparation , and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering . A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic , causing disease and even death in plants and animals . |
Misuse_of_statistics | Statistics are supposed to make something easier to understand but when used in a misleading fashion can trick the casual observer into believing something other than what the data shows . That is , a misuse of statistics occurs when a statistical argument asserts a falsehood . In some cases , the misuse may be accidental . In others , it is purposeful and for the gain of the perpetrator . When the statistical reason involved is false or misapplied , this constitutes a statistical fallacy . The FALSE STATISTICS trap can be quiet damaging for the QUEST OF KNOWLEDGE . For example , in medical science , correcting a falsehood may take decades and cost lives . Misuses can be easy to fall into . Professional scientists , even mathematicians and professional statisticians , can be fooled by even some simple methods , even if they are careful to check everything . Scientists have been known to fool themselves with statistics due to lack of knowledge of probability theory and lack of standardization of their tests . |
Melo_(gastropod) | Melo is a genus of extremely large sea snails , marine gastropod molluscs in the family Volutidae , the volutes . Because of their huge ovate shells , these snails are often known as `` bailers '' ( the shells were sometimes used for bailing out canoes ) or `` melons '' ( because the shell resembles that fruit ) . Species in this genus sometimes produce large pearls . The image in the taxobox shows a group of these pearls with a shell of the species Melo melo . |
Methanogenesis | Methanogenesis or biomethanation is the formation of methane by microbes known as methanogens . Organisms capable of producing methane have been identified only from the domain Archaea , a group phylogenetically distinct from both eukaryotes and bacteria , although many live in close association with anaerobic bacteria . The production of methane is an important and widespread form of microbial metabolism . In most environments , it is the final step in the decomposition of biomass . |
Metacognition | Metacognition is `` cognition about cognition '' , `` thinking about thinking '' , `` knowing about knowing '' , becoming `` aware of one 's awareness '' and higher-order thinking skills . The term comes from the root word meta , meaning `` beyond '' . Metacognition can take many forms ; it includes knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or for problem-solving . There are generally two components of metacognition : knowledge about cognition , and regulation of cognition . Metamemory , defined as knowing about memory and mnemonic strategies , is an especially important form of metacognition . Academic research on metacognitive processing across cultures is in the early stages , but there are indications that further work may provide better outcomes in cross-cultural learning between teachers and students . Some evolutionary psychologists hypothesize that humans use metacognition as a survival tool , which would make metacognition the same across cultures . Writings on metacognition date back at least as far as two works by the Greek philosopher Aristotle ( 384-322 BC ) : On the Soul and the Parva Naturalia . |
Mesopause | The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out . |
Meningococcal_disease | Meningococcal disease describes infections caused by the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis ( also termed meningococcus ) . It carries a high mortality rate if untreated but is a vaccine-preventable disease . While best known as a cause of meningitis , widespread blood infection can result in sepsis , which is a more damaging and dangerous condition . Meningitis and meningococcemia are major causes of illness , death , and disability in both developed and under-developed countries . There are approximately 2,600 cases of bacterial meningitis per year in the United States , and on average 333,000 cases in developing countries . The case fatality rate ranges between 10 and 20 percent . The incidence of endemic meningococcal disease during the last 13 years ranges from 1 to 5 per 100,000 in developed countries , and from 10 to 25 per 100,000 in developing countries . During epidemics the incidence of meningococcal disease approaches 100 per 100,000 . Meningococcal vaccines have sharply reduced the incidence of the disease in developed countries . The disease 's pathogenesis is not fully understood . The pathogen colonises a large number of the general population harmlessly , but in some very small percentage of individuals it can invade the blood stream , and the entire body but most notably limbs and brain , causing serious illness . Over the past few years , experts have made an intensive effort to understand specific aspects of meningococcal biology and host interactions , however the development of improved treatments and effective vaccines is expected to depend on novel efforts by workers in many different fields . While meningococcal disease is not as contagious as the common cold ( which is spread through casual contact ) , it can be transmitted through saliva and occasionally through close , prolonged general contact with an infected person . |
Merchants_of_Doubt | Merchants of Doubt : How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming is a 2010 non-fiction book by American historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking , acid rain , DDT , and the hole in the ozone layer . Oreskes and Conway write that in each case `` keeping the controversy alive '' by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached , was the basic strategy of those opposing action . In particular , they say that Fred Seitz , Fred Singer , and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues . The George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer , two of the subjects , have been critical of the book . Other reviewers have been more favorable . One reviewer said that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best science book of the year . It was made into a film , Merchants of Doubt , directed by Robert Kenner , released in 2014 . |
Millennium_celebrations | The Millennium celebrations were a worldwide , coordinated series of events celebrating New Year 's Eve in 1999 -- 2000 , marking the end of the second millennium and beginning of the new , third millennium . This also marks the ending of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century . Many countries held official festivities in the weeks and months leading up to the millennium , such as those organised in the USA by the White House Millennium Council , and most major cities produced firework displays at midnight . Equally , many private venues , cultural and religious centres held events and a diverse range of memorabilia was created -- such as souvenir postage stamps . As with every New Year 's Eve , many events were timed with the `` stroke of midnight '' at the timezone of the location . There were also many events associated with the dawn on 1 January . While there was debate over whether the millennium truly begins in 2000 or 2001 the popularity of the round number made New Year 's 1999 -- 2000 a global celebration . However it is an indisputable fact that the new century and new millennium began on January 1 , 2001 . international television broadcast called 2000 Today was produced by a consortium of 60 broadcasters , while an alternative program Millennium Live was cancelled two days before the event . Some countries in the middle of the Pacific Ocean , and hence close to the International Date Line engaged in `` Millennium politics '' to argue they were the first to enter the new millennium . Variously , the Chatham Islands , New Zealand , Tonga , Fiji and Kiribati all laid debatable claims to the status -- by moving the dateline itself , institution of daylight savings and claiming `` first territory '' , `` first land '' , `` first inhabited land '' or `` first city '' . |
Metropolis | A metropolis ( -LSB- mᵻˈtrɒpəlɪs , _ - plɪs -RSB- ) is a large city or conurbation which is a significant economic , political , and cultural center for a country or region , and an important hub for regional or international connections , commerce , and communications . The term is Greek and means the `` mother city '' of a colony ( in the ancient sense ) , that is , the city which sent out settlers . This was later generalized to a city regarded as a center of a specified activity , or any large , important city in a nation . A big city belonging to a larger urban agglomeration , but which is not the core of that agglomeration , is not generally considered a metropolis but a part of it . The plural of the word is most commonly metropolises , although the correct plural is `` metropoles '' , Latin from the Greek `` Metropoleis '' ( Μητρoπόλεις ) . For urban centers outside metropolitan areas that generate a similar attraction at smaller scale for their region , the concept of the regiopolis , short regio , was introduced by German professors in 2006 . |
Meteosat_8 | Meteosat 8 is a weather satellite , also known as MSG 1 . The Meteosat series are operated by EUMETSAT under the Meteosat Transition Programme ( MTP ) and the Meteosat Second Generation ( MSG ) program . Notable for imaging the first meteor to be predicted to strike the earth , 2008 TC3 . Launched 28 Aug 2002 by an Ariane V155 , this European Meteorology satellite is in a Geostationary orbit . While Meteosat 8 meteorological instruments are working OK , its solid state power amplifier SSPA-C failed in October 2002 . On 22 May 2007 , the satellite experienced an unexpected orbit change . This was initially inappropriately assessed as being hit by an unknown object , but that was later assessed as not credible . The thermal protection was damaged at the same time as the orbit change . Subsequent investigation assessed the Meteosat-8 spinning spacecraft 's orbit change due to the mass release of thermal covering whose attachment failed . Meteosat-8 is still operating , and as of April 2013 is providing a backup capability to the Meteosat-10 primary 0-degree Full Earth Scan Service and also a backup to the Meteosat-9 Rapid Scan Service over Europe . In May 2012 Meteosat-8 switched to operating in an Earth Sensor Mode due to a problem with the sun sensor data on board . After modifying the ground image processing system the Rapid Scan Service image quality was restored back to nominal . On 29 June 2016 , EUMETSAT approved the proposal of relocating Meteosat-8 to 41.5 ° E , for the continuation of the Indian Ocean Data Coverage ( IODC ) . Meteosat-8 arrived at 41.5 ° E on 21 September . The distribution of IODC Meteosat-8 data , in parallel to Meteosat-7 data , is planned to start on 4 October . In the first quarter of 2017 , Meteosat-8 will eventually replace Meteosat-7 which will be moved to its graveyard orbit . |
Meteogram | A meteogram is a graphical presentation of one or more meteorological variables with respect to time , whether observed or forecast , for a particular location . Where forecast data is used , the meteogram will typically be generated directly from a weather forecasting model based on the longitude , latitude and elevation of the location , but it can also be corrected by a meteorologist . Where a meteogram is used to display historical weather observations , this will typically be for a specific weather station . In the meteogram , time is plotted along the X axis , while the values of the different weather parameters are plotted along the Y axis . The most common weather parameters in a meteogram are precipitation , temperature , air pressure , cloud cover , wind speed and wind direction , such as in this example meteogram provided as part of a weather forecast by yr.no . In this example , wind speed and wind direction are conveniently presented in the form of wind barbs , precipitation is represented in column format , while temperature and air pressure are represented as lines . Cloud cover is represented in a layered format , providing an indication of the amount of cloud at different heights in the atmosphere . |
Michigan_meridian | The Michigan meridian is the principal meridian ( or north-south line ) used as a reference in the Michigan Survey , the survey of the U.S. state of Michigan in the early 19th century . It is located at 84 degrees , 21 minutes and 53 seconds west longitude at its northern terminus at Sault Ste. Marie , and varies very little from that line down the length of the state . The meridian was surveyed by Benjamin Hough in April 1815 . The meridian was selected because it formed one of the principal boundary lines defined in the Treaty of Detroit in 1807 , which was the first large cession of land by Native American peoples to the United States in the Michigan Territory . In that treaty , the boundary line was described as running due north from the mouth of the Auglaize River on the Maumee River , which was the site of Fort Defiance ( now Defiance , Ohio ) . Michigan 's baseline , which today forms the northern border of Wayne , Washtenaw and other counties , was surveyed at the same time by Alexander Holmes . Although regulations governing the U.S. Public Land Survey System would later specify that the baseline should be a true parallel of latitude , this was not the case in earlier surveys , including the Michigan survey . Some roadways were laid out for both survey lines , but there was no intersecting of roadways coinciding with the intersecting of survey lines . Several segments of the Michigan Meridian correspond with a road bearing the name Meridian Road . The Michigan meridian forms the boundary between several counties in Michigan : Lenawee and Hillsdale ; Shiawassee and Clinton ; Saginaw and Gratiot ; Ogemaw and Roscommon ; Oscoda and Crawford ; Montmorency and Otsego ; and a portion of the boundary between Chippewa and Mackinac . U.S. Highway 127 approximately follows the meridian from the Ohio border into Jackson . In Okemos , there is a historical village of Meridian located on the line . Both it and Okemos are within Meridian Township , State highways M-30 in Midland and Gladwin counties , and M-129 in Chippewa and Mackinac counties are known as Meridian Road as well . In the area of Ohio known as the Toledo Strip , the townships are numbered from the Michigan meridian and Michigan baseline because at the time they were surveyed , the area was considered to be a part of the Michigan Territory . A 10 mi strip of land was given to Indiana when it became a state in 1816 . Since this land had not been surveyed , the Indiana portion was surveyed with the rest of Indiana . However in Michigan , the southernmost tier of townships are truncated . The townships were surveyed and sections numbered as if they were in whole townships , except that the southernmost survey townships were only 6 x instead of the usual 6 x square ( 36 sqmi ) . Sections 19 -- 24 in each township were chopped approximately in half , while sections 25 -- 36 simply do not exist for these survey townships . To compensate for the smaller size , some of the civil townships formed from these survey townships were given additional sections of land from adjacent townships , as for example , White Pigeon Township in St. Joseph County and Three Oaks Township and New Buffalo Township in Berrien County . Some others of these smaller townships were merged into adjoining townships , as in Porter Township in Cass County . Similarly , many of the civil townships in Michigan along the Ohio border have somewhat more or less than the standard 36 square miles . |
Miocene | The Miocene ( -LSB- pronˈmaɪəˌsiːn -RSB- ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about ( Ma ) . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell . Its name comes from the Greek words μείων ( meiōn , `` less '' ) and καινός ( kainos , `` new '' ) and means `` less recent '' because it has 18 % fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene . The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch . The earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene , with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages . The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event but consist rather of regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene Epoch . The apes arose and diversified during the Miocene , becoming widespread in the Old World . By the end of this epoch , the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path . As in the Oligocene before it , grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent . In the Miocene seas , kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth 's most productive ecosystems . The plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern . Mammals and birds were well-established . Whales , seals , and kelp spread . The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists as major phases of the Himalayan orogeny had occurred during the Miocene , affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia , which were interlinked with glaciations in the northern hemisphere . |
