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TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention describes a method for detecting the presence and type of microorganism present in a sample by means of stabilization and sequencing techniques, and subsequent analysis of microsequences in genes encoding the ribosomal RNA most conserved, and on specific areas of the 16-S region with taxonomic value. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Septicemia, or sepsis, is a set of clinical symptoms characterized by the presence and dissemination of bacteria in the blood. It is a severe, potentially fatal infection that quickly deteriorates and can result from infections in the entire body, including infections with a focal spot in the lungs, abdomen and urinary tracts. It can appear before or at the same time as bone infections (osteomyelitis), central nervous system infection (meningitis) or infections of other tissues, and in these cases it is a potentially fatal condition in people with an impaired immune system. The most severe form is referred to as septic shock, and it is a type of progress of the set of clinical symptoms that is reached when the bacterial load causes a sustained reduction of blood pressure which prevents the correct supply of oxygen to tissues. [0003] It is estimated that 50,000 new cases of severe sepsis occur every year in Spain, and that 17,000 people die every year due to this infection. 18 million cases occur worldwide every year, and 1,400 people die every day worldwide as a result of this general infection, putting its morbidity ahead of diseases with a large social impact such as breast cancer or AIDS. [0004] The fast diagnosis and early identification of the microorganism causing the infection allow the administration of a necessary early therapy targeting the microorganism found, which is crucial for reducing the severity of the disease and even for assuring the survival and recovery of infected patients. In this sense, there is a direct correspondence between the early diagnosis and identification and the complete total absence of sequelae associated with this set of clinical symptoms. [0005] Hemoculture is the traditional method most widely used in the identification of infectious microorganisms, but it has the drawback of taking between one and five days in giving a precise result. In the case of infections caused by fungi, a diagnosis by means of hemoculture can take more than eight days. In summary, hemoculture is an effective but slow method of diagnosis for determining the infectious microorganism and, accordingly, the suitably therapeutic prescription for early treatment of the infection. Diagnostic sensitivity is another additional problem with diagnostic techniques associated with hemoculture. This lack of sensitivity can also be seen in the method of diagnosis by means of immunoprecipitation, which is further affected by seasonal changes in surface antigen patterns for certain pathogenic germs. Furthermore, these techniques based on biochemical and phenotypic characteristics of microorganisms often fail when applied to clinical variants due to morphological changes or changes in the metabolic state of the pathogenic microorganism at a specific time. [0006] In fact, traditional laboratory methods for identifying microorganisms cannot always identify multiple pathogenic agents in a single clinical sample, because identification from a culture is based on the predominance of the microorganism and can be affected by the positive-negative selection thereof in the culture medium. There is evidence confirming the presence on multiple occasions of more than one microorganism per clinical sample, these polymicrobial clinical symptoms being very difficult to characterize by means of traditional culture methods. The method object of this invention is suitable for detecting several pathogenic agents in a single clinical sample regardless of the proportions of each of them. [0007] Out of the different techniques existing for identifying and characterizing pathogenic microorganisms, techniques based on the genetic material thereof, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and/or RNA (ribonucleic acid), are becoming increasingly more important. There are currently several nucleic acid hybridization assays which can be used to identify microorganisms. Out of these assays, the most widely used include nucleic acid amplification by means of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse transcriptase together with subsequent cDNA transcript amplification (RT-PCR-Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction), real time nucleic acid amplification or quantitative PCR (qPCR, also called Real Time PCR), LCR (Ligase Chain Reaction Nucleic Acid Amplification), liquid phase hybridization (LPH), and in situ hybridization, among others. These assays for the specific identification of a specific microorganism use different types of nucleotide hybridization probes primarily labeled with non-radioisotopic molecules such as the digoxigenin, biotin, fluorescein or alkaline phosphatase, for the purpose of generating a detectable signal when specific hybridization between the nucleotide hybridization probe and the specific sequence of the genetic material, DNA and/or RNA, identifying the microorganism to be identified takes place. Another alternative associating the diagnosis of infection with identification of the pathogen and its particularities is the PCR-RFLP method (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism), referring to specific nucleotide sequences in DNA which are recognized and cut by restriction enzymes usually generating different distance, length and arrangement patterns in the DNA of different pathogens within a polymorphic population for these restriction fragments. [0008] Among the mentioned techniques, the most widely used process is PCR (Saiki et al., Science, 230, 1350-1354 (1985), Mullis et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,195, U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,800,159). This technique allows serial exponential nucleic acid amplification. Said amplification is achieved by means of repetitive denaturation cycles by heat of the nucleic acid under study, binding of complementary primers to two opposing regions of the nucleic acid to be amplified, and extension of the sequence limited between the two primers within the nucleic acid by the action of a heat-stable polymerase enzyme. The repetition of successive cycles in this process achieves exponential amplification of the nucleic acid under study. Likewise, this process does not generate a detectable and intrinsic signal, so the analysis of the presence of the amplified nucleic acid requires an additional analysis of the products generated in the presence of an intercalating agent, generally by means of agarose or acrylamide gel electrophoresis. [0009] For the purpose of avoiding this detection step on different supports, a PCR variant, real time PCR or quantitative PCR, has been developed where amplification and detection processes occur simultaneously, without the need for any further action. Furthermore, by means of detecting the amplified fragments by fluorescence, the amount of DNA synthesized at all times for the amplification can be measured, because the emission of fluorescence occurring in the reaction is proportional to the amount of DNA formed, which allows knowing and recording at all times the kinetics of the amplification reaction (Higuchi R, Fokler C, Dollinger G, Watson R. Kinetic PCR analysis: Real-time monitoring of DNA amplification reactions. Bio/Technology 1993; 11: 1026-30). [0010] The simultaneous detection and/or identification of species of microorganisms in a specific sample requires using different nucleotide probes, different primers in the case of PCR, or different fluorescent primers and/or probes in the case of real time PCR. They must all be specific for each of the microorganisms to be detected, it normally being necessary to perform different assays for identifying each of the microorganisms in question. This need for using different probes and primers specific for identifying each of the microorganisms possibly present in the sample complicates both the experimental development of the probes or primers to be used and the viability and cost of the assay for identifying multiple microorganisms in one and the same sample. For this reason, multiplexed systems have not achieved an actual implementation in routine diagnosis. [0011] In the case of PCR, sometimes it is possible to design consensus primers capable of amplifying a specific region of the DNA that is common to several microorganisms. In the case of eubacteria, consensus primers binding to one or more highly conserved regions of bacterial DNA, for example, the highly conserved 16S region of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) or the 23S region of the same ribosomal DNA, are well-known. The corresponding templates can be amplified using suitable consensus primers and the bacterial DNA product of this amplification can then be detected by means of different methods of detection (Anthony, Brown, French; J. Olin. “Rapid Diagnosis of Bacteremia by universal amplification of 23S Ribosomal DNA followed by Hybridization to an Oligonucleotide Array”. Microbiol. 2000, pp. 781-788, and patent application WO 00/66777). [0012] The standard methods of detection by means of amplification on a biological sample for identifying bacteria may not always identify multiple pathogenic agents present in the same sample, given that precise identification by means of amplification depends on the use of primers specific for each of the species present in the sample, which entails prior knowledge or supposition of the species present. In the case of using generic primers in the amplification reaction, identification is based on the predominance of the organism and can be affected by the prevalence of one bacterium on another. There is evidence that in a number of clinical symptoms more than one organism can be present in the analytical sample, making detection by traditional methods very difficult. The method object of this patent is suitable for detecting several pathogenic agents in a single clinical sample simultaneously without prior knowledge or supposition of the bacterial species present in the sample. [0013] Advances in recombinant DNA molecular biology and handling techniques have lead to the development of new methods for the rapid identification of multiple pathogenic agents in a single assay from a specific biological sample over the past few years. Some of these simultaneous multifactorial analytical methods (multiplexing) are described below. Klausegger et al. (“Gram-Type Specific Broad-Range PCR Amplification for Rapid Detection of 62 Pathogenic Bacteria”, J. Clin. Microbiol. 1999, pp. 464-466) show that the DNA/RNA of Gram-positive bacteria can be amplified specifically in a PCR reaction using universal primers designed especially for this group of bacteria, and that Gram-negative bacteria are not amplified in this PCR reaction, such that it is at least possible to sub-divide the eubacteria object of the investigation into Gram-positive and Gram-negative. Klausegger uses conventional microbiological methods for more precisely specifying the Gram-positive bacteria that have been amplified in this manner. According to Klausegger, through this treatment it is at least possible to rapidly treat pathogenic bacteria, the treatment targeting Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria based on the detection profile. However, the Klausegger publication does not allow any more precise identification within a short time period, generating a deep non-definition from the medical practice point of view when limiting treatment for patients with polymicrobial infection. [0014] The simultaneous detection and/or identification of species of microorganisms in a given sample has recently been reported with the technique of multiplex PCR of multiple primers for non-overlapping amplifications, with multiple groups of species-specific oligonucleotide pairs and probes corresponding to the different amplification objectives (Corless, C. E., M. Guiver, R. Borrow, V. Edwards-Jones, A. J. Fox, and E. B. Kaczmarski. “Detección simultanea de Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus influenzae y Streptococcus pneumoniae en casos sospechosos de meningitis y septicemia usando PCR en tiempo real”. 2001. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39: 1553-1558). [0015] The use of multiplex PCR for detecting antibiotic resistance genes has also been described (J. Clin. Microbial, 2003, 4089-4094, and 2005, 5026-5033). The sensitivity of this assay (100 pg correspond to 10 Staphylococcus cells, useful in the direct detection of positive cultures) and the specificity thereof, requires, however, improvements in processes that increase their diagnostic value as it is located under the clinical horizon. [0016] Currently there are several multiplexing methods, but each entails different limitations. In the multiplex detection of bacteria by means of analyzing the melting temperatures of amplified nucleic acid chains (melting curves), two oligonucleotide primers are used per bacterium and each bacterium is differentiated according to the size and composition of nucleotide bases of the amplified sequence. An important limitation of this assay is that if there are two bacteria present, or different levels of target bacteria present, the method does not work correctly. Amplification follows a non-linear profile under these conditions and false positives and negatives that are an intrinsic problem of this method are generated. [0017] Other forms of multiple detection of bacteria use amplification of conserved regions by means of universal primers. An example of use of this method can be found in patent U.S. Pat. No. 6,699,670. This method allows a rapid identification of the agents causing infection. To identify the particular microorganism causing the infection, other analyses are necessary given that, a priori, the identity of the microorganism is not known, and accordingly the specific probes to be used for individual identification are unknown. Therefore, the number of specific probes of each bacterial species that can be included in an individual reaction (including the universal probe and positive control) is restricted by the enzymatic kinetics of the amplification reaction and subsequent generation of the measurable identification signal. This method also suffers too many false positives and false negatives due to the stoichiometry of the hybridization process. [0018] Other methods describe the possibility of performing, after amplification obtained using universal primers, multiple detections by means of using universal probes hybridizing with highly conserved regions for the purpose of detecting the presence of microorganisms, to subsequently use species-specific probes hybridizing to non-conserved regions of the nucleic acids extracted from the sample for the purpose of individually identifying each of the microorganism precisely, such that false positives and negatives are prevented to a great extent. An example of these methods can be found in patent application WO 2009/049007. [0019] The regions of higher taxonomic value in relation to approaches of this type include the sequence of the 16S eubacterial ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene located between positions 1671 and 3229 of the H chain of mitochondrial DNA. This gene has highly conserved regions, virtually identical for all microorganisms, and divergent regions which are different for the different species of microorganisms. This 16S gene is present in multiple copies in the genomes of all human bacterial pathogens belonging to the Eubacteria kingdom, and many bacterial species contain up to seven copies of the gene. A target gene that is present in multiple copies increases the possibility of detecting the infectious pathogens when they are at a low proportion or diluted in a set of clinical symptoms of polymicrobial infection. Given that the entire 16S rRNA sequence is available, and these data indicate the highly conserved nature of the gene within the Eubacteria kingdom, this region is a generic identification target for the components of any eubacterial genus. Furthermore, there is sufficient variation in other internal and neighboring regions of the 16S rRNA gene to provide specific discrimination between the species of the main agents causing infectious clinical symptoms such as meningitis and different varieties of septicemia. For this reason, the fact that this widely studied gene is used by default in the identification and characterization of eubacteria. Different descriptions of the use of this ribosomal gene can be found in Weisburg W G., Barns S. M., Pelletier D., Lañe D. “16S Ribosomal DNA Amplification for Phylogenetic Study” Journal of Bacteriology, January 1991, Vol. 173 p. 697-703; Case R J, Boucher Y, Dahllöf I, Holmstróm C, Doolittle W F, Kjelleberg S. “Use of 16S rRNA and rpoB genes as molecular markers for microbial ecology studies”. January 2007. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73 (1): 278-88; and in Coenye T, Vandamme P “Intragenomic heterogeneity between multiple 16S ribosomal RNA operons in sequenced bacterial genomes”. November 2003. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 228 (1): 45-9. [0020] For the purpose of being able to distinguish between species or showing genetic variations such as the presence of pathogenicity factors within one and the same bacterial species, obtaining the nucleotide sequence from its genetic material is in many cases the only possibility of differentiation. This nucleotide sequence can be obtained using conventional sequencing guidelines based on the process described by Sanger and Coulson in 1975 (Sanger F, Coulson A R. “A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase”. J Mol. Biol. May 25, 1975, 94(3):441-448 and Sanger F, Nicklen s, and Coulson A R, “DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors”, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1977 December; 74(12): 5463-5467). These methods are based on using dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs) lacking one of the hydroxyl groups, such that when one of these nucleotides is incorporated in a growing DNA chain, this chain cannot continue to elongate since the DNA polymerase enzyme used to perform elongation needs a 3′ OH end to add the next nucleotide and the incorporated deoxynucleotide lacks this hydroxyl group. Subsequently, electrophoretic processes in gel or by means of automated capillary electrophoresis are used to resolve the nucleotide sequence triplets incorporated for each dideoxynucleotides species. These electrophoretic processes are difficult to introduce in clinical practically primarily because of their economic cost and the time required for analysis. [0021] An example of applying conventional sequencing based on the Sanger method in the identification of bacteria can be found in Fontana, et al. “Use of MicroSeq 500 16S RNA Gene-Based Sequencing for Identification of Bacterial Isolates that Commercial Automated Systems Failed to Identify”, 2005. J Clin. Micr. Vol. 43, No. 2. [0022] The high demand for low-cost sequencing that has been generated from the consideration of initiative such as the Human Genome Project and its derivations to other animal, plant and microbial models, has primarily led to new sequencing technologies. One of these new sequencing technologies is referred to as “sequencing by synthesis”, which uses the DNA synthesis process by means of DNA polymerase to identify the bases present in the complementary DNA molecule. Basically, the different sequencing by synthesis methods developed until now consist of labeling the oligonucleotide primer or the terminators with a fluorescent compound for subsequently activating the sequence reaction. The reaction products are directly detected during electrophoresis when passing in front of a laser which allows detecting the emitted fluorescence by exciting fluorophores. [0023] One of the most widely used sequencing by synthesis methods is pyrosequencing, a technique which uses DNA polymerase enzyme-dependent DNA polymerization to polymerize nucleotides in sequence. The process is completed by incorporating a different type of deoxynucleotides every time for detecting and then quantifying the number and species of nucleotide added to a specific location by means of the light emitted in the release of pyrophosphates (byproducts of extension by polymerization of the DNA chain). Descriptions of this technique can be found in M. Margulies, at al. “Genome sequencing in microfabricated high-density picolitre reactors”. 2005. Nature 437, 376-380 and in M. Ronaghi, S. Karamohamed, B. Pettersson, M. Uhlen, and P. Nyren “Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release”. 1996. Analytical Biochemistry 242, 84:89. Methods of sequencing using pyrosequencing can be found in patent applications WO1998/028440 and WO2000/043540, assigned to Pyrosecuencing AB, and WO2005/060345, assigned to Biotage AB. Due to the limitations inherent to the technique, pyrosequencing only allows sequencing short DNA fragments with a maximum of between 50 and 80 nucleotides per completed reaction. [0024] Pyrosequencing is beginning to be a widely used technique to identify the species to which bacteria belong, the presence of which bacteria is suspected or has already been previously verified by other methods of identification, such as real time PCR. Its application on clinical samples even allows identifying pathogenicity factors and/or antibiotic resistance of specific bacteria, but there is currently no method of pyrosequencing that can be used in the taxon-specific identification of bacteria from clinical samples, food samples or environmental samples, without having prior knowledge of the generic group to which the bacterium/bacteria found in that sample belong, and for the simultaneous identification of several bacteria present in a sample without previously knowing or suspecting which bacteria can be found in it. [0025] Basically, since its origin pyrosequencing has been aimed at the massive but not focused analysis of more or less short sequences within a mixture of samples of DNA to identify. In fact, the journal Science has recorded within its list of most relevant advances of the year 2008 the extraction of more than one million DNA bases of a Neanderthal fossil, 13 million bases of the genome of a mammoth, and more than 15 million bases of the DNA of bacteria, fungi, viruses and plants of the period in which those animals lived, using new techniques of analysis such as metagenomic technique and pyrosequencing. For this reason, the focused analysis approach taxon-specific for any eubacterial species by means of pyrosequencing seeks a new application in a less advanced field for this technique. [0026] Different examples of the focused use of this technique in the field of identifying microorganisms are listed below by way of reference: Brown-Elliott B A, Brown J M, Conville P S, Wallace R J Jr. “Clinical and laboratory features of the Nocardia spp. based on current molecular taxonomy”. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006 April; 19(2), 259-82; Jalava J and Marttila H. “Application of molecular genetic methods in macrolide, lincosamide and streptogramin resistance diagnostics and in detection of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis ”. APMIS. December 2004, 112(11-12): 838-855; Clarke S C. “Pyrosequencing: nucleotide sequencing technology with bacterial genotyping applications”. Expert Rev Mol. Diagn. 2005 Nov. 5(6):947-53; Ronaghi M., Elahi E. “Review Pyrosequencing for microbial typing”. Journal of Chromatography B. 2002, 782 67-72; Engstrand L. “The usefulness of nucleic acid tests for the determination of antimicrobial resistance”. