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Manufacturing | Manufacturing is the production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines , tools , chemical and biological processing , or formulation . The term may refer to a range of human activity , from handicraft to high tech , but is most commonly applied to industrial production , in which raw materials are transformed into finished goods on a large scale . Such finished goods may be sold to other manufacturers for the production of other , more complex products , such as aircraft , household appliances , furniture , sports equipment or automobiles , or sold to wholesalers , who in turn sell them to retailers , who then sell them to end users and consumers . Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product . The manufacturing process begins with the product design , and materials specification from which the product is made . These materials are then modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part . Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems . In capitalist free markets , goods are manufactured on demand by millions of small independent producers in direct competition with each other . In capitalist captive markets , goods are mass-produced by legally protected publishing and manufacturing monopolies . In Collectivist markets , the manufacturing of goods is entirely directed by the state based on necessity . Modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required in the production and integration of a product 's components . Some industries , such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead . The manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design . Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation , General Electric , Procter & Gamble , General Dynamics , Boeing , Pfizer , and Precision Castparts . Examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group , Siemens , and Michelin . Examples in Asia include Toyota and Bridgestone . |
Low-carbon_emission | The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) . |
Mackinaw_City,_Michigan | Mackinaw City -LSB- ˈmækᵻnɔː_ˈsɪti -RSB- is a village in Emmet and Cheboygan counties in the U.S. state of Michigan . The population was 806 at the 2010 census ; the population surges during the summer tourist season , including an influx of tourists and seasonal workers who serve in the shops , hotels and other recreational facilities there and in the surrounding region . Mackinaw City is at the northern tip ( headland ) of the Michigan 's Lower Peninsula along the southern shore of the Straits of Mackinac . Across the straits lies the state 's Upper Peninsula . These two land masses are physically connected by the Mackinac Bridge , which runs from Mackinaw City north to St. Ignace . Mackinaw City is also the primary base for ferry service to Mackinac Island , located to the northeast in the straits . According to AAA 's 2009 TripTik requests , Mackinaw City is the most popular tourist city in the state of Michigan . Local attractions include Fort Michilimackinac , the Mackinac Bridge , the Mackinaw Crossings shopping mall , Mill Creek , the Old Mackinac Point Light , the Historic Village , the McGulpin Point Light , and the retired US Coast Guard Icebreaker Mackinaw . The official name of the community is `` The Village of Mackinaw City '' and as that suggests , it is a village by state law . Mackinaw City is governed by the General Law Village Act , Public Act No. 3 , of 1895 , as amended . The downtown district and much of the development lie within Mackinaw Township , Cheboygan County , but the larger portion of the village by area is in Wawatam Township , Emmet County , which borders Mackinaw Township to the west . |
Lyme_disease | Lyme disease , also known as Lyme borreliosis , is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the Borrelia type . The most common sign of infection is an expanding area of redness on the skin , known as erythema migrans , that begins at the site of a tick bite about a week after it has occurred . The rash is typically neither itchy nor painful . Approximately 25 -- 50 % of infected people do not develop a rash . Other early symptoms may include fever , headache and feeling tired . If untreated , symptoms may include loss of the ability to move one or both sides of the face , joint pains , severe headaches with neck stiffness , or heart palpitations , among others . Months to years later , repeated episodes of joint pain and swelling may occur . Occasionally , people develop shooting pains or tingling in their arms and legs . Despite appropriate treatment , about 10 to 20 % of people develop joint pains , memory problems , and feel tired for at least six months . Lyme disease is transmitted to humans by the bite of infected ticks of the Ixodes genus . Usually , the tick must be attached for 36 to 48 hours before the bacteria can spread . In North America , Borrelia burgdorferi and Borrelia mayonii are the cause . In Europe and Asia , the bacteria Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii are also causes of the disease . The disease does not appear to be transmissible between people , by other animals , or through food . Diagnosis is based upon a combination of symptoms , history of tick exposure , and possibly testing for specific antibodies in the blood . Blood tests are often negative in the early stages of the disease . Testing of individual ticks is not typically useful . Prevention includes efforts to prevent tick bites such as by wearing long pants and using DEET . Using pesticides to reduce tick numbers may also be effective . Ticks can be removed using tweezers . If the removed tick was full of blood , a single dose of doxycycline may be used to prevent development of infection , but is not generally recommended since development of infection is rare . If an infection develops , a number of antibiotics are effective , including doxycycline , amoxicillin , and cefuroxime . Treatment is usually for two or three weeks . Some people develop a fever and muscle and joint pains from treatment which may last for one or two days . In those who develop persistent symptoms , long-term antibiotic therapy has not been found to be useful . Lyme disease is the most common disease spread by ticks in the Northern Hemisphere . It is estimated to affect 300,000 people a year in the United States and 65,000 people a year in Europe . Infections are most common in the spring and early summer . Lyme disease was diagnosed as a separate condition for the first time in 1975 in Old Lyme , Connecticut . It was originally mistaken for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis . The bacterium involved was first described in 1981 by Willy Burgdorfer . Chronic symptoms are well described and are known as post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome , although it is often called chronic Lyme disease . Some healthcare providers claim that it is due to ongoing infection ; however , this is not believed to be true . A previous vaccine is no longer available . Research is ongoing to develop new vaccines . |
Mantle_plume | A mantle plume is a mechanism proposed in 1971 to explain volcanic regions of the Earth that were not thought to be explicable by the then-new theory of plate tectonics . Some such volcanic regions lie far from tectonic plate boundaries , for example , Hawaii . Others represent unusually large-volume volcanism , whether on plate boundaries , e.g. Iceland , or basalt floods such as the Deccan or Siberian traps . A mantle plume is posited to exist where hot rock nucleates at the core-mantle boundary and rises through the Earth 's mantle becoming a diapir in the Earth 's crust . The currently active volcanic centers are known as `` hot spots '' . In particular , the concept that mantle plumes are fixed relative to one another , and anchored at the core-mantle boundary , was thought to provide a natural explanation for the time-progressive chains of older volcanoes seen extending out from some such hot spots , such as the Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain . The hypothesis of mantle plumes from depth is not universally accepted as explaining all such volcanism . It has required progressive hypothesis-elaboration leading to variant propositions such as mini-plumes and pulsing plumes . Another hypothesis for unusual volcanic regions is the `` Plate model '' . This proposes shallower , passive leakage of magma from the mantle onto the Earth 's surface where extension of the lithosphere permits it , attributing most volcanism to plate tectonic processes , with volcanoes far from plate boundaries resulting from intraplate extension . |
Luzerne_County,_Pennsylvania | Luzerne County is a county located in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the county has a total area of 906 sqmi , of which 890 sqmi is land and 16 sqmi is water . It is Northeastern Pennsylvania 's second-largest county by total area . As of the 2010 census , the population was 320,918 , making it the most populous county in the northeastern part of the state . The county seat and largest city is Wilkes-Barre . Other populous communities include Hazleton , Kingston , Nanticoke , and Pittston . Luzerne County is included in the Scranton -- Wilkes-Barre -- Hazleton Metropolitan Statistical Area , which has a total population of 558,166 ( as of 2015 ) . On September 25 , 1786 , Luzerne County was formed from part of Northumberland County . It was named after Chevalier de la Luzerne , a French soldier and diplomat during the 18th century . When it was founded , Luzerne County occupied a large portion of Northeastern Pennsylvania . From 1810 to 1878 , it was divided into several smaller counties . The counties of Bradford , Lackawanna , Susquehanna , and Wyoming were all formed from parts of Luzerne County . The county gained prominence in the 19th and 20th centuries as an active anthracite coal mining region , drawing a large portion of its labor force from European immigrants . At its peak ( in 1930 ) , the county 's population was 445,109 . By the early 21st century , many factories and coal mines were closed . Like most counties in the Rust Belt , Luzerne witnessed population loss and urban decay . |
Management_systems_for_road_safety | Progress in the area of prevention is formulated in an environment of beliefs , called paradigms as can be seen in the next table . Some of them can be referred to as professional folklore , i.e. a widely supported set of beliefs with no real basis . For example , the `` accident-prone driver '' was a belief that was supported by the data in the sense that a small number of drivers do participate in a disproportionate number of accidents , it follows that the identification and removal of this drivers will reduce crashes . A more scientific analysis of the data indicate that this phenomenon can be explained simply by the random nature of the accidents , and not for a specific error-prone attitude of such drivers . From : OECD Road Transport Research |
Manufactured_risk | Manufactured risks are risks that are produced by the modernization process , particularly by innovative developments in science and technology . They create risk environments that have little historical reference , and are therefore largely unpredictable . Manufactured risk produces a risk society . The transition from external to manufactured risk can be described as `` At a certain point , however -- very recently in historical terms -- we started worrying less about what nature can do to us , and more about what we have done to nature . '' |
Lōʻihi_Seamount | Lōihi Seamount ( also known as Loihi ) is an active submarine volcano located about 35 km off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii . The top of the seamount is about 975 m below sea level . This seamount lies on the flank of Mauna Loa , the largest shield volcano on Earth . Lōihi , meaning `` long '' in Hawaiian , is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain , a string of volcanoes that stretches over 5800 km northwest of Lōihi . Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire , Lōihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary . Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaii hotspot , and as the youngest volcano in the chain , Lōihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development . Lōihi began forming around 400,000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10,000 -- 100,000 years from now . At its summit , Lōihi Seamount stands more than 3000 m above the seafloor , making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption . A diverse microbial community resides around Lōihi 's many hydrothermal vents . In the summer of 1996 , a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes was recorded at Lōihi . This series included more earthquakes than any other swarm in Hawaiian recorded history . The swarm altered 10 to of the seamount 's summit ; one section , Pele 's Vents , collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele 's Pit . The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) . The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory ( HUGO ) provided real-time data on Lōihi between 1997 and 2002 . Lōihi last erupted in 1996 , before the earthquake swarm of that summer . |
Mandatory_renewable_energy_target | Mandatory renewable energy targets are part of government legislated schemes which require electricity retailers to source specific proportions of total electricity sales from renewable energy sources according to a fixed time frame . The purpose of these schemes is to promote renewable energy and reduce dependency on fossil fuels . If this results in an additional cost of electricity , the additional cost is distributed across most customers by increases in other tariffs . The cost of this measure is therefore not funded by government budgets , except for costs of establishing and monitoring the scheme and any audit and enforcement actions . As the cost of renewable energy has become cheaper than other sources , meeting and exceeding a renewable energy target will also reduce the cost of electricity to consumers . At least 67 countries have renewable energy policy targets of some type . In Europe , 28 European Union members states and 8 Energy Community Contracting Parties have legally binding renewable energy targets . The EU baseline target is 20 % by 2020 , while the United States also has a national RET of 20 % . Similarly , Canada has 9 provincial RETs but no national target . Targets are typically for shares of electricity production , but some are defined as by primary energy supply , installed capacity , or otherwise . While some targets are based on 2010-2012 data , many are now for 2020 , which ties in with the IPCC suggested greenhouse gas emission cuts of 25 to 40 % by Annex I countries by 2020 , although some are for 2025 . |
Low-carbon_fuel_standard | A low-carbon fuel standard ( LCFS ) is a rule enacted to reduce carbon intensity in transportation fuels as compared to conventional petroleum fuels , such as gasoline and diesel . The most common low-carbon fuels are alternative fuels and cleaner fossil fuels , such as natural gas ( CNG and LPG ) . The main purpose of a low-carbon fuel standard is to decrease carbon dioxide emissions associated with vehicles powered by various types of internal combustion engines while also considering the entire life cycle ( `` well to wheels '' ) , in order to reduce the carbon footprint of transportation . The first low-carbon fuel standard mandate in the world was enacted by California in 2007 , with specific eligibility criteria defined by the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) in April 2009 but taking effect in January 2011 . Similar legislation was approved in British Columbia in April 2008 , and by European Union which proposed its legislation in January 2007 and which was adopted in December 2008 . The United Kingdom is implementing its Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation Program , which also applies the concept of low-carbon fuels . Several bills have been proposed in the United States for similar low-carbon fuel regulation at a national level but with less stringent standards than California . As of early 2010 none have been approved . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued its final rule regarding the expanded Renewable Fuel Standard ( RFS2 ) for 2010 and beyond on February 3 , 2010 . This ruling , as mandated by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ( EISA ) , included direct emissions and significant indirect emissions from land use changes . |
Lymphangitis | For discussion of the condition in horses , see Equine Lymphangitis . Lymphangitis is an inflammation or an infection of the lymphatic channels that occurs as a result of infection at a site distal to the channel . The most common cause of lymphangitis in humans is Streptococcus pyogenes ( Group A strep ) , although it can also be caused by the fungus Sporothrix schenckii . Lymphangitis is sometimes mistakenly called `` blood poisoning '' . In reality , `` blood poisoning '' is synonymous with sepsis . Signs and symptoms include a deep reddening of the skin , warmth , lymphadenitis ( inflammation of a lymphatic gland ) , and a raised border around the affected area . The person may also have chills and a high fever along with moderate pain and swelling . A person with lymphangitis should be hospitalized and closely monitored by medical professionals . Lymphangitis is the inflammation of the lymphatic vessels and channels . This is characterized by certain inflammatory conditions of the skin caused by bacterial infections . Thin red lines may be observed running along the course of the lymphatic vessels in the affected area , accompanied by painful enlargement of the nearby lymph nodes . When the inferior limbs are affected , the redness of the skin runs over the great saphenous vein location and confusion can be made with a thrombophlebitis . Chronic lymphangitis is a cutaneous condition that is the result of recurrent bouts of acute bacterial lymphangitis . |
Macroeconomic_model | A macroeconomic model is an analytical tool designed to describe the operation of the economy of a country or a region . These models are usually designed to examine the dynamics of aggregate quantities such as the total amount of goods and services produced , total income earned , the level of employment of productive resources , and the level of prices . Macroeconomic models may be logical , mathematical , and/or computational ; the different types of macroeconomic models serve different purposes and have different advantages and disadvantages . . Macroeconomics models may be used to clarify and illustrate basic theoretical principles ; they may be used to test , compare , and quantify different macroeconomic theories ; they may be used to produce `` what if '' scenarios ( usually to predict the effects of changes in monetary , fiscal , or other macroeconomic policies ) ; and they may be used to generate economic forecasts . Thus , macroeconomic models are widely used in academia , teaching and research , and are also widely used by international organizations , national governments and larger corporations , as well as by economics consultants and think tanks . |
Mastodon | Mastodons ( Greek : μαστός `` breast '' and ὀδούς , `` tooth '' ) are any species of extinct mammutid proboscideans in the genus Mammut , distantly related to elephants , that inhabited North and Central America during the late Miocene or late Pliocene up to their extinction at the end of the Pleistocene 10,000 to 11,000 years ago . Mastodons lived in herds and were predominantly forest dwelling animals that fed on a mixed diet obtained by browsing and grazing with a seasonal preference for browsing , similar to living elephants . M. americanum , the American mastodon , is the youngest and best-known species of the genus . They disappeared from North America as part of a mass extinction of most of the Pleistocene megafauna , widely presumed to have been related to overexploitation by Clovis hunters , and possibly also to climate change . |