Mink | Mink are dark-colored , semiaquatic , carnivorous mammals of the family Mustelidae , which also includes weasels , otters and ferrets . There are two extant species referred to as `` mink '' : the American mink and the European mink . The extinct sea mink is related to the American mink , but was much larger . The American mink is larger and more adaptable than the European mink . Due to variations in size , an individual mink usually can not be determined as European or American with certainty without looking at the skeleton . However , all European mink have a large white patch on their upper lip , whereas only some American mink have this marking . Therefore , any mink without the patch is certainly of the American species . Taxonomically , both American and European mink were placed in the same genus Mustela , but most recently , the American mink has been reclassified as belonging to its own genus Neovison . The American mink 's fur has been highly prized for use in clothing , with hunting giving way to farming . Their treatment on fur farms has been a focus of animal rights and animal welfare activism . American mink have established populations in Europe ( including Great Britain ) and South America , after being released from mink farms by animal rights activists , or otherwise escaping from captivity . In the UK , under the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981 , it is illegal to release mink into the wild . Any live mink caught in traps must be humanely killed . American mink are believed by some to have contributed to the decline of the less hardy European mink through competition ( though not through hybridization -- native European mink are in fact closer related to polecats than to their North American cousins ) . Trapping is used to control or eliminate feral American mink populations . Mink oil is used in some medical products and cosmetics , as well as to treat , preserve and waterproof leather . |
Mercator_projection | The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by the Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569 . It became the standard map projection for nautical purposes because of its ability to represent lines of constant course , known as rhumb lines or loxodromes , as straight segments that conserve the angles with the meridians . Although the linear scale is equal in all directions around any point , thus preserving the angles and the shapes of small objects ( which makes the projection conformal ) , the Mercator projection distorts the size of objects as the latitude increases from the Equator to the poles , where the scale becomes infinite . So , for example , landmasses such as Greenland and Antarctica appear much larger than they actually are relative to land masses near the equator , such as Central Africa . |
Missoula,_Montana | Missoula -LSB- mᵻˈzuːlə -RSB- is a city in the U.S. state of Montana and is the county seat of Missoula County . It is located along the Clark Fork River near its confluences with the Bitterroot and Blackfoot Rivers in western Montana and at the convergence of five mountain ranges , thus is often described as the `` hub of five valleys '' . , the United States Census Bureau estimated the city 's population at 72,364 and the population of the Missoula Metropolitan Area at 116,130 . In the 1990s , Missoula overtook GreatFalls as Montana 's second‑largest city , behind Billings . Missoula is home to the University of Montana , a public research university . Missoula was founded in 1860 as Hellgate Trading Post while still part of Washington Territory . By 1866 , the settlement had moved east , 5 mi upstream , and renamed Missoula Mills , later shortened to Missoula . The mills provided supplies to western settlers traveling along the Mullan Road . The establishment of Fort Missoula in 1877 to protect settlers further stabilized the economy . The arrival of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1883 brought rapid growth and the maturation of the local lumber industry . In 1893 , the Montana Legislature chose the city as the site for the state 's first university . Along with the U.S. Forest Service headquarters founded in 1908 , lumber and the university remained staples of the local economy for the next hundred years . By the 1990s , Missoula 's lumber industry had gradually disappeared , and , the city 's largest employers were the University of Montana , Missoula County Public Schools , and Missoula 's two hospitals . The city is governed by a mayor -- council government with twelve city council members , two from each of the six wards . In and around Missoula are 400 acre of parkland , 22 mi of trails , and nearly 5000 acre of open-space conservation land with adjacent Mount Jumbo home to grazing elk and mule deer during the winter . The city is also home to both Montana 's largest and its oldest active breweries as well as the Montana Grizzlies , one of the strongest college football programs in the Division I Football Championship Subdivision of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . Notable residents include the first woman in the U.S. Congress , Jeannette Rankin , and the United States ' longest-serving Senate Majority Leader , Mike Mansfield . |
Mercury_in_fish | Fish and shellfish concentrate mercury in their bodies , often in the form of methylmercury , a highly toxic organic compound of mercury . Fish products have been shown to contain varying amounts of heavy metals , particularly mercury and fat-soluble pollutants from water pollution . Species of fish that are long-lived and high on the food chain , such as marlin , tuna , shark , swordfish , king mackerel , tilefish ( Gulf of Mexico ) , and northern pike , contain higher concentrations of mercury than others . Mercury is known to bioaccumulate in humans , so bioaccumulation in seafood carries over into human populations , where it can result in mercury poisoning . Mercury is dangerous to both natural ecosystems and humans because it is a metal known to be highly toxic , especially due to its ability to damage the central nervous system . In human-controlled ecosystems of fish , usually done for market production of wanted seafood species , mercury clearly rises through the food chain via fish consuming small plankton , as well as through non-food sources such as underwater sediment . This mercury grows in concentration within the bodies of fish and can be measured in the tissues of selected species . The presence of mercury in fish can be a particular health concern for women who are or may become pregnant , nursing mothers , and young children . |
Mesosphere | The mesosphere ( -LSB- ˈmɛsoʊsfɪər -RSB- from Greek mesos `` middle '' and sphaira `` sphere '' ) is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the mesopause . In the mesosphere , temperature decreases as the altitude increases . The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause , which can be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth with temperatures below -143 C . The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season , but the lower boundary of the mesosphere is usually located at heights of about 50 km above the Earth 's surface and the mesopause is usually at heights near 100 km , except at middle and high latitudes in summer where it descends to heights of about 85 km . The stratosphere , mesosphere and lowest part of the thermosphere are collectively referred to as the `` middle atmosphere '' , which spans heights from approximately 10 km to 100 km . The mesopause , at an altitude of 80 - , separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere -- the second-outermost layer of the Earth 's atmosphere . This is also around the same altitude as the turbopause , below which different chemical species are well mixed due to turbulent eddies . Above this level the atmosphere becomes non-uniform ; the scale heights of different chemical species differ by their molecular masses . |
Miracle | A miracle is an event not explicable by natural or scientific laws . Such an event may be attributed to a supernatural being ( a deity ) , magic , a miracle worker , a saint or a religious leader . Informally , the word `` miracle '' is often used to characterise any beneficial event that is statistically unlikely but not contrary to the laws of nature , such as surviving a natural disaster , or simply a `` wonderful '' occurrence , regardless of likelihood , such as a birth . Other such miracles might be : survival of an illness diagnosed as terminal , escaping a life-threatening situation or ` beating the odds ' . Some coincidences may be seen as miracles . A true miracle would , by definition , be a non-natural phenomenon , leading many rational and scientific thinkers to dismiss them as physically impossible ( that is , requiring violation of established laws of physics within their domain of validity ) or impossible to confirm by their nature ( because all possible physical mechanisms can never be ruled out ) . The former position is expressed for instance by Thomas Jefferson and the latter by David Hume . Theologians typically say that , with divine providence , God regularly works through nature yet , as a creator , is free to work without , above , or against it as well . The possibility and probability of miracles are then equal to the possibility and probability of the existence of God . |
Milk | Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals . It is the primary source of nutrition for infant mammals ( including humans who breastfeed ) before they are able to digest other types of food . Early-lactation milk contains colostrum , which carries the mother 's antibodies to its young and can reduce the risk of many diseases . It contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose . As an agricultural product , milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy . Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011 , from 260 million dairy cows . India is the world 's largest producer of milk , and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder , yet it exports few other milk products . The ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future . The United States , India , China and Brazil are the world 's largest exporters of milk and milk products . China and Russia were the world 's largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient , contributing to a worldwide glut of milk . Throughout the world , there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products . Over 750 million people live in dairy farming households . |
Mesoplanet | Mesoplanets are planetary bodies with sizes smaller than Mercury but larger than Ceres . The term was coined by Isaac Asimov . Assuming `` size '' is defined by linear dimension ( or by volume ) , mesoplanets should be approximately 1,000 km to 5,000 km in diameter . The term was coined in Asimov 's essay `` What 's in a Name ? '' , which first appeared in The Los Angeles Times in the late 1980s and was reprinted in his 1990 book Frontiers ; the term was later revisited in his essay , `` The Incredible Shrinking Planet '' which appeared first in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction and then in the anthology The Relativity of Wrong ( 1988 ) . Asimov noted that the Solar System has a large number of planetary bodies ( as opposed to the Sun and natural satellites ) and stated that lines dividing `` major planets '' from minor planets were necessarily arbitrary . Asimov then pointed out that there was a large gap in size between Mercury , the smallest planetary body that was considered to be undoubtedly a major planet , and Ceres , the largest planetary body that was considered to be undoubtedly a minor planet . Only one planetary body known at the time , Pluto , fell within the gap . Rather than arbitrarily decide whether Pluto belonged with the major planets or the minor planets , Asimov suggested that any planetary body that fell within the size gap between Mercury and Ceres be called a mesoplanet , because mesos means `` middle '' in Greek . |
Methane | Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure . Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) . |
Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia | Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move . |
Misleading_graph | In statistics , a misleading graph , also known as a distorted graph , is a graph that misrepresents data , constituting a misuse of statistics and with the result that an incorrect conclusion may be derived from it . Graphs may be misleading through being excessively complex or poorly constructed . Even when constructed to accurately display the characteristics of their data , graphs can be subject to different interpretation . Misleading graphs may be created intentionally to hinder the proper interpretation of data or accidentally due to unfamiliarity with graphing software , misinterpretation of data , or because data can not be accurately conveyed . Misleading graphs are often used in false advertising . One of the first authors to write about misleading graphs was Darrell Huff , publisher of the 1954 book How to Lie with Statistics . The field of data visualization describes ways to present information that avoids creating misleading graphs . |
Milutin_Milanković | Milutin Milanković ( Милутин Миланковић , pronounced -LSB- milǔtin milǎːnkɔʋitɕ -RSB- 28 May 1879 -- 12 December 1958 ) was a Serbian mathematician , astronomer , climatologist , geophysicist , civil engineer , doctor of technology , university professor and popularizer of science . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science . The first contribution is the `` Canon of the Earth 's Insolation '' , which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system . The second contribution is the explanation of Earth 's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun , now known as Milankovitch cycles . This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth , as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future . He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth 's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system , Mercury , Venus , Mars , and the Moon , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets . He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences , and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones . |
Minister_of_Transport_(France) | The Minister of Transport is a cabinet member in the Government of France . The position was created in 1870 as a modification of that of the Minister of Public Works ( Ministre des Travaux Publics ) ( 1830 -- 1870 ) . It has frequently been combined with the positions of Minister of Public Works ( Ministre de l'Équipement ) , Minister of Housing ( Logement ) , Minister of Tourism , Minister of Territorial Development ( Aménagement du territoire ) and Minister of the Sea . Following the election of Nicolas Sarkozy as President of France in May 2007 , the Ministry of Transport was absorbed by the Ministry of Ecology , Energy , Sustainable Development , and Territorial Development , now the Ministry of the Environment , Energy and the Sea . The post has had a subordinate role within the department since then , a junior minister attending Cabinet roughly equivalent to a Minister of State in Commonwealth countries . The post has changed names many times ; Alain Vidalies is Secretary of State for Transport , the Sea and Fisheries ( Secrétaire d'État chargé des Transports , de la Mer et de la Pêche ) . |
Mexicali | Mexicali ( -LSB- langpronˌmɛksɪˈkæli -RSB- -LSB- mexiˈkali -RSB- ) is the capital city of the Mexican state of Baja California and seat of the Municipality of Mexicali . The City of Mexicali has a population of 689,775 , according to the 2010 census , while the population of the entire metropolitan area reaches 996,826 ; making the city and metropolitan area the second most populous in Baja California . The city maintains a highly educated and skilled population , as it has modernized and become an important population center in the desert region . Mexicali 's economy has been historically based on agricultural products , and to this day it remains a large sector of the economy . As time has progressed , however , its economy has gradually gone from being agricultural to include industry , mainly maquiladoras . Companies such as Honeywell , GKN Aerospace , Kellogg 's , Gulfstream , UTC Aerospace Systems , SunPower , Rockwell Collins , LG Electronics , National Oilwell Varco , Mitsubishi , Autolite , Nestlé , Coca-Cola , Robert Bosch , and Goodrich Corporation have built maquiladora plants in the city . Mexicali became the national center for the aerospace industry in Mexico when Rockwell Collins ( former Hughes Tool Company ) established an operation there in 1966 . Rockwell Collins is the oldest company under the maquiladora program nationwide . Founded on March 14 , 1903 , Mexicali is situated on the Mexico -- United States border adjacent to its sister city Calexico , California , with which it forms a dual-state , international population center , Calexico -- Mexicali . |