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation. 2003, Volume 63, Supplement 239: 47-52. [0027] An example of use of sequencing by synthesis using the 16S gene can be found in J. A. Jordan, A. R. Butchko, M. B. Durso “Use of Pyrosequencing of 16S rRNA Fragments to Differentiate between Bacteria Responsible for Neonatal Sepsis.”, Journal of Molecular Diagnostics, February 2005, Vol. 7, No., 105-110. Another example of use can be found in patent WO/2004/046385 “A method for inter-species differentiation and identification of a gram-positive bacteria”, assigned to Biotage AB. [0028] Another example of the use of sequencing by synthesis in the identification of microorganisms in a sample can be found in patent US 2004023209, assigned to Pyrosequencing AB. This patent describes a process of identifying bacteria using degenerate or low-specificity oligonucleotides as primers of the amplification reaction by means of the nucleic acid amplification process referred to as “primer extension” which amplify non-specific regions of bacterial 16S and CoNS genes instead of the specific oligonucleotide primers of specific regions of the 16S gene described in the present invention. The nucleotide fragments obtained by means of using degenerate primers have different sizes, and these different sized fragments are subsequently sequenced, the sequences obtained being analyzed to identify the microorganism in question at the species level. [0029] An example of the comparison of relative homologies between M. genitalium and H. influenzae (240 common genes), as well as with 25 bacterial groups [not all of them are drawn, only the genome overlap area] selected randomly (80 genes). In all cases, the ribosomal genes on which this invention is based are conserved and adopt a relative distribution according to the diagram in FIG. 1 . (C): Relative distribution, according to a circular diagram, of the genome overlap area corresponding to the first superposition of the preceding figure. The arcs corresponding to ribosomal genes have a length proportional to the total of the homology among the analyzed species ( M. genitalium and H. influenzae ). [0030] In nucleic acid amplification by means of these techniques (amplification which is also used in sequencing by synthesis processes), each of the components involved in the reaction, i.e., the DNA polymerase enzyme, the reaction buffer with the reaction-enhancing additives or stabilizers, magnesium chloride, or manganese chloride in the case of RT, oligonucleotides used as reaction primers, deoxyribonucleotides (dATP, dCTP, dGTP and dTTP) and the sample containing the nucleic acid to be amplified, are separate from one another, conserved by means of freezing, and must be mixed prior to performing the reaction, it being necessary to add and mix very small amounts (microliters) of each of them. This action produces frequent errors in the administration and pipetting of each of the mentioned reagents, which ends up generating uncertainty as to the reproducibility of the results obtained by means of applying these techniques, particularly preoccupying uncertainties in the case of human diagnosis. This variability due to the possibility of error in pipetting the different reagents to be added to the amplification reaction also affects the sensitivity of the technique, which generates a new uncertainty concerning the application of these techniques in the human diagnosis of diseases, and especially in the determination of levels of infection and of levels of gene expression. [0031] Furthermore, for pipetting and adding the sample to be analyzed to the reaction mixture aerosols are produced which frequently cause cross-contaminations between samples to be analyzed (Kwok, S. et al., Nature, 1989, 339:237 238), generating false positive results, which are extremely important in the case of human diagnosis. [0032] Different systems of preparing and stabilizing enzymatic activities have been developed for the purpose of preventing errors inherent to the excessive manipulation commonly required for use thereof, as well as to eliminate problems of cross-contaminations. Patent application WO 93/00807 describes a system for stabilizing biomaterials for the lyophilization process. Other references are the following patents and documents: U.S. Pat. No. 5,861,251 assigned to Bioneer Corporation; WO 91/18091, U.S. Pat. No. 4,891,319 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,448, assigned to Quadrant Holdings Cambridge Limited; U.S. Pat. No. 5,614,387, assigned to Gene-Probe Incorporated; U.S. Pat. No. 5,935,834, assigned to Asahi Kasei Kogyo Kabushiki Kaisha, and publications: Pikal M. J., BioPharm 3:18-20, 22-23, 26-27 (1990); Carpenter et al., Cryobiology 25:459-470 (1988); Roser B., Biopharm 4:47-53 (1991); Colaco et al., Bio/Technol. 10:1007-1011 (1992); and Carpenter et al., Cryobiology 25:244-255 (1988). [0033] Biotools Biotechnological & Medical Laboratories, S.A, author of the present application, has developed a system of stabilization by means of gelling complex mixtures of biomolecules which allows stabilizing reaction mixtures for long periods of time in widely varying storage conditions (WO 02/072002). Complex reaction mixtures, such as mixtures for gene amplification reactions, containing all the reagents necessary for performing the experiment, aliquoted in independent ready-to-use vials have been stabilized by means of using this system, in which it is only necessary to reconstitute the reaction mixture and add the test nucleic acid. [0034] In summary, there is currently a growing demand for diagnostic methods capable of identifying bacteria in a rapid and precise manner in clinical samples, preventing cross-contaminations and simplifying complex human manipulation generally required for the previously described molecular methods, substantially improving the reproducibility and reliability of the diagnostic results obtained. In clinical emergency situations caused by septicemia, the correct, rapid and precise identification of the bacterium or bacteria present and/or causing the infection or potential future infection is a first-order need in medical practice for prescribing the best and most suitable treatment available. This need for a rapid, precise, reproducible and easy to perform diagnosis is currently not met. [0035] The purpose of the present invention is to meet this need for a taxon-specific simultaneous, rapid, precise, reproducible and easy to perform identification of the bacteria present in a clinical sample when the genus of bacteria present in the sample is not previously known by means of the method and kit objects of the invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0036] FIG. 1 . (A and B): Comparison of relative homologies between M. genitalium and H. influenzae (240 common genes), as well as with 25 bacterial groups [not all of them are drawn, only the genome overlap area] selected randomly (80 genes). In all cases, the ribosomal genes on which this invention is based are conserved and adopt a relative distribution according to the diagram in FIG. 1 . (C): Relative distribution, according to a circular diagram, of the genome overlap area corresponding to the first superposition of the preceding figure. The arcs corresponding to ribosomal genes have a length proportional to the total of the homology among the analyzed species ( M. genitalium and H. influenzae ). [0037] FIG. 2 : Results of the pyrosequencing reaction relating to Example 1. [0038] FIG. 3 : Results of the pyrosequencing reaction relating to Example 2. [0039] FIG. 4 : Quality of pyrosequencing using gelled amplification reagents. (A) On a 36-base sequence obtained, all were considered to have good resolution, no possible indeterminacy being recorded. (B) On a 38-base sequence, as in FIG. 4 a , no indeterminacy was recorded in 38 sequenced bases. (C) On a 33-base sequence, in this case only 4 were considered to have good resolution (bases in light gray), two were considered to have intermediate resolution (bases in white), and 27 were considered as possible indeterminacies (bases in dark gray). OBJECT OF THE INVENTION [0040] The present invention consists of a new rapid, precise and easy-to-handle method for differentiating and identifying bacteria in a biological sample by means of the sequencing analysis (sequencing by synthesis method) of three regions of the 16S bacterial ribosomal RNA gene, obtaining a taxon-specific genetic pattern based on the nucleotide sequence obtained, as well as the kit containing the reagents necessary for carrying out said method which are stabilized by gelling and subsequently dried to a degree of humidity of 10% to 30%. To perform this taxon-specific identification, prior knowledge or supposition of the family, genus or species of the bacterium or set of different bacteria contained in the sample is not necessary. The sequencing method used is preferably sequencing by synthesis, and within the different sequencing by synthesis methods which are used today, the method preferably used is pyrosequencing, although any other nucleic acid sequence analysis method currently used or to be used in the future could be used. [0041] The sequences nucleotides identifying each of the bacteria are well-known and are available in different published genetic databases, such as GenBank and EMBL, among others. [0042] A rapid and reliable diagnostic result with very little manual manipulation is obtained by means of using pyrosequencing and stabilization by means of the gelling process of the different reagents involved in pyrosequencing in each of the wells of the plates in which the analysis is performed. [0043] Furthermore, as stabilization is performed by means of the gelling process by adding to the medium a stabilizing aqueous solution and subsequently drying to a degree of humidity between 10% and 30%, the unexpected advantage of an improvement in resolution between 75% and 90%, even in normal sequence sizes (30-50 bases), is surprisingly obtained. As a result of said advantage sequencing of fragments which are between 20% and 35% longer than those obtained with methods that do not include said stabilization can also be obtained. [0044] The present invention further allows in a single analysis the multiple identification of the different bacteria that may be present in the biological sample, without needing to have prior knowledge or supposition of the type of bacteria that may be present, using to that end only three primer pairs in the amplification of the fragment to be sequenced, the taxonomic value of which allows overlapping the information generated by each sequence, advancing in the process of identifying the levels from family to genus and finally to species. [0045] The present invention additionally allows discarding false negatives from hemocultures. For example, Table 1 shows the percentage of results successfully identified at the species, genus and family level on 60 samples of positive hemoculture after incubation and the percentage of results successfully identified at species, genus and family level on 12 samples of negative hemoculture after incubation. [0000] TABLE 1 percentage of results successfully identified at the species, genus and family level % identification Family taxon Genus taxon Species taxon Positive 100% 99% 96% hemoculture Negative 45% 45% 40% hemoculture [0046] Due to the great sensitivity of the analysis, it is necessary to use an ultrapurified DNA polymerase enzyme (free of any contamination with bacterial DNA that may be generated during the biological enzyme synthesis process) in the sequencing by synthesis step, since the presence of this contaminating DNA can lead to false positives that would modify the result of the diagnosis (C. E. Corless, J. Clin. Microbiol, 2000, 1747-1752). This possible contamination is particularly important when the DNA polymerase enzyme has been synthesized as recombinant in Escherichia coli , since the bacteria forming the taxonomic group to which E. coli belongs (Gram-negative γ-proteobacteria) are the primary pathogens to be identified in the case of septicemia. Furthermore, given the evolutionary proximity existing between them, the exponential increase in the number of copies inherent to nucleic acid amplification requires the use of a high copying fidelity DNA polymerase enzyme for the purpose of preventing the introduction of isolated mutations in initial amplification cycles that may falsify the obtained sequence. This alteration of the obtained sequence would entail an erroneous result of the analysis. The kit described in this patent incorporates the Ultratools DNA polymerase enzyme manufactured by Biotools Biotechnological & Medical Laboratories S.A. to prevent this problem. [0047] More specifically, the present invention consists of a process requiring an initial generic extraction step by means of standardized, manual or automated techniques followed by a process of initial amplification of the most conserved ribosomal DNA, allowing by means of using three different and simultaneous amplification reactions, serial superposition of the results generated by the sequencing thereof to reach taxonomic levels of identification at the genus, family and species level. The purpose of this initial amplification of the selected ribosomal regions is to generate fragments labeled by biotinylation at the 3′0H end, which will subsequently be immobilized, isolated by basic denaturation of the generated double helix, and finally sequenced. This process of amplification is performed in a multiwell plate in which each of them contains all the reagents necessary for performing the amplification specific for the subsequent sequencing process, i.e., Biotools high copying fidelity ultrapure DNA polymerase, biotinylated primers described in the present invention, deoxynucleotides to be incorporated in the amplification reaction (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP), and the optimized reaction buffer. All these reagents are stabilized by means of gelling according to the process described in patent WO 02/072002, such that it is only necessary to add bidistilled water and the nucleic acid extracted from the sample in an initial generic extraction step to perform this amplification because the remaining necessary reagents are already previously dispensed on the multiwell plate at the precise concentrations required. [0048] The biotinylated products obtained by means of the previous amplification reaction form the substrate for the immediately following pyrosequencing reaction. These biotinylated products are purified prior to being transferred to the second plate in which the process of pyrosequencing is carried out, using the method and instruments recommended by the manufacturer of the apparatus used for sequencing by synthesis. The purification process is performed in three steps and only requires a dispensing system connected to a vacuum pump, as is described by the manufacturer of the apparatus used for pyrosequencing. [0049] This second plate contains in each well all the reagents necessary for carrying out the pyrosequencing reaction on each of the fragments labeled in the previous amplification. These enzymes and reagents incorporated in each of the wells of the plate are high-fidelity ultrapure DNA polymerase, ATP-sulfurylase, luciferase, apyrase, sequencing primer, luciferin, adenosine-5′-phosphosulfate (APS), deoxynucleotides to be incorporated in the extension reaction of the DNA chain to be sequenced (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP), and the reaction buffer. All these reagents are stabilized by means of gelling as described in patent WO 02/072002, at the precise concentrations required to complete the sequencing by synthesis reaction. [0050] The process described in this patent also incorporates the innovation of using the same primer in the sequencing by synthesis reaction as the one used in the prior amplification reaction to limit the non-biotinylated end for the initial amplification. This allows reducing the number of necessary primers to two (Amplification fwd*-biotinylated, Amplification rvs=Sequencing fwd), provided that the conditions of the sequence limited in the initial amplification are compatible with the activity of the enzymes involved in the final sequencing process (high-fidelity ultrapure DNA polymerase, ATP-sulfurylase, luciferase and apyrase). [0051] It has been found that the components forming the gelling mixture supplied by Biotools Biotechnological & Medical Laboratories S.A. and described in patent WO 02/072002 stabilize the reagents and enzymes involved in both the amplification reaction and the subsequent pyrosequencing reaction, improving the performance of the resolution capacity, and the sequencing of oligonucleotides fragments that are longer than what is possible by sequencing when these reagents and enzymes are not stabilized by means of gelling being achieved as a result. The improvement in pyrosequencing resolution between 75% and 90% is unexpected and furthermore important for obtaining figures of up to 100% certainty in the identification of the bacteria in the sample. Sequence indeterminacy of sequence is considered the non-precise determination of the nucleotide base making up the nucleic acid sequence. When adding the stabilizing mixture, a substantial improvement in the discrimination between the emission peak corresponding to the nucleotide incorporated and the background noise caused by the remaining substrates of the pyrosequencing reaction is observed. Quality is determined by how well-defined the emission peak of a dNTP forming the sequence is, generating an intensity that clearly differentiates it from background noise and interference. For that reason, in the case of the non-gelled mixture, only the first three bases are obtained with maximum quality according to the pyrosequencing algorithm because after the third round, the background is differentiated less and less from the emission peaks corresponding to each dNTP incorporated. An example is that of two high-quality sequences in total obtained when applying gelling (Example 3, FIG. 4 ). [0052] Specifically, the gelling mixture formed by trehalose, melezitose, glycogen or raffinose and lysine or betaine, is considered to be especially beneficial in the pyrosequencing reaction. [0053] The sequences obtained after the sequencing by synthesis process are compared with the sequences deposited and registered in public databases for the purpose of obtaining the precise identification of the microorganisms present in the sample to be analyzed. The alignment of the generated sequences is completely compatible with the search engines typically used in clinical practice and research, being able to be done, for example, using the BLAST search engine on the GenBank (NCBI) sequence base, Assemble sequence base, etc. [0054] The composition and reagents described can be packaged in individual kits. The kit incorporating the present invention is made up of a first multiwell plate containing in each well one of the three nucleotide primer pairs labeled at the 3′ OH end by means of biotin, or any other type of labeling usable for sequencing, such as fluorophores, necessary for obtaining the labeled sequenceable fragments, together with all the reagents necessary for amplification free of contaminating DNA (high-fidelity ultrapure DNA polymerase enzyme, deoxynucleotides and reaction buffer), dosed at optimal concentrations for generating the amplification reaction, all of them pre-mixed and stabilized by means of gelling. The fragments resulting from this amplification could be sequenced by means of any known sequencing method, the sequence obtained identifying the species of bacterium or the different species of bacteria present in the sample. These fragments resulting from this amplification are preferably sequenced by means of sequencing by synthesis techniques, and more preferably by means of the technique referred to as pyrosequencing. [0055] The sequenceable labeled fragments are obtained in this first plate described above and after purification are transferred to a second plate wherein each well contains all the necessary elements for carrying out the sequencing reaction which are pre-mixed at optimal concentrations for generating the amplification reaction, and stabilized by means of gelling. In the preferred case of using pyrosequencing, these necessary elements which are pre-mixed and stabilized are: high-fidelity ultrapure DNA polymerase, ATP-sulfurylase, luciferase, apyrase, sequencing primer (as described above), luciferin, adenosine-5′-phosphosulfate (APS), deoxynucleotides to be incorporated in the extension reaction of the DNA chain to be sequenced (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP), and the reaction buffer. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0056] In the present invention, “taxon-specific identification” is understood as the capacity of a specific analytical method to distinguish and identify at the taxonomic species level a specific eubacteria from several other species of microorganisms that may or may not be present in the sample to be analyzed. [0057] “Sample” is understood as any type of sample which may potentially contain bacteria and which is possible to analyze by means of the method indicated in the present invention, either directly or indirectly, for example by means of bacterial culture from the initial sample. The sample can be a blood sample, urine sample, cerebrospinal fluid sample, sputum sample, nasal secretion sample, or any another type of body fluid or secretion, from both humans and animals, or the bacterial culture of any type or format from these fluids. The sample can also come from foods or food liquids intended both for humans and animals, or from the bacterial culture from these foods, or from environmental samples such as water, soil or air that are or are not concentrated, or the bacterial culture from said environmental samples. [0058] “Oligonucleotide” is understood as a single-stranded polymer consisting of at least two nucleotide subunits bound to one another by means of a covalent-type bond or equivalent strong interaction. The sugar groups of the nucleotide subunits can be ribose, deoxyribose, or modifications derived from these sugars. The nucleotides units of an oligonucleotide can be bound by phosphodiester bonds, phosphothioate bonds, methylphosphoate bonds, or any another bond that does not prevent the hybridization capacity of the oligonucleotide. Furthermore, an oligonucleotide can contain uncommon nucleotides or non-nucleotide molecules, such as peptides. As it is used herein, an oligonucleotide is a nucleic acid, preferably DNA, but it could be RNA or a molecule containing a combination of ribonucleotides or deoxyribonucleotides covalently bound to one another. [0059] The term “primer” refers to an oligonucleotide acting as a starting point of the enzymatic synthesis of DNA under conditions in which polymerization of the nucleotides occurs after the mentioned primer, extending it and introducing the nucleotides in a complementary manner into the nucleic acid chain serving as a template. This elongation of the chain takes place under suitable temperature and reaction buffer conditions. In the present invention, the primer is preferably a single-stranded oligonucleotide with a length comprised between 15 and 40 nucleotides. [0060] In the present invention the terms “nucleic acid”, “oligonucleotide” and “primer” refer to oligomer fragments consisting of nucleotides. These terms must not be limited by their length expressed in the form of nucleotides forming the linear polymer, the nucleotides forming them being deoxyribonucleotides containing 2-deoxy-D-ribose, ribonucleotides containing D-ribose, and any another N-glycoside of a purine and pyrimidine base, or of modifications of these purine and pyrimidine bases. These terms refer to single-stranded and double-stranded DNA, as well as to single-stranded or double-stranded RNA. [0061] The term “amplification conditions” refers to the reaction conditions (temperature, buffering conditions, etc.) under which the amplification reaction of the nucleic acid template to be amplified takes place. In the present invention, the sole requirement of the amplification conditions is to maintain the annealing temperature at 54° C. The remaining parameters can be adjusted depending on the origin, extraction method and yield, without contrasted losses of robustness in the process. [0062] “Amplification” is understood as the reaction which increases the number of copies of a specific region of a nucleic acid. [0063] “Sequencing” is understood as any chemical, physical or enzymatic process intended for knowing the specific nucleotide sequence of a fragment of ribonucleic acid (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) from a specific sample. [0064] The term “sequencing by synthesis” refers to any nucleic acid sequencing method requiring enzymatic activity necessary for consolidating nucleotide bonds between the subunits previously described as deoxyribonucleotides, these being the functional substrates of the sequencing reaction. [0065] “Nucleotide pattern” is understood as the product/result of sequencing, preferably of sequencing by synthesis. The nucleotide pattern represents the order in which the nucleotides are incorporated in the sequencing reaction. [0066] “Stabilization” is understood as the preservation of chemical and biochemical qualities of the different reagents, reaction buffers, reaction enhancers, and enzymes involved in an enzymatic reaction, in this case nucleic acid amplification and reactions associated with sequencing by synthesis, once all these reagents, reaction buffers, reaction enhancers and enzymes are included in one and the same container, in this case tubes or multiwell plates, such that each of them is dosed with optimal reaction amounts and they do not interact or react with one another, immobilizing the biochemical reaction in which they are involved, being able to activate the enzymatic reaction as desired by the user, without there being a significant decrease in activity, after days, weeks, months or even years have passed after mixture and stabilization. [0067] Stabilization thus understood is achieved by means of adding a stabilizing mixture to a solution containing the reaction mixture, and the subsequent removal of all or part of the water present in the solution resulting. This removal of all or part of the water can be achieved by means of lyophilization, fluid bed drying, room temperature and atmospheric pressure drying, ambient temperature and low pressure drying, high temperature and atmospheric pressure drying, and high temperature and low pressure drying processes. [0068] In the present invention, the stabilization process preferably used is stabilization by means of gelling, described in patent WO 02/072002, assigned to Biotools Biotechnological & Medical Laboratories, S.A. The stabilizing mixture of the reaction mixture is preferably made up of trehalose, melezitose, lysine or betaine and glycogen or raffinose, at different concentrations regardless of the enzymatic reaction to be stabilized. The gelling mixture is more preferably made up of trehalose, melezitose, glycogen and lysine. In the present invention, the method of extracting water from the reaction mixture after adding the mixture of stabilizing agents is preferably drying by means of a vacuum at a temperature comprised between 30° C. and 40° C., depending on the enzymatic reaction to be stabilized. Specifically, in the present invention the humidity content is maintained between 10-30% water. [0069] The present invention relates to a method for performing the taxon-specific identification of one or several eubacteria simultaneously in a sample by means of the analysis of the nucleotide pattern of the nucleotide sequence or sequences obtained by means of sequencing by synthesis of three different regions belonging to the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, previously amplified before sequencing. In a first aspect, the invention is based on the possibility of identifying a bacterium, arriving at the taxonomic species level, using the nucleotide pattern obtained by the superposition of the sequences of three separate regions of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene. This nucleotide pattern represents an unequivocal genetic signature identifying the different bacterial species present in a sample and can be compared with the reference patterns deposited in different published genetic databases using search engines expressly designed for such purpose. [0070] To carry out the invention, three different primer pairs designed for the purpose of amplifying three different regions of the 16s eubacterial ribosomal RNA gene are used (Table 2). The specific sequences of this gene are well-known and are available in several published databases, such as GenBank and EMBL. The amplification primers have been designed based on the state of the art, considering their content at the cytosine and guanine bases, as well as the multiple design alternatives that could be overlapped in the selected regions for the purpose of preventing the formation of internal secondary structures, preventing the formation of dimerizations between primers and weighting their melting temperatures to reach optimal adjustment of the nucleotide chain template. An annealing temperature standard has been established at 54° C., which could be modified according to changes between sequences to be hybridized. [0000] TABLE 2 Sequences of the primers used in PCR amplification of the 16S rRNA gene. V1 region Bio-VIF Bio- SEQ. ID No. 1 Biotin-GKAGAGTTTGATCCTGG CTCAG V1 b SEQ. ID No. 2 GYRTTACTCACCCGTYCGCCRCT V2 region Bio-ASF Bio- SEQ. ID No. 3 Biotin-ACACGGYCCAGACTCCT AC AS9B SEQ. ID No. 2 CGGCTGCTGGCACGKAGTTAGCC V3 region Bio-V3F Bio- SEQ. ID No. 5 Biotin-GCAACGCGAAGAACCTT ACC V3S SEQ. ID No. 6 GACGACARCCATGCASCACCT [0071] The first primer pair indicated in Table 2 amplifies the region of the 16S gene limited by its sequences, generating average fragment of approximately 250 nucleotide base pairs within the highly conserved ribosomal region. Since it is the largest fragment, the result of its sequence identifies the eubacteria present in the sample at a generic level, although the superposition of the sequences obtained with the following primer pairs is necessary to reach a level of identification at the species level. [0072] The second and third primer pairs indicated in Table 2 amplify the region of the 16S gene limited by its sequences, generating an average fragment of approximately 100 nucleotide base pairs within the highly conserved ribosomal region. Depending on the degree of intraspecific variation of the eubacteria present in the sample, less superposition with one or both amplification products will be necessary, although the overlap of the three sequences (250 bp+100 bp+100 bp) generates an identification percentage greater than 96%, as shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 . [0073] The amplification fragments obtained can be sequenced using any type of amplification reaction of specific sequences of the DNA or RNA of any one organism. In the present invention, the amplification fragments are obtained simultaneously and in the same amplification reaction by means of the PCR technique using the three primer pairs indicated in Table 2 and described above (sequences SEQ. ID. No. 2, 4 and 6). For the design of a robust process, the use of a DNA polymerase not containing traces of contaminating exogenous DNA and at the same time having a low rate of error in the incorporation of nucleotides, such as Ultratools DNA polymerase enzyme (Biotools Biotechnological & Medical Laboratories, S.A.), is virtually necessary. [0074] The PCR amplification conditions indicated in Table 3 were optimized to achieve the reaction conditions suitable for simultaneous amplification of the three regions of the bacterial 16S gene extracted from the sample. Each amplification fragment can also be amplified in PCR reactions performed separately. In the present invention, the amplification is performed in a single reaction, whereby the three regions that will subsequently be sequenced to identify the bacterial species present in the sample are simultaneously amplified. [0000] TABLE 3 Exemplary table listing the amplification conditions. (The sole requirement of the amplification is to maintain the annealing temperature at 54° C., the remaining parameters can be adjusted depending on the origin, extraction method and yield, without contrasted losses of robustness in the process). Initial denaturation 96° C. for 5 minutes Cyclic program 30 cycles Step 1 (denaturation) 95° C. for 1 minute Step 2 (annealing) 54° C. for 1 minute Step 3 (extension) 74° C. for 30 seconds Final extension 72° C. for 10 minutes EXAMPLES Example 1 [0075] The original blood sample was taken in the Microbiology Department of Hospital Universitario La Paz in a standard ward blood extraction format by intravenous route. The set of clinical symptoms presented by the patient required an exact identification of the pathogen because it did not allow defining the origin or progress, being subjected to prophylactic antibiotic treatment according to standard practice for diagnosed but non-characterized infections. One milliliter (1 ml) of the blood sample was inoculated into a standard hemoculture for sample enrichment, taking 7 h to generate a positive result for microbial growth by incubation at 37° C. Two drops of the hemoculture were deposited on the GenoCard® system (Hain Lifescience) for the immobilization of samples from hemoculture, being adsorbed on the surface of the perforated card. Using a punch, six perforations were made to extract six pieces of adsorbed surface, which were immediately transferred to a multiwell plate at a ratio of two per well prepared as explained below. [0076] The plate was divided into groups of three wells/containers. The reaction mixture made up of 0.4 μl of Ultratools DNA polymerase enzyme, manufactured by Biotools Biotechnological & Medical Laboratories S.A., 5 μl of the reaction buffer accompanying the aforementioned enzyme and marketed with it, between 0.1 μl and 0.3 μl of a 100 mM solution containing the four deoxyribonucleotides forming the chain of the deoxyribonucleic acid (dATP, dTTP, dGTP, dCTP), and between 0.2 μl and 0.4 μl of a 100 HM solution of the primer pair described in Table 2 amplifying the V1 region, was added in the first well of each of these groups. The stabilization mixture, made up of between 1 μl and 4 μl of a 1 M trehalose dihydrate solution, between 1 μl and 3 μl of a 0.75 M melezitose monohydrate solution, between 1 μl and 4 μl of glycogen at a concentration of 200 gr/l, and between 0.1 μl and 0.5 μl of 0.05 M DL lysine, was added to this reaction mixture. The same reaction mixture and the same stabilization mixture as those used for the first well were added in the second well, replacing the primers amplifying the V1 region with those amplifying the V2 region. The same reaction mixture and the same stabilization mixture as those used for the first well were added in the third well, replacing the primers amplifying the V1 region with those amplifying the V3 region. [0077] The plate thus prepared was introduced in a vacuum drying oven and was subjected to a drying process by heating the plate between 30° C. and 37° C. and subjecting it to a vacuum of 30 millibars for a time of two to four hours, until achieving a degree of humidity between 10% and 20%, a stabilized reaction mixture containing in the same well all the elements and reagents necessary for performing the amplification reaction on the sequence of the nucleic acid to be sequenced thereby being obtained. The preceding process performed to achieve the stabilized reaction mixture can be repeated, in addition to the multiwell plate used, in any other container or reaction chamber or surface used or which may be used for performing the nucleic acid amplification reaction. [0078] The amplification was performed under the conditions illustrated in Table 3, generating a series of amplification products that were transferred to the pyrosequencing plate according to the guideline recommended by the manufacturer of the instrument used for pyrosequencing (Sample Preparation Guidelines for PSQ™96 and PSQ™96MA Systems, prepared by Biotage AB, Sweden). Subsequent pyrosequencing was performed in the PSQ™96 apparatus, manufactured by Biotage AB, Sweden, using the enzymatic mixture for sequencing by synthesis described in the preceding sections (high-fidelity ultrapure DNA polymerase, ATP-sulfurylase, luciferase, apyrase, sequencing primer, luciferin, adenosine-5′-phosphosulfate (APS), deoxynucleotides to be incorporated in the extension reaction of the DNA chain to be sequenced (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP), and reaction buffer, generating the pyrogram shown in FIG. 2 and automatically processed by IdentiFire® software (Biotage AB, Sweden) (SEQ. ID. No 7). The result of the automatic alignments according to that described in the description of the invention produced the unequivocal result with 100% identity for the pathogen ENTEROCOCCUS FAECALIS ( FIG. 2 ). Example 2 [0079] The original sample was taken in the Microbiology Department of Hospital Universitario La Paz in a standard ward blood extraction format by intravenous route. The set of clinical symptoms presented by the patient required an exact identification of the pathogen because it did not allow defining the origin or progress, being subjected to prophylactic antibiotic treatment according to practice for diagnosed but non-characterized infections. A possible set of polymicrobial clinical symptoms is suspected. One milliliter (1 ml) of the blood sample was inoculated into a standard hemoculture for sample enrichment, taking 7 h to generate the positive result for microbial growth by incubation at 37° C. Two drops of the hemoculture were deposited on the GenoCard® system (Hain Lifescience) for the immobilization of samples from hemoculture, being adsorbed on the surface of the perforated card. Using a punch, six perforations were made to extract six pieces of adsorbed surface, which were immediately transferred to a multiwell plate at a ratio of two per well prepared as explained below. [0080] The plate was divided into groups of three wells/containers. The reaction mixture made up of 0.4 μl of Ultratools DNA polymerase enzyme, manufactured by Biotools Biotechnological & Medical Laboratories S.A., 5 μl of the reaction buffer accompanying the aforementioned enzyme and marketed with it, between 0.1 μl and 0.3 μl of a 100 mM solution containing the four deoxyribonucleotides forming the chain of the deoxyribonucleic acid (dATP, dTTP, dGTP, dCTP), and between 0.2 μl and 0.4 μl of a 100 μM solution of the primer pair described in Table 2 amplifying the V1 region, was added in the first well of each of these groups. The stabilization mixture, made up of between 1 μl and 4 μl of a 1 M trehalose dihydrate solution, between 1 μl and 3 μl of a 0.75 M melezitose monohydrate solution, between 1 μl and 4 μl of glycogen at a concentration of 200 gr/l, and between 0.1 μl and 0.5 μl of 0.05 M DL lysine, was added to this reaction mixture. The same reaction mixture and the same stabilization mixture as those used for the first well were added in the second well, replacing the primers amplifying the V1 region with those amplifying the V2 region. The same reaction mixture and the same stabilization mixture as those used for the first well were added in the third well, replacing the primers amplifying the V1 region with those amplifying the V3 region. [0081] The plate thus prepared was introduced in a vacuum drying oven and was subjected to a drying process by heating the plate between 30° C. and 37° C. and subjecting it to a vacuum of 30 millibars for a time of two to four hours, until achieving a degree of humidity between 10% and 20%, a stabilized reaction mixture containing in the same well all the elements and reagents necessary for performing the amplification reaction on the sequence of the nucleic acid to be sequenced thereby being obtained. The preceding process performed to achieve the stabilized reaction mixture can be repeated, in addition to the multiwell plate used, in any other container or reaction chamber or surface used or which may be used for performing the nucleic acid amplification reaction. [0082] The amplification was performed under the conditions illustrated in Table 3, generating a series of amplification products that were transferred to the pyrosequencing plate according to the guideline recommended by the manufacturer of the instrument used for pyrosequencing (Sample Preparation Guidelines for PSQ™96 and PSQ 96MA Systems, prepared by Biotage AB, Sweden). Subsequent pyrosequencing was performed in the PSQ™96 apparatus, manufactured by Biotage AB, Sweden, using the enzymatic mixture for sequencing by synthesis described in the preceding sections (high-fidelity ultrapure DNA polymerase, ATP-sulfurylase, luciferase, apyrase, sequencing primer, luciferin, adenosine-5′-phosphosulfate (APS), deoxynucleotides to be incorporated in the extension reaction of the DNA chain to be sequenced (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, dTTP), and reaction buffer, generating the pyrogram shown in FIG. 3 and automatically processed by the IdentiFire® software (SEQ. ID. No. 8). The result of the automatic alignments according to that described in the detailed description of the invention produced the unequivocal result with 100% identity for the pathogen Moraxella catarrhalis and several potential results with varieties of a zoonotic character which reached 98% as illustrated in the final report generated by the IdentiFire® system (Biotage AB, Sweden). The subsequent sub-culture and antibiogram allowed identifying at least two varieties of Moraxella , confirming the positive result for the M. Catharrhalis variety and the presence of the zoonotic varieties in polymicrobial infection ( FIG. 3 ). Example 3 [0083] To show the enhancing effect of the pyrosequencing reaction of the mixture used for stabilization of the amplification reaction mixture (trehalose, melezitose, lysine and glycogen) by means of gelling, three blood samples were taken on the same day, and each of them was subjected to hemoculture. The three hemocultures generated a positive value in the incubator after eight hours and they were sub-cultured in non-selective agar-blood plates for counting colony forming units (CFUs). [0084] The three produced a result in the same order of dilution, so the count indicates an initial concentration in the same order of magnitude used to start and very similar after enrichment. The determination of the range of concentration of the three assayed samples was carried out by seeding dilutions up to a value of 10 −9 in plates containing Mueller-Hinton agar (5% blood) and incubating at 37° C. for 18 h. The bacterial concentration was adjusted to the colony count in the plate corresponding to the highest dilution with the presence of bacteria. The reading was repeated at 24 h, such that the final concentration in the Mueller-Hinton medium was approximately 5×10 5 CFU/ml for the three assayed samples. [0085] Two samples randomly selected from among the three characterized by means of the process described in the preceding paragraph were processed using reaction tubes each of which containing the biotinylated primers described in Table 2 as Bio-V1 F and V1b for amplification of the V1 region of the 16S rRNA gene (SEQ. ID. No. 1 and SEQ. ID. No. 2), previously incorporated on the plate at the precise concentrations required, and stabilized as detailed in the process described in Example 1 of the present invention, together with the remaining reagents and enzymes necessary for performing the amplification reaction. [0086] The reaction mixture made up of 0.4 μl of Ultratools DNA polymerase enzyme, manufactured by Biotools Biotechnological & Medical Laboratories S.A., 5 μl of the reaction buffer accompanying the aforementioned enzyme and marketed with it, between 0.1 μl and 0.3 μl of a 100 mM solution containing the four deoxyribonucleotides forming the chain of the deoxyribonucleic acid (dATP, dTTP, dGTP, dCTP), and between 0.2 μl and 0.4 μl of a 100 μM solution of the primer pair described in Table 2 amplifying the V1 region, was added in the wells where each of these samples was characterized. The stabilization mixture, made up of between 1 μl and 4 μl of a 1 M of trehalose dihydrate solution, between 1 μl and 3 μl of a 0.75 M melezitose monohydrate solution, between 1 μl and 4 μl of glycogen at a concentration of 200 gr/l, and between 0.1 μl and 0.5 μl of 0.05 M DL lysine, was added to this reaction mixture. [0087] After the amplification reaction and subsequent pyrosequencing of the amplified fragment (the initial amplification product is directly transferred to the pyrosequencing plate for denaturation, equilibration and pyrosequencing, per se, without the need for intermediate quantification), a 36-base sequence (SEQ. ID. No. 9) and a 38-base sequence (SEQ. ID. No. 10) with maximum quality were obtained, using a dispensing program specific for these primers with 60 pyrosequencing cycles. The pyrograms obtained according to the IdentiFire® software of the PyroMark Q96 ID pyrosequencer manufactured by Biotage AB are shown in FIGS. 4A and B. [0088] The third sample was processed in parallel by means of the same pyrosequencing process, but having performed the initial amplification without applying the gelled mixture, manually mixing, by means of a pipette, the different reagents and enzymes necessary for performing the amplification reaction in the reaction tube, including the biotinylated primers described in Table 2 as Bio-V1F and V1b for amplification of the V1 region of the 16S rRNA gene (0.4 μl of Ultratools DNA polymerase enzyme, manufactured by Biotools Biotechnological & Medical Laboratories S.A., 5 μl of the reaction buffer accompanying the aforementioned enzyme and marketed with it, between 0.1 μl and 0.3 μl of a 100 mM solution containing the four deoxyribonucleotides forming the chain of the deoxyribonucleic acid (dATP, dTTP, dGTP, dCTP), and between 0.2 μl and 0.4 μl of a 100 μM solution of the primer pair described in Table 2 and amplifying the V1 region). [0089] After the amplification reaction and subsequent pyrosequencing applying the algorithms to calculate the quality of the sequence based on the amount of luminescence recorded by the PyroMark Q96 ID Biotage AB system, the sequence shown in FIG. 4C (SEQ. ID. No 11) was obtained. [0090] Only the first four sequenced bases were considered to have maximum quality by the IdentiFire® software of the PyroMark Q96 ID Biotage AB pyrosequencer. A quality determined as low by the software was obtained for 27 bases, and 2 bases of the total 33 bases were qualified as having intermediate quality by the IdentiFire® software of the PyroMark Q96 ID Biotage AB pyrosequencer. The pyrogram obtained is shown as an image in FIG. 4C . [0091] In the case of the non-gelled mixture, only the first three bases had optimal quality because after the third round of sequencing, the bottom starts to generate interferences with the emissions of the incorporated dNTPS. [0092] In this Example 3 it can be observed that 100% of the sequences obtained using the gelling step are identified as optimal sequences, there being no indeterminacies, whereas only the assay that does not use stabilization by gelling only 12% of the sequence obtained is considered an unequivocal sequence, 6% of the sequence is considered as having intermediate resolution and the rest of the sequence obtained (27 out of 33 bases, i.e., 82%) is considered as possible indeterminacies.