Marine_reserve | A marine reserve is a type of marine protected area that has legal protection against fishing or development . As of 2007 less than 1 % of the world 's oceans had been set aside in marine reserves . Benefits include increases in the diversity , density , biomass , body size and reproductive potential of fishery and other species within their boundaries . As of 2010 , scientists had studied more than 150 marine reserves in at least 61 countries and monitored biological changes inside the reserves . The number of species in each study ranged from 1 to 250 and the reserves ranged in size from 0.006 to 800 square kilometers ( 0.002 to 310 square miles ) . In 2014 , the World Parks Association adopted a target of establishing no-take zones for 30 % of each habitat globally . |
March_for_Science | The March for Science ( formerly known as the Scientists ' March on Washington ) was a series of rallies and marches held in Washington , D.C. , and more than 600 other cities across the world on Earth Day , April 22 , 2017 . According to organizers , the march is a non-partisan movement to celebrate science and the role it plays in everyday lives . The goals of the marches and rallies were to emphasize that science upholds the common good and to call for evidence-based policy in the public 's best interest . The March for Science organizers , using crowd science techniques , estimated global attendance at 1.07 million , with 100,000 participants estimated for the main March in Washington , D.C. , 70,000 in Boston , 60,000 in Chicago , and 50,000 each in Los Angeles and San Francisco . The March for Science organizers and supporters say that support for science should be nonpartisan . The march is being organized by scientists skeptical of the agenda of the Trump administration , and critical of Trump administration policies widely viewed as hostile to science . The march 's website states that an `` American government that ignores science to pursue ideological agendas endangers the world . '' Particular issues of science policy raised by the marchers include support for evidence-based policymaking , as well as support for government funding for scientific research , government transparency , and government acceptance of the scientific consensus on climate change and evolution . The march is part of growing political activity by American scientists in the wake of the November 2016 elections and the 2017 Women 's March . Robert N. Proctor , a historian of science at Stanford University , stated that the March for Science was `` pretty unprecedented in terms of the scale and breadth of the scientific community that 's involved '' and was rooted in `` a broader perception of a massive attack on sacred notions of truth that are sacred to the scientific community . '' |
Matterhorn | The Matterhorn ( Matterhorn , -LSB- ˈmatərˌhɔrn -RSB- Monte Cervino , -LSB- ˈmonte tʃerˈviːno -RSB- Mont Cervin , -LSB- mɔ̃ sɛʁvɛ̃ -RSB- ) is a mountain of the Alps , straddling the main watershed and border between Switzerland and Italy . It is a huge and near-symmetrical pyramidal peak in the extended Monte Rosa area of the Pennine Alps , whose summit is 4478 m high , making it one of the highest summits in the Alps and Europe.Considering summits with at least 300 metres prominence , it is the 6th highest in the Alps and Europe outside the Caucasus Mountains . The four steep faces , rising above the surrounding glaciers , face the four compass points and are split by the Hörnli , Furggen , Leone , and Zmutt ridges . The mountain overlooks the Swiss town of Zermatt , in the canton of Valais , to the north-east and the Italian town of Breuil-Cervinia in the Aosta Valley to the south . Just east of the Matterhorn is Theodul Pass , the main passage between the two valleys on its north and south sides , and a trade route since the Roman Era . The Matterhorn was studied by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in the late eighteenth century , who was followed by other renowned naturalists and artists , such as John Ruskin , in the nineteenth century . It remained unclimbed after most of the other great Alpine peaks had been attained and became the subject of an international competition for the summit . The first ascent of the Matterhorn was finally made in 1865 from Zermatt , by a party led by Edward Whymper , but ended disastrously when four of its members fell to their deaths on the descent . That climb and disaster , later portrayed in several films , marked the end of the golden age of alpinism . The north face was not climbed until 1931 and is amongst the three biggest north faces of the Alps , known as the `` The Trilogy '' . The west face , which is the highest of the Matterhorn 's four faces , was completely climbed only in 1962 . It is estimated that over 500 alpinists have died on the Matterhorn since the first climb in 1865 , making it one of the deadliest peaks in the world . The Matterhorn is mainly composed of gneisses ( originally fragments of the African Plate before the Alpine orogeny ) from the Dent Blanche nappe , lying over ophiolites and sedimentary rocks of the Penninic nappes . The mountain 's current shape is the result of cirque erosion due to multiple glaciers diverging from the peak , such as the Matterhorn Glacier at the base of the north face , forming a horn . Sometimes referred to as the Mountain of Mountains ( Berg der Berge ) , the Matterhorn has become an iconic emblem of the Swiss Alps and of the Alps in general . Since the end of the 19th century , when railways were built in the area , the mountain has attracted increasing numbers of visitors and climbers . Each year , numerous mountaineers try to climb the Matterhorn from the Hörnli Hut via the northeast Hörnli ridge , the most popular route to the summit . Many trekkers also undertake the 10-day-long circuit around the mountain . The Matterhorn has been part of the Swiss Federal Inventory of Natural Monuments since 1983 . |
Mass–energy_equivalence | In physics , mass -- energy equivalence states that anything having mass has an equivalent amount of energy and vice versa , with these fundamental quantities directly relating to one another by Albert Einstein 's famous formula : This formula states that the equivalent energy can be calculated as the mass multiplied by the speed of light ( = about m/s ) squared . Similarly , anything having energy exhibits a corresponding mass given by its energy divided by the speed of light squared . Because the speed of light is a very large number in everyday units , the formula implies that even an everyday object at rest with a modest amount of mass has a very large amount of energy intrinsically . Chemical , nuclear , and other energy transformations may cause a system to lose some of its energy content ( and thus some corresponding mass ) , releasing it as light ( radiant ) or thermal energy for example . Mass -- energy equivalence arose originally from special relativity as a paradox described by Henri Poincaré . Einstein proposed it in 1905 , in the paper Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy-content ? , one of his Annus Mirabilis ( Miraculous Year ) papers . Einstein was the first to propose that the equivalence of mass and energy is a general principle and a consequence of the symmetries of space and time . A consequence of the mass -- energy equivalence is that if a body is stationary , it still has some internal or intrinsic energy , called its rest energy , corresponding to its rest mass . When the body is in motion , its total energy is greater than its rest energy , and , equivalently , its total mass ( also called relativistic mass in this context ) is greater than its rest mass . This rest mass is also called the intrinsic or invariant mass because it remains the same regardless of this motion , even for the extreme speeds or gravity considered in special and general relativity . The mass-energy formula also serves to convert units of mass to units of energy ( and vice versa ) , no matter what system of measurement units is used . |
Marquette_Island | Marquette Island is the largest of the 36 islands in the Les Cheneaux archipelago of northern Michigan , United States . Located in Mackinac County on the north shore of Lake Huron , the island has a small summer population . It is 6.5 miles ( 10.5 km ) long and 3.5 miles ( 5.5 km ) wide . Its geographic center is close to 45 degrees 57 minutes N. , 84 degrees 23 minutes W. A narrow , freshwater sound , the Les Cheneaux Channel , separates Marquette Island from the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . The channel shore of Marquette Island is lined with Edwardian boathouses and cottages , relics of the island 's development as real estate in the early 1900s . At its most narrow , the channel is less than 0.25 miles ( 0.4 km ) in width . The island 's summer inhabitants often travel by water to the nearby towns of Cedarville and Hessel for the necessities of life . The Les Cheneaux Yacht Club , a social center of the islands , is located on Marquette Island . Although Marquette Island is large , it is not as expansive as its overall dimensions might suggest , because it is deeply gouged by freshwater bays such as Duck Bay , Hessel Bay , Peck Bay , and Wilderness Bay . There are no bridges or other means of automobile access to the island , and no roads on the island . Because of this , most island landowners own some sort of water frontage or dock access . The waters adjacent to Marquette Island are noted for freshwater fishing , particularly for lake perch . The island is named in honor of missionary/explorer Jacques Marquette . |
McCarthyism | McCarthyism is the practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper regard for evidence . The term refers to U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy and has its origins in the period in the United States known as the Second Red Scare , lasting roughly from 1947 to 1956 and characterized by heightened political repression as well as a campaign spreading fear of influence on American institutions and of espionage by Soviet agents . McCarthyism soon took on a broader meaning , describing the excesses of similar efforts . The term is also now used more generally to describe reckless , unsubstantiated accusations , as well as demagogic attacks on the character or patriotism of political adversaries . During the McCarthy era , thousands of Americans were accused of being communists or communist sympathizers and became the subject of aggressive investigations and questioning before government or private-industry panels , committees and agencies . The primary targets of such suspicions were government employees , those in the entertainment industry , educators and union activists . Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive or questionable evidence , and the level of threat posed by a person 's real or supposed leftist associations or beliefs was often greatly exaggerated . Many people suffered loss of employment or destruction of their careers ; some even suffered imprisonment . Most of these punishments came about through trial verdicts later overturned , laws that were later declared unconstitutional , dismissals for reasons later declared illegal or actionable , or extra-legal procedures that would come into general disrepute . The most notable examples of McCarthyism include the speeches , investigations , and hearings of Senator McCarthy himself ; the Hollywood blacklist , associated with hearings conducted by the House Un-American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) ; and the various anti-communist activities of the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) under Director J. Edgar Hoover . McCarthyism was a widespread social and cultural phenomenon that affected all levels of society and was the source of a great deal of debate and conflict in the United States . |
Mediterranean_Sea | The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean , surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land : on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia , on the south by North Africa , and on the east by the Levant . The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean , although it is usually identified as a separate body of water . The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus , meaning `` inland '' or `` in the middle of land '' ( from medius , `` middle '' and terra , `` land '' ) . It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2 ( 965,000 sq mi ) , but its connection to the Atlantic ( the Strait of Gibraltar ) is only 14 km wide . The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spain in Europe from Morocco in Africa . In oceanography , it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere . The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea . The sea is bordered on the north by Europe , the east by Asia , and in the south by Africa . It is located between latitudes 30 ° and 46 ° N and longitudes 6 ° W and 36 ° E. Its west-east length , from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun , on the southwestern coast of Turkey , is approximately 4,000 km ( 2,500 miles ) . The sea 's average north-south length , from Croatia 's southern shore to Libya , is approximately 800 km ( 500 miles ) . The Mediterranean Sea , including the Sea of Marmara ( connected by the Dardanelles to the Aegean Sea ) , has a surface area of approximately 2,510,000 square km ( 970,000 square miles ) . The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region . The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies . The countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are Albania , Algeria , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , Cyprus , Egypt , France , Greece , Israel , Italy , Lebanon , Libya , Malta , Morocco , Monaco , Montenegro , Slovenia , Spain , Syria , Tunisia and Turkey . In addition , the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia have coastlines on the sea . |
March_2012_North_American_heat_wave | In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor . |
Massachusetts_v._Environmental_Protection_Agency | Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency , 549 U.S. 497 ( 2007 ) , is a 5-4 U.S. Supreme Court case in which twelve states and several cities of the United States brought suit against the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) to force that federal agency to regulate carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) as pollutants . |
Mars | Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System , after Mercury . Named after the Roman god of war , it is often referred to as the `` Red Planet '' because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance . Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere , having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys , deserts , and polar ice caps of Earth . The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth , as is the tilt that produces the seasons . Mars is the site of Olympus Mons , the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System , and of Valles Marineris , one of the largest canyons in the Solar System . The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40 % of the planet and may be a giant impact feature . Mars has two moons , Phobos and Deimos , which are small and irregularly shaped . These may be captured asteroids , similar to 5261 Eureka , a Mars trojan . There are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars , as well as the possibility of extant life . Future astrobiology missions are planned , including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers . Liquid water can not exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure , which is about that of the Earth 's , except at the lowest elevations for short periods . The two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water . The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap , if melted , would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 m . In November 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars . The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye , as can its reddish coloring . Its apparent magnitude reaches − 2.91 , which is surpassed only by Jupiter , Venus , the Moon , and the Sun . Optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 km across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earth 's atmosphere . |
Max_Planck_Society | The Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science ( Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e. V. abbreviated MPG ) is a formally independent non-governmental and non-profit association of German research institutes founded in 1911 as the Kaiser Wilhelm Society and renamed the Max Planck Society in 1948 in honor of its former president , theoretical physicist Max Planck . The society is funded by the federal and state governments of Germany as well as other sources . According to its primary goal , the Max Planck Society supports fundamental research in the natural , life and social sciences , the arts and humanities in its 83 ( as of January 2014 ) Max Planck Institutes . The society has a total staff of approximately 17,000 permanent employees , including 5,470 scientists , plus around 4,600 non-tenured scientists and guests . Society budget for 2015 was about $ 1.7 billion . The Max Planck Institutes focus on excellence in research . The Max Planck Society has a world-leading reputation as a science and technology research organization , with 33 Nobel Prizes awarded to their scientists , and is generally regarded as the foremost basic research organization in Europe and the world . In 2013 , the Nature Publishing Index placed the Max Planck institutes fifth worldwide in terms of research published in Nature journals ( after Harvard , MIT , Stanford and the US NIH ) . In terms of total research volume ( unweighted by citations or impact ) , the Max Planck Society is only outranked by the Chinese Academy of Sciences , the Russian Academy of Sciences and Harvard University . The Thomson Reuters-Science Watch website placed the Max Planck Society as the second leading research organization worldwide following Harvard University , in terms of the impact of the produced research over science fields . The Max Planck Society and its predecessor Kaiser Wilhelm Society hosted several renowned scientists in their fields , including luminaries such as Otto Hahn , Werner Heisenberg , and Albert Einstein . |