Millennium | A millennium ( plural millennia or millenniums ) is a period equal to 1000 years , also called kiloyears . It derives from the Latin mille , thousand , and annus , year . It is often , but not always , related to a particular dating system . Sometimes , it is used specifically for periods of a thousand years that begin at the starting point ( initial reference point ) of the calendar in consideration ( typically the year `` 1 '' ) , or in later years that are whole number multiples of a thousand years after it . The term can also refer to an interval of time beginning on any date . Frequently in the latter case ( and sometimes also in the former ) it may have religious or theological implications ( see millenarianism ) . Sometimes in use , such an interval called a `` millennium '' might be interpreted less precisely , i.e. , not always being exactly 1000 years long . It could be , for example , 1050 , etc. . |
Mesocyclone | A mesocyclone is a vortex of air within a convective storm . It is air that rises and rotates around a vertical axis , usually in the same direction as low pressure systems in a given hemisphere . They are most often cyclonic , that is , associated with a localized low-pressure region within a severe thunderstorm . Such thunderstorms can feature strong surface winds and severe hail . Mesocyclones often occur together with updrafts in supercells , within which tornadoes may form at the interchange with certain downdrafts . Mesocyclones are localized , approximately 2 km to 10 km in diameter within strong thunderstorms . Thunderstorms containing persistent mesocyclones are supercell thunderstorms . Mesocyclones occur on the `` mesoscale '' , a more general term used in meteorology to denote organization on scales from a few up to hundreds of kilometers . Doppler radar is used to identify mesocyclones . A mesovortex is a similar but typically smaller and weaker rotational feature associated with squall lines . |
Middle_Stone_Age | The Middle Stone Age ( or MSA ) was a period of African prehistory between the Early Stone Age and the Later Stone Age . It is generally considered to have begun around 280,000 years ago and ended around 50 -- 25,000 years ago . The beginnings of particular MSA stone tools have their origins as far back as 550 -- 500,000 years ago and as such some researchers consider this to be the beginnings of the MSA . The MSA is often mistakenly understood to be synonymous with the Middle Paleolithic of Europe , especially due to their roughly contemporaneous time span , however , the Middle Paleolithic of Europe represents an entirely different hominin population , Homo neanderthalensis , than the MSA of Africa , which did not have Neanderthal populations . Additionally , current archaeological research in Africa has yielded much evidence to suggest that modern human behavior and cognition was beginning to develop much earlier in Africa during the MSA than it was in Europe during the Middle Paleolithic . The MSA is associated with both anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) as well as archaic Homo sapiens , sometimes referred to as Homo helmei . Early physical evidence comes from the Gademotta Formation in Ethiopia , the Kapthurin Formation in Kenya and Kathu Pan in South Africa . |
Methane_clathrate | Methane clathrate ( CH4 · 5.75 H2O ) or ( 4CH4 · 23H2O ) , also called methane hydrate , hydromethane , methane ice , fire ice , natural gas hydrate , or gas hydrate , is a solid clathrate compound ( more specifically , a clathrate hydrate ) in which a large amount of methane is trapped within a crystal structure of water , forming a solid similar to ice . Originally thought to occur only in the outer regions of the Solar System , where temperatures are low and water ice is common , significant deposits of methane clathrate have been found under sediments on the ocean floors of the Earth . Methane clathrates are common constituents of the shallow marine geosphere and they occur in deep sedimentary structures and form outcrops on the ocean floor . Methane hydrates are believed to form by migration of gas from deep along geological faults , followed by precipitation or crystallization , on contact of the rising gas stream with cold sea water . In 2008 , research on Antarctic Vostok and EPICA Dome C ice cores revealed that methane clathrates were also present in deep Antarctic ice cores and record a history of atmospheric methane concentrations , dating to 800,000 years ago . The ice-core methane clathrate record is a primary source of data for global warming research , along with oxygen and carbon dioxide . |
Mistakes_were_made | `` Mistakes were made '' is an expression that is commonly used as a rhetorical device , whereby a speaker acknowledges that a situation was handled poorly or inappropriately but seeks to evade any direct admission or accusation of responsibility by not specifying the person who made the mistakes . The acknowledgement of `` mistakes '' is framed in an abstract sense , with no direct reference to who made the mistakes . A less evasive construction might be along the lines of `` I made mistakes '' or `` John Doe made mistakes . '' The speaker neither accepts personal responsibility nor accuses anyone else . The word `` mistakes '' also does not imply intent . The New York Times has called the phrase a `` classic Washington linguistic construct . '' Political scientist William Schneider suggested that this usage be referred to as the `` past exonerative '' tense , and commentator William Safire has defined the phrase as '' -LSB- a -RSB- passive-evasive way of acknowledging error while distancing the speaker from responsibility for it '' . A commentator at NPR declared this expression to be `` the king of non-apologies '' . While perhaps most famous in politics , the phrase has also been used in business , sports , and entertainment . Despite some mockery of the phrase , its use is still widespread and , in the opinion of one commentator , `` the type of evasive and corrupted language for which -LSB- Ron Ziegler -RSB- was repeatedly pilloried for using as Nixon 's press secretary is not only accepted , but heartily and shamelessly embraced as a norm of political and social conduct . '' |
Mesohigh | A mesohigh ( sometimes called a `` bubble high '' ) is a mesoscale high-pressure area that forms beneath thunderstorms . While not always the case , it is usually associated with a mesoscale convective system . In the early stages of research on the subject , the mesohigh was often referred to as a `` thunderstorm high '' . |
Minerals_Resource_Rent_Tax | The Minerals Resource Rent Tax ( MRRT ) was a tax on profits generated from the mining of non-renewable resources in Australia . It was a replacement for the proposed Resource Super Profit Tax ( RSPT ) . The tax , levied on 30 % of the `` super profits '' from the mining of iron ore and coal in Australia , was introduced on 1 July 2012 . A company was to pay the tax when its annual profits reach $ 75 million , a measure designed so as not to burden small business . The original threshold was to be $ 50 million until independent MP Andrew Wilkie negotiated an amendment . Around 320 companies will potentially be affected by the changes . The Coalition , led by Tony Abbott , went to the 2010 and 2013 elections promising to repeal the tax . The Coalition won the 2013 election , and after one failed attempt to pass the bill , the Mining Tax Repeal Bill finally passed both houses of Parliament on 2 September 2014 and the tax was subsequently repealed . A January 2014 poll conducted by UMR Research , however , found that a majority of Australians still think that multinational mining companies do not pay enough tax . Supporters of the tax also point to continually-large profits produced by Australian-based mining operations , 83 % of which are foreign-owned . |
Meteotsunami | A meteotsunami or meteorological tsunami is a tsunami-like wave of meteorological origin . Meteotsunamis are generated when rapid changes in barometric pressure cause the displacement of a body of water . In contrast to `` ordinary '' impulse-type tsunami sources , a traveling atmospheric disturbance normally interacts with the ocean over a limited period of time ( from several minutes to several hours ) . Tsunamis and meteotsunamis are otherwise similar enough that it can be difficult to distinguish one from the other , as in cases where there is a tsunami wave but there are no seismic records of an earthquake . Only about 3 % of historical tsunami events ( from 2000 BC through 2014 ) are known to have meteorological origins , although their true prevalence may be considerably higher than this because 10 % of historical tsunamis have unknown origins , tsunami events in the past are often difficult to validate , and meteotsunamis may have previously been misclassified as seiche waves . Meteotsunamis are restricted to local effects because they lack the energy available to significant seismic tsunami . However , when they are amplified by resonance they can be hazardous . A meteotsunami that struck Nagasaki Bay on 31 March 1979 achieved a maximum wave height of 5 meters ; there were three fatalities . A three-meter wave that hit the Chicago waterfront in 1954 swept people off of piers , drowning seven . In some parts of the world , they are common enough to have local names : rissaga ( Catalan ) , ressaca ( Portuguese ) , milghuba ( Maltese ) , marrobbio ( Italian ) , abiki ( Japanese ) , šćiga ( Croatian ) . Some bodies of water are more susceptible than others , including anywhere that the natural resonance frequency matches that of the waves , such as in long and narrow bays , particularly where the inlet is aligned with the oncoming wave . Examples of particularly susceptible areas include Nagasaki Bay , the eastern Adriatic Sea , and the Western Mediterranean . |
Meteorological_history_of_Hurricane_Matthew | Hurricane Matthew was the first Category 5 Atlantic hurricane since Felix in 2007 and the southernmost Category 5 Atlantic hurricane on record . The system originated from a tropical wave that emerged off the west coast of Africa on September 22 , and ultimately dissipated as an extratropical cyclone near Atlantic Canada on October 10 . Late on September 29 , it began a period of explosive intensification that brought it to Category 5 strength early on October 1 . It weakened slightly and remained a Category 4 until its landfalls in Haiti and Cuba , afterwards it traversed through the Bahamas and paralleled the coast of Florida until making landfall in South Carolina as a Category 1 hurricane . Matthew later transitioned into a post-tropical cyclone on October 10 . The cyclone was responsible for roughly 600 deaths ( with initial reports of up to 1,600 ) , making Matthew the deadliest since Stan in 2005 , and caused $ 15 billion ( 2016 USD ) in damages , which made it the costliest since Sandy in 2012 . Matthew caused its most destructive entry as it made landfall in Haiti on October 4 , causing catastrophic damage and over 500 died as a result . The storm also threatened to be the first major hurricane to strike the United States since Wilma in 2005 , however it veered slightly more to the east and remained offshore . However , torrential rainfall fell in the Carolinas , causing extreme flash flooding . Even as Matthew turned extratropical and moved away from the coast , rivers were still overflowing , and it would take many weeks for the rivers to fall back to average levels . Overall , Matthew was deemed the ninth-costliest hurricane in the United States , causing $ 10 billion in damages . |
Mid-Atlantic_Ridge | The Mid-Atlantic Ridge ( MAR ) is a mid-ocean ridge , a divergent tectonic plate or constructive plate boundary located along the floor of the Atlantic Ocean , and part of the longest mountain range in the world . In the North Atlantic , it separates the Eurasian and North American Plates , whereas in the South Atlantic it separates the African and South American Plates . The ridge extends from a junction with the Gakkel Ridge ( Mid-Arctic Ridge ) northeast of Greenland southward to the Bouvet Triple Junction in the South Atlantic . Although the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is mostly an underwater feature , portions of it have enough elevation to extend above sea level . The section of the ridge that includes the island of Iceland is also known as the Reykjanes Ridge . The ridge has an average spreading rate of about 2.5 cm per year . |
Mercury_pollution_in_the_ocean | Mercury is a toxic heavy metal which cycles through atmosphere , water , and soil in various forms to different parts of the world . Due to this natural cycle , irrespective of which part of the world releases mercury it could affect an entirely different part of the world making mercury pollution a global concern . Mercury pollution is now identified as a global problem and awareness has been raised on an international action plan to minimize anthropogenic mercury emissions and clean up mercury pollution . In Global Mercury Assessment - 2002 concluded that , International actions to address the global mercury problem should not be delayed '' . Among many environments that are under the impact of mercury pollution , the ocean is one which can not be neglected as it has the ability to act as a `` storage closet '' for mercury . According to a recent model study the total anthropogenic mercury released into the ocean is estimated to be around 80,000 to 45,000 metric tons and two thirds of this enormous amount is estimated to be found in waters shallower than 1000m level where many consumable fish live . Mercury can get bio-accumulated in marine food chains in the form of highly toxic methyl mercury which can cause health risks to human seafood consumers . According to statistics , about 66 % of the global fish consumption comes from ocean . Therefore , it is important to monitor and regulate oceanic mercury levels to prevent more and more mercury reaching human population through seafood consumption . |
Milankovitch_cycles | Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain . |
Moon | The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth , being Earth 's only permanent natural satellite . It is the fifth-largest natural satellite in the Solar System , and the largest among planetary satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits ( its primary ) . Following Jupiter 's satellite Io , the Moon is second-densest satellite among those whose densities are known . The average distance of the Moon from the Earth is 384400 km , or 1.28 light-seconds . The Moon is thought to have formed about 4.51 billion years ago , not long after Earth . There are several hypotheses for its origin ; the most widely accepted explanation is that the Moon formed from the debris left over after a giant impact between Earth and a Mars-sized body called Theia . The Moon is in synchronous rotation with Earth , always showing the same face , with its near side marked by dark volcanic maria that fill the spaces between the bright ancient crustal highlands and the prominent impact craters . It is the second-brightest regularly visible celestial object in Earth 's sky , after the Sun , as measured by illuminance on Earth 's surface . Its surface is actually dark , although compared to the night sky it appears very bright , with a reflectance just slightly higher than that of worn asphalt . Its prominence in the sky and its regular cycle of phases have made the Moon an important cultural influence since ancient times on language , calendars , art , and mythology . The Moon 's gravitational influence produces the ocean tides , body tides , and the slight lengthening of the day . The Moon 's current orbital distance is about thirty times the diameter of Earth , with its apparent size in the sky almost the same as that of the Sun , resulting in the Moon covering the Sun nearly precisely in total solar eclipse . This matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far future . The Moon 's linear distance from Earth is currently increasing at a rate of 3.82 ± per year , but this rate is not constant . The Soviet Union 's Luna programme was the first to reach the Moon with uncrewed spacecraft in 1959 ; the United States ' NASA Apollo program achieved the only crewed missions to date , beginning with the first crewed lunar orbiting mission by Apollo 8 in 1968 , and six crewed lunar landings between 1969 and 1972 , with the first being Apollo 11 . These missions returned over 380 kg of lunar rocks , which have been used to develop a geological understanding of the Moon 's origin , the formation of its internal structure , and its subsequent history . Since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972 , the Moon has been visited only by uncrewed spacecraft . |