The present invention describes a method for detecting the presence and type of a microorganism present in a sample by means of stabilization and sequencing techniques and subsequent analysis of microsequences in genes encoding the ribosomal RNA most conserved, and on specific areas of the 16-S region with taxonomic value.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/570,233, filed Dec. 13, 2011, which is hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND [0002] Partitions for passenger vehicles are used to separate the interior space for different uses. According to one common type of partition used in law enforcement vehicles, the rear seat area (typically suited for two passengers) is separated from the front seat area (typically suited for a driver and a passenger) by a partition. This type of partition separates one or two law enforcement officers seated in the front seat area from one, two or sometimes three rear seat occupants, such as suspects and other individuals, thereby reducing the risks of injury to the law enforcement officers from the rear seat occupants, as well as restricting the ability of the rear seat occupants to escape from the vehicle. [0003] Law enforcement officers spend many hours in their vehicles each day, so vehicle partition mounting schemes that provide a full range of front seat adjustment, both in terms of fore-aft translation of the seat and pivoting of the seat back, are highly sought after. At the same time, however, law enforcement vehicles are becoming smaller because of the need for greater fuel economy. In addition, rear seat legroom is also compromised in today's newest vehicle models that are used in law enforcement. In some cases, it is necessary to compromise and provide for full adjustability of the driver's seat and less adjustability of the front passenger seat while also seeking to maximize the available rear seat legroom within a number of constraints. It would be beneficial to maintain or increase the free area available to rear seat occupants for ingress into and egress from the vehicle. SUMMARY [0004] Described below are implementations of a partition that address some of the problems of conventional partitions. [0005] According to one implementation, a partition for separating front and rear occupant areas of a vehicle comprises at least one partition member and at least one pair of partition support brackets. The partition member has an upper extent comprising a near ceiling member positionable adjacent a ceiling of the vehicle and two lateral extents comprising opposite side members. The pair of partition brackets is mountable to opposite sides of the vehicle and to the opposite side members of the partition member to couple the partition to the vehicle. The partition support bracket for at least one of the opposite sides comprises a load support section configured to support a proportion of a partition member load as applied to that side. [0006] The at least one bracket can comprise an internal bracket component and an external bracket component. The internal bracket component can be configured to be mounted to a pillar of the vehicle. The external bracket can be configured for coupling to the internal bracket component. The internal bracket component and the external bracket component can together define an intermediate space dimensioned to receive a trim panel for the pillar of the vehicle. The internal bracket component can comprise screw bosses for receiving threaded fasteners to couple the external bracket component to the internal bracket component. The screw bosses can be dimensioned to maintain a space between the internal bracket component and the external bracket component. [0007] The partition support bracket can be a sole load supporting member for partition member forces and other associated forces carried by the respective side of the vehicle. Each of the pair of the partition support brackets can be a sole load supporting member to transfer forces exerted by the partition to the respective side of the vehicle. The partition support bracket can have a generally planar cross-section. [0008] At least one of the side members of the partition member can be dimensioned to terminate at a height above a knee height when the partition is installed in a vehicle. Stated differently, the partition member can be “legless” on at least one side. In another implementation, the side members of the partition member extend away from the near ceiling member, and both are dimensioned to terminate above a knee height as defined by a typical seated rear seat occupant's knees when the partition is installed in a vehicle. [0009] The internal bracket component can be configured for mounting to a B-pillar of the vehicle. At least one of the pair of support brackets can define a large opening therein. The internal bracket component can be comprised of two separate pieces. The internal bracket component can comprise a body and out turned flanges. The load support section of the at least one of the partition support brackets can be shaped to extend over a space between a side surface of the vehicle and the partition member when the partition is installed in the vehicle. [0010] The at least one of the support brackets can be configured to maintain an open feet access area when the partition is installed to ease ingress and egress through a door opening for a rear seat occupant. The at least one of the support brackets can be configured to support the partition frame spaced rearward of a B-pillar of the vehicle by a greatest distance of about 4 inches to about 6 inches when the partition is installed in the vehicle. [0011] In another implementation, a partition for separating two-passenger front and multiple-passenger rear occupant areas of a vehicle comprises a partition frame, one or more panel members and a tubular extension. The partition frame has an upper lateral member, respective angled side tubular members extending from ends of the upper lateral member, and a window bordered by the upper lateral member and the side members. The one or more panel members are configured to fit between the window and a floor pan of the vehicle in a vertical direction and between first and second sides of the vehicle in a horizontal direction. The tubular extension is positionable to support one of the angled side tubular members for positioning adjacent the first side of the vehicle. The tubular extension has a lower end configured for coupling to a midsection of the vehicle. A first of the body panel members is positionable adjacent the tubular extension and generally defines a first body member plane approximately parallel to a reference plane defined by the tubular extension and the window. There is at least a second body panel member positionable laterally adjacent the first body panel member and for positioning adjacent the second side of the vehicle. The second body panel member has a recessed portion recessed in a forward direction relative to the first body panel to increase space available for a rear seat occupant on the second side of the vehicle. [0012] The recessed portion can comprise a foot well having a further recessed portion sized to accommodate at least a portion of a rear seat occupant's feet. In some implementations, there is no tubular extension positionable to support the other of the angled side tubular members for positioning adjacent the second side of the vehicle. [0013] The partition can be configured for withstanding loads applied to the partition and transmitted through the brackets to the vehicle by connections to the vehicle's midsection at heights above a floor level of the vehicle. The partition can be configured for attachment to the vehicle's B-pillars. [0014] These and other implementations are described below in greater detail. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0015] FIG. 1 is an exploded perspective view of an embodiment of the partition providing increased legroom. [0016] FIG. 2 is an elevation view of a rear side of the partition of FIG. 1 as would be seen from the rear seat of the vehicle, also showing an imaginary second support member in dashed lines. [0017] FIG. 3 is an elevation view of a right side (passenger side) of the partition of FIG. 1 . [0018] FIG. 4 is a rear side perspective view of the partition of FIG. 1 , showing the right side of the partition. [0019] FIG. 5 is another rear side perspective view of the partition of FIG. 1 , showing the left side (driver's side) of the partition. [0020] FIG. 6 is a front side perspective view of the partition, also showing an optional gun mount. [0021] FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view of a partition similar to FIG. 1 , except showing different configurations for several components. [0022] FIG. 8 is a front side perspective view of a partition similar to FIG. 1 , except showing different configurations for several components. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0023] An embodiment of a partition 10 providing increased legroom is shown in FIGS. 1-6 . The partition 10 (or partition assembly) includes a partition frame 12 and at least a pair of partition support brackets 20 , 22 that couple the partition 10 to a vehicle. In the illustrated implementations, the partition is configured to be coupled to the vehicle's inner surface at approximately the B-pillar of the vehicle, and at a height above the floor pan and door opening (or door sill). In the illustrated implementations, the partition is coupled to the vehicle at a height below the window glass, but in other applications, this connection between the partition and the vehicle may occur at points above the vehicle glass. [0024] The partition frame 12 includes a near ceiling member 14 configured to positioned near the ceiling of the vehicle. The near ceiling member 14 is connected at each end to side members 16 via transition sections 18 . For vehicles equipped with side curtain air bags, the side members 16 are configured for positioning at least some distance away from the adjacent surfaces of the vehicle's interior, and the resulting spaces are covered or filled by the panels 34 . The panels 34 (or their fasteners) may deform, detach, pivot and/or otherwise change condition to allow the side curtain air bags to operate without impediment when deployed. For example, the panels or their fasteners may be bendable to allow deformation upon deployment of an air bag. [0025] There is a window assembly 36 mounted within the partition frame 12 . The window assembly may have one or more movable windows. In some implementations, the lower extent of the partition is defined at about the location of the lower horizontal window frame member. [0026] In the illustrated implementations, the left side of the partition frame 12 includes a vertical support member 32 that extends downwardly from the corresponding side member 16 . The vertical support member 32 is coupled to the vehicle by a bracket 40 shaped to receive a tubular end of the vertical support member 32 . Although the bracket 40 as illustrated is configured for positioning well above the floor or floor pan level of the vehicle, the bracket 40 and the member 32 protrude into the open space available to a passenger seated behind the driver. There may be a spacer 42 located between the member 32 and the bracket 40 . In other implementations, the member 32 and the bracket 40 are formed as a single piece. [0027] At the right side of the partition, the side member 16 terminates at 19 , i.e., defining a knee space for an occupant seated in the other rear seat behind the front passenger seat. There is a seat back section 46 that has a center section connected to a left side seat back panel 38 and to a recessed right side seat back panel 50 . Although the left side seat back panel 36 is shown as part of the partition frame 12 , it can be formed as a single piece. Similarly, although the recessed right side back panel 50 is shown to be formed as a portion of the seat back section 46 , it can be formed as a separate piece. The left side may be fitted with a lower extension panel 44 that substantially fills the space between the lower edge of the left side seat back panel 38 and the floor pan of the vehicle. [0028] Conveniently, the seat back panel 38 , the lower extension panel 44 , the seat back section 46 and the recessed seat back panel 50 can be formed of sheet metal, plastic, or other suitable material. In general, these components do not bear any significant loads. [0029] In FIGS. 2 and 3 , an imaginary support member or “leg” L, similar in dimension and position to the support member 32 is shown. Conventionally, known partitions have a generally symmetrical construction, and thus would interpose such a member L (and its corresponding bracket, which is not shown) into the rear seat space, despite other efforts to increase that space (e.g., such as providing the recessed right side back panel 50 ). It has been discovered, however, that greater legroom and ease of access are achieved if the leg L is eliminated and the load from the partition is instead carried by the bracket 20 . Thus, the bracket 20 provides structural support and is the predominate member by which loads are transferred from the partition frame 12 to the vehicle. [0030] The external bracket 28 can be formed with an extension 54 that allows the partition frame 12 (in the area of 19 ) to be coupled by the internal bracket 24 to the vehicle over a significant setback distance S ( FIG. 3 ) from the axis of the B pillar, which shown by the line B. In various implementations, the setback distance S can be about 3 inches to about 6 inches. In other implementations, depending upon vehicle geometry, the setback distance may be less than 3 inches [0031] Because of the extension 54 and the setback distance S, the body 56 of the external bracket component is also configured to fill the gap, i.e., to cover the space between the partition frame and the nearest inner surface of the vehicle. This maintains the integrity of the partition, e.g., in preventing a rear seat occupant from reaching through a gap to access the front seat area. [0032] The various components may be assembled together using conventional threaded fasteners, such as bolt 80 . Referring to FIG. 6 , the bracket components 24 and 28 , and the bracket components 26 and 30 , can be spaced apart so that the vehicle's trim panel can be reinstalled after the respective internal bracket components 24 and 26 are coupled to the vehicle and before the external bracket components 28 and 30 , respectively, are connected. Screw bosses 62 are one example of suitable spacers. [0033] The brackets 20 , 22 can be formed of any suitable material for carrying the loads transferred from the partition, such as, e.g., 3/16″ to ¼″ steel plate. Although the bracket components 26 , 30 and 24 , 28 are shown as single pieces, any may be formed in multiple pieces, depending upon the specific requirements. Each bracket 20 , 22 is attached to the vehicle with at least three fasteners. In general, pairs of fasteners are arranged at approximately the same level. The bracket components can be provided with flanges, such as the flange 60 , to make securing the components to each other or to the vehicle more convenient and secure. [0034] FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view of a partition according to another implementation viewed from its rear side. The partition 110 is similar to the partition 10 shown in FIG. 1 , and like elements have the same reference numbers, plus 100 . The differences between the partition 110 and the partition 10 are as follows: (1) the lower extension panel 144 is taller than the lower extension panel 44 , (2) the corresponding left side back panel portion 138 does not extend as far below the level of the partition window as in the back panel portion or back panel 38 , (3) in the seat back section 146 , the lower edge 147 is at a greater height than a corresponding edge in the seat back portion 46 , and (4) a foot well 151 with one or more forwardly oriented recesses is provided. The lower extension panel 144 illustrates another example of how in the area behind the driver's seat and between the lower edge of the window and the floor of the vehicle, there can be a single panel, a combination of multiple panels or, in some cases, no panel. Also, the bottom portion of the panel 144 can be formed as shown to conform to the contours of the vehicle's floor pan to prevent gaps, yet extend forwardly to provide as much space in the rear compartment as possible, while still maintaining full adjustability of the driver's seat position. In the same way, the lower edge 147 can be a greater height as shown to conform to a vehicle having a greater vertical feature at that location. The foot well 151 can be formed into a separate panel 153 attached to a bottom edge of the seat back panel 150 , or it can be formed as one piece with the panel 150 . [0035] FIG. 8 is an exploded perspective view of a partition according to another implementation viewed from its front side. The partition 210 is similar to the partition 10 or the partition 110 , and like elements have the same reference numbers as in FIG. 1 , plus 200 . In the partition 210 , the lower extension panel 244 has a geometry configured to follow the contours of a different vehicle's floor pan, and includes a deep recess to receive at least a portion of a rear seat occupant's feet. In the partition 210 , the foot well 251 is configured as a separate piece that is attached to the seat back panel 250 . FIG. 8 illustrates another example of brackets 224 and 226 having respective openings 231 and 233 . The openings 231 , 233 are provided to allow the brackets to be installed over projecting elements of the vehicle seatbelt assemblies, which extend through the openings when the brackets are installed, maintaining their full operational capabilities. [0036] Thus, with the illustrated implementations, it is possible to provide a partition that allows for the driver's seat to have full range of motion (translation fore and aft and pivoting of the seat back), even in today's smaller vehicles, ensuring enhanced legroom. At the same time, increased rear seat legroom is provided for one rear seat occupant on the opposite side, i.e., in the seat behind the front passenger seat. (The front passenger seat area is reduced somewhat, but is still fully usable.) By maintaining an open access area, particularly at lower heights where a rear seat occupant needs to move his feet, ingress and egress are improved. Specifically, by minimizing the portions of the partition that would protrude into the forward open area defined by the door opening/door sill and the vehicle's vertical side surface (generally, the vehicle's B pillar), the rear seat occupant can move into and out of the seat without maneuvering his feet around a support member attached to the floor pan or protruding rearward of the seatback and/or striking his knees on the seat back. The open access area as described can provided for one rear seat occupant as shown, or in a full “legless” partition providing increased access for both rear seat occupants. [0037] In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principles of the disclosed invention may be applied, it should be recognized that the illustrated embodiments are only preferred examples of the invention and should not be taken as limiting the scope of the invention. Rather, the scope of the invention is defined by the following claims. We therefore claim as our invention all that comes within the scope and spirit of these claims.

A partition for separating front and rear occupant areas of a vehicle comprising at least one partition member and at least one pair of partition support brackets. The partition bracket has an upper extent comprising a near ceiling member positionable adjacent a ceiling of the vehicle and two lateral extents comprising opposite side members. The partition support brackets are mountable to opposite sides of the vehicle and to the opposite side members of the partition member to couple the partition to the vehicle. The partition support bracket for at least one of the opposite sides comprises a load support section configured to support a proportion of a partition member load as applied to the at least one of the sides.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates in general to the field of computers and similar technologies, and in particular to software utilized in this field. Still more particularly, it relates to a method, system and computer-usable medium for performing cognitive inference and learning operations. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] In general, “big data” refers to a collection of datasets so large and complex that they become difficult to process using typical database management tools and traditional data processing approaches. These datasets can originate from a wide variety of sources, including computer systems, mobile devices, credit card transactions, television broadcasts, and medical equipment, as well as infrastructures associated with cities, sensor-equipped buildings and factories, and transportation systems. Challenges commonly associated with big data, which may be a combination of structured, unstructured, and semi-structured data, include its capture, curation, storage, search, sharing, analysis and visualization. In combination, these challenges make it difficult to efficiently process large quantities of data within tolerable time intervals. [0005] Nonetheless, big data analytics hold the promise of extracting insights by uncovering difficult-to-discover patterns and connections, as well as providing assistance in making complex decisions by analyzing different and potentially conflicting options. As such, individuals and organizations alike can be provided new opportunities to innovate, compete, and capture value. [0006] One aspect of big data is “dark data,” which generally refers to data that is either not collected, neglected, or underutilized. Examples of data that is not currently being collected includes location data prior to the emergence of companies such as Foursquare or social data prior to the advent companies such as Facebook. An example of data that is being collected, but is difficult to access at the right time and place, includes data associated with the side effects of certain spider bites while on a camping trip. As another example, data that is collected and available, but has not yet been productized of fully utilized, may include disease insights from population-wide healthcare records and social media feeds. As a result, a case can be made that dark data may in fact be of higher value than big data in general, especially as it can likely provide actionable insights when it is combined with readily-available data. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0007] In one embodiment, the invention relates to a method for providing cognitive insights via a cognitive information processing system comprising: encapsulating an operation for providing a desired cognitive insight; and, applying the operation to a target cognitive graph to generate a cognitive insight based upon the operation. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0008] The present invention may be better understood, and its numerous objects, features and advantages made apparent to those skilled in the art by referencing the accompanying drawings. The use of the same reference number throughout the several figures designates a like or similar element. [0009] FIG. 1 depicts an exemplary client computer in which the present invention may be implemented; [0010] FIG. 2 is a simplified block diagram of a cognitive inference and learning system (CILS); [0011] FIG. 3 is a simplified block diagram of a CILS reference model implemented in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; [0012] FIGS. 4 a through 4 c depict additional components of the CILS reference model shown in FIG. 3 ; [0013] FIG. 5 is a simplified process diagram of CILS operations; [0014] FIG. 6 is a depicts the lifecycle of CILS agents implemented to perform CILS operations; [0015] FIG. 7 is a simplified block diagram of a plurality of cognitive platforms implemented in a hybrid cloud environment; and [0016] FIG. 8 is a simplified process flow diagram of a cognitive insight generation operations. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0017] A method, system and computer-usable medium are disclosed for cognitive inference and learning operations. The present invention may be a system, a method, and/or a computer program product. The computer program product may include a computer readable storage medium (or media) having computer readable program instructions thereon for causing a processor to carry out aspects of the present invention. [0018] The computer readable storage medium can be a tangible device that can retain and store instructions for use by an instruction execution device. The computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but is not limited to, an electronic storage device, a magnetic storage device, an optical storage device, an electromagnetic storage device, a semiconductor storage device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. A non-exhaustive list of more specific examples of the computer readable storage medium includes the following: a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory), a static random access memory (SRAM), a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), a digital versatile disk (DVD), a memory stick, a floppy disk, a mechanically encoded device such as punch-cards or raised structures in a groove having instructions recorded thereon, and any suitable combination of the foregoing. A computer readable storage medium, as used herein, is not to be construed as being transitory signals per se, such as radio waves or other freely propagating electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves propagating through a waveguide or other transmission media (e.g., light pulses passing through a fiber-optic cable), or electrical signals transmitted through a wire. [0019] Computer readable program instructions described herein can be downloaded to respective computing/processing devices from a computer readable storage medium or to an external computer or external storage device via a network, for example, the Internet, a local area network, a wide area network and/or a wireless network. The network may comprise copper transmission cables, optical transmission fibers, wireless transmission, routers, firewalls, switches, gateway computers and/or edge servers. A network adapter card or network interface in each computing/processing device receives computer readable program instructions from the network and forwards the computer readable program instructions for storage in a computer readable storage medium within the respective computing/processing device. [0020] Computer readable program instructions for carrying out operations of the present invention may be assembler instructions, instruction-set-architecture (ISA) instructions, machine instructions, machine dependent instructions, microcode, firmware instructions, state-setting data, or either source code or object code written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including an object oriented programming language such as Smalltalk, C++ or the like, and conventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C” programming language or similar programming languages. The computer readable program instructions may execute entirely on the user's computer, partly on the user's computer, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user's computer and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may be connected to the user's computer through any type of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). In some embodiments, electronic circuitry including, for example, programmable logic circuitry, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA), or programmable logic arrays (PLA) may execute the computer readable program instructions by utilizing state information of the computer readable program instructions to personalize the electronic circuitry, in order to perform aspects of the present invention. [0021] Aspects of the present invention are described herein with reference to flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems), and computer program products according to embodiments of the invention. It will be understood that each block of the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented by computer readable program instructions. [0022] These computer readable program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. These computer readable program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable storage medium