Mean_reversion_(finance) | In finance , mean reversion is the assumption that a stock 's price will tend to move to the average price over time . Using mean reversion in stock price analysis involves both identifying the trading range for a stock and computing the average price using analytical techniques taking into account considerations such as earnings , etc. . When the current market price is less than the average price , the stock is considered attractive for purchase , with the expectation that the price will rise . When the current market price is above the average price , the market price is expected to fall . In other words , deviations from the average price are expected to revert to the average . Stock reporting services commonly offer moving averages for periods such as 50 and 100 days . While reporting services provide the averages , identifying the high and low prices for the study period is still necessary . Mean reversion has the appearance of a more scientific method of choosing stock buy and sell points than charting , because precise numerical values are derived from historical data to identify the buy/sell values , rather than trying to interpret price movements using charts ( charting , also known as technical analysis ) . Some asset classes , such as exchange rates , are observed to be mean reverting ; however , this process may last for years and thus is not of value to a short-term investor . Mean reversion should demonstrate a form of symmetry since a stock may be above its historical average approximately as often as below . A historical mean reversion model will not fully incorporate the actual behavior of a security 's price . For example , new information may become available that permanently affects the long-term valuation of an underlying stock . In the case of bankruptcy , it may cease to trade completely and never recover to its former historical average . In finance , the term mean reversion has a different meaning than return or regression to the mean in statistics . Jeremy Siegel uses the term return to the mean to describe a general principle , a financial time series in which `` returns can be very unstable in the short run but very stable in the long run . '' Quantitatively , it is the standard deviation of average annual returns that declines faster than the inverse of the holding period , implying that the process is not a random walk , but that periods of lower returns are then followed by compensating periods of higher returns , for example in seasonal businesses . -LSB- 8 -RSB- |
Marine_transgression | A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia . |
Mauna_Kea | Mauna Kea ( -LSB- ˌmɔːnə_ˈkeɪ . ən -RSB- or -LSB- ˌmaʊnə_ˈkeɪ . ə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈmɐwnə ˈkɛjə -RSB- ) , is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii . Standing 4207 m above sea level , its peak is the highest point in the state of Hawaii . Much of the mountain is under water ; when measured from its oceanic base , Mauna Kea is over 10000 m tall . Mauna Kea is about a million years old , and has thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago . In its current post-shield state , its lava is more viscous , resulting in a steeper profile . Late volcanism has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes ; contributing factors include the construction of cinder cones , the decentralization of its rift zones , the glaciation on its peak , and the weathering effects of the prevailing trade winds . Mauna Kea last erupted 6,000 to 4,000 years ago and is now considered dormant . In Hawaiian mythology , the peaks of the island of Hawaii are sacred . An ancient law allowed only high-ranking aliʻi to visit its peak . Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food , and quarried the dense volcano-glacial basalts on its flanks for tool production . When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century , settlers introduced cattle , sheep and game animals , many of which became feral and began to damage the mountain 's ecological balance . Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections : an alpine climate at its summit , a Sophora chrysophylla -- Myoporum sandwicense ( or māmane -- naio ) forest on its flanks , and an Acacia koa -- Metrosideros polymorpha ( or koa -- ōhia ) forest , now mostly cleared by the former sugar industry , at its base . In recent years , concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources to eradicate all feral species on the mountain . With its high elevation , dry environment , and stable airflow , Mauna Kea 's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation . Since the creation of an access road in 1964 , thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit . The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio , and comprise the largest such facility in the world . Their construction on a landscape considered sacred by Native Hawaiians continues to be a topic of debate . |
Mass_media | The mass media is a diversified collection of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication . The technologies through which this communication takes place include a variety of outlets . Broadcast media transmit information electronically , via such media as film , radio , recorded music , or television . Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication . Internet media comprise such services as email , social media sites , websites , and Internet-based radio and television . Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web , by such means as linking to or running TV ads online , or distributing QR Codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website . In this way , they can utilise the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords , as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently . Outdoor media transmit information via such media as AR advertising ; billboards ; blimps ; flying billboards ( signs in tow of airplanes ) ; placards or kiosks placed inside and outside of buses , commercial buildings , shops , sports stadiums , subway cars , or trains ; signs ; or skywriting . Print media transmit information via physical objects , such as books , comics , magazines , newspapers , or pamphlets . Event organizing and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media . The organizations that control these technologies , such as movie studios , publishing companies , and radio and television stations , are also known as the mass media . |
Mass_balance | A mass balance , also called a material balance , is an application of conservation of mass to the analysis of physical systems . By accounting for material entering and leaving a system , mass flows can be identified which might have been unknown , or difficult to measure without this technique . The exact conservation law used in the analysis of the system depends on the context of the problem , but all revolve around mass conservation , i.e. that matter can not disappear or be created spontaneously . Therefore , mass balances are used widely in engineering and environmental analyses . For example , mass balance theory is used to design chemical reactors , to analyse alternative processes to produce chemicals , as well as to model pollution dispersion and other processes of physical systems . Closely related and complementary analysis techniques include the population balance , energy balance and the somewhat more complex entropy balance . These techniques are required for thorough design and analysis of systems such as the refrigeration cycle . In environmental monitoring the term budget calculations is used to describe mass balance equations where they are used to evaluate the monitoring data ( comparing input and output , etc. ) In biology the dynamic energy budget theory for metabolic organisation makes explicit use of mass and energy balances . |
Marine_layer | A marine layer is an air mass which develops over the surface of a large body of water such as the ocean or large lake in the presence of a temperature inversion . The inversion itself is usually initiated by the cooling effect of the water on the surface layer of an otherwise warm air mass . As it cools , the surface air becomes denser than the warmer air above it , and thus becomes trapped below it . The layer may thicken through turbulence generated within the developing marine layer itself . It may also thicken if the warmer air above it is lifted by an approaching area of low pressure . The layer will also gradually increase its humidity by evaporation of the ocean or lake surface , as well as by the effect of cooling itself . Fog will form within a marine layer where the humidity is high enough and cooling sufficient to produce condensation . Stratus and stratocumulus will also form at the top of a marine layer in the presence of the same conditions there . In the case of coastal California , the offshore marine layer is typically propelled inland by a pressure gradient which develops as a result of intense heating inland , blanketing coastal communities in cooler air which , if saturated , also contains fog . The fog lingers until the heat of the sun becomes strong enough to evaporate it , often lasting into the afternoon during the `` June gloom '' period . An approaching frontal system or trough can also drive the marine layer onshore . A marine layer will disperse and break up in the presence of instability , such as may be caused by the passage of a frontal system or trough , or any upper air turbulence that reaches the surface . A marine layer can also be driven away by sufficiently strong winds . It is not unusual to hear media weather reporters discuss the marine layer as if it were synonymous with the fog or stratus it may contain , but this is erroneous . In fact , a marine layer can exist with virtually no cloudiness of any kind , although it usually does contain some . The marine layer is a medium within which clouds may form under the right conditions ; it is not the layers of clouds themselves . |
Marine_regression | Marine regression is a geological process occurring when areas of submerged seafloor are exposed above the sea level . The opposite event , marine transgression , occurs when flooding from the sea covers previously exposed land . Evidence of marine regressions and transgressions occurs throughout the fossil record , and these fluctuations are thought to have caused or contributed to several mass extinctions , among them the Permian-Triassic extinction event ( 250 million years ago ) and Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event ( 66 Ma ) . At the time of the Permian-Triassic extinction , the largest extinction event in the Earth 's history , global sea level fell 250 m ( 820 ft ) . A major regression could itself cause marine organisms in shallow seas to go extinct , but mass extinctions tend to involve both terrestrial and aquatic species , and it is harder to see how a marine regression could cause widespread extinctions of land animals . Regressions are , therefore , seen as correlates or symptoms of major extinctions , rather than primary causes . The Permian regression might have been related to the formation of Pangaea : the accumulation of all the major landmasses into one body could have facilitated a regression , by providing `` a slight enlargement of the ocean basins as the great continents coalesced . '' However , that cause could not have applied in all , or even many , other cases . During the ice ages of the Pleistocene , a clear correlation existed between marine regressions and episodes of glaciation ; as the balance shifts between the global cryosphere and hydrosphere , more of the planet 's water in ice sheets means less in the oceans . At the height of the last ice age , at around 18,000 years before the present , the global sea level was 120 to 130 m ( 390-425 ft ) lower than today . A cold spell around 6 million years ago was linked to an advance in glaciation , a marine regression , and the start of the Messinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean basin . Some major regressions of the past , however , seem unrelated to glaciation episodes -- the regression that accompanied the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period being one example . A clear and certain understanding of major marine regressions has not yet been achieved ; according to one hypothesis , regressions may be linked to a `` slowdown in sea-floor spreading , leading to a generalized drop in sea level ( as the mid-ocean ridges would take up less space ) ... '' In that view , major marine regressions are one aspect of a normal variation in rates of plate tectonic activity , which lead to major episodes of global volcanism like the Siberian Traps and the Deccan Traps , which in turn cause large extinction events . |
Measurement_of_sea_ice | Measurement of sea ice is important for safety of navigation and for monitoring the environment , particularly the climate . Sea ice extent interacts with large climate patterns such as the North Atlantic oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation , to name just two , and influences climate in the rest of the globe . The amount of sea ice coverage in the arctic has been of interest for centuries , as the Northwest Passage was of high interest for trade and seafaring . There is a longstanding history of records and measurements of some effects of the sea ice extent , but comprehensive measurements were sparse till the 1950s and started with the satellite era in the late 1970s . Modern direct records include data about ice extent , ice area , concentration , thickness , and the age of the ice . The current trends in the records show a significant decline in Northern hemisphere sea ice and a small but statistically significant increase in the winter Southern hemisphere sea ice . Furthermore , current research comprises and establishes extensive sets of multi-century historical records of arctic and subarctic sea ice and uses , among others high-resolution paleo-proxy sea-ice records . The arctic sea ice is a dynamic climate-system component and is linked to the Atlantic multidecadal variability and the historical climate over various decades . There are circular changes of sea ice patterns but so far no clear patterns based on modeling predictions . |
Maritime_Continent | Maritime Continent is the name given primarily by meteorologists and oceanographers to the region of Southeast Asia which comprises , amongst other countries , Indonesia , Philippines and Papua New Guinea . Located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans , it is situated within a warm ocean region known as the Tropical Warm Pool . The maritime continent consists of many islands , peninsulas and shallow seas . The region is significant in meteorology because it is considered the most important energy source region in the entire global circulation system owing to a number of coincident factors , the most significant being geographic location and topography , both of which contribute to the development of the Tropical Warm Pool , which is the warmest large area of ocean on Earth . Coined by Colin Ramage in 1968 , the name combines the terms maritime and continent normally used as opposites in the description of climate . Maritime air is humid , and continental air is dry . In the Southeast Asia region , land masses and bodies of water are , roughly-speaking , evenly distributed . Moreover , the land masses are characterized by high mountains , and the seas are among the warmest on the earth . This produces a widespread area of diurnal thunderstorms which pump huge quantities of moisture and heat high up into the atmosphere which in turn feeds the upper level winds which circle the globe . |
Mathematical_model | A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language . The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical modeling . Mathematical models are used in the natural sciences ( such as physics , biology , Earth science , meteorology ) and engineering disciplines ( such as computer science , artificial intelligence ) , as well as in the social sciences ( such as economics , psychology , sociology , political science ) . Physicists , engineers , statisticians , operations research analysts , and economists use mathematical models most extensively . A model may help to explain a system and to study the effects of different components , and to make predictions about behaviour . |
Mariana_Islands | The Mariana Islands ( also the Marianas ) are a crescent-shaped archipelago comprising the summits of fifteen mostly dormant volcanic mountains in the western North Pacific Ocean , between the 12th and 21st parallels north and along the 145th meridian east . They lie south-southeast of Japan , west-southwest of Hawaii , north of New Guinea and east of the Philippines , demarcating the Philippine Sea 's eastern limit . They are found in the northern part of the western Oceanic sub-region of Micronesia , and are politically divided into two jurisdictions of the United States : the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and , at the southern end of the chain , the territory of Guam . The islands were named after the Spanish queen Mariana of Austria . Spaniards , who in the early 16th century were the first Europeans to arrive , eventually annexed and colonized the archipelago . The indigenous inhabitants are the Chamoru . Archaeologists in 2013 reported findings which indicated that the people who first settled the Marianas arrived there after making what was at the time the longest uninterrupted ocean voyage in human history . They further reported findings which suggested that Tinian is likely to have been the first island in Oceania to have been settled by humans . |
Megatsunami | A megatsunami is a term used for a very large wave created by a large , sudden displacement of material into a body of water . Megatsunamis have quite different features from other , more usual types of tsunamis . Most tsunamis are caused by underwater tectonic activity ( movement of the earth 's plates ) and therefore occur along plate boundaries and as a result of earthquake and rise or fall in the sea floor , causing water to be displaced . Ordinary tsunamis have shallow waves out at sea , and the water piles up to a wave height of up to about 10 metres ( 33 feet ) as the sea floor becomes shallow near land . By contrast , megatsunamis occur when a very large amount of material suddenly falls into water or anywhere near water ( such as via a meteor impact ) , or are caused by volcanic activity . They can have extremely high initial wave heights of hundreds and possibly thousands of metres , far beyond any ordinary tsunami , as the water is `` splashed '' upwards and outwards by the impact or displacement . As a result , two heights are sometimes quoted for megatsunamis -- the height of the wave itself ( in water ) , and the height to which it surges when it reaches land , which depending upon the locale , can be several times larger . Modern megatsunamis include the one associated with the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa ( volcanic eruption ) , the 1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami ( landslide into a bay ) , and the wave resulting from the Vajont Dam landslide ( caused by human activity destabilizing sides of valley ) . Prehistoric examples include the Storegga Slide ( landslide ) , and the Chicxulub , Chesapeake Bay and Eltanin meteor impacts . |