Mount_Baker | Mount Baker ( Lummi : Qwú 'm ə Kwəlshéːn ; Kw ' eq Smaenit or Kwelshán ) , also known as Koma Kulshan or simply Kulshan , is an active glaciated andesitic stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the North Cascades of Washington in the United States . Mount Baker has the second-most thermally active crater in the Cascade Range after Mount Saint Helens . About 31 mi due east of the city of Bellingham , Whatcom County , Mount Baker is the youngest volcano in the Mount Baker volcanic field . While volcanism has persisted here for some 1.5 million years , the current glaciated cone is likely no more than 140,000 years old , and possibly no older than 80 -- 90,000 years . Older volcanic edifices have mostly eroded away due to glaciation . After Mount Rainier , Mount Baker is the most heavily glaciated of the Cascade Range volcanoes ; the volume of snow and ice on Mount Baker , 0.43 cumi is greater than that of all the other Cascades volcanoes ( except Rainier ) combined . It is also one of the snowiest places in the world ; in 1999 , Mount Baker Ski Area , located 14 km to the northeast , set the world record for recorded snowfall in a single season -- 1140 in . At 10781 ft , it is the third-highest mountain in Washington State and the fifth-highest in the Cascade Range , if Little Tahoma Peak , a subpeak of Mount Rainier , and Shastina , a subpeak of Mount Shasta , are not counted . Located in the Mount Baker Wilderness , it is visible from much of Greater Victoria , Nanaimo , and Greater Vancouver in British Columbia and , to the south , from Seattle ( and on clear days Tacoma ) in Washington . Indigenous Peoples have known the mountain for thousands of years , but the first written record of the mountain is from Spanish explorer Gonzalo Lopez de Haro , who mapped it in 1790 as Gran Montaña del Carmelo , `` Great Mount Carmel '' . The explorer George Vancouver renamed the mountain for 3rd Lieutenant Joseph Baker of HMS Discovery , who saw it on April 30 , 1792 . |
Mootral | Mootral is the name given to a programme to reduce methane emissions from ruminant animals , chiefly cows and sheep , but also goats . Methane is a major target greenhouse gas and in the 4th protocol report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is recommended to increase from a x23 to x72 multiplier because of the magnitude of its effect relative to carbon dioxide and short longevity in Earth 's atmosphere . |
Mongstad_Power_Station | Mongstad Power Station is a natural gas-fired thermal power plant under construction at the industrial site of Mongstad in Norway . The station is owned by a consortium of Statoil and DONG Energy , and will be operated by the latter . Construction costs are estimated at NOK 4 billion . The power station will have an installed effect of 280 MW in electricity production and 350 MW in heat . The energy will be used to operate the Mongstad Refinery as well to supply the Troll Gas Field with power . The plant will use 0.7 billion normal cubic meter ( BCM ) of gas per year . Emissions of carbon dioxide will be 1.2 million tonnes . The power station has been subject to controversy in Norway , based upon the potential increase in emission of greenhouse gases . Statoil has entered into an implementation agreement in cooperation with Gassnova which representing the Norwegian government in matters relating to Carbon capture and storage , to develop solutions for carbon dioxide capture at Mongstad . Early in 2009 , Statoil delivered a master plan for full scale CO2 capture at Mongstad . |
Morus_rubra | Morus rubra , commonly known as the red mulberry , is a species of mulberry native to eastern and central North America . It is found from Ontario , Minnesota , and Vermont south to southern Florida , and west as far as southeastern South Dakota , Nebraska , Kansas , and central Texas . There have been reports of isolated populations ( very likely naturalized ) in New Mexico , Idaho , and British Columbia . Common in the United States , it is listed as an endangered species in Canada , and is susceptible to hybridization with the invasive white mulberry ( M. alba ) , introduced from Asia . |
Mountain_States | thumb | 300px | Regional definitions vary from source to source . The states shown in dark red are always included , while the striped states are usually considered part of the same region called the Mountain States . thumb | 300px | An enlargeable map of the Rocky Mountains of western North America . The Mountain States ( also known as the Mountain West and the Interior West ) form one of the nine geographic divisions of the United States that are officially recognized by the United States Census Bureau . It is a subregion of the Western United States . The Mountain States are usually split up into two other regions known as the Northwest and Southwest . Idaho , Montana , and Wyoming are considered part of the Northwest , while Arizona , Colorado , Nevada , New Mexico , and Utah are considered part of the Southwest . The division consists of eight states : Arizona , Colorado , Idaho , Montana , Nevada , New Mexico , Utah , and Wyoming . These eight states have the highest mean elevations of all 50 U.S. states . Together with the Pacific States of Alaska , California , Hawaii , Oregon and Washington , the Mountain States constitute the broader region of the West , one of the four regions the United States Census Bureau formally recognizes ( the Northeast , South , and Midwest being the other three ) . The word `` Mountain '' refers to the Rocky Mountains , which run north-south through portions of the states of Montana , Idaho , Wyoming , Colorado , Utah , and New Mexico . Arizona and Nevada , as well as other parts of Utah and New Mexico , have other smaller mountain ranges and scattered mountains located in them as well . Sometimes the Trans-Pecos area of West Texas is considered part of the region . Mountain Time is observed in nearly the entire division , except Nevada ( all but the stateline city of West Wendover ) and the Idaho Panhandle . Daylight saving time is not observed in Arizona , except for lands within the Navajo Nation ( northeast corner of the state ) which observe daylight saving time due to the Nation traversing state lines . For this reason , most of Arizona is one hour behind the rest of the Mountain Time Zone from the second Sunday in March until the first Sunday in November . Phoenix is the largest metropolitan area of the Mountain States , followed by Denver , Las Vegas , and Salt Lake City . |
Mountain_range | A mountain range also called mountains or mountain barrier/belt/system , is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains . A mountain system or system of mountain ranges , sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically ( regionally ) related . On Earth , most significant mountain ranges are the result of plate tectonics , though mountain ranges are formed by a range of processes , are found on many planetary mass objects in the Solar System and are likely a feature of most terrestrial planets . Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys . Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology . They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes , for example thrust sheets , uplifted blocks , fold mountains , and volcanic landforms resulting in a variety of rock types . |
NASA_Earth_Observatory | NASA Earth Observatory is an online publishing outlet for NASA which was created in 1999 . It is the principal source of satellite imagery and other scientific information pertaining to the climate and the environment which are being provided by NASA for consumption by the general public . It is funded with public money , as authorized by the United States Congress , and is part of the EOS Project Science Office located at Goddard Space Flight Center . NASA Earth Observatory has won the Webby People 's Voice Award in Education three times . There were a series of publicized images issued by the website in 2008 , including imagery of clouds streaming over the Caspian Sea , dust storms curling off the coast of Morocco , the crumbling of the Wilkins Ice Shelf , Hurricane Bertha , and others . |
Monsoon | Monsoon ( UK : -LSB- mɒnˈsuːn -RSB- US : -LSB- mɑːnˈsuːn -RSB- ) is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation , but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea . Usually , the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern , although technically there is also a dry phase . The term is sometimes incorrectly used for locally heavy but short-term rains , although these rains meet the dictionary definition of monsoon . The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons . The inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated . The term was first used in English in British India ( now India , Bangladesh and Pakistan ) and neighbouring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area . |
Mohawk–Hudson_convergence | Mohawk -- Hudson convergence ( MHC ) is a mesoscale meteorology phenomenon occurring over the Capital District region of upstate New York , United States . The small convergence zone forms within specific weather conditions sometimes found in the wake of extratropical cyclones shifting east of the area . Given air pressure decreasing with both longitude and latitude , as well as weak synoptic low-level flow , winds are channeled east along the Mohawk Valley and south through the Hudson Valley , converging over Albany . With sufficient moisture in the lower atmosphere , a localized area of precipitation may form where the valleys meet , extending for several miles around Albany . The process manifests primarily in the lowest 2500 ft of the atmosphere . MHC-induced precipitation occurs predominately in the winter . It typically produces low clouds and light snowfall , often locally prolonging significant snow events by several hours . The strongest MHC events may yield snowfall rates approaching 1 in ( 2.5 cm ) per hour . Occasionally , MHC contributes to shower and thunderstorm formation in the warm season . In early August 2008 , two days of training thunderstorms over the Capital District were attributed to MHC ; the result was locally heavy rain , amounting to over 1 in . A relatively rare variation of MHC , termed `` Southern Mohawk -- Hudson convergence '' ( SMHC ) , occurs in the summer , when a southwesterly wind is present in advance of an approaching cold front . In that scenario , the Hudson and Mohawk valleys may direct the flow to become more southerly and westerly , respectively , yielding the formation of thunderstorms around Albany when conditions permit . As with MHC , SMHC is most pronounced in the absence of mechanisms for strong synoptic ascent over the region . Whereas the effects of the convergence zone are generally insignificant in the winter , SMHC presents more of a forecasting challenge when thunderstorms rapidly develop threaten and to impede travel at Albany International Airport . Thunderstorms associated with SMHC have the potential to become severe . |
Mount_Tambora | Mount Tambora is an active stratovolcano which is a peninsula of and the highest peak on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia . Sumbawa is flanked both to the north and south by oceanic crust , and Tambora was formed by the active subduction zone beneath it . This raised Mount Tambora as high as 4300 m , making it one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago in the 18th century . After a large magma chamber inside the mountain filled over the course of several decades , volcanic activity reached a historic climax in the eruption of 10 April 1815 . This eruption had a volcanic explosivity index ( VEI ) of 7 , the only unambiguously confirmed VEI-7 eruption since the Lake Taupo eruption in about AD 180 . ( The 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain might also have been VEI-7 . ) Tambora 's last eruption was in 1967 . It was rated VEI-0 . With an estimated ejecta volume of 160 km3 , Tambora 's 1815 outburst is the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history . The explosion was heard on Sumatra , more than 2000 km away . Heavy volcanic ash falls were observed as far away as Borneo , Sulawesi , Java , and the Maluku Islands . Most of the deaths from the eruption were from starvation and disease , as the eruptive fallout ruined agricultural productivity in the local region . The death toll was at least 71,000 people , of whom 11,000 -- 12,000 were killed directly by the eruption ; the oft-cited figure of 92,000 people killed is believed to be an overestimate . The eruption caused global climate anomalies that included the phenomenon known as `` volcanic winter '' : 1816 became known as the `` Year Without a Summer '' because of the effect on North American and European weather . Crops failed and livestock died in much of the Northern Hemisphere , resulting in the worst famine of the 19th century . During an excavation in 2004 , a team of archaeologists discovered cultural remains buried by the 1815 eruption . They were kept intact beneath the 3-metre-deep pyroclastic deposits . At the site , dubbed the `` Pompeii of the East '' , the artifacts were preserved in the positions they had occupied in 1815 . |
NPR | National Public Radio ( usually shortened to NPR , stylized as npr ) is an American privately and publicly funded non-profit membership media organization that serves as a national syndicator to a network of 900 public radio stations in the United States . NPR produces and distributes news and cultural programming . Individual public radio stations are not required to broadcast all NPR programs that are produced . Most public radio stations broadcast a mixture of NPR programs , content from rival providers American Public Media , Public Radio International , Public Radio Exchange and WNYC Studios and locally produced programs . NPR 's flagships are two drive time news broadcasts , Morning Edition and the afternoon All Things Considered ; both are carried by most NPR member stations , and are two of the most popular radio programs in the country . NPR manages the Public Radio Satellite System , which distributes NPR programs and other programming from independent producers and networks such as American Public Media and Public Radio International . Its content is also available on-demand via the web , mobile , and podcasts . |
Mount_St._Helens | Mount St. Helens or Louwala-Clough ( known as Lawetlat ` la to the indigenous Cowlitz people , and Loowit to the Klickitat ) is an active stratovolcano located in Skamania County , Washington , in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States . It is 96 mi south of Seattle , Washington , and 50 mi northeast of Portland , Oregon . Mount St. Helens takes its English name from the British diplomat Lord St Helens , a friend of explorer George Vancouver who made a survey of the area in the late 18th century . The volcano is located in the Cascade Range and is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc , a segment of the Pacific Ring of Fire that includes over 160 active volcanoes . This volcano is well known for its ash explosions and pyroclastic flows . Mount St. Helens is most notorious for its major 1980 eruption , the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in the history of the United States . Fifty-seven people were killed ; 250 homes , 47 bridges , 15 mi of railways , and 185 mi of highway were destroyed . A massive debris avalanche triggered by an earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale caused an eruption that reduced the elevation of the mountain 's summit from 9677 ft to 8363 ft , leaving a 1 mi wide horseshoe-shaped crater . The debris avalanche was up to 0.7 mi3 in volume . The Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument was created to preserve the volcano and allow for its aftermath to be scientifically studied . As with most other volcanoes in the Cascade Range , Mount St. Helens is a large eruptive cone consisting of lava rock interlayered with ash , pumice , and other deposits . The mountain includes layers of basalt and andesite through which several domes of dacite lava have erupted . The largest of the dacite domes formed the previous summit , and off its northern flank sat the smaller Goat Rocks dome . Both were destroyed in the 1980 eruption . |
Mount_Bear | Mount Bear is a high , glaciated peak in the Saint Elias Mountains of Alaska . It lies within Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park , about 4 miles ( 6.4 km ) west of the Yukon border . The Barnard Glacier flows from its southwest slopes , while the Klutlan Glacier lies to the north . Its principal claim to fame is that it is a fourteener , and in fact one of the highest 20 peaks in the United States . Despite its height , Mount Bear is a little-visited peak , being surrounded by higher and better-known peaks such as Mount Bona on the west , and Mount Lucania and Mount Logan on the east . However it is a large peak even in relative terms : for example , the drop from the summit to the Barnard Glacier is 8000 ft in less than 5 miles ( 8 km ) , and 10000 ft in less than 12 miles ( 19.3 km ) . __ TOC __ |