that can direct a computer, a programmable data processing apparatus, and/or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the computer readable storage medium having instructions stored therein comprises an article of manufacture including instructions which implement aspects of the function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. [0023] The computer readable program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other device to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other device to produce a computer implemented process, such that the instructions which execute on the computer, other programmable apparatus, or other device implement the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. [0024] The flowchart and block diagrams in the Figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods, and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of instructions, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). In some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts or carry out combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. [0025] FIG. 1 is a generalized illustration of an information processing system 100 that can be used to implement the system and method of the present invention. The information processing system 100 includes a processor (e.g., central processor unit or “CPU”) 102 , input/output (I/O) devices 104 , such as a display, a keyboard, a mouse, and associated controllers, a hard drive or disk storage 106 , and various other subsystems 108 . In various embodiments, the information processing system 100 also includes network port 110 operable to connect to a network 140 , which is likewise accessible by a service provider server 142 . The information processing system 100 likewise includes system memory 112 , which is interconnected to the foregoing via one or more buses 114 . System memory 112 further comprises operating system (OS) 116 and in various embodiments may also comprise cognitive inference and learning system (CILS) 118 . In these and other embodiments, the CILS 118 may likewise comprise invention modules 120 . In one embodiment, the information processing system 100 is able to download the CILS 118 from the service provider server 142 . In another embodiment, the CILS 118 is provided as a service from the service provider server 142 . [0026] In various embodiments, the CILS 118 is implemented to perform various cognitive computing operations described in greater detail herein. As used herein, cognitive computing broadly refers to a class of computing involving self-learning systems that use techniques such as spatial navigation, machine vision, and pattern recognition to increasingly mimic the way the human brain works. To be more specific, earlier approaches to computing typically solved problems by executing a set of instructions codified within software. In contrast, cognitive computing approaches are data-driven, sense-making, insight-extracting, problem-solving systems that have more in common with the structure of the human brain than with the architecture of contemporary, instruction-driven computers. [0027] To further differentiate these distinctions, traditional computers must first be programmed by humans to perform specific tasks, while cognitive systems learn from their interactions with data and humans alike, and in a sense, program themselves to perform new tasks. To summarize the difference between the two, traditional computers are designed to calculate rapidly. Cognitive systems are designed to quickly draw inferences from data and gain new knowledge. [0028] Cognitive systems achieve these abilities by combining various aspects of artificial intelligence, natural language processing, dynamic learning, and hypothesis generation to render vast quantities of intelligible data to assist humans in making better decisions. As such, cognitive systems can be characterized as having the ability to interact naturally with people to extend what either humans, or machines, could do on their own. Furthermore, they are typically able to process natural language, multi-structured data, and experience much in the same way as humans. Moreover, they are also typically able to learn a knowledge domain based upon the best available data and get better, and more immersive, over time. [0029] It will be appreciated that more data is currently being produced every day than was recently produced by human beings from the beginning of recorded time. Deep within this ever-growing mass of data is a class of data known as “dark data,” which includes neglected information, ambient signals, and insights that can assist organizations and individuals in augmenting their intelligence and deliver actionable insights through the implementation of cognitive applications. As used herein, cognitive applications, or “cognitive apps,” broadly refer to cloud-based, big data interpretive applications that learn from user engagement and data interactions. Such cognitive applications extract patterns and insights from dark data sources that are currently almost completely opaque. Examples of such dark data include disease insights from population-wide healthcare records and social media feeds, or from new sources of information, such as sensors monitoring pollution in delicate marine environments. [0030] Over time, it is anticipated that cognitive applications will fundamentally change the ways in which many organizations operate as they invert current issues associated with data volume and variety to enable a smart, interactive data supply chain. Ultimately, cognitive applications hold the promise of receiving a user query and immediately providing a data-driven answer from a masked data supply chain in response. As they evolve, it is likewise anticipated that cognitive applications may enable a new class of “sixth sense” applications that intelligently detect and learn from relevant data and events to offer insights, predictions and advice rather than wait for commands. Just as web and mobile applications changed the way people access data, cognitive applications may change the way people listen to, and become empowered by, multi-structured data such as emails, social media feeds, doctors notes, transaction records, and call logs. [0031] However, the evolution of such cognitive applications has associated challenges, such as how to detect events, ideas, images, and other content that may be of interest. For example, assuming that the role and preferences of a given user are known, how is the most relevant information discovered, prioritized, and summarized from large streams of multi-structured data such as news feeds, blogs, social media, structured data, and various knowledge bases? To further the example, what can a healthcare executive be told about their competitor's market share? Other challenges include the creation of a contextually-appropriate visual summary of responses to questions or queries. [0032] FIG. 2 is a simplified block diagram of a cognitive inference and learning system (CILS) implemented in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. In various embodiments, the CILS 118 is implemented to incorporate a variety of processes, including semantic analysis 202 , goal optimization 204 , collaborative filtering 206 , common sense reasoning 208 , natural language processing 210 , summarization 212 , temporal/spatial reasoning 214 , and entity resolution 216 to generate cognitive insights. [0033] As used herein, semantic analysis 202 broadly refers to performing various analysis operations to achieve a semantic level of understanding about language by relating syntactic structures. In various embodiments, various syntactic structures are related from the levels of phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs, to the level of the body of content as a whole and to its language-independent meaning. In certain embodiments, the semantic analysis 202 process includes processing a target sentence to parse it into its individual parts of speech, tag sentence elements that are related to predetermined items of interest, identify dependencies between individual words, and perform co-reference resolution. For example, if a sentence states that the author really likes the hamburgers served by a particular restaurant, then the name of the “particular restaurant” is co-referenced to “hamburgers.” [0034] As likewise used herein, goal optimization 204 broadly refers to performing multi-criteria decision making operations to achieve a given goal or target objective. In various embodiments, one or more goal optimization 204 processes are implemented by the CILS 118 to define predetermined goals, which in turn contribute to the generation of a cognitive insight. For example, goals for planning a vacation trip may include low cost (e.g., transportation and accommodations), location (e.g., by the beach), and speed (e.g., short travel time). In this example, it will be appreciated that certain goals may be in conflict with another. As a result, a cognitive insight provided by the CILS 118 to a traveler may indicate that hotel accommodations by a beach may cost more than they care to spend. [0035] Collaborative filtering 206 , as used herein, broadly refers to the process of filtering for information or patterns through the collaborative involvement of multiple agents, viewpoints, data sources, and so forth. The application of such collaborative filtering 206 processes typically involves very large and different kinds of data sets, including sensing and monitoring data, financial data, and user data of various kinds Collaborative filtering 206 may also refer to the process of making automatic predictions associated with predetermined interests of a user by collecting preferences or other information from many users. For example, if person ‘A’ has the same opinion as a person ‘B’ for a given issue ‘x’, then an assertion can be made that person ‘A’ is more likely to have the same opinion as person ‘B’ opinion on a different issue ‘y’ than to have the same opinion on issue ‘y’ as a randomly chosen person. In various embodiments, the collaborative filtering 206 process is implemented with various recommendation engines familiar to those of skill in the art to make recommendations. [0036] As used herein, common sense reasoning 208 broadly refers to simulating the human ability to make deductions from common facts they inherently know. Such deductions may be made from inherent knowledge about the physical properties, purpose, intentions and possible behavior of ordinary things, such as people, animals, objects, devices, and so on. In various embodiments, common sense reasoning 208 processes are implemented to assist the CILS 118 in understanding and disambiguating words within a predetermined context. In certain embodiments, the common sense reasoning 208 processes are implemented to allow the CILS 118 to generate text or phrases related to a target word or phrase to perform deeper searches for the same terms. It will be appreciated that if the context of a word is better understood, then a common sense understanding of the word can then be used to assist in finding better or more accurate information. In certain embodiments, this better or more accurate understanding of the context of a word, and its related information, allows the CILS 118 to make more accurate deductions, which are in turn used to generate cognitive insights. [0037] As likewise used herein, natural language processing (NLP) 210 broadly refers to interactions with a system, such as the CILS 118 , through the use of human, or natural, languages. In various embodiments, various NLP 210 processes are implemented by the CILS 118 to achieve natural language understanding, which enables it to not only derive meaning from human or natural language input, but to also generate natural language output. [0038] Summarization 212 , as used herein, broadly refers to processing a set of information, organizing and ranking it, and then generating a corresponding summary. As an example, a news article may be processed to identify its primary topic and associated observations, which are then extracted, ranked, and then presented to the user. As another example, page ranking operations may be performed on the same news article to identify individual sentences, rank them, order them, and determine which of the sentences are most impactful in describing the article and its content. As yet another example, a structured data record, such as a patient's electronic medical record (EMR), may be processed using the summarization 212 process to generate sentences and phrases that describes the content of the EMR. In various embodiments, various summarization 212 processes are implemented by the CILS 118 to generate summarizations of content streams, which are in turn used to generate cognitive insights. [0039] As used herein, temporal/spatial reasoning 214 broadly refers to reasoning based upon qualitative abstractions of temporal and spatial aspects of common sense knowledge, described in greater detail herein. For example, it is not uncommon for a predetermined set of data to change over time. Likewise, other attributes, such as its associated metadata, may likewise change over time. As a result, these changes may affect the context of the data. To further the example, the context of asking someone what they believe they should be doing at 3:00 in the afternoon during the workday while they are at work may be quite different that asking the same user the same question at 3:00 on a Sunday afternoon when they are at home. In various embodiments, various temporal/spatial reasoning 214 processes are implemented by the CILS 118 to determine the context of queries, and associated data, which are in turn used to generate cognitive insights. [0040] As likewise used herein, entity resolution 216 broadly refers to the process of finding elements in a set of data that refer to the same entity across different data sources (e.g., structured, non-structured, streams, devices, etc.), where the target entity does not share a common identifier. In various embodiments, the entity resolution 216 process is implemented by the CILS 118 to identify significant nouns, adjectives, phrases or sentence elements that represent various predetermined entities within one or more domains. From the foregoing, it will be appreciated that the implementation of one or more of the semantic analysis 202 , goal optimization 204 , collaborative filtering 206 , common sense reasoning 208 , natural language processing 210 , summarization 212 , temporal/spatial reasoning 214 , and entity resolution 216 processes by the CILS 118 can facilitate the generation of a semantic, cognitive model. [0041] In various embodiments, the CILS 118 receives ambient signals 220 , curated data 222 , and learned knowledge, which is then processed by the CILS 118 to generate one or more cognitive graphs 226 . In turn, the one or more cognitive graphs 226 are further used by the CILS 118 to generate cognitive insight streams, which are then delivered to one or more destinations 230 , as described in greater detail herein. [0042] As used herein, ambient signals 220 broadly refer to input signals, or other data streams, that may contain data providing additional insight or context to the curated data 222 and learned knowledge 224 received by the CILS 118 . For example, ambient signals may allow the CILS 118 to understand that a user is currently using their mobile device, at location ‘x’, at time ‘y’, doing activity ‘z’. To further the example, there is a difference between the user using their mobile device while they are on an airplane versus using their mobile device after landing at an airport and walking between one terminal and another. To extend the example even further, ambient signals may add additional context, such as the user is in the middle of a three leg trip and has two hours before their next flight. Further, they may be in terminal A 1 , but their next flight is out of C 1 , it is lunchtime, and they want to know the best place to eat. Given the available time the user has, their current location, restaurants that are proximate to their predicted route, and other factors such as food preferences, the CILS 118 can perform various cognitive operations and provide a recommendation for where the user can eat. [0043] In various embodiments, the curated data 222 may include structured, unstructured, social, public, private, streaming, device or other types of data described in greater detail herein. In certain embodiments, the learned knowledge 224 is based upon past observations and feedback from the presentation of prior cognitive insight streams and recommendations. In various embodiments, the learned knowledge 224 is provided via a feedback look that provides the learned knowledge 224 in the form of a learning stream of data. [0044] As likewise used herein, a cognitive graph 226 refers to a representation of expert knowledge, associated with individuals and groups over a period of time, to depict relationships between people, places, and things using words, ideas, audio and images. As such, it is a machine-readable formalism for knowledge representation that provides a common framework allowing data and knowledge to be shared and reused across user, application, organization, and community boundaries. [0045] In various embodiments, the information contained in, and referenced by, a cognitive graph 226 is derived from many sources (e.g., public, private, social, device), such as curated data 222 . In certain of these embodiments, the cognitive graph 226 assists in the identification and organization of information associated with how people, places and things are related to one other. In various embodiments, the cognitive graph 226 enables automated agents, described in greater detail herein, to access the Web more intelligently, enumerate inferences through utilization of curated, structured data 222 , and provide answers to questions by serving as a computational knowledge engine. [0046] In certain embodiments, the cognitive graph 226 not only elicits and maps expert knowledge by deriving associations from data, it also renders higher level insights and accounts for knowledge creation through collaborative knowledge modeling. In various embodiments, the cognitive graph 226 is a machine-readable, declarative memory system that stores and learns both episodic memory (e.g., specific personal experiences associated with an individual or entity), and semantic memory, which stores factual information (e.g., geo location of an airport or restaurant). [0047] For example, the cognitive graph 226 may know that a given airport is a place, and that there is a list of related places such as hotels, restaurants and departure gates. Furthermore, the cognitive graph 226 may know that people such as business travelers, families and college students use the airport to board flights from various carriers, eat at various restaurants, or shop at certain retail stores. The cognitive graph 226 may also have knowledge about the key attributes from various retail rating sites that travelers have used to describe the food and their experience at various venues in the airport over the past six months. [0048] In certain embodiments, the cognitive insight stream 228 is bidirectional, and supports flows of information both too and from destinations 230 . In these embodiments, the first flow is generated in response to receiving a query, and subsequently delivered to one or more destinations 230 . The second flow is generated in response to detecting information about a user of one or more of the destinations 230 . Such use results in the provision of information to the CILS 118 . In response, the CILS 118 processes that information, in the context of what it knows about the user, and provides additional information to the user, such as a recommendation. In various embodiments, the cognitive insight stream 228 is configured to be provided in a “push” stream configuration familiar to those of skill in the art. In certain embodiments, the cognitive insight stream 228 is implemented to use natural language approaches familiar to skilled practitioners of the art to support interactions with a user. [0049] In various embodiments, the cognitive insight stream 228 may include a stream of visualized insights. As used herein, visualized insights broadly refers to cognitive insights that are presented in a visual manner, such as a map, an infographic, images, and so forth. In certain embodiments, these visualized insights may include various cognitive insights, such as “What happened?”, “What do I know about it?”, “What is likely to happen next?”, or “What should I do about it?” In these embodiments, the cognitive insight stream is generated by various cognitive agents, which are applied to various sources, datasets, and cognitive graphs. As used herein, a cognitive agent broadly refers to a computer program that performs a task with minimum specific directions from users and learns from each interaction with data and human users. [0050] In various embodiments, the CILS 118 delivers Cognition as a Service (CaaS). As such, it provides a cloud-based development and execution platform that allow various cognitive applications and services to function more intelligently and intuitively. In certain embodiments, cognitive applications powered by the CILS 118 are able to think and interact with users as intelligent virtual assistants. As a result, users are able to interact with such cognitive applications by asking them questions and giving them commands. In response, these cognitive applications will be able to assist the user in completing tasks and managing their work more efficiently. [0051] In these and other embodiments, the CILS 118 can operate as an analytics platform to process big data, and dark data as well, to provide data analytics through a public, private or hybrid cloud environment. As used herein, cloud analytics broadly refers to a service model wherein data sources, data models, processing applications, computing power, analytic models, and sharing or storage of results are implemented within a cloud environment to perform one or more aspects of analytics. [0052] In various embodiments, users submit queries and computation requests in a natural language format to the CILS 118 . In response, they are provided with a ranked list of relevant answers and aggregated information with useful links and pertinent visualizations through a graphical representation. In these embodiments, the cognitive graph 226 generates semantic and temporal maps to reflect the organization of unstructured data and to facilitate meaningful learning from potentially millions of lines of text, much in the same way as arbitrary syllables strung together create meaning through the concept of language. [0053] FIG. 3 is a simplified block diagram of a cognitive inference and learning system (CILS) reference model implemented in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. In this embodiment, the CILS reference model is associated with the CILS 118 shown in FIG. 2 . As shown in FIG. 3 , the CILS 118 includes client applications 302 , application accelerators 306 , a cognitive platform 310 , and cloud infrastructure 340 . In various embodiments, the client applications 302 include cognitive applications 304 , which are implemented to understand and adapt to the user, not the other way around, by natively accepting and understanding human forms of communication, such as natural language text, audio, images, video, and so forth. [0054] In these and other embodiments, the cognitive applications 304 possess situational and temporal awareness based upon ambient signals from users and data, which facilitates understanding the user's intent, content, context and meaning to drive goal-driven dialogs and outcomes. Further, they are designed to gain knowledge over time from a wide variety of structured, non-structured, and device data sources, continuously interpreting and autonomously reprogramming themselves to better understand a given domain. As such, they are well-suited to support human decision making, by proactively providing trusted advice, offers and recommendations while respecting user privacy and permissions. [0055] In various embodiments, the application accelerators 306 include a cognitive application framework 308 . In certain embodiments, the application accelerators 306 and the cognitive application framework 308 support various plug-ins and components that facilitate the creation of client applications 302 and cognitive applications 304 . In various embodiments, the application accelerators 306 include widgets, user interface (UI) components, reports, charts, and back-end integration components familiar to those of skill in the art. [0056] As likewise shown in FIG. 3 , the cognitive platform 310 includes a management console 312 , a development environment 314 , application program interfaces (APIs) 316 , sourcing agents 318 , a cognitive engine 320 , destination agents 336 , and platform data 338 , all of which are described in greater detail herein. In various embodiments, the management console 312 is implemented to manage accounts and projects, along with user-specific metadata that is used to drive processes and operations within the cognitive platform 310 for a predetermined project. [0057] In certain embodiments, the development environment 314 is implemented to create custom extensions to the CILS 118 shown in FIG. 2 . In various embodiments, the development environment 314 is implemented for the development of a custom application, which may subsequently be deployed in a public, private or hybrid cloud environment. In certain embodiments, the development environment 314 is implemented for the development of a custom sourcing agent, a custom bridging agent, a custom destination agent, or various analytics applications or extensions. [0058] In various embodiments, the APIs 316 are implemented to build and manage predetermined cognitive applications 304 , described in greater detail herein, which are then executed on the cognitive platform 310 to generate cognitive insights. Likewise, the sourcing agents 318 are implemented in various embodiments to source a variety of multi-site, multi-structured source streams of data described in greater detail herein. In various embodiments, the cognitive engine 320 includes a dataset engine 322 , a graph query engine 326 , an insight/learning engine 330 , and foundation components 334 . In certain embodiments, the dataset engine 322 is implemented to establish and maintain a dynamic data ingestion and enrichment pipeline. In these and other embodiments, the dataset engine 322 may be implemented to orchestrate one or more sourcing agents 318 to source data. Once the data is sourced, the data set engine 322 performs data enriching and other data processing operations, described in greater detail herein, and generates one or more sub-graphs that are subsequently incorporated into a target cognitive graph. [0059] In various embodiments, the graph query engine 326 is implemented to receive and process queries such that they can be bridged into a cognitive graph, as described in greater detail herein, through the use of a bridging agent. In certain embodiments, the graph query engine 326 performs various natural language processing (NLP), familiar to skilled practitioners of the art, to process the queries. In various embodiments, the insight/learning engine 330 is implemented to encapsulate a predetermined algorithm, which is then applied to a cognitive graph to generate a result, such as a cognitive insight or a recommendation. In certain embodiments, one or more such algorithms may contribute to answering a specific question and provide additional cognitive insights or recommendations. In various embodiments, two or more of the dataset engine 322 , the graph query engine 326 , and the insight/learning engine 330 may be implemented to operate collaboratively to generate a cognitive insight or recommendation. In certain embodiments, one or more of the dataset engine 322 , the graph query engine 326 , and the insight/learning engine 330 may operate autonomously to generate a cognitive insight or recommendation. [0060] The foundation components 334 shown in FIG. 3 include various reusable components, familiar to those of skill in the art, which are used in various embodiments to enable the dataset engine 322 , the graph query engine 326 , and the insight/learning engine 330 to perform their respective operations and processes. Examples of such foundation components 334 include natural language processing (NLP) components and core algorithms, such as cognitive algorithms. [0061] In various embodiments, the platform data 338 includes various data repositories, described in greater detail