Medical_research | Biomedical research ( or experimental medicine ) is in general simply known as medical research . It is the basic research ( also called bench science or bench research ) , applied research , or translational research conducted to aid and support the development of knowledge in the field of medicine . An important kind of medical research is clinical research , which is distinguished by the involvement of patients . Other kinds of medical research include pre-clinical research , for example on animals , and basic medical research , for example in genetics . Both clinical and pre-clinical research phases exist in the pharmaceutical industry 's drug development pipelines , where the clinical phase is denoted by the term clinical trial . However , only part of the clinical or pre-clinical research is oriented towards a specific pharmaceutical purpose . The need for fundamental and mechanistic understanding , diagnostics , medical devices and non-pharmaceutical therapies means that medical research is much more than just trying to make new drugs . The most basic medical research is a rapidly evolving area that owes much to basic biology and is given names such as Human Biosciences by universities . A new paradigm to biomedical research is being termed translational research , which focuses on iterative feedback loops between the basic and clinical research domains to accelerate knowledge translation from the bedside to the bench , and back again . Medical research may involve doing research into public health , biochemistry , clinical research , microbiology , physiology , oncology , surgery and research into many other non-communicable diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases . The increased longevity of humans over the past century can be significantly attributed to advances resulting from medical research . Among the major benefits of medical research have been vaccines for measles and polio , insulin treatment for diabetes , classes of antibiotics for treating a host of maladies , medication for high blood pressure , improved treatments for AIDS , statins and other treatments for atherosclerosis , new surgical techniques such as microsurgery , and increasingly successful treatments for cancer . New , beneficial tests and treatments are expected as a result of the Human Genome Project . Many challenges remain , however , including the appearance of antibiotic resistance and the obesity epidemic . Most of the research in the field is pursued by biomedical scientists , however significant contributions are made by other biologists , as well as chemists and physicists . Medical research , done on humans , has to strictly follow the medical ethics as sanctioned in the Declaration of Helsinki and elsewhere . In all cases , the research ethics has to be respected . |
Megathermal | In climatology , the term megathermal ( or less commonly , macrothermal ) is sometimes used as a synonym for `` tropical . '' In order for a particular place to qualify as having a megathermal climate , every single month out of the year must have an average temperature of 18 ° C or above . Megathermal climates are sometimes split into two temperature-based subsets -- equatorial and tropical ( the latter used here in the sense of `` outer tropical '' ) -- with `` equatorial '' denoting little or no variation in temperature throughout the year and `` tropical '' denoting significant seasonal variation , even though no month has an average temperature of below 18 ° C . In addition , what temperature fluctuations do exist in an equatorial climate will typically bear no relationship to the astronomical seasons for the applicable side of the equator , while in the ( outer ) tropical subtype the temperature will move in concert with the seasons , the time of higher sun and longer days being warmest and the time of lower sun and shorter days coolest . These climates can also be subdivided on the basis of rainfall , as examples of humid , semiarid and arid places can all be found within the megathermal category ( although the region of arid megathermal climate is small compared with the extent of deserts existing in other climate zones , particularly the neighboring subtropical zone ) . |
Mean | In mathematics , mean has several different definitions depending on the context . In probability and statistics , population mean and expected value are used synonymously to refer to one measure of the central tendency either of a probability distribution or of the random variable characterized by that distribution . In the case of a discrete probability distribution of a random variable X , the mean is equal to the sum over every possible value weighted by the probability of that value ; that is , it is computed by taking the product of each possible value x of X and its probability P ( x ) , and then adding all these products together , giving . An analogous formula applies to the case of a continuous probability distribution . Not every probability distribution has a defined mean ; see the Cauchy distribution for an example . Moreover , for some distributions the mean is infinite : for example , when the probability of the value is for n = 1 , 2 , 3 , ... For a data set , the terms arithmetic mean , mathematical expectation , and sometimes average are used synonymously to refer to a central value of a discrete set of numbers : specifically , the sum of the values divided by the number of values . The arithmetic mean of a set of numbers x1 , x2 , ... , xn is typically denoted by , pronounced `` x bar '' . If the data set were based on a series of observations obtained by sampling from a statistical population , the arithmetic mean is termed the sample mean ( denoted ) to distinguish it from the population mean ( denoted or ) . For a finite population , the population mean of a property is equal to the arithmetic mean of the given property while considering every member of the population . For example , the population mean height is equal to the sum of the heights of every individual divided by the total number of individuals . The sample mean may differ from the population mean , especially for small samples . The law of large numbers dictates that the larger the size of the sample , the more likely it is that the sample mean will be close to the population mean . Outside of probability and statistics , a wide range of other notions of `` mean '' are often used in geometry and analysis ; examples are given below . |
Marine_protected_area | Marine protected areas ( MPA ) are protected areas of seas , oceans , estuaries or large lakes . MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose , typically to protect natural or cultural resources . Such marine resources are protected by local , state , territorial , native , regional , national , or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations . This variation includes different limitations on development , fishing practices , fishing seasons and catch limits , moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life . In some situations ( such as with the Phoenix Islands Protected Area ) , MPAs also provide revenue for countries , potentially equal to the income that they would have if they were to grant companies permissions to fish . On 28 October 2016 in Hobart , Australia , the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources agreed to establish the first Antarctic and largest marine park in the world encompassing 1.55 million km2 ( 600,000 sq mi ) in the Ross Sea . Other large MPAs are in the Indian , Pacific , and Atlantic Oceans in certain exclusive economic zones of Australia and overseas territories of France , the United Kingdom and the United States , with major ( 990,000 km2 or larger ) new or expanded MPAs by these nations since 2012 -- such as Natural Park of the Coral Sea , Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument , Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area . When counted with MPAs of all sizes from many other countries , as of August 2016 there are more than 13,650 MPAs , encompassing 2.07 % of the world 's oceans , with half of that area -- encompassing 1.03 % of the world 's oceans -- receiving complete `` no-take '' designation . |
Marine_microorganism | Marine microorganisms are defined by their habitat as the microorganisms living in a marine environment , that is , in the saltwater of a sea or ocean or the brackish water of a coastal estuary . A microorganism ( or microbe ) is any microscopic living organism , that is , any life form too small for the naked human eye to see , needing a microscope . Microorganisms are very diverse . They can be single-celled or multicellular and include all bacteria and archaea and most protozoa , as well as some species of fungi , algae , and certain microscopic animals , such as rotifers . Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages . Some microbiologists also classify viruses ( and viroids ) as microorganisms , but others consider these as nonliving . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the last universal common ancestor ( LUCA ) of all life , including microorganisms , living on Earth . Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers . A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic , causing disease and even death in plants and animals . As inhabitants of the largest environment on Earth , microbial marine systems drive changes in every global system . Microbes are responsible for virtually all the photosynthesis that occurs in the ocean , as well as the cycling of carbon , nitrogen , phosphorus and other nutrients and trace elements . Despite its diversity , microscopic life in the oceans is still poorly understood . For example , the role of viruses in marine ecosystems has barely been explored even in the beginning of the 21st century . |
Measures_of_national_income_and_output | A variety of measures of national income and output are used in economics to estimate total economic activity in a country or region , including gross domestic product ( GDP ) , gross national product ( GNP ) , net national income ( NNI ) , and adjusted national income ( NNI * adjusted for natural resource depletion ) . All are specially concerned with counting the total amount of goods and services produced within some the economy and by different sectors . The boundary is usually defined by geography or citizenship , and may also restrict the goods and services that are counted . For instance , some measures count only goods & services that are exchanged for money , excluding bartered goods , while other measures may attempt to include bartered goods by imputing monetary values to them . |
Marcellus_natural_gas_trend | The Marcellus natural gas trend is a large and prolific area of shale gas extraction from the Marcellus Formation of Devonian age in the eastern United States . The trend encompasses 104,000 square miles and stretches across Pennsylvania and West Virginia , and into southeast Ohio and upstate New York . It is the largest source of natural gas in the United States , and production was still growing rapidly in 2013 . The natural gas is trapped in low-permeability shale , and requires the well completion method of hydraulic fracturing to allow the gas to flow to the well bore . The surge in drilling activity in the Marcellus Shale since 2008 has generated both economic benefits and considerable controversy . Although before 2008 the Marcellus Shale was considered to have inconsequential natural gas potential , it is now believed to hold the largest volume of recoverable natural gas resource in the United States . In 2012 , it was estimated to have 141 trillion cubic feet of technically recoverable gas by the US Energy Information Administration , and 88 trillion cubic feet by the US Geological Survey . In September 2012 , the Marcellus Shale overtook the Haynesville Shale of northwest Louisiana as the leading producer of both shale gas and overall natural gas in the United States . In February 2014 , Marcellus gas wells produced 14.0 billion cubic feet per day , a 42 percent increase over the year previous , and comprising 21 percent of all the dry gas produced that month in the United States . The impervious limestone layers of the Onondaga directly below the Marcellus , and the Tully Limestone at the top of the Hamilton Group , have trapped valuable natural gas reserves in this formation . The gas is produced by thermogenic decomposition of organic materials in the sediments under the high temperature and pressure generated after the formation was buried deep below the surface of the earth . The rock holds most of the gas in the pore spaces of the shale , with vertical fractures or joints providing additional storage as well as pathways for the gas to flow ; gas is also adsorbed on mineral grains , and the carbon in the shale . |
Measles | Measles is a highly contagious infection caused by the measles virus . Initial signs and symptoms typically include fever , often greater than 40 C , cough , runny nose , and inflamed eyes . Two or three days after the start of symptoms , small white spots may form inside the mouth , known as Koplik 's spots . A red , flat rash which usually starts on the face and then spreads to the rest of the body typically begins three to five days after the start of symptoms . Symptoms usually develop 10 -- 12 days after exposure to an infected person and last 7 -- 10 days . Complications occur in about 30 % and may include diarrhea , blindness , inflammation of the brain , and pneumonia among others . Rubella ( German measles ) and roseola are different diseases . Measles is an airborne disease which spreads easily through the coughs and sneezes of those infected . It may also be spread through contact with saliva or nasal secretions . Nine out of ten people who are not immune and share living space with an infected person will catch it . People are infectious to others from four days before to four days after the start of the rash . People usually do not get the disease more than once . Testing for the virus in suspected cases is important for public health efforts . The measles vaccine is effective at preventing the disease . Vaccination has resulted in a 75 % decrease in deaths from measles between 2000 and 2013 with about 85 % of children globally being currently vaccinated . No specific treatment is available . Supportive care may improve outcomes . This may include giving oral rehydration solution ( slightly sweet and salty fluids ) , healthy food , and medications to control the fever . Antibiotics may be used if a secondary bacterial infection such as pneumonia occurs . Vitamin A supplementation is also recommended in the developing world . Measles affects about 20 million people a year , primarily in the developing areas of Africa and Asia . It causes the most vaccine-preventable deaths of any disease . It resulted in about 73,000 deaths in 2014 , down from 545,000 deaths in 1990 . In 1980 , the disease was estimated to have caused 2.6 million deaths per year . Most of those who are infected and who die are less than five years old . The risk of death among those infected is usually 0.2 % , but may be up to 10 % in those who have malnutrition . It is not believed to affect other animals . Before immunization in the United States , between three and four million cases occurred each year . As a result of widespread vaccination , the disease was eliminated from the Americas by 2016 . |
Marine_isotope_stage | Marine isotope stages ( MIS ) , marine oxygen-isotope stages , or oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) , are alternating warm and cool periods in the Earth 's paleoclimate , deduced from oxygen isotope data reflecting changes in temperature derived from data from deep sea core samples . Working backwards from the present , which is MIS 1 in the scale , stages with even numbers have high levels of oxygen-18 and represent cold glacial periods , while the odd-numbered stages are troughs in the oxygen-18 figures , representing warm interglacial intervals . The data are derived from pollen and foraminifera ( plankton ) remains in drilled marine sediment cores , sapropels , and other data that reflect historic climate ; these are called proxies . The MIS timescale was developed from the pioneering work of Cesare Emiliani in the 1950s , and is now widely used in archaeology and other fields to express dating in the Quaternary period ( the last 2.6 million years ) , as well as providing the fullest and best data for that period for paleoclimatology or the study of the early climate of the Earth , representing `` the standard to which we correlate other Quaternary climate records '' . Emiliani 's work in turn depended on Harold Urey 's prediction in a paper of 1947 that the ratio between oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 isotopes in calcite , the main chemical component of the shells and other hard parts of a wide range of marine organisms , should vary depending on the prevailing water temperature in which the calcite was formed . Over 100 stages have been identified , going currently back some 6 million years , and the scale may in future reach back up to 15 mya . Some stages , in particular MIS 5 , are divided into sub-stages , such as `` MIS 5a '' , with 5 a , c , and e being warm and b and d cold . A numeric system for referring to `` horizons '' ( events rather than periods ) may also be used , with for example MIS 5.5 representing the peak point of MIS 5e , and 5.51 , 5.52 etc. representing the peaks and troughs of the record at a still more detailed level . For more recent periods , increasingly precise resolution of timing continues to be developed . |
Marine_ecosystem | Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth 's aquatic ecosystems . Examples include salt marshes , intertidal zones , estuaries , lagoons , mangroves , coral reefs , the deep sea , and the sea floor . They can be contrasted with freshwater ecosystems , which have a lower salt content . Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth . Such places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice versa . See food chains . Marine ecosystems are essential for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial environments . According to the World Resource Center , coastal habitats account for about one-third of marine biological productivity . Estuarine ecosystems , such as salt marshes , seagrass meadows and mangrove forests , are among the most productive ecosystems on the planet . Coral reefs provide food and shelter to the highest levels of marine diversity in the world . Marine ecosystems usually have a large biodiversity and are therefore thought to have a good resistance against invasive species . However , exceptions have been observed , and the mechanisms responsible in determining the success of an invasion are not yet clear . |
Marginal_product | In economics and in particular neoclassical economics , the marginal product or marginal physical product of an input ( factor of production ) is the change in output resulting from employing one more unit of a particular input ( for instance , the change in output when a firm 's labor is increased from five to six units ) , assuming that the quantities of other inputs are kept constant . The marginal product of a given input can be expressed as : where is the change in the firm 's use of the input ( conventionally a one-unit change ) and is the change in quantity of output produced ( resulting from the change in the input ) . Note that the quantity of the `` product '' is typically defined ignoring external costs and benefits . If the output and the input are infinitely divisible , so the marginal `` units '' are infinitesimal , the marginal product is the mathematical derivative of the production function with respect to that input . Suppose a firm 's output Y is given by the production function : where K and L are inputs to production ( say , capital and labor ) . Then the marginal product of capital ( MPK ) and marginal product of labor ( MPL ) are given by : In the `` law '' of diminishing marginal returns , the marginal product initially increases when more of an input ( say labor ) is employed , keeping the other input ( say capital ) constant . Here , labor is the variable input and capital is the fixed input ( in a hypothetical two-inputs model ) . As more and more of variable input ( labor ) is employed , marginal product starts to fall . Finally , after a certain point , the marginal product becomes negative , implying that the additional unit of labor has decreased the output , rather than increasing it . The reason behind this is the diminishing marginal productivity of labor . The marginal product of labor is the slope of the total product curve , which is the production function plotted against labor usage for a fixed level of usage of the capital input . In the neoclassical theory of competitive markets , the marginal product of labor equals the real wage . In aggregate models of perfect competition , in which a single good is produced and that good is used both in consumption and as a capital good , the marginal product of capital equals its rate of return . As was shown in the Cambridge capital controversy , this proposition about the marginal product of capital can not generally be sustained in multi-commodity models in which capital and consumption goods are distinguished . Relationship of Marginal Product ( MPP ) with the Total Product ( TPP ) The relationship can be explained in three phases - ( 1 ) Initially , as the quantity of variable input is increased , TPP rises at an increasing rate . In this phase , MPP also rises . ( 2 ) As more and more quantities of the variable inputs are employed , TPP increases at a diminishing rate . In this phase , MPP starts to fall . ( 3 ) When the TPP reaches its maximum , MPP is zero . Beyond this point , TPP starts to fall and MPP becomes negative . |