Mondego_River | The Rio Mondego ( -LSB- mõˈdeɡu -RSB- ; English language : Mondego River ) is the longest river located exclusively in Portuguese territory . It has its source in Serra da Estrela , the highest mountain range in mainland Portugal ( i.e. except the Portuguese islands ) . It runs 234 km from the Gouveia municipality , at 1425 m above sea level in Serra da Estrela , to its mouth in the Atlantic Ocean next to the city of Figueira da Foz . It flows through the districts of Guarda , Viseu and Coimbra , all in Centro Region . It flows near the towns of Celorico da Beira , Fornos de Algodres , Nelas , Tabua , Carregal do Sal , Mortagua , Montemor-o-Velho and cities of Seia , Gouveia , Guarda , Mangualde , Santa Comba Dao , before crossing the town of Penacova , is narrow , then widens by the city of Coimbra ( with the University and the major urban area in Baixo Mondego ) , and the Montemor-o-Velho municipality ( known for its castle and rice fields ) , before reaching the Atlantic at the city of Figueira da Foz . There are 2 dams along the Mondego : Aguieira dam and Raiva dam . |
Mount_Lokon | Mount Lokon , together with Mount Empung , is a twin volcano ( 2.2 km apart ) in the northern Sulawesi , Indonesia , roughly 10 km south of Manado . Both rise above the Tondano plain and are among active volcanoes of Sulawesi . Mount Lokon has a flat and craterless top . Its active crater is located on its foot , named `` Tompaluan '' crater . Lokon formed during a period of andesitic volcanism on ring fractures resulting from the Tondano caldera 's early to mid-Pleistocene collapse . Recently erupted material remains andesitic in composition and consists of ash plumes and , less commonly , pyroclastic flows and lava domes . The volcano erupted on 15 July 2011 , forcing thousands of people to evacuate . The volcano again began showing signs of activity on 10 February 2012 , and 19 September 2012 ( 11:01 pm ) . An eruption occurred at 8:20 , am the same day sending an ash plume two miles into the sky . Local residents have been evacuated from a two and a half mile exclusion zone around the volcano . An eruption occurred on 17 December 2012 . Indonesia has 129 volcanoes including Mount Lokon . The eruption of Mount Lokon in 1991 killed a Swiss hiker and forced thousands of people to flee their homes . |
Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories | Moon landing conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories which claim that some or all elements of the Apollo program and the associated Moon landings were hoaxes staged by NASA with the aid of other organizations . The most notable claim is that the six manned landings ( 1969 -- 72 ) were faked and that twelve Apollo astronauts did not actually walk on the Moon . Various groups and individuals have made claims since the mid-1970s , that NASA and others knowingly misled the public into believing the landings happened , by manufacturing , tampering with , or destroying evidence including photos , telemetry tapes , radio and TV transmissions , Moon rock samples , and even some key witnesses . Much third-party evidence for the landings exists , and detailed rebuttals to the hoax claims have been made . Since the late 2000s , high-definition photos taken by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ( LRO ) of the Apollo landing sites have captured the lander modules and the tracks left by the astronauts . In 2012 , images were released showing five of the six Apollo missions ' American flags erected on the Moon still standing ; the exception is that of Apollo 11 , which has lain on the lunar surface since being accidentally blown over by the takeoff rocket 's exhaust . Conspiracists have managed to sustain public interest in their theories for more than 40 years , despite the rebuttals and third-party evidence . Opinion polls taken in various locations have shown that between 6 % and 20 % of Americans and 28 % of Russians surveyed believe that the manned landings were faked . Even as late as 2001 , the Fox television network documentary Conspiracy Theory : Did We Land on the Moon ? claimed NASA faked the first landing in 1969 to win the Space Race . |
Multivariate_statistics | Multivariate statistics is a subdivision of statistics encompassing the simultaneous observation and analysis of more than one outcome variable . The application of multivariate statistics is multivariate analysis . Multivariate statistics concerns understanding the different aims and background of each of the different forms of multivariate analysis , and how they relate to each other . The practical implementation of multivariate statistics to a particular problem may involve several types of univariate and multivariate analyses in order to understand the relationships between variables and their relevance to the actual problem being studied . In addition , multivariate statistics is concerned with multivariate probability distributions , in terms of both how these can be used to represent the distributions of observed data ; how they can be used as part of statistical inference , particularly where several different quantities are of interest to the same analysis . Certain types of problem involving multivariate data , for example simple linear regression and multiple regression , are not usually considered as special cases of multivariate statistics because the analysis is dealt with by considering the ( univariate ) conditional distribution of a single outcome variable given the other variables . |
Montreal_Protocol | The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer ( a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer ) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion . It was agreed on 16 September 1987 , and entered into force on 01 January 1989 , followed by a first meeting in Helsinki , May 1989 . Since then , it has undergone eight revisions , in 1990 ( London ) , 1991 ( Nairobi ) , 1992 ( Copenhagen ) , 1993 ( Bangkok ) , 1995 ( Vienna ) , 1997 ( Montreal ) , 1998 ( Australia ) , 1999 ( Beijing ) and 2016 ( Kigali , adopted , but not in force ) . As a result of the international agreement , the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering . Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070 . Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation , with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that `` perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol '' . In comparison , effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge , where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so . In this case of the ozone depletion challenge , there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established . Also , overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks . The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties , which includes 196 states and the European Union , making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history . These truly universal treaties have also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy making process at the global scale , where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery ( 1973 ) and the international agreement signed ( 1985 & 1987 ) . |
Myth_of_the_flat_Earth | The myth of the flat Earth is the modern misconception that the prevailing cosmological view during the Middle Ages in Europe saw the Earth as flat , instead of spherical . During the early Middle Ages , virtually all scholars maintained the spherical viewpoint first expressed by the Ancient Greeks . From at least the 14th century , belief in a flat Earth among the educated was almost nonexistent , despite fanciful depictions in art , such as the exterior of Hieronymus Bosch 's famous triptych The Garden of Earthly Delights , in which a disc-shaped Earth is shown floating inside a transparent sphere . According to Stephen Jay Gould , `` there never was a period of ` flat Earth darkness ' among scholars ( regardless of how the public at large may have conceptualized our planet both then and now ) . Greek knowledge of sphericity never faded , and all major medieval scholars accepted the Earth 's roundness as an established fact of cosmology . '' Historians of science David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers point out that `` there was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge -LSB- Earth 's -RSB- sphericity and even know its approximate circumference '' . Historian Jeffrey Burton Russell says the flat-Earth error flourished most between 1870 and 1920 , and had to do with the ideological setting created by struggles over biological evolution . Russell claims `` with extraordinary few exceptions no educated person in the history of Western Civilization from the third century B.C. onward believed that the Earth was flat '' , and ascribes popularization of the flat-Earth myth to histories by John William Draper , Andrew Dickson White , and Washington Irving . |
NOAA-7 | NOAA-7 , designated NOAA-C before launch , was an American weather satellite launched in June 1981 as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites ( POES ) program . It was used to support the Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP ) during 1978 -- 1984 . An earlier launch , NOAA-B , was scheduled to become NOAA-7 , however NOAA-B failed to reach its required orbit . The launch of NOAA-7 took place at 10:52:59 UTC ( 3:53 a.m. PST ) on 23 June 1981 from Space Launch Complex 3W at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California . NOAA-7 was launched atop an Atlas E/F rocket with a Star-37S-ISS upper stage . The NOAA-7 satellite had a mass of 588.9 kg . The satellite 's design provided an economical and stable sun synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure the Earth 's atmosphere , its surface and cloud cover , and the near space environment . The primary sensors included an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) and a TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) . One of the primary mission sensors , the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) , failed 7 February 1985 . There were a number of secondary experiments on-board NOAA-7 . These include a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) and a Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) . The United States Air Force also provided a contamination monitor to assess contamination sources , levels and effects for consideration on future spacecraft . NOAA-7 was based upon the Block 5D spacecraft bus developed for the U.S. Air Force . The satellite was capable of maintaining an earth-pointing accuracy of better than ± 0.1 ° with a motion rate of less than 0.035 degrees/second . NOAA-7 was withdrawn from use in June 1986 after its power system malfunctioned . In August 1997 the decommissioned satellite experienced an abrupt 1 second change in orbital period . At the same time 3 new debris particles were observed . It is unclear if this was caused by an internal release of energy or collision with an unidentified object . As of 8 December 2013 , the derelict satellite remains in a 834 by orbit , inclined at 98.87 degrees and with a period of 101.62 minutes . |
Myth_of_superabundance | The myth of superabundance is the belief that earth has more than sufficient natural resources to satisfy humanity 's needs , and that no matter how much of these resources humanity uses , the planet will continuously replenish the supply . Although the idea had existed previously among conservationists in the 19th century , it was not given a name until Stewart Udall 's 1964 book The Quiet Crisis . Udall describes the myth as the belief that there was `` so much land , so much water , so much timber , so many birds and beasts '' that man did not envision a time where the planet would not replenish what had been sowed . The myth of superabundance began to circulate during Thomas Jefferson 's presidency at the beginning of the nineteenth century and persuaded many Americans to exploit natural resources as they pleased with no thought of long-term consequences . According to historian of the North American west George Colpitts , `` No theme became as integral to western promotion as natural abundance . '' Especially with respect to the west after 1890 , promotional literature encouraged migration by invoking the idea that God had provided an abundant environment there such that no man or family would fail if they sought to farm or otherwise live off the land out west . Since at that time environmental science and the study of ecology barely allowed for the possibility of animal extinction and did not provide tools for measuring biomass or the limits of natural resources , many speculators , settlers , and other parties participated in unsustainable practices that led to various extinctions , the Dust Bowl phenomenon , and other environmental catastrophes . |
Mountain | A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area , usually in the form of a peak . A mountain is generally steeper than a hill . Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism . These forces can locally raise the surface of the earth . Mountains erode slowly through the action of rivers , weather conditions , and glaciers . A few mountains are isolated summits , but most occur in huge mountain ranges . High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level . These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains : different elevations have different plants and animals . Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate , mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction and recreation , such as mountain climbing . The highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia , whose summit is 8850 m above mean sea level . The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21171 m. |
NOAA-6 | NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 . |
Monsoon_of_South_Asia | The monsoon of South Asia is among several geographically distributed global monsoons . It affects the Indian subcontinent , where it is one of the oldest and most anticipated weather phenomena and an economically important pattern every year from June through September . Yet it is only partly understood and notoriously difficult to predict . Several theories have been proposed to explain the origin , process , strength , variability , distribution , and general vagaries of the monsoon , but understanding and predictability are still evolving . The unique geographical features of the Indian subcontinent , along with associated atmospheric , oceanic , and geophysical factors , influence the behavior of the monsoon . Because of its effect on agriculture , on flora and fauna , and on the climates of nations such as Nepal , India , Bangladesh , Bhutan , Pakistan , and Sri Lanka -- among other economic , social , and environmental effects -- the monsoon is one of the most anticipated , tracked , and studied weather phenomena in the region . It has a significant effect on the overall well-being of residents and has even been dubbed the `` real finance minister of India . '' |
Monsanto | Monsanto Company is a publicly traded American multinational agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation . It is headquartered in Creve Coeur , Greater St. Louis , Missouri . Monsanto is a leading producer of genetically engineered ( GE ) seed and Roundup , a glyphosate-based herbicide . Monsanto has been involved in research on catalytic asymmetric hydrogenation and the first mass-produced light emitting diodes ( LEDs ) in addition to its work on genetic engineering . Monsanto was one of four groups to introduce genes into plants ( 1983 ) , and was among the first to conduct field trials of genetically modified crops , ( 1987 ) . It was one of the top 10 U.S. chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002 , through a process of mergers and spin-offs that focused the company on biotechnology . Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply the biotechnology industry business model to agriculture , using techniques developed by biotech drug companies . In this business model , companies recoup R&D expenses by exploiting biological patents . Monsanto 's roles in agricultural changes , biotechnology products and lobbying of government agencies and roots as a chemical company have surrounded the company in controversies . The company once manufactured controversial products such as the insecticide DDT , PCBs , Agent Orange and recombinant bovine growth hormone . Its seed patenting model was criticized as biopiracy and a threat to biodiversity . In September 2016 Monsanto agreed to accept Bayer 's offer to purchase the company for $ 66 billion ( $ 128/share ) , pending regulatory approval . |