herein, that are accessed by the cognitive platform 310 to generate cognitive insights. In various embodiments, the destination agents 336 are implemented to publish cognitive insights to a consumer of cognitive insight data. Examples of such consumers of cognitive insight data include target databases, business intelligence applications, and mobile applications. It will be appreciated that many such examples of cognitive insight data consumers are possible and the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. In various embodiments, as described in greater detail herein, the cloud infrastructure 340 includes cognitive cloud management 342 components and cloud analytics infrastructure components 344 . [0062] FIGS. 4 a through 4 c depict additional cognitive inference and learning system (CILS) components implemented in accordance with an embodiment of the CILS reference model shown in FIG. 3 . In this embodiment, the CILS reference model includes client applications 302 , application accelerators 306 , a cognitive platform 310 , and cloud infrastructure 340 . As shown in FIG. 4 a , the client applications 302 include cognitive applications 304 . In various embodiments, the cognitive applications 304 are implemented natively accept and understand human forms of communication, such as natural language text, audio, images, video, and so forth. In certain embodiments, the cognitive applications 304 may include healthcare 402 , business performance 403 , travel 404 , and various other 405 applications familiar to skilled practitioners of the art. As such, the foregoing is only provided as examples of such cognitive applications 304 and is not intended to limit the intent, spirit of scope of the invention. [0063] In various embodiments, the application accelerators 306 include a cognitive application framework 308 . In certain embodiments, the application accelerators 308 and the cognitive application framework 308 support various plug-ins and components that facilitate the creation of client applications 302 and cognitive applications 304 . In various embodiments, the application accelerators 306 include widgets, user interface (UI) components, reports, charts, and back-end integration components familiar to those of skill in the art. It will be appreciated that many such application accelerators 306 are possible and their provided functionality, selection, provision and support are a matter of design choice. As such, the application accelerators 306 described in greater detail herein are not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. [0064] As shown in FIGS. 4 a and 4 b , the cognitive platform 310 includes a management console 312 , a development environment 314 , application program interfaces (APIs) 316 , sourcing agents 318 , a cognitive engine 320 , destination agents 336 , platform data 338 , and a crawl framework 452 . In various embodiments, the management console 312 is implemented to manage accounts and projects, along with management metadata 461 that is used to drive processes and operations within the cognitive platform 310 for a predetermined project. [0065] In various embodiments, the management console 312 is implemented to run various services on the cognitive platform 310 . In certain embodiments, the management console 312 is implemented to manage the configuration of the cognitive platform 310 . In certain embodiments, the management console 312 is implemented to establish the development environment 314 . In various embodiments, the management console 312 may be implemented to manage the development environment 314 once it is established. Skilled practitioners of the art will realize that many such embodiments are possible and the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. [0066] In various embodiments, the development environment 314 is implemented to create custom extensions to the CILS 118 shown in FIG. 2 . In these and other embodiments, the development environment 314 is implemented to support various programming languages, such as Python, Java, R, and others familiar to skilled practitioners of the art. In various embodiments, the development environment 314 is implemented to allow one or more of these various programming languages to create a variety of analytic models and applications. As an example, the development environment 314 may be implemented to support the R programming language, which in turn can be used to create an analytic model that is then hosted on the cognitive platform 310 . [0067] In certain embodiments, the development environment 314 is implemented for the development of various custom applications or extensions related to the cognitive platform 310 , which may subsequently be deployed in a public, private or hybrid cloud environment. In various embodiments, the development environment 314 is implemented for the development of various custom sourcing agents 318 , custom enrichment agents 425 , custom bridging agents 429 , custom insight agents 433 , custom destination agents 336 , and custom learning agents 434 , which are described in greater detail herein. [0068] In various embodiments, the APIs 316 are implemented to build and manage predetermined cognitive applications 304 , described in greater detail herein, which are then executed on the cognitive platform 310 to generate cognitive insights. In these embodiments, the APIs 316 may include one or more of a project and dataset API 408 , a cognitive search API 409 , a cognitive insight API 410 , and other APIs. The selection of the individual APIs 316 implemented in various embodiments is a matter design choice and the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. [0069] In various embodiments, the project and dataset API 408 is implemented with the management console 312 to enable the management of a variety of data and metadata associated with various cognitive insight projects and user accounts hosted or supported by the cognitive platform 310 . In one embodiment, the data and metadata managed by the project and dataset API 408 are associated with billing information familiar to those of skill in the art. In one embodiment, the project and dataset API 408 is used to access a data stream that is created, configured and orchestrated, as described in greater detail herein, by the dataset engine 322 . [0070] In various embodiments, the cognitive search API 409 uses natural language processes familiar to those of skill in the art to search a target cognitive graph. Likewise, the cognitive insight API 410 is implemented in various embodiments to configure the insight/learning engine 330 to provide access to predetermined outputs from one or more cognitive graph algorithms that are executing in the cognitive platform 310 . In certain embodiments, the cognitive insight API 410 is implemented to subscribe to, or request, such predetermined outputs. [0071] In various embodiments, the sourcing agents 318 may include a batch upload 414 agent, an API connectors 415 agent, a real-time streams 416 agent, a Structured Query Language (SQL)/Not Only SQL (NoSQL) databases 417 agent, a message engines 418 agent, and one or more custom sourcing 420 agents. Skilled practitioners of the art will realize that other types of sourcing agents 318 may be used in various embodiments and the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. In various embodiments, the sourcing agents 318 are implemented to source a variety of multi-site, multi-structured source streams of data described in greater detail herein. In certain embodiments, each of the sourcing agents 318 has a corresponding API. [0072] In various embodiments, the batch uploading 414 agent is implemented for batch uploading of data to the cognitive platform 310 . In these embodiments, the uploaded data may include a single data element, a single data record or file, or a plurality of data records or files. In certain embodiments, the data may be uploaded from more than one source and the uploaded data may be in a homogenous or heterogeneous form. In various embodiments, the API connectors 415 agent is implemented to manage interactions with one or more predetermined APIs that are external to the cognitive platform 310 . As an example, Associated Press® may have their own API for news stories, Expedia® for travel information, or the National Weather Service for weather information. In these examples, the API connectors 415 agent would be implemented to determine how to respectively interact with each organization's API such that the cognitive platform 310 can receive information. [0073] In various embodiments, the real-time streams 416 agent is implemented to receive various streams of data, such as social media streams (e.g., Twitter feeds) or other data streams (e.g., device data streams). In these embodiments, the streams of data are received in near-real-time. In certain embodiments, the data streams include temporal attributes. As an example, as data is added to a blog file, it is time-stamped to create temporal data. Other examples of a temporal data stream include Twitter feeds, stock ticker streams, device location streams from a device that is tracking location, medical devices tracking a patient's vital signs, and intelligent thermostats used to improve energy efficiency for homes. [0074] In certain embodiments, the temporal attributes define a time window, which can be correlated to various elements of data contained in the stream. For example, as a given time window changes, associated data may have a corresponding change. In various embodiments, the temporal attributes do not define a time window. As an example, a social media feed may not have predetermined time windows, yet it is still temporal. As a result, the social media feed can be processed to determine what happened in the last 24 hours, what happened in the last hour, what happened in the last 15 minutes, and then determine related subject matter that is trending. [0075] In various embodiments, the SQL/NoSQL databases 417 agent is implemented to interact with one or more target databases familiar to those of skill in the art. For example, the target database may include a SQL, NoSQL, delimited flat file, or other form of database. In various embodiments, the message engines 418 agent is implemented to provide data to the cognitive platform 310 from one or more message engines, such as a message queue (MQ) system, a message bus, a message broker, an enterprise service bus (ESB), and so forth. Skilled practitioners of the art will realize that there are many such examples of message engines with which the message engines 418 agent may interact and the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. [0076] In various embodiments, the custom sourcing agents 420 , which are purpose-built, are developed through the use of the development environment 314 , described in greater detail herein. Examples of custom sourcing agents 420 include sourcing agents for various electronic medical record (EMR) systems at various healthcare facilities. Such EMR systems typically collect a variety of healthcare information, much of it the same, yet it may be collected, stored and provided in different ways. In this example, the custom sourcing agents 420 allow the cognitive platform 310 to receive information from each disparate healthcare source. [0077] In various embodiments, the cognitive engine 320 includes a dataset engine 322 , a graph engine 326 , an insight/learning engine 330 , learning agents 434 , and foundation components 334 . In these and other embodiments, the dataset engine 322 is implemented as described in greater detail to establish and maintain a dynamic data ingestion and enrichment pipeline. In various embodiments, the dataset engine 322 may include a pipelines 422 component, an enrichment 423 component, a storage component 424 , and one or more enrichment agents 425 . [0078] In various embodiments, the pipelines 422 component is implemented to ingest various data provided by the sourcing agents 318 . Once ingested, this data is converted by the pipelines 422 component into streams of data for processing. In certain embodiments, these managed streams are provided to the enrichment 423 component, which performs data enrichment operations familiar to those of skill in the art. As an example, a data stream may be sourced from Associated Press® by a sourcing agent 318 and provided to the dataset engine 322 . The pipelines 422 component receives the data stream and routes it to the enrichment 423 component, which then enriches the data stream by performing sentiment analysis, geotagging, and entity detection operations to generate an enriched data stream. In certain embodiments, the enrichment operations include filtering operations familiar to skilled practitioners of the art. To further the preceding example, the Associated Press® data stream may be filtered by a predetermined geography attribute to generate an enriched data stream. [0079] The enriched data stream is then subsequently stored, as described in greater detail herein, in a predetermined location. In various embodiments, the enriched data stream is cached by the storage 424 component to provide a local version of the enriched data stream. In certain embodiments, the cached, enriched data stream is implemented to be “replayed” by the cognitive engine 320 . In one embodiment, the replaying of the cached, enriched data stream allows incremental ingestion of the enriched data stream instead of ingesting the entire enriched data stream at one time. In various embodiments, one or more enrichment agents 425 are implemented to be invoked by the enrichment component 423 to perform one or more enrichment operations described in greater detail herein. [0080] In various embodiments, the graph query engine 326 is implemented to receive and process queries such that they can be bridged into a cognitive graph, as described in greater detail herein, through the use of a bridging agent. In these embodiments, the graph query engine may include a query 426 component, a translate 427 component, a bridge 428 component, and one or more bridging agents 429 . [0081] In various embodiments, the query 426 component is implemented to support natural language queries. In these and other embodiments, the query 426 component receives queries, processes them (e.g., using NLP processes), and then maps the processed query to a target cognitive graph. In various embodiments, the translate 427 component is implemented to convert the processed queries provided by the query 426 component into a form that can be used to query a target cognitive graph. To further differentiate the distinction between the functionality respectively provided by the query 426 and translate 427 components, the query 426 component is oriented toward understanding a query from a user. In contrast, the translate 427 component is oriented to translating a query that is understood into a form that can be used to query a cognitive graph. [0082] In various embodiments, the bridge 428 component is implemented to generate an answer to a query provided by the translate 427 component. In certain embodiments, the bridge 428 component is implemented to provide domain-specific responses when bridging a translated query to a cognitive graph. For example, the same query bridged to a target cognitive graph by the bridge 428 component may result in different answers for different domains, dependent upon domain-specific bridging operations performed by the bridge 428 component. [0083] To further differentiate the distinction between the translate 427 component and the bridging 428 component, the translate 427 component relates to a general domain translation of a question. In contrast, the bridging 428 component allows the question to be asked in the context of a specific domain (e.g., healthcare, travel, etc.), given what is known about the data. In certain embodiments, the bridging 428 component is implemented to process what is known about the translated query, in the context of the user, to provide an answer that is relevant to a specific domain. [0084] As an example, a user may ask, “Where should I eat today?” If the user has been prescribed a particular health regimen, the bridging 428 component may suggest a restaurant with a “heart healthy” menu. However, if the user is a business traveler, the bridging 428 component may suggest the nearest restaurant that has the user's favorite food. In various embodiments, the bridging 428 component may provide answers, or suggestions, that are composed and ranked according to a specific domain of use. In various embodiments, the bridging agent 429 is implemented to interact with the bridging component 428 to perform bridging operations described in greater detail herein. In these embodiments, the bridging agent interprets a translated query generated by the query 426 component within a predetermined user context, and then maps it to predetermined nodes and links within a target cognitive graph. [0085] In various embodiments, the insight/learning engine 330 is implemented to encapsulate a predetermined algorithm, which is then applied to a target cognitive graph to generate a result, such as a cognitive insight or a recommendation. In certain embodiments, one or more such algorithms may contribute to answering a specific question and provide additional cognitive insights or recommendations. In these and other embodiments, the insight/learning engine 330 is implemented to perform insight/learning operations, described in greater detail herein. In various embodiments, the insight/learning engine 330 may include a discover/visibility 430 component, a predict 431 component, a rank/recommend 432 component, and one or more insight 433 agents. [0086] In various embodiments, the discover/visibility 430 component is implemented to provide detailed information related to a predetermined topic, such as a subject or an event, along with associated historical information. In certain embodiments, the predict 431 component is implemented to perform predictive operations to provide insight into what may next occur for a predetermined topic. In various embodiments, the rank/recommend 432 component is implemented to perform ranking and recommendation operations to provide a user prioritized recommendations associated with a provided cognitive insight. [0087] In certain embodiments, the insight/learning engine 330 may include additional components. For example the additional components may include classification algorithms, clustering algorithms, and so forth. Skilled practitioners of the art will realize that many such additional components are possible and that the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. In various embodiments, the insights agents 433 are implemented to create a visual data story, highlighting user-specific insights, relationships and recommendations. As a result, it can share, operationalize, or track business insights in various embodiments. In various embodiments, the learning agent 434 work in the background to continually update the cognitive graph, as described in greater detail herein, from each unique interaction with data and users. [0088] In various embodiments, the destination agents 336 are implemented to publish cognitive insights to a consumer of cognitive insight data. Examples of such consumers of cognitive insight data include target databases, business intelligence applications, and mobile applications. In various embodiments, the destination agents 336 may include a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) stream 440 agent, an API connectors 441 agent, a databases 442 agent, a message engines 443 agent, a mobile push notification 444 agent, and one or more custom destination 446 agents. Skilled practitioners of the art will realize that other types of destination agents 318 may be used in various embodiments and the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. In certain embodiments, each of the destination agents 318 has a corresponding API. [0089] In various embodiments, the HTTP stream 440 agent is implemented for providing various HTTP streams of cognitive insight data to a predetermined cognitive data consumer. In these embodiments, the provided HTTP streams may include various HTTP data elements familiar to those of skill in the art. In certain embodiments, the HTTP streams of data are provided in near-real-time. In various embodiments, the API connectors 441 agent is implemented to manage interactions with one or more predetermined APIs that are external to the cognitive platform 310 . As an example, various target databases, business intelligence applications, and mobile applications may each have their own unique API. [0090] In various embodiments, the databases 442 agent is implemented for provision of cognitive insight data to one or more target databases familiar to those of skill in the art. For example, the target database may include a SQL, NoSQL, delimited flat file, or other form of database. In these embodiments, the provided cognitive insight data may include a single data element, a single data record or file, or a plurality of data records or files. In certain embodiments, the data may be provided to more than one cognitive data consumer and the provided data may be in a homogenous or heterogeneous form. In various embodiments, the message engines 443 agent is implemented to provide cognitive insight data to one or more message engines, such as a message queue (MQ) system, a message bus, a message broker, an enterprise service bus (ESB), and so forth. Skilled practitioners of the art will realize that there are many such examples of message engines with which the message engines 443 agent may interact and the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. [0091] In various embodiments, the custom destination agents 420 , which are purpose-built, are developed through the use of the development environment 314 , described in greater detail herein. Examples of custom destination agents 420 include destination agents for various electronic medical record (EMR) systems at various healthcare facilities. Such EMR systems typically collect a variety of healthcare information, much of it the same, yet it may be collected, stored and provided in different ways. In this example, the custom destination agents 420 allow such EMR systems to receive cognitive insight data in a form they can use. [0092] In various embodiments, data that has been cleansed, normalized and enriched by the dataset engine, as described in greater detail herein, is provided by a destination agent 336 to a predetermined destination, likewise described in greater detail herein. In these embodiments, neither the graph query engine 326 nor the insight/learning engine 330 are implemented to perform their respective functions. [0093] In various embodiments, the foundation components 334 are implemented to enable the dataset engine 322 , the graph query engine 326 , and the insight/learning engine 330 to perform their respective operations and processes. In these and other embodiments, the foundation components 334 may include an NLP core 436 component, an NLP services 437 component, and a dynamic pipeline engine 438 . In various embodiments, the NLP core 436 component is implemented to provide a set of predetermined NLP components for performing various NLP operations described in greater detail herein. [0094] In these embodiments, certain of these NLP core components are surfaced through the NLP services 437 component, while some are used as libraries. Examples of operations that are performed with such components include dependency parsing, parts-of-speech tagging, sentence pattern detection, and so forth. In various embodiments, the NLP services 437 component is implemented to provide various internal NLP services, which are used to perform entity detection, summarization, and other operations, likewise described in greater detail herein. In these embodiments, the NLP services 437 component is implemented to interact with the NLP core 436 component to provide predetermined NLP services, such as summarizing a target paragraph. [0095] In various embodiments, the dynamic pipeline engine 438 is implemented to interact with the dataset engine 322 to perform various operations related to receiving one or more sets of data from one or more sourcing agents, apply enrichment to the data, and then provide the enriched data to a predetermined destination. In these and other embodiments, the dynamic pipeline engine 438 manages the distribution of these various operations to a predetermined compute cluster and tracks versioning of the data as it is processed across various distributed computing resources. In certain embodiments, the dynamic pipeline engine 438 is implemented to perform data sovereignty management operations to maintain sovereignty of the data. [0096] In various embodiments, the platform data 338 includes various data repositories, described in greater detail herein, that are accessed by the cognitive platform 310 to generate cognitive insights. In these embodiments, the platform data 338 repositories may include repositories of dataset metadata 456 , cognitive graphs 457 , models 459 , crawl data 460 , and management metadata 461 . In various embodiments, the dataset metadata 456 is associated with curated data 458 contained in the repository of cognitive graphs 457 . In these and other embodiments, the repository of dataset metadata 456 contains dataset metadata that supports operations performed by the storage 424 component of the dataset engine 322 . For example, if a Mongo® NoSQL database with ten million items is being processed, and the cognitive platform 310 fails after ingesting nine million of the items, then the dataset metadata 456 may be able to provide a checkpoint that allows ingestion to continue at the point of failure instead restarting the ingestion process. [0097] Those of skill in the art will realize that the use of such dataset metadata 456 in various embodiments allows the dataset engine 322 to be stateful. In certain embodiments, the dataset metadata 456 allows support of versioning. For example versioning may be used to track versions of modifications made to data, such as in data enrichment processes described in greater detail herein. As another example, geotagging information may have been applied to a set of data during a first enrichment process, which creates a first version of enriched data. Adding sentiment data to the same million records during a second enrichment process creates a second version of enriched data. In this example, the dataset metadata stored in the dataset metadata 456 provides tracking of the different versions of the enriched data and the differences between the two. [0098] In various embodiments, the repository of cognitive graphs 457 is implemented to store cognitive graphs generated, accessed, and updated by the cognitive engine 320 in the process of generating cognitive insights. In various embodiments, the repository of cognitive graphs 457 may include one or more repositories of curated data 458 , described in greater detail herein. In certain embodiments, the repositories of curated data 458 includes data that has been curated by one or more users, machine operations, or a combination of the two, by performing various sourcing, filtering, and enriching operations described in greater detail herein. In these and other embodiments, the curated data 458 is ingested by the cognitive platform 310 and then processed, as likewise described in greater detail herein, to generate cognitive insights. In various embodiments, the repository of models 459 is implemented to store models that are generated, accessed, and updated by the cognitive engine 320 in the process of generating cognitive insights. As used herein, models broadly refer to machine learning models. In certain embodiments, the models include one or more statistical models. [0099] In various embodiments, the crawl framework 452 is implemented to support various crawlers 454 familiar to skilled practitioners of the art. In certain embodiments, the crawlers 454 are custom configured for various target domains. For example, different crawlers 454 may be used for various travel forums, travel blogs, travel news and other travel sites. In various embodiments, data collected by the crawlers 454 is provided by the crawl framework 452 to the repository of crawl data 460 . In these embodiments, the collected crawl data is processed and then stored in a normalized form in the repository of crawl data 460 . The normalized data is then provided to SQL/NoSQL database 417 agent, which in turn provides it to the dataset engine 322 . In one embodiment, the crawl database 460 is a NoSQL database, such as Mongo®. [0100] In various embodiments, the repository of management metadata 461 is implemented to store user-specific metadata