Marine_energy | Marine energy or marine power ( also sometimes referred to as ocean energy , ocean power , or marine and hydrokinetic energy ) refers to the energy carried by ocean waves , tides , salinity , and ocean temperature differences . The movement of water in the world 's oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy , or energy in motion . This energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes , transport and industries . The term marine energy encompasses both wave power i.e. power from surface waves , and tidal power i.e. obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water . Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy , as wind power is derived from the wind , even if the wind turbines are placed over water . The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations . Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.Energy from the ocean is also known as hydroelectricity . |
Mauna_Loa_Observatory | The Mauna Loa Observatory ( MLO ) is an atmospheric baseline station on Mauna Loa , on the island of Hawaii . |
Martian_soil | Martian soil is the fine regolith found on the surface of Mars . Its properties can differ significantly from those of terrestrial soil . The term Martian soil typically refers to the finer fraction of regolith . On Earth , the term `` soil '' usually includes organic content . In contrast , planetary scientists adopt a functional definition of soil to distinguish it from rocks . Rocks generally refer to 10 cm scale and larger materials ( e.g. , fragments , breccia , and exposed outcrops ) with high thermal inertia , with areal fractions consistent with the Viking Infrared Thermal Mapper ( IRTM ) data , and immobile under current aeolian conditions . Consequently , rocks classify as grains exceeding the size of cobbles on the Wentworth scale . This approach enables agreement across Martian remote sensing methods that span the electromagnetic spectrum from gamma to radio waves . `` Soil '' refers to all other , typically unconsolidated , material including those sufficiently fine-grained to be mobilized by wind . Soil consequently encompasses a variety of regolith components identified at landing sites . Typical examples include : bedform armor , clasts , concretions , drift , dust , rocky fragments , and sand . The functional definition reinforces a recently proposed genetic definition of soil on terrestrial bodies ( including asteroids and satellites ) as an unconsolidated and chemically weathered surficial layer of fine-grained mineral or organic material exceeding centimeter scale thickness , with or without coarse elements and cemented portions . Martian dust generally connotes even finer materials than Martian soil , the fraction which is less than 30 micrometres in diameter . Disagreement over the significance of soil 's definition arises due to the lack of an integrated concept of soil in the literature . The pragmatic definition `` medium for plant growth '' has been commonly adopted in the planetary science community but a more complex definition describes soil as '' ( bio ) geochemically/physically altered material at the surface of a planetary body that encompasses surficial extraterrestrial telluric deposits . '' This definition emphasizes that soil is a body that retains information about its environmental history and that does not need the presence of life to form . |
Marine_outfall | A marine outfall is a pipeline or tunnel that discharges municipal or industrial wastewater , stormwater , combined sewer overflows , cooling water , or brine effluents from water desalination plants to the sea . Usually they discharge under the sea 's surface ( submarine outfall ) . In the case of municipal wastewater , effluent is often being discharged after having undergone no or only primary treatment , with the intention of using the assimilative capacity of the sea for further treatment . Submarine outfalls are common throughout the world and probably number in the thousands . More than 200 outfalls alone have been listed in a single international database maintained by the Institute for Hydromechanics at Karlsruhe University for the International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research ( IAHR ) / International Water Association ( IWA ) Committee on Marine Outfall Systems . The World 's first marine outfall was built in Santa Monica , United States , in 1910 . In Latin America and the Caribbean there were 134 outfalls with more than 500 m length in 2006 for wastewater disposal alone , according to a survey by the Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering and Environmental Sciences ( CEPIS ) of PAHO . According to the survey , the largest number of municipal wastewater outfalls in the region exist in Venezuela ( 39 ) , Chile ( 39 ) and Brazil ( 22 ) . The World 's largest marine outfall is located in Boston , United States.Currently , Boston has approximately 235 miles of combined sewers and 37 active CSO outfalls . Lots of outfalls are simply known by a public used name , e.g. Boston Outfall . |
Marine_biology | Marine biology is the scientific study of organisms in the sea . Given that in biology many phyla , families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land , marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy . A large proportion of all life on Earth lives in the ocean . The exact size of this large proportion is unknown , since many ocean species are still to be discovered . The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world covering approximately 71 % of the Earth 's surface . The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere , to the depths of the oceanic trenches , sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean . Specific habitats include coral reefs , kelp forests , seagrass meadows , the surrounds of seamounts and thermal vents , tidepools , muddy , sandy and rocky bottoms , and the open ocean ( pelagic ) zone , where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary . The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans ( whales ) 30 m in length . Marine ecology is the study of how marine organisms interact with each other and the environment . Marine life is a vast resource , providing food , medicine , and raw materials , in addition to helping to support recreation and tourism all over the world . At a fundamental level , marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet . Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle , and are involved in the regulation of the Earth 's climate . Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life , and some marine organisms even help create new land . Many species are economically important to humans , including both finfish and shellfish . It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in fundamental ways . The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing , with new discoveries being made nearly every day . These cycles include those of matter ( such as the carbon cycle ) and of air ( such as Earth 's respiration , and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean ) . Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored . |
Mass_wasting | Mass wasting , also known as slope movement or mass movement , is the geomorphic process by which soil , sand , regolith , and rock move downslope typically as a mass , largely under the force of gravity , but frequently affected by water and water content as in submarine environments and mudflows . Types of mass wasting include creep , slides , flows , topples , and falls , each with its own characteristic features , and taking place over timescales from seconds to years . Mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes , and has been observed on Earth , Mars , Venus , and Jupiter 's moon Io . When the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds its resisting force , slope failure ( mass wasting ) occurs . The slope material 's strength and cohesion and the amount of internal friction between material help maintain the slope 's stability and are known collectively as the slope 's shear strength . The steepest angle that a cohesionless slope can maintain without losing its stability is known as its angle of repose . When a slope made of loose material possesses this angle , its shear strength perfectly counterbalances the force of gravity acting upon it . Mass wasting may occur at a very slow rate , particularly in areas that are very dry or those areas that receive sufficient rainfall such that vegetation has stabilized the surface . It may also occur at very high speed , such as in rockslides or landslides , with disastrous consequences , both immediate and delayed , e.g. , resulting from the formation of landslide dams . Factors that change the potential of mass wasting include : change in slope angle , weakening of material by weathering , increased water content ; changes in vegetation cover , and overloading . Volcano flanks can become over-steep resulting in instability and mass wasting . This is now a recognised part of the growth of all active volcanoes . It is seen on submarine as well as surface volcanoes : Loihi in the Hawaiian volcanic chain and Kick 'em Jenny in the Caribbean volcanic arc are two submarine volcanoes that are known to undergo mass wasting . The failure of the northern flank of Mount St Helens in 1980 showed how rapidly volcanic flanks can deform and fail . |
Megadrought | A megadrought ( or mega-drought ) is a prolonged drought lasting two decades or longer . Past megadroughts have been associated with persistent multiyear La Niña conditions ( cooler than normal water temperatures in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean ) . The term megadrought is generally used to describe the length of a drought , and not its acute intensity . In scientific literature the term is used to describe decades-long droughts or multi-decadal droughts . Multiyear droughts of less than a decade , such as the Dust Bowl drought of the 1930s , are generally not described as megadroughts even though they are of a long duration . In popular literature multiyear or even single year droughts are occasionally described as megadroughts based upon their severity , the economic damage they inflict or other criteria , but this is the exception and not the rule . |
Marine_life | Marine life , or sea life or ocean life , refers to the plants , animals and other organisms that live in the salt water of the sea or ocean , or the brackish water of coastal estuaries . At a fundamental level , marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet . Marine organisms produce much of the oxygen we breathe . Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life , and some marine organisms even help create new land . Most life forms evolved initially in marine habitats . Oceans provide about 99 percent of the living space on the planet . The earliest vertebrates appeared in the form of fish , which live exclusively in water . Some of these evolved into amphibians which spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land . Other fish evolved into land mammals and subsequently returned to the ocean as seals , dolphins or whales . Plant forms such as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems . Plankton , and particularly phytoplankton , are key primary producers forming the general foundation of the ocean food chain . Marine vertebrates must obtain oxygen to survive , and they do so in various ways . Fish have gills instead of lungs , although some species of fish , such as the lungfish , have both . Marine mammals , such as dolphins , whales , otters , and seals need to surface periodically to breathe air . Some amphibians are able to absorb oxygen through their skin . Invertebrates exhibit a wide range of modifications to survive in poorly oxygenated waters including breathing tubes ( see insect and mollusc siphons ) and gills ( Carcinus ) . However , as invertebrate life evolved in an aquatic habitat most have little or no specialisation for respiration in water . Altogether there are 230,000 documented marine species , including over 16,000 species of fish , and it has been estimated that nearly two million marine species are yet to be documented . Marine species range in size from the microscopic , including plankton and phytoplankton which can be as small as 0.02 micrometres , to huge cetaceans ( whales , dolphins and porpoises ) which in the case of the blue whale reach up to 33 metres ( 109 feet ) in length , being the largest known animal . |
Media_coverage_of_climate_change | Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) . |
Median | The median is the value separating the higher half of a data sample , a population , or a probability distribution , from the lower half . In simple terms , it may be thought of as the `` middle '' value of a data set . For example , in the data set -LCB- 1 , 3 , 3 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 -RCB- , the median is 6 , the fourth number in the sample . The median is a commonly used measure of the properties of a data set in statistics and probability theory . The basic advantage of the median in describing data compared to the mean ( often simply described as the `` average '' ) is that it is not skewed so much by extremely large or small values , and so it may give a better idea of a ` typical ' value . For example , in understanding statistics like household income or assets which vary greatly , a mean may be skewed by a small number of extremely high or low values . Median income , for example , may be a better way to suggest what a ` typical ' income is . Because of this , the median is of central importance in robust statistics , as it is the most resistant statistic , having a breakdown point of 50 % : so long as no more than half the data are contaminated , the median will not give an arbitrarily large or small result . |
Marine_mammal | Marine mammals are aquatic mammals that rely on the ocean and other marine ecosystems for their existence . They include animals such as seals , whales , manatees , sea otters and polar bears . They do not represent a distinct taxon or systematic grouping , but rather have a polyphyletic relation due to convergent evolution . They are also unified by their reliance on the marine environment for feeding . Marine mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle vary considerably between species . Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate water dwellers . Seals and sea-lions are semiaquatic ; they spend the majority of their time in the water , but need to return to land for important activities such as mating , breeding and molting . In contrast , both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living . Their diet varies considerably as well ; some may eat zooplankton , others may eat fish , squid , shellfish , sea-grass and a few may eat other mammals . While the number of marine mammals is small compared to those found on land , their roles in various ecosystems are large , especially concerning the maintenance of marine ecosystems , through processes including the regulation of prey populations . This role in maintaining ecosystems makes them of particular concern as 23 % of marine mammal species are currently threatened . Marine mammals were first hunted by aboriginal peoples for food and other resources . Many were also the target for commercial industry , leading to a sharp decline in all populations of exploited species , such as whales and seals . Commercial hunting lead to the extinction of † Steller 's sea cow and the † Caribbean monk seal . After commercial hunting ended , some species , such as the gray whale and northern elephant seal , have rebounded in numbers ; conversely , other species , such as the North Atlantic right whale , are critically endangered . Other than hunting , marine mammals can be killed as bycatch from fisheries , where they become entangled in fixed netting and drown or starve . Increased ocean traffic causes collisions between fast ocean vessels and large marine mammals . Habitat degradation also threatens marine mammals and their ability to find and catch food . Noise pollution , for example , may adversely affect echolocating mammals , and the ongoing effects of global warming degrade arctic environments . |
McMurdo_Sound | McMurdo Sound and its ice-clogged waters extends about 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) long and wide . The sound connects the Ross Sea to the north with the Ross Ice Shelf cavity to the south via Haskell Strait . The strait is largely covered by the McMurdo Ice Shelf . The Royal Society Range rises from sea level to 4,205 metres ( 13,796 ft ) on the western shoreline . Ross Island , an historic jumping-off point for polar explorers , designates the eastern boundary . The active volcano Mount Erebus at 3,794 metres ( 12,448 ft ) dominates Ross Island . Antarctica 's largest scientific base , the United States ' McMurdo Station , as well as the New Zealand Scott Base are on the southern shore of the island . Less than 10 percent of McMurdo Sound 's shoreline is free of ice . It is the southernmost navigable body of water in the world . Captain James Clark Ross discovered this sound , which is about 1300 km from the South Pole , in February 1841 , and he named it after Lt. Archibald McMurdo of the HMS Terror . The sound today serves as a resupply route for cargo ships and for airplanes that land on the floating ice airstrips near the McMurdo Station . However , McMurdo Station 's continuous occupation by human beings since 1957/58 has dirtied the harbor of Winter Quarters Bay . The pack ice that girdles the shoreline at Winter Quarters Bay and elsewhere in the sound presents a formidable obstacle to surface ships . Vessels require ice-strengthened hulls and often have to rely upon escort by icebreakers . Such extreme sea conditions have limited access by tourists , who otherwise are appearing in increasing numbers in the open waters of the Antarctic Peninsula . The few tourists who reach the McMurdo Sound find spectacular scenery with wildlife to be seen , including killer whales , seals , Adélie penguins , and emperor penguins . Cold circumpolar currents of the Southern Ocean reduce the flow of warm South Pacific or South Atlantic waters reaching McMurdo Sound and other Antarctic coastal waters . Bitter katabatic winds spilling down from the Antarctic polar plateau into McMurdo Sound demonstrate Antarctica 's status as the coldest and windiest continent in the world . The McMurdo Sound freezes over with sea ice about 3 m thick during the winter . The Antarctic summer causes the pack ice to break up . Wind and currents may push the ice northward into the Ross Sea , stirring up cold bottom currents that spill into the ocean basins of the world . Temperatures during the dark winter months at McMurdo Station have dropped as low as -51 ° C. However , December and January are the warmest months , with average highs at -1 ° C , according to USA Today . |