Málaga | Málaga ( -LSB- ˈmæləgə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈmalaɣa -RSB- ) is a municipality , capital of the Province of Málaga , in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia , Spain . With a population of 569,130 in 2015 , it is the second-most populous city of Andalusia and the sixth-largest in Spain . The southernmost large city in Europe , it lies on the Costa del Sol ( Coast of the Sun ) of the Mediterranean , about 100 km east of the Strait of Gibraltar and about 130 km north of Africa . Málaga 's history spans about 2,800 years , making it one of the oldest cities in the world . It was founded by the Phoenicians as Malaka about 770 BC , and from the 6th century BC was under the hegemony of Ancient Carthage . Then , from 218 BC , it was ruled by the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire as Malaca ( Latin ) . After the fall of the empire and the end of Visigothic rule , it was under Islamic rule as Mālaqah for 800 years , but in 1487 , the Crown of Castille gained control after the Reconquista . The archaeological remains and monuments from the Phoenician , Roman , Arabic and Christian eras make the historic center of the city an `` open museum '' , displaying its history of nearly 3,000 years . This important cultural infrastructure and the artistic heritage have culminated in the nomination of Málaga as a candidate for the 2016 European Capital of Culture . The internationally acclaimed painter and sculptor Pablo Picasso , Hebrew poet and Jewish philosopher Solomon Ibn Gabirol and the actor Antonio Banderas were born in Málaga . The magnum opus of Cuban composer Ernesto Lecuona , `` Malagueña '' , is named for the music of this region of Spain . The most important business sectors in Málaga are tourism , construction and technology services , but other sectors such as transportation and logistics are beginning to expand . The Andalusia Technology Park ( PTA ) , located in Málaga , has enjoyed significant growth since its inauguration in 1992 . Málaga is the main economic and financial centre of southern Spain , home of the region 's largest bank , Unicaja , and the fourth-ranking city in economic activity in Spain behind Madrid , Barcelona and Valencia . |
Mount_Everest | Mount Everest , also known in Nepal as Sagarmāthā and in China as Chomolungma , is Earth 's highest mountain . Its peak is 8848 m above sea level . Mount Everest is in the Mahalangur Range . The international border between China ( Tibet Autonomous Region ) and Nepal runs across Everest 's summit point . Its massif includes neighbouring peaks Lhotse , 8516 m ; Nuptse , 7855 m , and Changtse , 7580 m. In 1715 , China surveyed the mountain while mapping Chinese territory and depicted it as Mount Qomolangma no later than 1719 . In 1856 , the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India established the first published height of the mountain , then known as Peak XV , at 29002 ft. The current official height of 8848 m as recognised by China and Nepal was established by a 1955 Indian survey and subsequently confirmed by a Chinese survey in 1975 . In 2005 , China remeasured the height of the mountain and got a result of 8844.43 m. An argument regarding the height between China and Nepal lasted five years from 2005 to 2010 . China argued it should be measured by its rock height of 8,844 m , but Nepal said it should be measured by its snow height of 8,848 m . In 2010 , an agreement was finally reached by both sides that the height of Everest is 8,848 m , and Nepal recognises China 's claim that the rock height of Everest is 8,844 m. In 1865 , Everest was given its official English name by the Royal Geographical Society , upon a recommendation by Andrew Waugh , the British Surveyor General of India . As there appeared to be several different local names , Waugh chose to name the mountain after his predecessor in the post , Sir George Everest , despite George Everest 's objections . Mount Everest attracts many climbers , some of them highly experienced mountaineers . There are two main climbing routes , one approaching the summit from the southeast in Nepal ( known as the `` standard route '' ) and the other from the north in Tibet , China . While not posing substantial technical climbing challenges on the standard route , Everest presents dangers such as altitude sickness , weather , and wind , as well as significant hazards from avalanches and the Khumbu Icefall . there are well over 200 corpses on the mountain , some of which serve as landmarks . The first recorded efforts to reach Everest 's summit were made by British mountaineers . As Nepal did not allow foreigners into the country at the time , the British made several attempts on the north ridge route from the Tibetan side . After the first reconnaissance expedition by the British in 1921 reached 7000 m on the North Col , the 1922 expedition pushed the north ridge route up to 8320 m , marking the first time a human had climbed above 8000 m. Seven porters were killed in an avalanche on the descent from the North Col. The 1924 expedition resulted in one of the greatest mysteries on Everest to this day : George Mallory and Andrew Irvine made a final summit attempt on 8 June but never returned , sparking debate as to whether or not they were the first to reach the top . They had been spotted high on the mountain that day but disappeared in the clouds , never to be seen again , until Mallory 's body was found in 1999 at 8155 m on the north face . Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary made the first official ascent of Everest in 1953 , using the southeast ridge route . Tenzing had reached 8595 m the previous year as a member of the 1952 Swiss expedition . The Chinese mountaineering team of Wang Fuzhou , Gonpo , and Qu Yinhua made the first reported ascent of the peak from the north ridge on 25 May 1960 . |
Mount_Wilson_(California) | Mount Wilson is one of the better-known peaks of the San Gabriel Mountains , located within the San Gabriel Mountains National Monument and Angeles National Forest in Los Angeles County , California . With only minor topographical prominence the peak is not naturally noticeable from a distance , although it is easily identifiable due to the large number of antennas near its summit . It is a subsidiary peak of nearby San Gabriel Peak . It is the location of the Mount Wilson Observatory , which is an important astronomical facility in Southern California with historic 60 in and 100 in telescopes , and 60 ft and 150 ft solar towers . The newer CHARA Array , run by Georgia State University , is also sited there and does important interferometric stellar research . The summit is at 5710 ft. While not the tallest peak in its vicinity , it is high enough in elevation that snow can sometimes interrupt astronomical activities on the mountain . All of the mountains south of the summit are far shorter leading to unobstructed views across the Los Angeles Basin , Orange County , the Inland Empire , and out to Ventura County , San Diego County and the Pacific Ocean . On most days Santa Catalina Island , California , some 65 miles south , is visible . On clear days , other Channel Islands visible include San Clemente Island at 95 miles , Santa Barbara Island at 76 miles , San Nicolas Island at 107 miles , Santa Cruz Island at 98 miles and San Miguel Island at 133 miles . At an elevation of 5,710 feet , the horizon on the ocean extends 92 miles . Mount Wilson is also heavily utilized for relay broadcasting of radio and television for the Greater Los Angeles Area . |
Moulin_(geomorphology) | A moulin or glacier mill is a roughly circular , vertical to nearly vertical well-like shaft within a glacier or ice sheet which water enters from the surface . The term is derived from the French word for mill . They can be up to 10 meters wide and are typically found on ice sheets and flat areas of a glacier in a region of transverse crevasses . Moulins can reach the bottom of the glacier , hundreds of meters deep , or may only reach the depth of common crevasse formation ( about 10 -- 40 m ) where the stream flows englacially . They are the most typical cause for the formation of a glacier cave . Moulins are parts of the internal structure of glaciers , that carry meltwater from the surface down to wherever it may go . Water from a moulin often exits the glacier at base level , sometimes into the sea , and occasionally the lower end of a moulin may be exposed in the face of a glacier or at the edge of a stagnant block of ice . Water from moulins may help lubricate the base of the glacier , affecting glacial motion . Given an appropriate relationship between an ice sheet and the terrain , the head of water in a moulin can provide the power and medium with which a tunnel valley may be formed . The role of this water in lubricating the base of ice sheets and glaciers is complex and it is implicated in accelerating the speed of glaciers and thus the rate of glacial calving . |
Mutual_assured_destruction | Mutual assured destruction or mutually assured destruction ( MAD ) is a doctrine of military strategy and national security policy in which a full-scale use of nuclear weapons by two or more opposing sides would cause the complete annihilation of both the attacker and the defender ( see pre-emptive nuclear strike and second strike ) . It is based on the theory of deterrence , which holds that the threat of using strong weapons against the enemy prevents the enemy 's use of those same weapons . The strategy is a form of Nash equilibrium in which , once armed , neither side has any incentive to initiate a conflict or to disarm . |
NASA_Space_Flight_Medal | The NASA Space Flight Medal is a decoration of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration . According to its statutes , it is awarded `` for significant achievement or service during individual participation as a civilian or military astronaut , pilot , mission specialist , payload specialist , or other space flight participant in a space flight mission . '' In practice , the medal is bestowed upon any astronaut ( US or foreign ) who flies aboard a United States space mission , and typically every subsequent flight is honored with an additional award . Multiple awards of the decoration are annotated either by award stars or oak leaf clusters ( depending on the civilian or military status of the recipient and , if military , the branch of service ) . The NASA Space Flight Medal is also authorized for wear on active uniforms of the United States military and is worn after all military decorations . For those who perform an act of gallantry or heroic action while engaged in a U.S. space mission , NASA also presents an award known as the Congressional Space Medal of Honor . This is separate award from the Medal of Honor which is a U.S. military decoration for extreme bravery . |
Multiple_sclerosis | Multiple sclerosis ( MS ) is a demyelinating disease in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged . This damage disrupts the ability of parts of the nervous system to communicate , resulting in a range of signs and symptoms , including physical , mental , and sometimes psychiatric problems . Specific symptoms can include double vision , blindness in one eye , muscle weakness , trouble with sensation , or trouble with coordination . MS takes several forms , with new symptoms either occurring in isolated attacks ( relapsing forms ) or building up over time ( progressive forms ) . Between attacks , symptoms may disappear completely ; however , permanent neurological problems often remain , especially as the disease advances . While the cause is not clear , the underlying mechanism is thought to be either destruction by the immune system or failure of the myelin-producing cells . Proposed causes for this include genetics and environmental factors such as being triggered by a viral infection . MS is usually diagnosed based on the presenting signs and symptoms and the results of supporting medical tests . There is no known cure for multiple sclerosis . Treatments attempt to improve function after an attack and prevent new attacks . Medications used to treat MS , while modestly effective , can have side effects and be poorly tolerated . Physical therapy can help with people 's ability to function . Many people pursue alternative treatments , despite a lack of evidence . The long-term outcome is difficult to predict , with good outcomes more often seen in women , those who develop the disease early in life , those with a relapsing course , and those who initially experienced few attacks . Life expectancy is on average 5 to 10 years lower than that of an unaffected population . Multiple sclerosis is the most common autoimmune disorder affecting the central nervous system . In 2015 , about 2.3 million people were affected globally with rates varying widely in different regions and among different populations . That year about 18,900 people died from MS , up from 12,000 in 1990 . The disease usually begins between the ages of 20 and 50 and is twice as common in women as in men . MS was first described in 1868 by Jean-Martin Charcot . The name multiple sclerosis refers to the numerous scars ( sclerae -- better known as plaques or lesions ) that develop on the white matter of the brain and spinal cord . A number of new treatments and diagnostic methods are under development . |
NSS-8 | NSS-8 was a Dutch telecommunications satellite that was destroyed during launch . It was a Boeing 702 spacecraft with 56 C-band and 36 Ku-band transponders , and it was part of the SES NEW SKIES . The satellite , which was insured , was destroyed when the rocket that was launching it exploded . The rocket was a Zenit 3SL being launched by Sea Launch from its Ocean Odyssey launch pad . The launch attempt occurred at 23:22 GMT on 30 January 2007 . `` There was an explosion as we were lifting off , '' said Paula Korn , a spokeswoman for Sea Launch . NSS-8 was designed to support a wide range of functions , including broadcast applications , government and military operations , corporate communications and Broadband Internet services . When placed in its final orbital position ( 57 ° E ) , the satellite would have provided coverage to two-thirds of the planet , serving countries in Europe , Africa , the Middle East , the Indian subcontinent and Asia . |
Mýrdalsjökull | Mýrdalsjökull ( pronounced -LSB- ˈmirtalsˌjœːkʏtl -RSB- , Icelandic for '' ( the ) mire dale glacier '' or '' ( the ) mire valley glacier '' ) is an ice cap in the south of Iceland . It is to the north of Vík í Mýrdal and to the east of the smaller ice cap Eyjafjallajökull . Between these two glaciers is Fimmvörðuháls pass . Its peak reaches 1493 m in height and in 1980 it covered an area of 595 km2 . The icecap of the glacier covers an active volcano called Katla . The caldera of the volcano has a diameter of 10 km and the volcano erupts usually every 40 -- 80 years . The last eruption took place in 1918 . Scientists are actively monitoring the volcano , particularly after the eruption of nearby Eyjafjallajökull began in April 2010 . Since the year 930 , 16 eruptions have been documented . The Eldgjá , a volcanic eruption fissure about 30 km long , which erupted in the year 936 , is part of the same volcanic system . Before the Hringvegur ( the main ring road round the island ) was built , people feared traversing the plains in front of the volcano because of the frequent jökulhlaups ( glacial floods ) and the deep rivers to be crossed , although the road is still vulnerable to major events . Especially dangerous was the glacial flood after the eruption of 1918 when the coastline was extended by 5 km by laharic flood deposits . Mýrdalsjökull is an exceedingly wet location , with models suggesting it receives more than 10 metres of precipitation annually . |
Mountain-gap_wind | A mountain-gap wind , gap wind or gap flow is a local wind blowing through a gap between mountains . Gap winds are low-level winds and can be associated with strong winds of 20-40 knots and on occasion exceeding 50 knots . Gap winds are generally strongest close to gap exit . Example flows include the surface winds blowing through the Strait of Gibraltar -- one of the strongest winds in this region is called Levanter . Similar winds occur at other gaps in mountain ranges , such as the tehuantepecer and the jochwinde , and in long channels , such as the Strait of Juan de Fuca between the Olympic Mountains of Washington and Vancouver Island , British Columbia , Hinlopen Strait near Spitsbergen . In the Columbia River Gorge on the border of Washington and Oregon , the high frequency of gap winds has led to the installation of wind farms , and the large amount of wind surfing that takes place on the Columbia River . Another example is the Koshava wind Košava ( wind ) in Serbia that blows along the Danube River . The South Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains are channelling the flow into the Danube River basin in Romania and the exiting jet at the Iron Gates is known as the Koshava wind . The main characteristics of the Koshava wind are its high wind speed , southeasterly direction , persistence , and gustiness . |