used by the management console 312 to manage accounts (e.g., billing information) and projects. In certain embodiments, the user-specific metadata stored in the repository of management metadata 461 is used by the management console 312 to drive processes and operations within the cognitive platform 310 for a predetermined project. In various embodiments, the user-specific metadata stored in the repository of management metadata 461 is used to enforce data sovereignty. It will be appreciated that many such embodiments are possible and the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. [0101] Referring now to FIG. 4 c , the cloud infrastructure 340 may include a cognitive cloud management 342 component and a cloud analytics infrastructure 344 component in various embodiments. Current examples of a cloud infrastructure 340 include Amazon Web Services (AWS®), available from Amazon.com® of Seattle, Wash., IBM® Softlayer, available from International Business Machines of Armonk, N.Y., and Nebula/Openstack, a joint project between Raskspace Hosting®, of Windcrest, Tex., and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In these embodiments, the cognitive cloud management 342 component may include a management playbooks 468 sub-component, a cognitive cloud management console 469 sub-component, a data console 470 sub-component, an asset repository 471 sub-component. In certain embodiments, the cognitive cloud management 342 component may include various other sub-components. [0102] In various embodiments, the management playbooks 468 sub-component is implemented to automate the creation and management of the cloud analytics infrastructure 344 component along with various other operations and processes related to the cloud infrastructure 340 . As used herein, “management playbooks” broadly refers to any set of instructions or data, such as scripts and configuration data, that is implemented by the management playbooks 468 sub-component to perform its associated operations and processes. [0103] In various embodiments, the cognitive cloud management console 469 sub-component is implemented to provide a user visibility and management controls related to the cloud analytics infrastructure 344 component along with various other operations and processes related to the cloud infrastructure 340 . In various embodiments, the data console 470 sub-component is implemented to manage platform data 338 , described in greater detail herein. In various embodiments, the asset repository 471 sub-component is implemented to provide access to various cognitive cloud infrastructure assets, such as asset configurations, machine images, and cognitive insight stack configurations. [0104] In various embodiments, the cloud analytics infrastructure 344 component may include a data grid 472 sub-component, a distributed compute engine 474 sub-component, and a compute cluster management 476 sub-component. In these embodiments, the cloud analytics infrastructure 344 component may also include a distributed object storage 478 sub-component, a distributed full text search 480 sub-component, a document database 482 sub-component, a graph database 484 sub-component, and various other sub-components. In various embodiments, the data grid 472 sub-component is implemented to provide distributed and shared memory that allows the sharing of objects across various data structures. One example of a data grid 472 sub-component is Redis, an open-source, networked, in-memory, key-value data store, with optional durability, written in ANSI C. In various embodiments, the distributed compute engine 474 sub-component is implemented to allow the cognitive platform 310 to perform various cognitive insight operations and processes in a distributed computing environment. Examples of such cognitive insight operations and processes include batch operations and streaming analytics processes. [0105] In various embodiments, the compute cluster management 476 sub-component is implemented to manage various computing resources as a compute cluster. One such example of such a compute cluster management 476 sub-component is Mesos/Nimbus, a cluster management platform that manages distributed hardware resources into a single pool of resources that can be used by application frameworks to efficiently manage workload distribution for both batch jobs and long-running services. In various embodiments, the distributed object storage 478 sub-component is implemented to manage the physical storage and retrieval of distributed objects (e.g., binary file, image, text, etc.) in a cloud environment. Examples of a distributed object storage 478 sub-component include Amazon S3®, available from Amazon.com of Seattle, Wash., and Swift, an open source, scalable and redundant storage system. [0106] In various embodiments, the distributed full text search 480 sub-component is implemented to perform various full text search operations familiar to those of skill in the art within a cloud environment. In various embodiments, the document database 482 sub-component is implemented to manage the physical storage and retrieval of structured data in a cloud environment. Examples of such structured data include social, public, private, and device data, as described in greater detail herein. In certain embodiments, the structured data includes data that is implemented in the JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) format. One example of a document database 482 sub-component is Mongo, an open source cross-platform document-oriented database. In various embodiments, the graph database 484 sub-component is implemented to manage the physical storage and retrieval of cognitive graphs. One example of a graph database 484 sub-component is GraphDB, an open source graph database familiar to those of skill in the art. [0107] FIG. 5 is a simplified process diagram of cognitive inference and learning system (CILS) operations performed in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. In various embodiments, these CILS operations may include a perceive 506 phase, a relate 508 phase, an operate 510 phase, a process and execute 512 phase, and a learn 514 phase. In these and other embodiments, the CILS 118 shown in FIG. 2 is implemented to mimic cognitive processes associated with the human brain. In various embodiments, the CILS operations are performed through the implementation of a cognitive platform 310 , described in greater detail herein. In these and other embodiments, the cognitive platform 310 may be implemented within a cloud analytics infrastructure 344 , which in turn is implemented within a cloud infrastructure 340 , likewise described in greater detail herein. [0108] In various embodiments, multi-site, multi-structured source streams 504 are provided by sourcing agents, as described in greater detail herein. In these embodiments, the source streams 504 are dynamically ingested in real-time during the perceive 506 phase, and based upon a predetermined context, extraction, parsing, and tagging operations are performed on language, text and images contained in the source streams 504 . Automatic feature extraction and modeling operations are then performed with the previously processed source streams 504 during the relate 508 phase to generate queries to identify related data (i.e., corpus expansion). [0109] In various embodiments, operations are performed during the operate 510 phase to discover, summarize and prioritize various concepts, which are in turn used to generate actionable recommendations and notifications associated with predetermined plan-based optimization goals. The resulting actionable recommendations and notifications are then processed during the process and execute 512 phase to provide cognitive insights, such as recommendations, to various predetermined destinations and associated application programming interfaces (APIs) 524 . [0110] In various embodiments, features from newly-observed data are automatically extracted from user feedback during the learn 514 phase to improve various analytical models. In these embodiments, the learn 514 phase includes feedback on observations generated during the relate 508 phase, which is provided to the perceive 506 phase. Likewise, feedback on decisions resulting from operations performed during the operate 510 phase, and feedback on results resulting from operations performed during the process and execute 512 phase, are also provided to the perceive 506 phase. [0111] In various embodiments, user interactions result from operations performed during the process and execute 512 phase. In these embodiments, data associated with the user interactions are provided to the perceive 506 phase as unfolding interactions 522 , which include events that occur external to the CILS operations described in greater detail herein. As an example, a first query from a user may be submitted to the CILS system, which in turn generates a first cognitive insight, which is then provided to the user. In response, the user may respond by providing a first response, or perhaps a second query, either of which is provided in the same context as the first query. The CILS receives the first response or second query, performs various CILS operations, and provides the user a second cognitive insight. As before, the user may respond with a second response or a third query, again in the context of the first query. Once again, the CILS performs various CILS operations and provides the user a third cognitive insight, and so forth. In this example, the provision of cognitive insights to the user, and their various associated responses, results in unfolding interactions 522 , which in turn result in a stateful dialog that evolves over time. Skilled practitioners of the art will likewise realize that such unfolding interactions 522 , occur outside of the CILS operations performed by the cognitive platform 310 . [0112] FIG. 6 depicts the lifecycle of CILS agents implemented in accordance with an embodiment of the invention to perform CILS operations. In various embodiments, the CILS agents lifecycle 602 may include implementation of a sourcing 318 agent, an enrichment 425 agent, a bridging 429 agent, an insight 433 agent, a destination 336 agent, and a learning 434 agent. In these embodiments, the sourcing 318 agent is implemented to source a variety of multi-site, multi-structured source streams of data described in greater detail herein. These sourced data streams are then provided to an enrichment 425 agent, which then invokes an enrichment component to perform enrichment operations to generate enriched data streams, likewise described in greater detail herein. [0113] The enriched data streams are then provided to a bridging 429 agent, which is used to perform bridging operations described in greater detail herein. In turn, the results of the bridging operations are provided to an insight 433 agent, which is implemented as described in greater detail herein to create a visual data story, highlighting user-specific insights, relationships and recommendations. The resulting visual data story is then provided to a destination 336 agent, which is implemented to publish cognitive insights to a consumer of cognitive insight data, likewise as described in greater detail herein. In response, the consumer of cognitive insight data provides feedback to a learning 434 agent, which is implemented as described in greater detail herein to provide the feedback to the sourcing agent 318 , at which point the CILS agents lifecycle 602 is continued. From the foregoing, skilled practitioners of the art will recognize that each iteration of the cognitive agents lifecycle 602 provides more informed cognitive insights. [0114] FIG. 7 is a simplified block diagram of a plurality of cognitive platforms implemented in accordance with an embodiment of the invention within a hybrid cloud infrastructure. In this embodiment, the hybrid cloud infrastructure 740 includes a cognitive cloud management 342 component, a hosted cognitive cloud 704 environment, and a private network 706 environment. As shown in FIG. 7 , the hosted cognitive cloud 704 environment includes a hosted cognitive platform 710 , such as the cognitive platform 310 shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 a through 4 b . In various embodiments, the hosted cognitive cloud 704 environment may also include one or more repositories of curated public data sources 714 and licensed data sources 716 . Likewise, the hosted cognitive platform 710 may also include a cloud analytics infrastructure 712 , such as the cloud analytics infrastructure 344 shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 c. [0115] As likewise shown in FIG. 7 , the private network 706 environment includes a private cognitive platform 720 , such as the cognitive platform 310 shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 a through 4 b . In various embodiments, the private network cognitive cloud 706 environment may also include one or more repositories of application data 724 and private data 726 . Likewise, the private cognitive platform 720 may also include a cloud analytics infrastructure 722 , such as the cloud analytics infrastructure 344 shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 c . In certain embodiments, the private network 706 environment may have one or more private applications 728 implemented to interact with the private cognitive platform 720 . [0116] In various embodiments, a secure tunnel 730 , such as a virtual private network (VPN) tunnel, is implemented to allow the hosted cognitive platform 710 and the on-site cognitive platform 722 to communicate with one another. In these embodiments, the ability to communicate with one another allows the hosted cognitive platform 710 and the private cognitive platform 720 to work collaboratively when generating cognitive insights described in greater detail herein. In various embodiments, the hosted cognitive platform accesses the repositories of application data 724 and private data 726 to generate various cognitive insights, which are then provided to the private cognitive platform 720 . In certain embodiments, data stored in the repositories of application data 724 and private data 726 is provided 732 to the private cognitive platform 720 in the form of public data and cognitive graphs. [0117] In various embodiments, the private cognitive platform 720 accesses the repositories of application data 724 and private data 726 to generate various cognitive insights, which are then provided to the one or more private applications 728 . In certain embodiments, the private cognitive platform 720 uses the public data and cognitive graphs provided 732 by the hosted cognitive platform 710 to generate various cognitive insights, which a then provided to the one or more private applications 728 . In various embodiments, the private cognitive platform 720 accesses the repositories of application data 724 and private data 726 , as well as uses the public data and cognitive graphs provided 732 by the hosted cognitive platform 710 to generate various cognitive insights. Once generated, the cognitive insights are then provided to the one or more private applications 728 . Skilled practitioners of the art will recognize that many such embodiments are possible and the foregoing is not intended to limit the spirit, scope or intent of the invention. [0118] In various embodiments, the private network 706 is implemented and managed by a travel industry entity, such as an airline, hotel chain, automobile rental company, or travel agency. In these embodiments, the private cognitive platform 720 is likewise implemented and managed by the travel industry entity to perform various cognitive insight operations relevant to travel activities. In certain embodiments, the private cognitive platform 720 is implemented to access travel-industry-specific application data 724 and private data 724 as described in greater detail herein. In these embodiments, the travel-industry-related application data 724 and private data 724 is specific to the travel industry entity. In one embodiment, the travel-industry-related application data 724 and private data 724 is private to the travel industry entity. [0119] FIG. 8 is a simplified process flow diagram of a cognitive insight generation operations performed in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. In various embodiments, cognitive insight operations may be performed in various phases. In this embodiment, these phases include a data lifecycle 840 phase, a learning 838 phase, and an application/insight composition 840 phase. [0120] In the data lifecycle 836 phase, a predetermined cognitive platform 810 instantiation sources social data 812 , public data, licensed data 816 , and proprietary data 818 from various sources as described in greater detail herein. In various embodiments, an example of a cognitive platform 810 instantiation is the cognitive platform 310 shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 a through 4 b . In this embodiment, the cognitive platform 810 instantiation includes a source 806 component, a process 808 component, a deliver 810 component, a cleanse 820 component, an enrich 822 component, a filter/transform 824 component, and a repair/reject 826 component. Likewise, as shown in FIG. 8 , the process 808 component includes a repository of models 828 , described in greater detail herein. [0121] In various embodiments, the process 806 component is implemented to perform various cognitive insight generation and other processing operations, described in greater detail herein. In these embodiments, the process component is implemented to interact with the source 806 component, which in turn is implemented to perform various data sourcing operations described in greater detail herein. In various embodiments, the sourcing operations are performed by one or more sourcing agents, as likewise described in greater detail herein. The resulting sourced data is then provided to the process 808 component. In turn, the process 808 component is implemented to interact with the cleanse 820 component, which is implemented to perform various data cleansing operations familiar to those of skill in the art. As an example, the cleanse 820 component may perform data normalization or pruning operations, likewise known to skilled practitioners of the art. In certain embodiments, the cleanse 820 component may be implemented to interact with the repair/reject 826 component, which in turn is implemented to perform various data repair or data rejection operations known to those of skill in the art. [0122] Once data cleansing, repair and rejection operations are completed, the process 808 component is implemented to interact with the enrich 822 component, which is implemented to perform various data enrichment operations described in greater detail herein. Once data enrichment operations have been completed, the process 808 component is likewise implemented to interact with the filter/transform 824 , which in turn is implemented to perform data filtering and transformation operations described in greater detail. [0123] In various embodiments, the process 808 component is implemented to generate various models, described in greater detail herein, which are stored in the repository of models 828 . The process 808 component is likewise implemented in various embodiments use the sourced data to generate one or more cognitive graphs 226 , as described in greater detail herein. In various embodiments, the process 808 component is implemented to gain an understanding of the data sourced from the sources of social data 812 , public data, licensed data 816 , and proprietary data 818 , which assist in the automated generation of the cognitive graph 226 . [0124] The process 808 component is likewise implemented in various embodiments to perform bridging 846 operations, likewise described in greater detail, to access the cognitive graph 226 . In certain embodiments, the bridging 846 operations are performed by bridging agents, as described in greater detail herein. In various embodiments, the cognitive graph 226 is accessed by the process 808 component during the learning 836 phase of the cognitive insight generation operations. [0125] In various embodiments, a cognitive application 304 is implemented to receive user input, such as a user query 842 , which is then submitted during the application/insight composition 840 phase to a graph query engine 326 . In turn, the graph query engine 326 processes the user query 842 to generate a graph query 844 , as described in greater detail herein. The graph query 844 is then used to query the cognitive graph 226 , which results in the generation of one or more cognitive insights. In various embodiments, the process 808 component is implemented to provide these cognitive insights to the deliver 810 , which in turn is implemented to deliver the cognitive insights in the form of a visual data summary 848 to the cognitive application 304 . In various embodiments, as described in the descriptive text associated with FIG. 5 , learning operations are iteratively performed during the learning 838 phase to provide more accurate and useful cognitive insights. [0126] In various embodiments, the cognitive insight generation operations are performed to generate travel-relevant cognitive insights. In these embodiments the social data 812 , public data, licensed data 816 , and proprietary data 818 sourced from various sources may contain travel-relevant data. For example, the licensed data 816 may be ticket sale information from Sojurn®, weather data from Weather Underground®, Weather.com®, and so forth. Likewise, public data 814 may be Department of Transportation (DOT), Bureau of Transportation Services (BTS), of on-time arrival information provided by various airlines. Proprietary data 818 may likewise include data privately-owned data, such as an airline's frequent flier information that is only used internally to the airline. [0127] As described in greater detail herein, the cognitive platform 810 instantiation is implemented in these embodiments to process this travel-relevant data, and other associated data, to generate travel-relevant cognitive insights. As an example, a user may provide a travel-relevant user query 842 to a travel website, such as TripAdvisor.com. In this example, the cognitive insight generation operations are performed to provide an enhanced cognitive search of the travel-relevant website to find a preferred destination, for a specific time frame, for the user. To extend the example, the travel-relevant user query 842 may not be in the form of a traditional query. Instead, the user may submit a statement, such as, “I want to go on a vacation with my family, to the beach, in Florida, in July.” or possibly, “I want to go to Utah in May on a mountain biking trip.” To extend the example further, the user may also state, “I want to use my frequent flier miles for airline travel and my awards program points for my accommodations.” [0128] In various embodiments, a user query 842 that includes such statements is processed by the graph query engine 326 to generate one or more travel-relevant graph queries 844 . In these embodiments, these travel-relevant graph queries 844 are implemented to understand concepts like destinations, travel-related activities, and purpose of travel. Examples of such concepts include the difference between a honeymoon and a business trip, time frames that are related to travel (e.g., flight segments, time zones, etc.), and various recreational venues. [0129] The resulting graph queries 844 are then used to query a travel-relevant instantiation of the cognitive graph 226 , which in turn results in the generation of one or more travel-relevant cognitive insights. In certain of these embodiments, the cognitive graph 226 contains travel-relevant data, such as locations, hotels, prices, promotions, and so forth. In various embodiments, the deliver 810 component is implemented to provide the travel-relevant cognitive insights in the form of a visual data summary 848 . As an example, the visual data summary 848 may be provided to the user as a travel review. In various embodiments, the visual data summary 848 may be provided to a predetermined destination associated with the user. In these embodiments, the destination may be a mobile application, an alert, a business intelligence application, a statistical tool, a third party application, a marketplace, or an application program interface (API). [0130] Although the present invention has been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made hereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

A method for providing cognitive insight via a cognitive information processing system comprising: encapsulating an operation for providing a desired cognitive insight; and, applying the operation to a target cognitive graph to generate a cognitive insight based