Mariana_Trench | The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench is the deepest part of the world 's oceans . It is located in the western Pacific Ocean , an average of 200 km to the east of the Mariana Islands , in the Western Pacific East of Philippines . It is a crescent-shaped scar in the Earth 's crust , and measures about 2550 km long and 69 km wide on average . It reaches a maximum-known depth of 10994 m ( ± 40 m ) at a small slot-shaped valley in its floor known as the Challenger Deep , at its southern end , although some unrepeated measurements place the deepest portion at 11034 m . If Mount Everest were dropped into the trench at this point , its peak would still be over 1 mile underwater . At the bottom of the trench the water column above exerts a pressure of 1086 bar , more than 1,000 times the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level . At this pressure , the density of water is increased by 4.96 % , so that 95 litres of water under the pressure of the Challenger Deep would contain the same mass as 100 litres at the surface . The temperature at the bottom is 1 to . The trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the center of the Earth . This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere ; its radius is about 25 km less at the poles than at the equator . As a result , parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 km closer to the Earth 's center than the Challenger Deep seafloor . Xenophyophores have been found in the trench by Scripps Institution of Oceanography researchers at a record depth of 10.6 km below the sea surface . On 17 March 2013 , researchers reported data that suggested microbial life forms thrive within the trench . |
Medical_statistics | Medical statistics deals with applications of statistics to medicine and the health sciences , including epidemiology , public health , forensic medicine , and clinical research . Medical statistics has been a recognized branch of statistics in the United Kingdom for more than 40 years but the term has not come into general use in North America , where the wider term ` biostatistics ' is more commonly used . However , `` biostatistics '' more commonly connotes all applications of statistics to biology . Medical Statistics are a sub discipline of Statistics . `` It is the science of summarizing , collecting , presenting and interpreting data in medical practice , and using them to estimate the magnitude of associations and test hypotheses . It has a central role in medical investigations . It not only provides a way of organizing information on a wider and more formal basis than relying on the exchange of anecdotes and personal experience , but also takes into account the intrinsic variation inherent in most biological processes . '' |
Meat_industry | The term meat industry describes modern industrialized livestock agriculture for production , packing , preservation and marketing of meat ( in contrast to dairy products , wool , etc. ) . In economics , it is a fusion of primary ( agriculture ) and secondary ( industry ) activity and hard to characterize strictly in terms of either one alone . The greater part of the entire meat industry is termed meat packing industry - the segment that handles the slaughtering , processing , packaging , and distribution of animals such as cattle , pigs , sheep and other livestock . A great portion of the ever-growing meat branch in the food industry involves intensive animal farming in which livestock are kept almost entirely indoors or in restricted outdoor settings like pens . Many aspects of the raising of animals for meat have become industrialized , even many practices more associated with smaller family farms , e.g. gourmet foods such as foie gras . The production of livestock is a heavily vertically integrated industry where the majority of supply chain stages is integrated and owned by one company . |
Mediterranean_climate | A Mediterranean climate -LSB- ˌmɛdɪtəˈreɪniən -RSB- or dry summer climate , is the climate typical of areas in the Mediterranean Basin . The Mediterranean climate is usually characterized by rainy winters and dry , warm to hot summers . While the climate receives its name from the Mediterranean Sea , an area where this climate is commonplace , it is also present in other areas of the planet , although with variations in the distribution of temperatures . In addition to the Mediterranean Basin , the climate is also found in most of California , in parts of Western and South Australia , in southwestern South Africa , sections of Western and Central Asia , and in Central Chile . Outside of the Mediterranean Basin , the Mediterranean climate is usually located geographically on the western coasts of continental masses , typically between oceanic climates towards the poles , and semi-arid and arid climates towards the Equator . In essence , a Mediterranean climate is a combination of the three climates with winters somewhat mimicking winters in oceanic climates and summers imitating dry seasons in semi-arid and arid climates . Additionally , Mediterranean climates tend to be wetter poleward and drier the closer it gets to the Equator . The resulting vegetation of Mediterranean climates are the garrigue in the Mediterranean Basin , the chaparral in California , the fynbos in South Africa and the Chilean scrubland in Chile . Areas with this climate are where the so-called `` Mediterranean trinity '' has traditionally developed : wheat , vine and olive . The latter is a tree that is only grown in areas that have this climatic pattern . |
Mille_Lacs_Lake | Mille Lacs Lake ( also called Lake Mille Lacs or Mille Lacs ) is a large but shallow lake in the U.S. state of Minnesota . It is located in the counties of Mille Lacs , Aitkin , and Crow Wing , roughly 100 miles north of the Minneapolis-St . Paul metropolitan area . Mille Lacs means `` thousand lakes '' in French . In the Ojibwe language , the lake is called Misi-zaaga ` igan ( `` grand lake '' ) . |
Michigan | Michigan -LSB- ˈmɪʃᵻgən -RSB- is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States . The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa , meaning `` large water '' or `` large lake '' . Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States , with the 11th most extensive total area ( the largest state by total area east of the Mississippi River ) . I.e. , including water that is part of state territory . Georgia is the largest state by land area east of the Mississippi and Michigan the second-largest . Its capital is Lansing , and its largest city is Detroit . Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas . The Lower Peninsula , to which the name Michigan was originally applied , is often noted to be shaped like a mitten . The Upper Peninsula ( often referred to as `` the U.P. '' ) is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac , a 5 mi channel that joins Lake Huron to Lake Michigan . The two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge . The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world , being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes , plus Lake Saint Clair . As a result , it is one of the leading U.S. states for recreational boating . Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds . A person in the state is never more than 6 mi from a natural water source or more than 85 mi from a Great Lakes shoreline . What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century and becoming a part of New France . After France 's defeat in the French and Indian War in 1762 the region came under British rule , and was ceded to the newly independent United States after the British defeat in the American Revolutionary War . The area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800 , when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory . Eventually , in 1805 , the Michigan Territory was formed , which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26 , 1837 , as the 26th state . The state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination . Though Michigan has come to develop a diverse economy , it is widely known as the center of the U.S. automotive industry , being home to the country 's three major automobile companies ( whose headquarters are all within the Detroit metropolitan area ) . While sparsely populated , the Upper Peninsula is economically important due to its status as a tourist destination as well as its abundance of natural resources , while the Lower Peninsula is a center of manufacturing , services , and high-tech industry . |
Mesosphere_(mantle) | In geology , the mesosphere refers to the part of the Earth 's mantle below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere , but above the outer core . The upper boundary is defined as the sharp increase in seismic wave velocities and density at a depth of 660 km . At a depth of 660 km , ringwoodite ( gamma - ( Mg , Fe ) 2SiO4 ) decomposes into Mg-Si perovskite and magnesiowustite . This reaction marks the boundary between upper mantle and lower mantle . This measurement is estimated from seismic data and high-pressure laboratory experiments . The base of the mesosphere includes the D' zone which lies just above the mantle-core boundary at approximately abbr = on 2700 . The base of the lower mantle is at about 2700 km . `` Mesosphere '' ( not to be confused with mesosphere , a layer of the atmosphere ) is derived from `` mesospheric shell '' , coined by Reginald Aldworth Daly , a Harvard University geology professor . In the pre-plate tectonics era , Daly ( 1940 ) inferred that the outer Earth consisted of three spherical layers : lithosphere ( including the crust ) , asthenosphere , and mesospheric shell . Daly 's hypothetical depths to the lithosphere -- asthenosphere boundary ranged from abbr = on 80 , and the top of the mesospheric shell ( base of the asthenosphere ) were from abbr = on 200 . Thus , Daly 's asthenosphere was inferred to be abbr = on 120 thick . According to Daly , the base of the solid Earth mesosphere could extend to the base of the mantle ( and , thus , to the top of the core ) . A derivative term , mesoplates , was introduced as a heuristic , based on a combination of `` mesosphere '' and `` plate '' , for postulated reference frames in which mantle hotspots apparently exist . |
Milky_Way | The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System . The descriptive `` milky '' is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy -- a band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that can not be individually distinguished by the naked eye . The term `` Milky Way '' is a translation of the Latin via lactea , from the Greek γαλαξίας κύκλος ( , `` milky circle '' ) . From Earth , the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within . Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610 . Until the early 1920s , most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe . Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis , observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies . The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 light-years and 180,000 light-years . The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100 -- 400 billion stars . There are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way . The Solar System is located within the disk , about 26,000 light-years from the Galactic Center , on the inner edge of one of the spiral-shaped concentrations of gas and dust called the Orion Arm . The stars in the inner ≈ 10,000 light-years form a bulge and one or more bars that radiate from the bulge . The very center is marked by an intense radio source , named Sagittarius A * , which is likely to be a supermassive black hole . Stars and gases at a wide range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at approximately 220 kilometers per second . The constant rotation speed contradicts the laws of Keplerian dynamics and suggests that much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic radiation . This mass has been termed `` dark matter '' . The rotational period is about 240 million years at the position of the Sun . The Milky Way as a whole is moving at a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to extragalactic frames of reference . The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe itself and thus probably formed shortly after the Dark Ages of the Big Bang . The Milky Way has several satellite galaxies and is part of the Local Group of galaxies , which is a component of the Virgo Supercluster , which is itself a component of the Laniakea Supercluster . |
Michigan_Wolverines | The Michigan Wolverines comprise 27 varsity sports teams at the University of Michigan . These teams compete in the NCAA 's Division I and in the Big Ten Conference in all sports except women 's water polo , which competes in the NCAA inter-divisional Collegiate Water Polo Association . Team colors are maize and blue , though these are different shades of `` maize '' and `` blue '' than those used by the university at large . The winged helmet is a recognized icon of Michigan Athletics . In 11 of the past 20 years ( through 2014 -- 15 ) , Michigan has finished in the top five of the NACDA Directors ' Cup , a list compiled by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics that charts institutions ' overall success in college sports . UM has finished in the top ten of the Directors ' Cup standings in sixteen of the award 's twenty-two seasons . |
Michael_E._Mann | Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate . |
Meteorological_astrology | Meteorological astrology or astrometeorology ( from Greek ἄστρον , astron , `` constellation , star '' ; μετέωρος , metéōros , `` high in the sky '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) is the practice of applying the astrological/astronomical placements of the Sun , Moon , and planets to attempt to forecast the weather . Astrometeorology is thousands of years old and based on astronomical positions that allegedly directly affect the weather on Earth . Ancient classical astrologers created weather forecasting known as meteorology by noting the positions of stars , planets , the Sun , and Moon . According to their texts , when planets occupy constellations as seen from Earth , and that are harmonious to one another , or that are favorable , the Earth in general experiences positive weather conditions . But when planets hold mathematical aspects that are discordant across regions of the Earth , the atmosphere responds and the weather is unseasonable . For centuries , forecasting advance weather , especially medium and long-range , was applied because it was the only way to know when to plant crops , navigate the seas and to predict the climate months in advance in preparation for harsh winter seasons . Meteorological phenomena correlated to planetary configurations were recorded by the ancient Babylonians in the 2nd century BC . Classical astrologers of note such as Claudius Ptolemy constructed a treatise on forecasting weather via astrological means , but it was not until the year 1686 that a large volume written in English was devoted only to astrometeorology by Dr. J. Goad in his book , Astro-Meteorologica published in London , England . Goad 's volume consisted of principles and rules forecasting weather astrologically . Johannes Kepler recorded meteorological observations to support his belief that the conjunction of Saturn and the Sun would produce cold weather . |
Metropolitan_statistical_area | In the United States , a metropolitan statistical area ( MSA ) is a geographical region with a relatively high population density at its core and close economic ties throughout the area . Such regions are neither legally incorporated as a city or town would be , nor are they legal administrative divisions like counties or separate entities such as states . As such , the precise definition of any given metropolitan area can vary with the source . A typical metropolitan area is centered on a single large city that wields substantial influence over the region ( e.g. , Chicago or Atlanta ) . However , some metropolitan areas contain more than one large city with no single municipality holding a substantially dominant position ( e.g. , Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex , Norfolk-Virginia Beach ( Hampton Roads ) , Riverside -- San Bernardino ( Inland Empire ) or Minneapolis -- Saint Paul ) . MSAs are defined by the Office of Management and Budget ( OMB ) and used by the Census Bureau and other federal government agencies for statistical purposes . |
Minneapolis | Minneapolis ( -LSB- mɪniˈæpəlɪs -RSB- ) is the county seat of Hennepin County , and the larger of the Twin Cities , the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States . As of 2015 , Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota and 46th-largest in the United States with a population of 410,939 . Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest , after Chicago . Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River , just north of the river 's confluence with the Minnesota River , and adjoins Saint Paul , the state 's capital . The city is abundantly rich in water , with thirteen lakes , wetlands , the Mississippi River , creeks and waterfalls , many connected by parkways in the Chain of Lakes and the Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway . It was once the world 's flour milling capital and a hub for timber . The city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle , with Minneapolis proper containing America 's fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies . As an integral link to the global economy , Minneapolis is categorized as a global city . Noted for its strong music and performing arts scenes , Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub . Reflecting the region 's status as an epicenter of folk , funk , and alternative rock music , the city served as the launching pad for several of the 20th century 's most influential musicians , including Bob Dylan and Prince . The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag , the city 's first schoolteacher , who combined mni , a Dakota Sioux word for water , and polis , the Greek word for city . |
Meta-analysis | A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies . The basic tenet behind meta-analyses is that there is a common truth behind all conceptually similar scientific studies , but which has been measured with a certain error within individual studies . The aim then is to use approaches from statistics to derive a pooled estimate closest to the unknown common truth based on how this error is perceived . In essence , all existing methods yield a weighted average from the results of the individual studies and what differs is the manner in which these weights are allocated and also the manner in which the uncertainty is computed around the point estimate thus generated . In addition to providing an estimate of the unknown common truth , meta-analysis has the capacity to contrast results from different studies and identify patterns among study results , sources of disagreement among those results , or other interesting relationships that may come to light in the context of multiple studies . A key benefit of this approach is the aggregation of information leading to a higher statistical power and more robust point estimate than is possible from the measure derived from any individual study . However , in performing a meta-analysis , an investigator must make choices which can affect the results , including deciding how to search for studies , selecting studies based on a set of objective criteria , dealing with incomplete data , analyzing the data , and accounting for or choosing not to account for publication bias . Meta-analyses are often , but not always , important components of a systematic review procedure . For instance , a meta-analysis may be conducted on several clinical trials of a medical treatment , in an effort to obtain a better understanding of how well the treatment works . Here it is convenient to follow the terminology used by the Cochrane Collaboration , and use `` meta-analysis '' to refer to statistical methods of combining evidence , leaving other aspects of ` research synthesis ' or ` evidence synthesis ' , such as combining information from qualitative studies , for the more general context of systematic reviews . |