Mont_Blanc_(Moon) | Mont Blanc is a mountain in the Montes Alpes range on the Moon . It is located on the western edge of the range , near the shore of Mare Imbrium , at . Its width is about 25 kilometers ; the height is 3.7 -- 3.8 km above adjacent plains of Mare Imbrium and 1.12 km above lunar level of zero elevation ( a sphere with radius 1737.4 km ) . The name of Mont Blanc , the highest mountain of terrestrial Alps , was proposed for this mountain by Johann Hieronymus Schröter . It was approved by International Astronomical Union in 1935 . It is the only summit of Montes Alpes with proper name and the only extraterrestrial mountain , whose international name contains French word `` Mont '' instead of Latin `` Mons '' . Despite statements that lunar Mont Blanc , like terrestrial one , is a highest mountain of its Alps , measurements of Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter show that it is only third , being 600 meters lower than the highest one and about 100 m lower than the second . |
Murmansk | Murmansk ( -LSB- Му́рманск , p = ˈmurmənsk -RSB- -LSB- Incubator : Wp/sjd / Мурман ланнҍ , Мурман ланнҍ -RSB- Murmánska Muurman ) is a port city and the administrative center of Murmansk Oblast , Russia , located in the extreme northwest part of Russia , on the Kola Bay , an inlet of the Barents Sea on the northern shore of the Kola Peninsula , close to Russia 's borders with Norway and Finland . The city is named for the Murman Coast ; Murman is an older Russian term for Norwegians . Despite its extremely-northern latitude of 68 ° 58 'N ( just 2 ° north of the Arctic Circle at approximately 66 ° 33 ` N ) , Murmansk is in many ways similar to other Russian cities of its size at far-lower latitudes , with highway and railway access to the rest of Europe , and the northernmost trolleybus system on Earth . This is in stark contrast to the isolation of other major Arctic maritime cities such as Dikson , Krasnoyarsk Krai ( 73 ° 30 ` N ) in the far-north of Siberia on the shores of the Kara Sea or Iqaluit , Nunavut in Canada on Baffin Island 's Frobisher Bay off the Labrador Sea ( actually further south at 63 ° 44 ` N ) . While still having long , harsh winters , Murmansk enjoys somewhat warmer temperatures , relatively speaking , than other regions at similarly high latitudes due to the moderating effects of the Gulf Stream on the Barents Sea . Although Murmansk 's population is in decline -- 299,148 ( 2014 est. ) ; -- it remains by far the largest city north of the Arctic Circle and is a major port on the Arctic Ocean . |
Mosquito | Mosquitoes are small , midge-like flies that constitute the family Culicidae . Females of most species are ectoparasites , whose tube-like mouthparts ( called a proboscis ) pierce the hosts ' skin to consume blood . The word `` mosquito '' ( formed by mosca and diminutive - ito ) is Spanish for `` little fly '' . Thousands of species feed on the blood of various kinds of hosts , mainly vertebrates , including mammals , birds , reptiles , amphibians , and even some kinds of fish . Some mosquitoes also attack invertebrates , mainly other arthropods . Though the loss of blood is seldom of any importance to the victim , the saliva of the mosquito often causes an irritating rash that is a serious nuisance . Much more serious though , are the roles of many species of mosquitoes as vectors of diseases . In passing from host to host , some transmit extremely harmful infections such as malaria , yellow fever , Chikungunya , West Nile virus , dengue fever , filariasis , Zika virus and other arboviruses , rendering it the deadliest animal family in the world . |
Montana | Montana -LSB- mɒnˈtænə -RSB- is a state in the Western region of the United States . The state 's name is derived from the Spanish word montaña ( mountain ) . Montana has several nicknames , although none official , including `` Big Sky Country '' and `` The Treasure State '' , and slogans that include `` Land of the Shining Mountains '' and more recently `` The Last Best Place '' . Montana has a 545 mi border with three Canadian provinces : British Columbia , Alberta , and Saskatchewan , the only state to do so . It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east , Wyoming to the south , and Idaho to the west and southwest . Montana is ranked 4th in size , but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States . The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges . Smaller island ranges are found throughout the state . In total , 77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains . The eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands . The economy is primarily based on agriculture , including ranching and cereal grain farming . Other significant economic activities include oil , gas , coal and hard rock mining , lumber , and the fastest-growing sector , tourism . The health care , service , and government sectors also are significant to the state 's economy . Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park , the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument , and Yellowstone National Park . |
Moose | The moose ( North America ) or elk ( Eurasia ) , Alces alces , is the largest extant species in the deer family . Moose are distinguished by the broad , flat ( or palmate ) antlers of the males ; other members of the family have antlers with a dendritic ( `` twig-like '' ) configuration . Moose typically inhabit boreal forests and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates . Hunting and other human activities have caused a reduction in the size of the moose 's range over time . Moose have been reintroduced to some of their former habitats . Currently , most moose are found in Canada , Alaska , New England , Fennoscandia , Latvia , Estonia and Russia . Their diet consists of both terrestrial and aquatic vegetation . The most common moose predators are the gray wolf along with bears and humans . Unlike most other deer species , moose are solitary animals and do not form herds . Although generally slow-moving and sedentary , moose can become aggressive and move quickly if angered or startled . Their mating season in the autumn features energetic fights between males competing for a female . |
Muon | The muon ( -LSB- ˈmjuːɒn -RSB- from the Greek letter mu used to represent it ) is an elementary particle similar to the electron , with an electric charge of − 1 e and a spin of , but with a much greater mass . It is classified as a lepton . As is the case with other leptons , the muon is not believed to have any sub-structure -- that is , it is not thought to be composed of any simpler particles . The muon is an unstable subatomic particle with a mean lifetime of , much longer than many other subatomic particles . As with the decay of the non-elementary neutron ( with a lifetime around 15 minutes ) , muon decay is slow ( by subatomic standards ) because the decay is mediated by the weak interaction exclusively ( rather than the more powerful strong interaction or electromagnetic interaction ) , and because the mass difference between the muon and the set of its decay products is small , providing few kinetic degrees of freedom for decay . Muon decay almost always produces at least three particles , which must include an electron of the same charge as the muon and two neutrinos of different types . Like all elementary particles , the muon has a corresponding antiparticle of opposite charge ( +1 e ) but equal mass and spin : the antimuon ( also called a positive muon ) . Muons are denoted by and antimuons by . Muons were previously called mu mesons , but are not classified as mesons by modern particle physicists ( see ) , and that name is no longer used by the physics community . Muons have a mass of , which is about 207 times that of the electron . Due to their greater mass , muons are not as sharply accelerated when they encounter electromagnetic fields , and do not emit as much bremsstrahlung ( deceleration radiation ) . This allows muons of a given energy to penetrate far more deeply into matter than electrons since the deceleration of electrons and muons is primarily due to energy loss by the bremsstrahlung mechanism . As an example , so-called `` secondary muons '' , generated by cosmic rays hitting the atmosphere , can penetrate to the Earth 's surface , and even into deep mines . Because muons have a very large mass and energy compared with the decay energy of radioactivity , they are never produced by radioactive decay . They are , however , produced in copious amounts in high-energy interactions in normal matter , in certain particle accelerator experiments with hadrons , or naturally in cosmic ray interactions with matter . These interactions usually produce pi mesons initially , which most often decay to muons . As with the case of the other charged leptons , the muon has an associated muon neutrino , denoted by , which is not the same particle as the electron neutrino , and does not participate in the same nuclear reactions . |
Mountaintop_removal_mining | Mountaintop removal mining ( MTR ) , also known as mountaintop mining ( MTM ) , is a form of surface mining at the summit or summit ridge of a mountain . Coal seams are extracted from a mountain by removing the land , or overburden , above the seams . This method of coal mining is conducted in the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States . Explosives are used to remove up to 400 vertical feet ( 120 m ) of mountain to expose underlying coal seams . Excess rock and soil is dumped into nearby valleys , in what are called `` holler fills '' or `` valley fills . '' Less expensive to execute and requiring fewer employees , mountaintop removal mining began in Appalachia in the 1970s as an extension of conventional strip mining techniques . It is primarily occurring in Kentucky , West Virginia , Virginia , and Tennessee . The practice of mountaintop removal mining has been controversial . The coal industry cites economic benefits and asserts that mountaintop removal is safer than underground mining . Published scientific studies have found that mountaintop mining has serious environmental impacts that mitigation practices can not successfully address . A high potential for human health impacts has also been reported . |
NOAAS_Okeanos_Explorer_(R_337) | NOAAS Okeanos Explorer ( R 337 ) is a converted United States Navy ship ( formerly ) , now an exploratory vessel for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , officially launched in 2010 . Starting in 2010 , NOAA entered into a five-year partnership with the San Francisco Exploratorium . The focus is on gathering scientific information about oceans for the public as well as for scientific uses . As much as 95 % of the ocean remains unexplored , NOAA officials said . The ship is equipped with cameras and will provide real-time viewing of the ocean floor for scientists and for the public . This is a pioneering use of what NOAA calls `` telepresence technology '' . The Okeanos Explorer is the only vessel owned by the U.S. government that is dedicated to exploring the seabed and ocean crust . The ship is named after Okeanos , the Ancient Greek god of the sea , from which also comes the word `` ocean '' . |
Mont_Blanc_massif | The Mont Blanc massif ( Massif du Mont-Blanc Massiccio del Monte Bianco ) is a mountain range in the Alps , located mostly in France and Italy , but also straddling Switzerland at its northeastern end . It contains eleven major independent summits , each over 4000 m in height , and is named after Mont Blanc ( 4808 m ) , the highest point in western Europe . Because of its considerable overall altitude , a large proportion of the massif is covered by glaciers , which include the Mer de Glace and the Miage Glacierthe longest glaciers in France and Italy , respectively . Not only does the massif form a watershed between the vast catchments of the Rhône and Po rivers , as well as a tripoint between France , Italy and Switzerland , it also marks the border between two climate regions by separating the northern and western Alps from the southern Alps . The mountains of the massif consist mostly of granite and gneiss rocks , and at high altitudes the vegetation is an arctic-alpine flora . The valleys that delimit the massif were used as communication routes by the Romans until they left around the 5th century AD . The region has remained of some military importance through to the mid-20th century . A peasant farming economy operated within these valleys for many centuries until the glaciers and mountains were discovered by the outside world in the 18th century . Word of these impressive sights began to spread , and Mont Blanc was finally climbed in 1786 , marking the start of the sport of mountaineering . The region is now a major tourist destination , drawing in over sixmillion visitors per year . It provides a wide range of opportunities for outdoor recreation and activities such as sight-seeing , hiking , rock climbing , mountaineering and skiing . Around one hundred people a year die across its mountains and , occasionally , bodies have been lost and entombed in its glaciers for decades . Access into the mountains is facilitated by cable cars , mountain railways and mountain huts which offer overnight refuge to climbers and skiers . The long-distance Tour du Mont Blanc hiking trail circumnavigates the whole massif in an 11-day trek of 170 km . The Mont Blanc Tunnel connects the French town of Chamonix on the northern side with the Italian town of Courmayeur in the south . The high mountains have provided many opportunities for scientific research , including neutrino measurements within the Tunnel and impacts of climate change on its highest slopes . Recent rises in average temperatures have led to significant glacial retreat across the massif and an awareness of the need for better environmental protection , including a call for World Heritage Site status . |
Myrmecophagy | Myrmecophagy is a feeding behavior defined by the consumption of termites or ants , particularly as pertaining to those animal species whose diets are largely or exclusively composed of said insect types . Literally , myrmecophagy means `` ant eating '' ( Ancient Greek : murmēx , `` ants '' and phagein , `` to eat '' ) rather than `` termite eating '' ( for which the strict term is termitophagy ) . However , the two habits often overlap , as both of these eusocial insect types often live in large , densely populated nests requiring similar adaptations in the animal species that exploit them . |
Multicollinearity | In statistics , multicollinearity ( also collinearity ) is a phenomenon in which two or more predictor variables in a multiple regression model are highly correlated , meaning that one can be linearly predicted from the others with a substantial degree of accuracy . In this situation the coefficient estimates of the multiple regression may change erratically in response to small changes in the model or the data . Multicollinearity does not reduce the predictive power or reliability of the model as a whole , at least within the sample data set ; it only affects calculations regarding individual predictors . That is , a multiple regression model with correlated predictors can indicate how well the entire bundle of predictors predicts the outcome variable , but it may not give valid results about any individual predictor , or about which predictors are redundant with respect to others . In case of perfect multicollinearity the design matrix has less than full rank , and therefore the moment matrix can not be inverted . Under these circumstances , for a general linear model , the ordinary least-squares estimator does not exist . Note that in statements of the assumptions underlying regression analyses such as ordinary least squares , the phrase `` no multicollinearity '' is sometimes used to mean the absence of perfect multicollinearity , which is an exact ( non-stochastic ) linear relation among the regressors . |
Neoglaciation | The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens . |
National_Income_and_Product_Accounts | The national income and product accounts ( NIPA ) are part of the national accounts of the United States . They are produced by the Bureau of Economic Analysis of the Department of Commerce . They are one of the main sources of data on general economic activity in the United States . They use double-entry accounting to report the monetary value and sources of output produced in the country and the distribution of incomes that production generates . Data are available at the national and industry levels . Seven summary accounts are published , as well as a much larger number of more specific accounts . The first summary account shows gross domestic product ( GDP ) and its major components . The table summarizes national income on the left ( debit , revenue ) side and national product on the right ( credit , expense ) side of a two-column accounting report . Thus the left side gives GDP by the income method , and the right side gives GDP by the expenditure method . The GDP is given on the bottom line of both sides of the report . GDP must have the same value on both sides of the account . This is because income and expenditure are defined in a way that forces them to be equal ( see accounting identity ) . We show the 2003 table later in this article ; we present the left side first for convenient screen display . The U.S. report ( updated quarterly ) is available in several forms , including interactive , from links on the Bureau of Economic Analysis ( BEA ) NIPA page . Other countries report based on their own adopted system of National accounts which are frequently based on the U.S. NIPAs , the widely adopted United Nations System of National Accounts , or their own custom approach . The level of detail ( granularity ) accounted for internally , and reported publicly , varies widely across countries . Likewise , a nation 's system of accounts , ( analogous to a firm 's Chart of accounts ) are typically gradually revised and updated on their own individual schedule . The U.S. NIPAs are prepared by the staff of the Directorate for National Economic Accounts within the BEA . The source data largely originate from public sources , such as government surveys and administrative data , and they are supplemented by data from private sources , such as data from trade associations ( BEA 2008 : 1 -- 6 ) . |