Mississippian_(geology) | The Mississippian ( also known as Lower Carboniferous or Early Carboniferous ) is a subperiod in the geologic timescale or a subsystem of the geologic record . It is the earliest/lowermost of two subperiods of the Carboniferous period lasting from roughly 358.9 to 323.2 million years ago . As with most other geochronologic units , the rock beds that define the Mississippian are well identified , but the exact start and end dates are uncertain by a few million years . The Mississippian is so named because rocks with this age are exposed in the Mississippi River valley . The Mississippian was a period of marine transgression in the Northern Hemisphere : the sea level was so high that only the Fennoscandian Shield and the Laurentian Shield were dry land . The cratons were surrounded by extensive delta systems and lagoons , and carbonate sedimentation on the surrounding continental platforms , covered by shallow seas . In North America , where the interval consists primarily of marine limestones , it is treated as a geologic period between the Devonian and the Pennsylvanian . During the Mississippian an important phase of orogeny occurred in the Appalachian Mountains . It is a major rock building period named for the exposures in the Mississippi Valley region . The USGS geologic time scale shows its relation to other periods . In Europe , the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian are one more-or-less continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are grouped together as the Carboniferous system , and sometimes called the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Carboniferous instead . |
Minnesota_River | The Minnesota River is a tributary of the Mississippi River , approximately 332 miles ( 534 km ) long , in the U.S. state of Minnesota . It drains a watershed of nearly 17,000 sqmi , 14,751 sqmi in Minnesota and about 2,000 sqmi in South Dakota and Iowa . It rises in southwestern Minnesota , in Big Stone Lake on the Minnesota -- South Dakota border just south of the Laurentian Divide at the Traverse Gap portage . It flows southeast to Mankato , then turns northeast . It joins the Mississippi south of the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul , near the historic Fort Snelling . The valley is one of several distinct regions of Minnesota . Of Dakota language origin , the name Minnesota means `` sky-tinted water or cloudy-sky water '' , from mní ( often transcribed as `` minne '' or `` mini '' ) meaning `` water '' and sóta meaning `` sky-tinted '' or `` cloudy sky '' , and , refers to the milky-brown color its waters take on when at flood stage . An illustration of the meaning of these words was shown by dropping a little milk into water . For over a century prior to the organization of the Minnesota Territory in 1849 , the name St. Pierre ( St. Peter ) had been generally applied to the river by French and English explorers and writers . Minnesota River is shown on the 1757 edition of Mitchell Map as `` Ouadebameniſsouté -LSB- Watpá Mnísota -RSB- or R. St. Peter '' . On June 19 , 1852 , acting upon a request from the Minnesota territorial legislature , the United States Congress decreed the aboriginal name for the river , Minnesota , to be the river 's official name and ordered all agencies of the federal government to use that name when referencing it . The valley that the Minnesota River flows in is up to five miles ( 8 km ) wide and 250 feet ( 80 m ) deep . It was carved into the landscape by the massive glacial River Warren between 11,700 and 9,400 years ago at the end of the last ice age in North America . Pierre-Charles Le Sueur was the first European to visit the river . The Minnesota Territory , and later the state , were named for the river . |
Mercury_(planet) | Mercury is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar System . Its orbital period around the Sun of 88 days is the shortest of all the planets in the Solar System . It is named after the Roman deity Mercury , the messenger to the gods . Like Venus , Mercury orbits the Sun within Earth 's orbit as an inferior planet , so it can only be seen visually in the morning or the evening sky , and never exceeds 28 ° away from the Sun . Also , like Venus and the Moon , the planet displays the complete range of phases as it moves around its orbit relative to Earth . Seen from Earth , this cycle of phases reoccurs approximately every 116 days , the so-called synodic period . Although Mercury can appear as a bright star-like object when viewed from Earth , its proximity to the Sun often makes it more difficult to see than Venus . Mercury is tidally or gravitationally locked with the Sun in a 3:2 resonance , and rotates in a way that is unique in the Solar System . As seen relative to the fixed stars , it rotates on its axis exactly three times for every two revolutions it makes around the Sun . As seen from the Sun , in a frame of reference that rotates with the orbital motion , it appears to rotate only once every two Mercurian years . An observer on Mercury would therefore see only one day every two years . Mercury 's axis has the smallest tilt of any of the Solar System 's planets ( about degree ) , and its orbital eccentricity is the largest of all known planets in the Solar System . At aphelion , Mercury is about 1.5 times as far from the Sun as it is at perihelion . Mercury 's surface appears heavily cratered and is similar in appearance to the Moon 's , indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years . Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat , it has surface temperatures that vary diurnally more than on any other planet in the Solar System , ranging from 100 K at night to 700 K during the day across the equatorial regions . The polar regions are constantly below 180 K . The planet has no known natural satellites . Two spacecraft have visited Mercury : flew by in 1974 and 1975 ; and MESSENGER , launched in 2004 , orbited Mercury over 4,000 times in four years before exhausting its fuel and crashing into the planet 's surface on April 30 , 2015 . |
Mississippi_River_Delta | The Mississippi River Delta region is a 3-million-acre ( 12,000 km2 ) area of land that stretches from Vermillion Bay on the west , to the Chandeleur Islands in the Gulf of Mexico on the southeastern coast of Louisiana . It is part of the Louisiana coastal plain , one of the largest areas of coastal wetlands in the United States . The Mississippi River Delta is the 7th largest river delta on Earth ( USGS ) and is an important coastal region for the United States , containing more than 2.7 million acres of coastal wetlands ( 4000 mi2 and 37 % of the estuarine marsh in the conterminous U.S. . The coastal area is the nation 's largest drainage basin and drains about 41 % of the contiguous United States into the Gulf of Mexico at an average rate of 470,000 cubic feet per second . The Mississippi River Delta is not to be confused with the Mississippi Delta region , an alluvial plain located some 300 mi northward in western Mississippi along the Mississippi River . |
Mississippi_River_System | The Mississippi River System , also referred to as the Western Rivers , is a mostly riverine network of the United States which includes the Mississippi River and connecting waterways . The Mississippi River is the largest drainage basin in the United States . In the United States , the Mississippi drains about forty-one percent of the country 's rivers . From the perspective of natural geography and hydrology , the system consists of the Mississippi River itself and its numerous natural tributaries and distributaries . The major tributaries are the Arkansas , Illinois , Missouri , Ohio and Red rivers . Given their flow volumes , major Ohio River tributaries like the Allegheny , Tennessee , and Wabash rivers are considered important tributaries to the Mississippi system . Before the Mississippi River reaches the Gulf of Mexico , it runs into its distributary , the Atchafalaya River . From the perspective of modern commercial navigation , the system includes the above as well as navigable inland waterways which are connected by artificial means . Important connecting waterways include the Illinois Waterway , the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway , and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway . This system of waterways is maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers with a project depth of between 9 and 12 feet ( 2.7 -- 3.7 m ) to accommodate barge transportation , primarily of bulk commodities . The Mississippi River carries 60 % of U.S grain shipments , 22 % of oil and gas shipments , and 20 % of coal . |
Microbial_ecology | Microbial ecology ( or environmental microbiology ) is the ecology of microorganisms : their relationship with one another and with their environment . It concerns the three major domains of life -- Eukaryota , Archaea , and Bacteria -- as well as viruses . Microorganisms , by their omnipresence , impact the entire biosphere . Microbial life plays a primary role in regulating biogeochemical systems in virtually all of our planet 's environments , including some of the most extreme , from frozen environments and acidic lakes , to hydrothermal vents at the bottom of deepest oceans , and some of the most familiar , such as the human small intestine . As a consequence of the quantitative magnitude of microbial life ( Whitman and coworkers calculated cells , eight orders of magnitude greater than the number of stars in the observable universe ) microbes , by virtue of their biomass alone , constitute a significant carbon sink . Aside from carbon fixation , microorganisms ' key collective metabolic processes ( including nitrogen fixation , methane metabolism , and sulfur metabolism ) control global biogeochemical cycling . The immensity of microorganisms ' production is such that , even in the total absence of eukaryotic life , these processes would likely continue unchanged . |
Minister_of_Climate_and_the_Environment | The Minister of Climate and the Environment ( Klima - og miljøministeren ) is a Councilor of State and Chief of Norway 's Ministry of the Environment . Since 16 December 2015 the position has been held by Vidar Helgesen of the Conservative Party . The ministry is responsible for environmental issues , including influencing environmental impacts on other ministries . Subordinate agencies include the Directorate for Cultural Heritage , the Polar Institute , the Environment Agency and the Mapping Authority . The minister and minister post were established on 8 May 1972 . The title was known as the Minister of the Environment until 2013 . Nineteen people from six parties have held the position . Thorbjørn Berntsen of the Labour Party has held the position the longest , a week short of seven years . Gro Harlem Bruntland , who held the position for five years , later became Prime Minister . Erik Solheim of the Socialist Left Party held the position concurrently with being Minister of International Development . |
Ministry_of_Environment_(Denmark) | Ministry of the Environment of Denmark ( Miljøministeriet ) is the Danish ministry in charge of near all matters concerning Environmental issues in Denmark . The head office is in Copenhagen . Created in 1971 as the Ministry of Pollution Combating ( `` Ministeriet for forureningsbekæmpelse '' ) , it changed its name in 1973 to the current Ministry of the Environment . However , from 1994 to 2005 it was known as the Ministry of Environment and Energy ( `` Miljø - og Energiministeriet '' ) , as the ministry was merged with the Ministry of Energy . In 2005 , the energy sector was detached again and the ministry reverted to the old name . In a press release on March 21 , 2007 , the ministry announced that it would be hosting the COP-15 summit in 2009 . COP 15 took place in Copenhagen from 7 December to 18 December 2009 . |
Minnesota | Minnesota ( -LSB- -LSB- ˌmɪnəˈso̞ɾɐ -RSB- help = no -RSB- ) is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States . Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U.S. state on May 11 , 1858 , created from the eastern half of the Minnesota Territory . The state has a large number of lakes , and is known by the slogan `` Land of 10,000 Lakes '' . Its official motto is L'Étoile du Nord ( French : Star of the North ) . Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U.S. states ; nearly 60 percent of its residents live in the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul metropolitan area ( known as the `` Twin Cities '' ) , the center of transportation , business , industry , education , and government and home to an internationally known arts community . The remainder of the state consists of western prairies now given over to intensive agriculture ; deciduous forests in the southeast , now partially cleared , farmed and settled ; and the less populated North Woods , used for mining , forestry , and recreation . Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout . Until European settlement , Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe . During the 19th and early 20th centuries , a large number of European settlers entered the state who had mainly emigrated from Scandinavia and Germany . The state remains today a center of Scandinavian American and German American culture . In recent decades , immigration from Asia , the Horn of Africa , and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition . Minnesota 's standard of living index is among the highest in the United States , and the state is also among the best-educated and wealthiest in the nation . |
Meteorology_(Aristotle) | Meteorology ( Greek : Μετεωρολογικά Latin : Meteorologica or Meteora ) is a treatise by Aristotle . The text discusses what Aristotle believed to have been all the affections common to air and water , and the kinds and parts of the earth and the affections of its parts . It includes early accounts of water evaporation , earthquakes , and other weather phenomena . An Arabic compendium of Meteorology , called ( -LSB- ) and produced by the Antiochene scholar Yahya ibn al-Bitriq , was widely circulated among Muslim scholars over the following centuries . This was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century -- and by this means , during the Twelfth-century Renaissance , entered the Western European world of medieval scholasticism . Gerard 's `` old translation '' ( vetus translatio ) was superseded by an improved text by William of Moerbeke , the nova translatio , which was widely read , as it survives in numerous manuscripts ; it received commentary by Thomas Aquinas and was often printed during the Renaissance . |
Meteorological_history_of_Hurricane_Jeanne | The meteorological history of Hurricane Jeanne lasted for about two weeks in September 2004 . Hurricane Jeanne was the eleventh tropical cyclone , tenth named storm , seventh hurricane , and sixth major hurricane of the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed from a tropical wave on September 13 near the Lesser Antilles , and encountered favorable enough conditions to reach tropical storm status . Jeanne strengthened further in the eastern Caribbean Sea , becoming a strong tropical storm and developing an eye before striking Puerto Rico on September 15 . Remaining well-organized , it attained hurricane status before hitting the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic on September 16 . Hurricane Jeanne steadily weakened while crossing eastern Hispaniola , and on September 17 it briefly weakened to tropical depression status after reaching open waters . Its original circulation dissipated as a new one reformed closer to the main area of thunderstorms . Turning northward , Jeanne slowly reorganized and again reached hurricane status on September 20 . It executed a clockwise loop to the west , weakening due to upwelling upon reaching its path again . Jeanne encountered favorable conditions as it continued westward , and it reached major hurricane status before crossing the northern Bahamas on September 25 . The next day , it struck Martin County , Florida in nearly the same location as Hurricane Frances just weeks before . Jeanne weakened over land while turning the northwest , deteriorating to tropical depression status over Georgia on September 27 . It turned northeastward , becoming extratropical on September 28 before dissipating on September 29 after merging with a cold front . The hurricane produced heavy rainfall across its path , including in Haiti where precipitation caused devastating mudslides ; over 3,000 deaths were reported in the country . Heavy rainfall also occurred during its landfalls on Puerto Rico and Florida , resulting in river flooding . In its strongest landfall , the hurricane produced strong winds across an area earlier affected by Hurricane Frances and , in some locations , by Hurricane Charley . Late in its duration , the combination of moisture from Jeanne and cool air resulted in a tornado outbreak that extended from Georgia through the Mid-Atlantic states . |
Mississippi_River | The Mississippi River is the chief river of the second largest drainage system on the North American continent , second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system . Flowing entirely in the United States ( although its drainage basin reaches into Canada ) , it rises in northern Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for 2320 mi to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico . With its many tributaries , the Mississippi 's watershed drains all or parts of 31 U.S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains . The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge . The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Iowa , Illinois , Missouri , Kentucky , Tennessee , Arkansas , Mississippi , and Louisiana . Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries . Most were hunter-gatherers , but some , such as the Mound Builders , formed prolific agricultural societies . The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers , then settlers , ventured into the basin in increasing numbers . The river served first as a barrier , forming borders for New Spain , New France , and the early United States , and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link . In the 19th century , during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny , the Mississippi and several western tributaries , most notably the Missouri , formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States . Formed from thick layers of the river 's silt deposits , the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country , which resulted in the river 's storied steamboat era . During the American Civil War , the Mississippi 's capture by Union forces marked a turning point towards victory due to the river 's importance as a route of trade and travel , not least to the Confederacy . Because of substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that supplanted riverboats , the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees , locks and dams , often built in combination . Since modern development of the basin began , the Mississippi has also seen its share of pollution and environmental problems -- most notably large volumes of agricultural runoff , which has led to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone off the Delta . In recent years , the river has shown a steady shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta ; a course change would be an economic disaster for the port city of New Orleans . |
Meteorology | Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics , with a major focus on weather forecasting . The study of meteorology dates back millennia , though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century . The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions . Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data . It was n't until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and , more particularly , the development of the computer , allowing for the automated solution of a great many equations that model the weather , in the latter half of the 20th century that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved . Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology . Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth 's atmosphere : temperature , air pressure , water vapor , mass flow , and the variations and interactions of those variables , and how they change over time . Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local , regional , and global levels . Meteorology , climatology , atmospheric physics , and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences . Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology . The interactions between Earth 's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system . Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military , energy production , transport , agriculture , and construction . The word `` meteorology '' is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros `` lofty ; high ( in the sky ) '' ( from μετα - meta - `` above '' and ἀείρω aeiro `` I lift up '' ) and - λογία - logia '' - logy '' , i.e. `` the study of things in the air '' . |
Mesoscale_convective_system | A mesoscale convective system ( MCS ) is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than extratropical cyclones , and normally persists for several hours or more . A mesoscale convective system 's overall cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear in shape , and include weather systems such as tropical cyclones , squall lines , lake-effect snow events , polar lows , and Mesoscale Convective Complexes ( MCCs ) , and generally form near weather fronts . The type that forms during the warm season over land has been noted across North America , Europe , and Asia , with a maximum in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening hours . Forms of MCS that develop within the tropics use either the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon troughs as a focus for their development , generally within the warm season between spring and fall . One exception is that of lake-effect snow bands , which form due to cold air moving across relatively warm bodies of water , and occurs from fall through spring . Polar lows are a second special class of MCS which form at high latitudes during the cold season . Once the parent MCS dies , later thunderstorm development can occur in connection with its remnant mesoscale convective vortex ( MCV ) . Mesoscale convective systems are important to the United States rainfall climatology over the Great Plains since they bring the region about half of their annual warm season rainfall . |
Micro-sustainability | Micro-sustainability focuses on the small environmental actions that collectively result in a large environmental impact . Micro-sustainability centers on individual efforts , behavior modification and creating attitudinal changes , which result in an environmentally conscious individual or community . Micro-sustainability encourages sustainable changes through `` change agents '' , which are individuals that are encouraged ; and therefore , foster positive environmental action inside their sphere of influence . Examples of micro-sustainability include recycling , power saving by turning off unused lights , programming thermostats for efficient use of energy , reducing water usage , changing driving habits or patterns in order to use less gasoline or modifying buying habits to reduce waste and consumption . The focus is on individual actions , rather than organizational practices . These narrow , small ticket , community level actions have immediate local benefits . If widely imitated , they have a cumulative , broader impact . The remaining large-scale plans for sustainability , categorized under the term macro-sustainability , are in most cases addressed by governments , multi-national corporations or companies . They combat global issues including climate change , and reliance upon petroleum-based energy sources . Businesses primarily focus on the business case and return on investment of changes such as their source of energy or the way they transport or manufacture products . Governments confront these larger issues through increased regulation , subsidies , and investment in new technologies and energy sources . |
Mental_model | A mental model is an explanation of someone 's thought process about how something works in the real world . It is a representation of the surrounding world , the relationships between its various parts and a person 's intuitive perception about his or her own acts and their consequences . Mental models can help shape behaviour and set an approach to solving problems ( similar to a personal algorithm ) and doing tasks . A mental model is a kind of internal symbol or representation of external reality , hypothesized to play a major role in cognition , reasoning and decision-making . Kenneth Craik suggested in 1943 that the mind constructs `` small-scale models '' of reality that it uses to anticipate events . Jay Wright Forrester defined general mental models as : The image of the world around us , which we carry in our head , is just a model . Nobody in his head imagines all the world , government or country . He has only selected concepts , and relationships between them , and uses those to represent the real system ( Forrester , 1971 ) . In psychology , the term mental models is sometimes used to refer to mental representations or mental simulation generally . At other times it is used to refer to mental models and reasoning and to the mental model theory of reasoning developed by Philip Johnson-Laird and Ruth M.J. Byrne . |
Migraine | Migraine is a primary headache disorder characterized by recurrent headaches that are moderate to severe . Typically , the headaches affect one half of the head , are pulsating in nature , and last from two to 72 hours . Associated symptoms may include nausea , vomiting , and sensitivity to light , sound , or smell . The pain is generally made worse by physical activity . Up to one-third of people have an aura : typically a short period of visual disturbance which signals that the headache will soon occur . Occasionally , an aura can occur with little or no headache following it . Migraines are believed to be due to a mixture of environmental and genetic factors . About two-thirds of cases run in families . Changing hormone levels may also play a role , as migraines affect slightly more boys than girls before puberty and two to three times more women than men . The risk of migraines usually decreases during pregnancy . The underlying mechanisms are not fully known . It is , however , believed to involve the nerves and blood vessels of the brain . Initial recommended treatment is with simple pain medication such as ibuprofen and paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) for the headache , medication for the nausea , and the avoidance of triggers . Specific medications such as triptans or ergotamines may be used in those for whom simple pain medications are not effective . Caffeine may be added to the above . A number of medications are useful to prevent attacks including metoprolol , valproate , and topiramate . Globally , approximately 15 % of people are affected by migraines . It most often starts at puberty and is worst during middle age . In some women they become less common following menopause . An early description consistent with migraines is contained in the Ebers papyrus , written around 1500 BCE in ancient Egypt . The word `` migraine '' is from the Greek ἡμικρανία ( hemikrania ) , `` pain on one side of the head '' , from ἡμι - ( hemi - ) , `` half '' , and κρανίον ( kranion ) , `` skull '' . |
Metabolic_acidosis | Metabolic acidosis is a condition that occurs when the body produces excessive quantities of acid or when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body . If unchecked , metabolic acidosis leads to acidemia , i.e. , blood pH is low ( less than 7.35 ) due to increased production of hydrogen ions by the body or the inability of the body to form bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) in the kidney . Its causes are diverse , and its consequences can be serious , including coma and death . Together with respiratory acidosis , it is one of the two general causes of acidemia . Terminology : Acidosis refers to a process that causes a low pH in blood and tissues . Acidemia refers specifically to a low pH in the blood . In most cases , acidosis occurs first for reasons explained below . Free hydrogen ions then diffuse into the blood , lowering the pH. Arterial blood gas analysis detects acidemia ( pH lower than 7.35 ) . When acidemia is present , acidosis is presumed . |
Melt_pond | Melt ponds are pools of open water that form on sea ice in the warmer months of spring and summer . The ponds are also found on glacial ice and ice shelves . Ponds of melted water can also develop under the ice . Melt ponds are usually darker than the surrounding ice , and their distribution and size is highly variable . They absorb solar radiation rather than reflecting it as ice does and , thereby , have a significant influence on Earth 's radiation balance . This differential , which had not been scientifically investigated until recently , has a large effect on the rate of ice melting and the extent of ice cover . Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean 's surface . Seawater entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond . The increase in salinity also depresses the water 's freezing point . Water from melt ponds over land surface can run into crevasses or moulins -- tubes leading under ice sheets or glaciers -- turning into meltwater . The water may reach the underlying rock . The effect is an increase in the rate of ice flow to the oceans , as the fluid behaves like a lubricant in the basal sliding of glaciers . |
Mine_reclamation | Mine reclamation is the process of restoring land that has been mined to a natural or economically usable state . Although the process of mine reclamation occurs once mining is completed , the planning of mine reclamation activities occurs prior to a mine being permitted or started . Mine reclamation creates useful landscapes that meet a variety of goals ranging from the restoration of productive ecosystems to the creation of industrial and municipal resources . In the United States , mine reclamation is a regular part of modern mining practices . Modern mine reclamation minimizes and mitigates the environmental effects of mining . |
Mir | Mir ( Мир , -LSB- ˈmʲir -RSB- ; lit . peace or world ) was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001 , run by the Soviet Union and later by Russia . Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996 . It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft . At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit , succeeded by the International Space Station after Mir 's orbit decayed . The station served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology , human biology , physics , astronomy , meteorology and spacecraft systems with a goal of developing technologies required for permanent occupation of space . Mir was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days , until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010 . It holds the record for the longest single human spaceflight , with Valeri Polyakov spending 437 days and 18 hours on the station between 1994 and 1995 . Mir was occupied for a total of twelve and a half years out of its fifteen-year lifespan , having the capacity to support a resident crew of three , or larger crews for short visits . Following the success of the Salyut programme , Mir represented the next stage in the Soviet Union 's space station programme . The first module of the station , known as the core module or base block , was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules . Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the docking module , which was installed by a US space shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995 . When complete , the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components . Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules . The station was maintained at an orbit between 296 km and 421 km altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700 km/h ( 17,200 mph ) , completing 15.7 orbits per day . The station was launched as part of the Soviet Union 's manned spaceflight programme effort to maintain a long-term research outpost in space , and following the collapse of the USSR , was operated by the new Russian Federal Space Agency ( RKA ) . As a result , most of the station ' occupants were Soviet ; through international collaborations such as the Intercosmos , Euromir and Shuttle -- Mir programmes , the station was made accessible to space travelers from several Asian , European and North American nations . Mir was deorbited in March 2001 after funding was cut off . The cost of the Mir programme was estimated by former RKA General Director Yuri Koptev in 2001 as $ 4.2 billion over its lifetime ( including development , assembly and orbital operation ) . |
Minimum_wage | A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers must legally pay their workers . Equivalently , it is the price floor below which workers may not sell their labor . Although minimum wage laws are in effect in many jurisdictions , differences of opinion exist about the benefits and drawbacks of a minimum wage . Supporters of the minimum wage say it increases the standard of living of workers , reduces poverty , reduces inequality , and boosts morale . In contrast , opponents of the minimum wage say it increases poverty , increases unemployment ( particularly among unskilled or inexperienced workers ) and is damaging to businesses , because excessively high minimum wages require businesses to raise the prices of their product or service to accommodate the extra expense of paying a higher wage . |
Microclimate | A microclimate is a local set of atmospheric conditions that differ from those in the surrounding areas , often with a slight difference but sometimes with a substantial one . The term may refer to areas as small as a few square meters or square feet ( for example a garden bed or a cave ) or as large as many square kilometers or square miles . Because climate is statistical , which implies spatial and temporal variation of the mean values of the describing parameters , within a region there can occur and persist over time sets of statistically distinct conditions , that is , microclimates . Microclimates can be found in most places . Microclimates exist , for example , near bodies of water which may cool the local atmosphere , or in heavy urban areas where brick , concrete , and asphalt absorb the sun 's energy , heat up , and re-radiate that heat to the ambient air : the resulting urban heat island is a kind of microclimate . Another contributing factor of microclimate is the slope or aspect of an area . South-facing slopes in the Northern Hemisphere and north-facing slopes in the Southern Hemisphere are exposed to more direct sunlight than opposite slopes and are therefore warmer for longer periods of time , giving the slope a warmer microclimate than the areas around the slope . The lowest area of a glen may sometimes frost sooner or harder than a nearby spot uphill , because cold air sinks , a drying breeze may not reach the lowest bottom , and humidity lingers and precipitates , then freezes . |
Model-dependent_realism | Model-dependent realism is a view of scientific inquiry that focuses on the role of scientific models of phenomena . It claims reality should be interpreted based upon these models , and where several models overlap in describing a particular subject , multiple , equally valid , realities exist . It claims that it is meaningless to talk about the `` true reality '' of a model as we can never be absolutely certain of anything . The only meaningful thing is the usefulness of the model . The term `` model-dependent realism '' was coined by Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow in their 2010 book , The Grand Design . |
Models_of_scientific_inquiry | In the philosophy of science , models of scientific inquiry have two functions : first , to provide a descriptive account of how scientific inquiry is carried out in practice , and second , to provide an explanatory account of why scientific inquiry succeeds as well as it appears to do in arriving at genuine knowledge . The search for scientific knowledge extends far back into antiquity . At some point in the past , at least by the time of Aristotle , philosophers recognized that a fundamental distinction should be drawn between two kinds of scientific knowledge -- roughly , knowledge that and knowledge why . It is one thing to know that each planet periodically reverses the direction of its motion with respect to the background of fixed stars ; it is quite a different matter to know why . Knowledge of the former type is descriptive ; knowledge of the latter type is explanatory . It is explanatory knowledge that provides scientific understanding of the world . ( Salmon , 1990 ) `` Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work . |
Millmerran_Power_Station | The Millmerran Power Station is a coal-fired power station south of Millmerran in the Darling Downs region of Queensland , Australia . The power station was commissioned in 2002 and cost $ 1.5 billion to build . The power station is owned and operated by InterGen , a multinational company owned by the Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan and AIG Highstar Capital II , a private equity fund sponsored by a subsidiary of American International Group , Inc. . The plant takes advantage of the abundant deposits of bituminous coal from the Surat Basin . Fuel is transported via conveyor belt from the open-cut Commodore Mine . Water is supplied via pipeline from the Wetalla sewage treatment plant in Toowoomba . The 850 MW plant uses air cooling technology to reduce water consumption . In 2002 , when the plant became operational , wholesale prices for electricity fell by about one third to $ 20/MWh . This was due to the market strategy to bid at short run marginal cost - so with high efficiency plant and cheap coal , this had a significant impact on the market . Millmerran Power Station which won the Banksia Environmental Award 2006 in the water category , supplies enough electricity to power approximately 1.1 million homes by selling all its electricity into the National Electricity Market ( NEM ) . Carbon Monitoring for Action estimates this power station emits 5.75 million tonnes of greenhouse gases each year as a result of burning coal . The Australian Government has announced the introduction of a Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme commencing in 2010 to help combat climate change . It is expected to impact on emissions from power stations . The National Pollutant Inventory provides details of other pollutant emissions , but , as at 23 November 2008 , not CO2 . |