Natural_environment | The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally , meaning in this case not artificial . The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth . This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species , climate , weather , and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity . The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished by components : Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention , including all vegetation , microorganisms , soil , rocks , atmosphere , and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries , such as air , water , and climate , as well as energy , radiation , electric charge , and magnetism , not originating from civilized human activity In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment . In such areas where man has fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion , the natural environment is greatly modified into a simplified human environment . Even acts which seem less extreme , such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert , modify the natural environment into an artificial one . Though many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves , they are not human , hence beaver dams and the works of Mound-building termites are thought of as natural . People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth , and naturalness usually varies in a continuum , from 100 % natural in one extreme to 0 % natural in the other . More precisely , we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment , and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform . If , for instance , in an agricultural field , the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil , but the structure is quite different . Natural environment is often used as a synonym for habitat . For instance , when we say that the natural environment of giraffes is the savanna . |
Neogene | The Neogene ( -LSB- pronˈniːəˌdʒiːn -RSB- ) is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period Mya . The Neogene is sub-divided into two epochs , the earlier Miocene and the later Pliocene . Some geologists assert that the Neogene can not be clearly delineated from the modern geological period , the Quaternary . During this period , mammals and birds continued to evolve into roughly modern forms , while other groups of life remained relatively unchanged . Early hominids , the ancestors of humans , appeared in Africa near the end of the period . Some continental movement took place , the most significant event being the connection of North and South America at the Isthmus of Panama , late in the Pliocene . This cut off the warm ocean currents from the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean , leaving only the Gulf Stream to transfer heat to the Arctic Ocean . The global climate cooled considerably over the course of the Neogene , culminating in a series of continental glaciations in the Quaternary Period that follows . |
Negawatt_power | Negawatt power is a theoretical unit of power representing an amount of electrical power ( measured in watts ) saved . The energy saved is a direct result of energy conservation or increased energy efficiency . The term was coined by the chief scientist of the Rocky Mountain Institute and environmentalist Amory Lovins in 1985 , within the article , `` Saving Gigabucks with Negawatts , '' where he argued that utility customers do n't want kilowatt-hours of electricity ; they want energy services such as hot showers , cold beer , lit rooms , and spinning shafts , which can come more cheaply if electricity is used more efficiently . Lovins felt an international behavioral change was necessary in order to decrease countries ' dependence on excessive amounts of energy . The concept of a negawatt could influence a behavioral change in consumers by encouraging them to think about the energy that they spend . A negawatt market can be thought of as a secondary market , in which electricity is allocated from one consumer to another consumer within the energy market . In this market , negawatts could be treated as a commodity . Commodities have the ability to be traded across time and space , which would allow negawatts to be incorporated in the international trading system . Roughly 10 % of all U.S. electrical generating capacity is in place to meet the last 1 % of demand and there is where the immediate efficiency opportunity exists . On March 15 , 2011 , the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission ( FERC ) , the agency that regulates the U.S. electrical grid , approved a rule establishing the approach to compensation for demand response resources intended to benefit customers and help improve the operation and competitiveness of organized wholesale energy markets . This means that negawatts produced by reducing electrical use can demand the same market prices as real megawatts of generated electricity . The incentives for a negawatt market include receiving money , reduction of national energy dependency , and the local electricity deregulation within certain nations or states . As for the cost incentive , those who produce negawatts or simply conserve energy can earn money by selling the saved energy . The negawatt market could help nations or states obtain a deregulated electricity system by creating another market to purchase electricity from . The negawatt market also has two main drawbacks . Currently , there is no way to precisely measure the amount of energy saved in negawatts , and electricity providers may not want customers to use less energy due to the loss of profit . |
Natural_News | Natural News ( formerly NewsTarget , which is now a separate sister site ) is a website for the sale of various dietary supplements , promotion of alternative medicine , controversial nutrition and health claims , scientific fake news , and various conspiracy theories , such as `` chemtrails '' , chemophobic claims ( including the purported dangers of fluoride in drinking water , anti-perspirants , laundry detergent , monosodium glutamate , aspartame ) , and purported health problems caused by allegedly `` toxic '' ingredients in vaccines , including the now-discredited link to autism . It has also spread conspiracy theories about the Zika virus allegedly being spread by genetically modified mosquitoes and purported adverse effects of genetically modified crops , as well as the farming practices associated with and foods derived from them . The site 's founder , Michael Allen `` Mike '' Adams , was the subject of controversy after posting a blog entry implying a call for violence against proponents of GMO foods , and then allegedly creating another website with a list of names of alleged supporters . The journal Vaccine accused Adams of spreading `` irresponsible health information '' through Natural News . He has also been accused of using `` pseudoscience to sell his lies '' . Adams has described vaccines as `` medical child abuse '' . Characterized as a `` conspiracy-minded alternative medicine website '' , Natural News has approximately 7 million unique visitors per month . |
National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research | The US National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR , -LSB- ˈɛnkar -RSB- ) is a US federally funded research and development center ( FFRDC ) managed by the nonprofit University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) and funded by the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) . NCAR has multiple facilities , including the I. M. Pei-designed Mesa Laboratory headquarters in Boulder , Colorado . Studies include meteorology , climate science , atmospheric chemistry , solar-terrestrial interactions , environmental and societal impacts . |
Natural_barrier | A natural barrier refers to a physical feature that protects or hinders travel through or over . Mountains , swamps , deserts and icefields are among the clearest examples of natural barriers . Rivers are a more ambiguous example , as they may obstruct large-scale movement across them ( especially by armies ) but may facilitate smaller-scale movement along them in boats , once some of the people in the region have developed the relevant technologies . Seas have likewise been an obstacle at first , then a convenient medium for transport along coastlines , and finally a medium for intercontinental transport . Natural barriers have been important factors in human history , by obstructing migration and invasion . For example , Jared Diamond argues that West European nations have been the dominant powers of the last 500 years because Europe 's many natural barriers divided it into competing nation-states and this competition forced the European nations to encourage innovation and avoid technological stagnation . Some examples of natural barriers are the Himalayas isolating Indian subcontinent from the rest of Asia , the Grand Canyon , the Dead sea , and the Mississippi river . |
Nick_Bostrom | Nick Bostrom ( -LSB- langˈbɒstrəm -RSB- Niklas Boström , -LSB- ˈbuːˌstrœm -RSB- ; born 10 March 1973 ) is a Swedish philosopher at the University of Oxford known for his work on existential risk , the anthropic principle , human enhancement ethics , superintelligence risks , the reversal test , and consequentialism . In 2011 , he founded the Oxford Martin Programme on the Impacts of Future Technology , and he is currently the founding director of the Future of Humanity Institute at Oxford University . He is the author of over 200 publications , including Superintelligence : Paths , Dangers , Strategies ( 2014 ) , a New York Times bestseller and Anthropic Bias : Observation Selection Effects in Science and Philosophy ( 2002 ) . In 2009 and 2015 , he was included in Foreign Policys Top 100 Global Thinkers list . Bostrom 's work on superintelligence -- and his concern for its existential risk to humanity over the coming century -- has brought both Elon Musk and Bill Gates to similar thinking . |
National_Underwater_Reconnaissance_Office | The National Underwater Reconnaissance Office ( NURO ) is the `` hidden younger brother '' of the National Reconnaissance Office ( NRO ) . NRO was initiated in 1960 and developed as a common office for United States Air Force and the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) to manage satellite reconnaissance . The first revelation about NRO came in 1973 , but its very existence was not declassified until 1992 . According to Jeffrey T. Richelson , `` -LSB- m -RSB- ost often the Under Secretary of the Air Force served as a Director of the NRO '' . NURO was initiated in 1969 and developed as a common office or liaison office for the United States Navy and the CIA to manage underwater reconnaissance . NURO used `` special project submarines '' like , , and deep inside the waters of the Soviet Union to put out listening devices , tap communication cables , monitor Soviet Navy bases and record sound signatures of Soviet submarines . NURO is a little-known agency ; even its name has been secret and its very existence was first revealed in 1998 . The United States Secretary of the Navy has served as its director . Sherry Sontag and Christopher Drew argue that the origin of NURO was the Soviet submarine K-129 that had sunk outside Hawaii in March 1968 . When USS Halibut had returned half a year later with 22,000 photos of the Soviet submarine the CIA realized the significance of underwater reconnaissance . NURO was initially formed by CIA Director Richard Helms and dominated by the CIA : `` from the day NURO was formed , the CIA -LSB- with its Deputy Director for Science and Technology Carl Duckett -RSB- took charge . -LSB- Captain James -RSB- Bradley -LSB- from U.S. Naval Intelligence -RSB- could spare only a few people for the new office . His entire staff in the undersea part of Office of Naval Intelligence numbered only about a few dozen . The CIA , however , had no such constraints . It moved in with eight permanent staffers and more consultants loyal to the agency '' . The Navy prepared to go down with a midget submarine to K-129 . However , the CIA wanted the whole submarine . They built the ship `' Glomar Explorer '' ( now GSF Explorer ) to raise K-129 , which became very expensive ( up to 500 million dollars ) . From mid-1970s , the CIA lost its day-to-day control of NURO . Captain James Bradley was able to conduct his own special project operations . Through Bradley it was a direct link to General Alexander Haig and Henry Kissinger . 1972-74 , the Secretary of Navy John Warner was the Director of NURO . The Chief Scientist of the U.S. Navy , John Piña Craven , argues that Bradley was a Defense Intelligence Agency ( DIA ) officer at the Office of Naval Intelligence . Craven was a close colleague of Bradley , and Craven seems to indicate that NURO actually was a liaison office not just between the CIA and the Navy but also between the CIA and the DIA using officers from Naval Intelligence . Also others indicate that NURO might have been a CIA-DIA liaison office . NURO operations were conducted primarily in Soviet home waters using specially equipped nuclear-powered attack submarines or `` special project submarines '' , but this intelligence gathering was , according to Ola Tunander , just a part of NURO 's activity . He refers to a high-ranking CIA officer saying that NURO in the 1980s also ran operations in the waters of friendly countries , such as those of Scandinavia , penetrating into the archipelagos and naval bases of Sweden . United States Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger stated in 2000 that NURO 's submarine operations into Swedish waters in the 1980s were run as a `` routine , regular series of defense testing '' after US-Swedish Navy-to-Navy consultations . However , these operations may also have had another purpose . ABC-TV said in 1984 of the U.S. submarine intelligence gathering : `` Most of the top-secret missions are into the waters of the Soviet Union , but according to both active duty and retired military sources , some missions have been run into the territorial waters of those nations considered friendly to the U.S. Even friendly countries , sources say , sometimes do things they do n't want the U.S. to know about , things that could inadvertently threaten U.S. security . The missions are conducted by specially equipped nuclear-powered attack submarines and in some cases by a nuclear-powered mini-sub called NR-1 . '' Tunander also says that during this period ( 1981-87 ) , the Secretary of Navy John Lehman was the Director of NURO . |
Natural_capital | Natural capital is the world 's stock of natural resources , which includes geology , soils , air , water and all living organisms . Natural capital assets provide people with a wide range of free goods and services , often called ecosystem services , which underpin our economy and society and some of which make human life possible . It is an extension of the economic notion of capital ( resources which enable the production of more resources ) to goods and services provided by the natural environment . For example , a well-maintained forest or river may provide an indefinitely sustainable flow of new trees or fish , whereas over-use of those resources may lead to a permanent decline in timber availability or fish stocks . Natural capital also provides people with essential services , like water catchment , erosion control and crop pollination by insects , which in turn ensure the long-term viability of other natural resources . Since the continuous supply of services from the available natural capital assets is dependent upon a healthy , functioning environment , the structure and diversity of habitats and ecosystems are important components of natural capital . Methods , called ` natural capital asset checks ' , help decision-makers understand how changes in the current and future performance of natural capital assets will impact on human well-being and the economy . |