CLAIM OF PRIORITY The present invention claims priority from Japanese application JP 2003-348354 field on Oct. 7, 2003, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference on to this application. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a semiconductor manufacture technology to be used in semiconductor processes, and, more particularly, to an exposure technology for charged-particle beam lithography which exposes a pattern on a substrate like a wafer, or a master like a mask or reticle using a plurality of charged-particle beams. With the recent remarkable advancement on the miniaturization of circuit patterns and high scale integration, the electron beam exposure that is used in fabrication of photomasks demands a higher processing speed as well as a higher accuracy. The direct exposure system which directly exposes a pattern on a wafer using an electron beam and which is promising as the next generation lithography technology faces the throughput as the first challenge for mass production of devices. To improve the throughput, the electron beam exposure is advancing in the direction of increasing the area of electron beams that can be irradiated at a time. As the point beam system that uses point beams suffers a poor throughput too low for mass production, the variable forming system that uses beams having size-changeable rectangular cross sections has been developed. While the system has a throughput higher by one to two digits than the point beam system, it still has a lot of issues on the throughput that should be cleared for exposure of miniaturized patterns with high integration. Developed in this respect is the cell projection system that makes the cross section of a beam into a desired shape using a cell mask with respect to specific patterns which are frequently used. While this system has a large merit on semiconductor circuits which involve many repetitive patterns, such as a memory circuit, it is hard to achieve for semiconductor circuits which involve few repetitive patterns, such as a logic circuit, because of multiple patterns that should be prepared on a cell mask. One way to solve the problem is a multibeam system which irradiates a plurality of electron beams on a sample, deflects the electron beams to scan on the sample, and individually turns on or off the electron beams according to a pattern to be exposed, thereby exposing the pattern. Because this system can expose an arbitrary pattern without using a mask, the throughput can be improved further. Such multibeam electron beam exposing systems are disclosed in, for example, Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2001-267221 and Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2002-319532. An example of an electron beam exposing apparatus will be described referring to a schematic diagram in FIG. 1 . Reference symbol “ 101 ” denotes a crossover image which is formed by an electron gun. With the crossover 101 being a light source, a condenser lens 102 forms an approximately parallel electron beams. The condenser lens in this example is an electromagnetic lens. Reference symbol “ 103 ” is an aperture array having apertures arrayed two-dimensionally. Reference symbol “ 104 ” is a lens array having electrostatic lenses having the same focal length arrayed two-dimensionally. Reference symbols “ 105 ” and “ 106 ” are deflector arrays each having a two-dimensional array of electrostatic deflectors which can be driven individually. Reference symbol “ 107 ” is a blanker array having a two-dimensional array of electrostatic blankers which can be driven individually. The approximately parallel electron beams formed by the condenser lens 102 are split into a plurality of electron beams by the aperture array 103 . The split electron beams form intermediate images of the crossover 101 at the height of the blanker array 107 by the respective electrostatic lenses of the lens array 104 . At this time, the deflector arrays 105 and 106 individually adjust the paths of the electron beams to cause the associated intermediate images of the electron sources to pass at desired positions in the associated blankers in the blanker array 107 . The blankers in the blanker array 107 individually control whether or not to irradiate the associated electron beams on a sample 115 . Specifically, the electron beam that is deflected by the associated blanker is blocked by a blanking restriction 109 and is not irradiated on the sample 115 . As the electron beam that is not deflected by the blanker array 107 is not blocked by the blanking restriction 109 , the beam is irradiated on the sample 115 . As mentioned above, the aperture array 103 , the lens array 104 , the deflector arrays 105 and 106 , and the blanker array 107 form a plurality of intermediate images of the crossover and control whether or not to irradiate each electron beam on the sample 115 . The aperture array 103 , the lens array 104 , the deflector arrays 105 and 106 , and the blanker array 107 together are called a multibeam forming device 108 . The intermediate images of the crossover that are formed by the multibeam forming device 108 and are individually controlled whether or not to be irradiated on the sample 115 are projected in reduced size on the sample 115 set on a stage 116 by electromagnetic lenses 110 , 111 , 112 and 113 . The position of the size-reduced projected image is determined by the amount of deflection by a deflector 114 . For such a multibeam system, a method of detecting the occurrence of a failure and the location of a failure in a blanking aperture array which forms a charged-particle beam has been proposed as disclosed in, for example, Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 11-186144. Further, Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2000-43317, for example, proposes a method capable of performing an exposure process even with some LDs broken or unable to emit light in a multibeam exposure apparatus using LDs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION When there is a fault in a multibeam forming device in such a multibeam system, the following problems may arise. (1) A specific beam is unable to reach a sample. (2) A specific beam cannot be blocked to a sample. (3) The property of a specific beam is degraded. To cope with the problems, Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 11-186144 proposes the method of detecting the occurrence of a failure and the location of a failure in a blanking aperture array which forms a charged-particle beam. Even if the location of a failure is specified, it is necessary to interrupt the exposure process over a long period of time to repair or replace a failed part, readjust the apparatus and start the process again. As mentioned above, Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. 2000-43317 proposes the method of performing an exposure process even when some LDs in a multibeam exposure apparatus using LDs are broken or unable to emit light. Because the exposure apparatus using LDs irradiates a beam (light) on a target to be exposed (hereinafter referred to as “exposure target”) as a voltage is applied to the associated device (LD), no beam is unnecessarily irradiated onto the exposure target when the associated device fails. By way of comparison, an exposure apparatus using a charged-particle beam blocks a beam to an exposure target as a voltage is supplied to the associated device (blanker). When a device (blanker) fails, therefore, an unnecessary beam is irradiated onto the exposure target. Accordingly, it is an object of the invention to provide a technique of charged-particle beam lithography which can execute an exposure process without dropping the processing speed as much as possible even when a charged-particle beam fails due to a failure in the associated multibeam forming device. To achieve the object, the invention has the following characteristics. Representative structural examples of the invention will be discussed below. (1) According to the first aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of charged-particle beam lithography which forms a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged at predetermined intervals, and individually blanks the plurality of charged-particle beams using blanking means to irradiate a charged-particle beam according to a pattern to be exposed on an exposure target, wherein an exposure process is executed by blocking that specific beam in the plurality of charged-particle beams which is not suited for exposure to the exposure target by another means from the blanking means. (2) According to the second aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of charged-particle beam lithography which forms a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged at predetermined intervals, and individually blanks the plurality of charged-particle beams to irradiate a charged-particle beam according to a pattern to be exposed on an exposure target, the method comprising the steps of: individually measuring properties of the plurality of charged-particle beams; selecting a group of beams comprised of those of the measured charged-particle beams which fulfill a predetermined criterion as beams to be used in exposure; normally blocking remaining beams to the exposure target during exposure; and exposing the exposure target using the selected beams. (3) According to the third aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of charged-particle beam lithography which individually assigns elements of field to a plurality of charged-particle beams based on pattern data to be exposed, and irradiates a charged-particle beam according to the pattern data to be exposed on an exposure target, the method comprising: a first step of individually measuring properties of the plurality of charged-particle beams; a second step of selecting a group of beams comprised of those of the charged-particle beams whose properties measured at the first step fulfill a predetermined criterion as beams to be used in exposure, and normally blocking remaining beams to the exposure target during exposure; a third step of exposing the elements of field assigned to the beams selected for exposure at the second step using the selected beams; a fourth step of selecting beams for exposure of those elements of field which are assigned to the beams blocked at the second step, in place of the blocked beams, from those of the charged-particle beams whose properties measured at the first step fulfill the criterion; and a fifth step of exposing the elements of field assigned to the beams blocked at the second step using the beams selected at the fourth step. (4) According to the fourth aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of charged-particle beam lithography having a step of deflecting a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged in an M×N matrix according to a pattern to be exposed while continuously moving a stage on which an exposure target is set, with a minimum deflection width as a unit, individually controlling irradiation of beams for each deflection, and exposing the pattern on elements of field respectively assigned to the plurality of charged-particle beams, thereby exposing a sub-field comprised of M×N elements of field, a step of exposing a main-field comprised of a plurality of sub-fields laid out in a direction orthogonal to a direction of the continuous movement by sequentially exposing the plurality of sub-fields, the method comprising: a first step of individually measuring properties of the plurality of charged-particle beams; a second step of selecting a group of sequential m×n beams comprised of those of the charged-particle beams whose properties measured at the first step fulfill a predetermined criterion as beams to be used in exposure, and normally blocking remaining beams to the exposure target during exposure; and a third step of performing exposure taking m×n elements of field assigned to the beams for exposure selected at the second step as a single sub-field. (5) According to the fifth aspect of the invention, there is provided equipment for charged-particle beam lithography, comprising: means for forming a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged at predetermined intervals; first blanking means which acts on the plurality of charged-particle beams individually; second blanking means which acts on all of the plurality of charged-particle beams; and restriction means for causing those charged-particle beams which are given predetermined deflection by the first blanking means to reach onto an exposure target, with a signal applied to the second blanking means, and blocking those charged-particle beams which are not given the predetermined deflection by the first blanking means to the exposure target. (6) In the equipment for charged-particle beam lithography according to the fifth aspect, the first blanking means is comprised of a plurality of blankers which act on the plurality of charged-particle beams individually, and the second blanking means is accomplished by a common blanker. (7) According to the sixth aspect of the invention, there is provided equipment for charged-particle beam lithography which forms a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged at predetermined intervals, and blanks the plurality of charged-particle beams using first blanking means to irradiate a charged-particle beam according to a pattern to be exposed on an exposure target, comprising: second blanking means located at an upstream of the first blanking means and comprised of a plurality of blankers which act on the plurality of charged-particle beams individually; and control means for controlling the first blanking means and the second blanking means in such a way as to cause those of the measured charged-particle beams which fulfill a predetermined criterion to reach the exposure target, and block those charged-particle beams which do not fulfill the criterion to the exposure target. (8) According to the seventh aspect of the invention, there is provided equipment for charged-particle beam lithography, comprising: means for forming a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged at predetermined intervals; blanking means having a plurality of blankers which act on each of the plurality of charged-particle beams individually; and restriction means which causes those charged-particle beams which are given predetermined deflection by the blanking means to reach onto an exposure target, blocks those charged-particle beams which are not given the predetermined deflection by the blanking means to the exposure target, and is so arranged as to be eccentric to beam axes of the charged-particle beams. (9) According to the eighth aspect of the invention, there is provided equipment for charged-particle beam lithography, comprising: means for forming a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged at predetermined intervals; blanking means which acts the plurality of charged-particle beams individually; means for irradiating a charged-particle beam according to pattern data to be exposed on an exposure target as the plurality of charged-particle beams are blanked individually by the blanking means; shutter means which is provided movable in a plane approximately perpendicular to a traveling direction of the charged-particle beam on a traveling path of the charged-particle beam and has an aperture capable of selectively passing the plurality of charged-particle beams; and control means which controls the pattern data in such a way that exposure is carried out with that charged-particle beam which is caused to selectively pass through the aperture of the shutter means. (10) In the equipment for charged-particle beam lithography according to the eighth aspect, the shutter means includes two shutters provided independently movable in a plane approximately perpendicular to the traveling direction of the charged-particle beam on the traveling path of the charged-particle beam. (11) According to the ninth aspect of the invention, there is provided equipment for charged-particle beam lithography, comprising: charged-particle forming means for forming a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged in an M×N matrix; blanking means having M×N blankers which act the plurality of charged-particle beams individually; M×N lenses for individual converging the plurality of charged-particle beams; means for irradiating the charged-particle beams according to pattern data to be exposed on an exposure target; means for forming relief charged-particle beams to relieve beams with bad properties whose traveling to the exposure target is blocked by the blanking means when the beams with the bad properties are present in the plurality of charged-particle beams; a relief lens for individually conversing the relief charged-particle beams formed; relieve blanking means for individually blanking the relief charged-particle beams; and a relief blanker control circuit which individually controls the relief blanking means, whereby those elements of field which are assigned to the blocked beams are exposed with the relief charged-particle beams. (12) According to the tenth aspect of the invention, there is provided equipment for charged-particle beam lithography comprising: an aperture array having a plurality of apertures for forming a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged at predetermined intervals; a lens array having a plurality of lenses laid out to individually convert the plurality of charged-particle beams which pass the aperture array; a first stage arranged in such a way as to make the lens array movable in a direction approximately perpendicular to a traveling direction of the charged-particle beams; a blanker array having a plurality of blankers which individually act on the plurality of charged-particle beams that pass; a second stage arranged in such a way as to make the blanker array movable in a direction approximately perpendicular to the traveling direction of the charged-particle beams; a shutter having an aperture capable of selectively passing the plurality of charged-particle beams; a third stage arranged in such a way as to make the shutter movable in a direction approximately perpendicular to the traveling direction of the charged-particle beams; and control means which controls positions of the first stage, the second stage and the third stage, and a shape of the aperture of the shutter in such a way as to maximize the number of those charged-particle beams which pass properly functioning apertures of the aperture array, pass properly functioning lenses in the lens array, pass properly functioning blankers in the blanker array and pass the shutter. When a charged-particle beam fails due to a failure in the associated multibeam forming device, the invention can execute an exposure process using only those beams having adequate properties without replacing the multibeam forming device and without degrading the exposure accuracy. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a structural diagram of a multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus; FIG. 2 is a structural diagram of a multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus according to a first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 a is a diagram showing the relationship between beams and a blanking restriction according to the prior art; FIG. 3 b is a diagram showing the relationship among beams, a common blanker and a blanking restriction according to the invention; FIG. 3 c is a diagram showing the relationship (1) among beams, a blanker array and the blanking restriction according to the invention; FIG. 3 d is a diagram showing the relationship (2) among beams, the blanker array and the blanking restriction according to the invention; FIG. 4 is a flowchart for explaining an exposure method according to the first embodiment; FIGS. 5 a to 5 e are diagrams showing the states of individual beams according to the first embodiment; FIG. 6 a is a diagram showing the relationship (1) among beams, blankers, a blanking restriction and a deflector array according to the invention; FIG. 6 b is a diagram showing the relationship (2) among beams, blankers, a blanking restriction and a deflector array according to the invention; FIG. 6 c is a diagram showing the relationship (3) among beams, blankers, a blanking restriction and a deflector array according to the invention; FIG. 7 is a structural diagram of a multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus according to a third embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 8 a to 8 d are diagrams for explaining how to extract a beam according to the third embodiment; FIG. 9 is a diagram for explaining a multibeam type exposure system; FIG. 10 is a diagram showing the states of individual beams according to the third embodiment; FIGS. 11 a and 11 b are diagrams showing the relationship between a stripe and a sub-field according to the third embodiment; FIG. 12 is a flowchart for explaining an exposure method according to the third embodiment; FIGS. 13 a to 13 e are diagrams for explaining how to extract a beam according to a fourth embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 14 a and 14 b are diagrams showing the states of individual beams according to the fourth embodiment; FIGS. 15 a and 15 b are diagrams showing the relationship between a stripe and a sub-field according to the fourth embodiment; FIG. 16 is a flowchart for explaining an exposure method according to the fourth embodiment; FIGS. 17 a to 17 c are diagrams for explaining how to extract a beam according to a fifth embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 18 a and 18 b are diagrams showing the states of individual beams according to the fifth embodiment; FIG. 19 is a diagram showing the shape of a sub-field according to the fifth embodiment; FIGS. 20 a and 20 b are diagrams showing the relationship between a stripe and a sub-field according to the fifth embodiment; FIG. 21 is a diagram for explaining how to extract a beam according to a sixth embodiment of the invention; FIG. 22 is a diagram for explaining the layout of relief beams according to a seventh embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 23 a and 23 b are diagrams showing the relationship between a stripe and a sub-field according to the seventh embodiment; FIG. 24 is a structural diagram of a multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus according to an eighth embodiment of the invention; and FIG. 25 is a diagram for explaining how to extract a row and a column at an arbitrary position according to the eighth embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS (First Embodiment) FIG. 2 shows the structure of a multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus according to the first embodiment of the invention. As mentioned earlier, such a multibeam system demands that irradiation and non-irradiation of all of a plurality of electron beams to be used for exposure onto a sample should be well controlled and the electron beams should be well converged at a desired position. A failure or so of a multibeam forming device may cause the following problems on an electron beam to be formed. (1) A specific beam is unable to reach a sample. This is a case, for example, where a foreign matter is adhered to the trajectory of an electron beam, or where the path of an electron beam is diverted by the disturbance of an electromagnetic field. At this time, an exposed pattern is partly dropped off or grazed. (2) The property of a specific beam is degraded. This is a case, for example, where of lenses constituting a lens array 104 in the multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus in FIG. 1 , a specific lens has an abnormal convergence due to adhesion of a foreign matter. This is another case where a specific electron beam dims or drifts due to charge-up near the beam trajectory. In such a case, the position accuracy or size accuracy of a part of an exposed pattern drops. (3) A specific beam cannot be blocked to a sample. This is a case, for example, where of blankers constituting a blanker array 107 in the multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus in FIG. 1 , a specific blanker has an open circuit and a voltage cannot be supplied to that blanker. This is another case where a specific blanker is short-circuited to the ground potential. In such a case, a beam is normally irradiated onto a sample so that an unnecessary pattern is exposed. Or, a drop in contrast reduces the size accuracy of a pattern. In the cases (1) and (2), the embodiment continues exposure by taking the following scheme. In the case (1), an exposure process is continued by providing a step of exposing a pixel which should be exposed by a beam unable to reach a sample, by using another beam. In the case (2), exposure is executed by always blocking a beam with a poor property to a sample regardless of pattern data in order not to irradiate the beam onto the sample. Then, the exposure process is continued by providing a step of exposing a pixel which should be exposed by using another beam with an adequate or good property, as done in the case (1). In the case (3), however, the unableness of blocking an electron beam to the sample itself is the issue, the schemes for the cases (1) and (2) cannot be taken. In the embodiment, therefore, a common blanker 201 which works on all of electron beams that are formed by multibeam forming devices is provided as shown in FIG. 2 . The common blanker 201 , like an electromagnetic lens or aligner, is statically controlled by an optical device control circuit 203 . A pattern control circuit 204 dynamically controls a blanker control circuit 205 , a deflector control circuit 206 and a stage control circuit 207 to irradiate a beam based on pattern data onto a sample 115 . The optical device control circuit 203 and the pattern control circuit 204 are controlled by a control computer 202 which is the interface to an operator. The apparatus in FIG. 2 basically has a structure approximately similar to the structure of the multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus shown in FIG. 1 , except for the structure associated with the common blanker 201 . Referring now to FIGS. 3A to 3D , the action of the common blanker will be described while comparing a case where the common blanker is present and a case where the common blanker is not present. FIG. 3 a is an exemplary diagram showing the relationship among electron beams, a blanker array and a blanking restriction according to the prior art or when there is no common blanker. A blanker array 107 has a plurality of beam through holes formed in a silicon substrate and blankers 304 , 305 and 306 associated with the holes. Each of the blankers 304 , 305 and 306 is formed by two electrodes provided at the wall of the associated beam through hole. As a potential difference is given to the two electrodes, the blanker deflects an electron beam which passes. In FIG. 3 a , a beam 301 should be irradiated onto a sample. At this time, no voltage is applied to the blanker 304 , and the beam 301 passes through a blanking restriction 109 and reaches the sample (not shown). A beam 302 should not be irradiated onto a sample. At this time, a voltage is applied to the blanker 305 to divert the trajectory of the beam 302 , so that the beam 302 is blocked by the blanking restriction 109 and does not reach the sample (not shown). As the wire to apply a voltage to the blanker 306 has an open circuit, the trajectory of the beam 303 cannot be diverted using the blanker 306 . Regardless of whether or not to irradiate the beam 303 onto the sample, therefore, the beam 303 passes the blanking restriction 109 and reaches the sample (not shown). FIG. 3 b is an exemplary diagram showing the relationship among electron beams, a blanker array and a blanking restriction according to the embodiment or when the common blanker 201 is present. In the diagram, the common blanker 201 diverts the trajectories of the beams 301 , 302 and 303 , allowing the beams to pass the blanker array 107 . The beam 301 should be irradiated onto a sample. At this time, a voltage is applied to the blanker 304 to deflect the beam 301 again, so that the beam 301 passes through the blanking restriction 109 in parallel to the beam axis (indicated by a one-dot chain line) and reaches the sample (not shown). The beam 302 should not be irradiated onto a sample. At this time, no voltage is applied to the blanker 305 , so that the beam 302 is blocked by the blanking restriction 109 without diverting the trajectory and does not reach the sample (not shown). As the wire to apply a voltage to the blanker 306 has an open circuit, the trajectory of the beam 303 cannot be diverted using the blanker 306 . Regardless of whether or not to irradiate the beam 303 onto the sample, therefore, the beam 303 is blocked by the blanking restriction 109 and does not reach the sample (not shown). As apparent from the above, with the provision of the common blanker 201 , the blanker array, which has conventionally worked to block individual beams to a sample when applied with a voltage, is provided with an operation of causing individual beams to reach a sample when a voltage is applied to the blanker array. Even in a case where a voltage to be applied to the electrodes of the blanker array becomes uncontrollable due to an open circuit or so, therefore, the possibility that a beam to a sample cannot be blocked is eliminated. Accordingly, the exposure process can be continued by providing a step of exposing a pixel which should be exposed by the beam by using another beam. To bring about a similar effect, two blanker arrays may be provided as shown in FIG. 3 c. The beam 301 should be irradiated onto a sample. At this time, voltages of the opposite polarities are applied to the blanker 304 and a blanker 307 , so that the beam 301 passes through the blanking restriction 109 in parallel to the beam axis (indicated by a one-dot chain line) and reaches the sample (not shown). The beam 302 should not be irradiated onto a sample. At this time, a voltage is applied only to the blanker 305 and no voltage is applied to a blanker 308 . Therefore, the beam 302 is blocked by the blanking restriction 109 and does not reach the sample (not shown). As the wire to apply a voltage to a blanker 309 has an open circuit, the trajectory of the beam 303 cannot be diverted using the blanker 309 . Irrespective of whether or not to irradiate the beam 303 onto the sample, therefore, the beam 303 is blocked by the blanking restriction 109 and does not reach the sample (not shown). Likewise, the trajectory of the beam to the sample is blocked by the blanking restriction 109 when the wire to apply a voltage to the blanker 306 has an open circuit and the wire to apply a voltage to the blanker 309 has no open circuit, and when the wires to apply voltages to both the blankers 306 and 309 have an open circuit. To provide a similar effect, the blanking restriction 109 may be laid out eccentric to the beam axis (indicated by a one-dot chain line) as shown in FIG. 3 d. The beam 301 should be irradiated onto a sample. At this time, a voltage is applied to the blanker 304 to deflect the beam 301 , so that the beam 301 passes through the blanking restriction 109 and reaches the sample (not shown). The beam 302 should not be irradiated onto a sample. At this time, no voltage is applied to the blanker 305 , so that the beam 302 is blocked by the blanking restriction 109 without diverting the trajectory and does not reach the sample (not shown). As the wire to apply a voltage to the blanker 306 has an open circuit, the trajectory of the beam 303 cannot be diverted using the blanker 306 . Regardless of whether or not to irradiate the beam 303 onto the sample, therefore, the beam 303 is blocked by the blanking restriction 109 and does not reach the sample (not shown). As the beam that has passed the blanking restriction 109 has an angle to the beam axis (indicated by the one-dot chain line) according to the method, this point should be considered in designing the optical system at the downstream. Referring to a flowchart illustrated in FIG. 4 , the exposure procedures according to the embodiment will be described below. After a sample is set on a stage (step 401 ), the properties of all the beams to be used for exposure are measured (step 402 ). The “properties” include the following: (1) Blanking controllability. A change in current when a voltage is applied to each blanker is measured by a detector, such as a Faraday cup or a semiconductor detector placed on the stage. (2) Beam current (3) Beam shape (4) Beam position Based on the results of measuring one property or more of the four properties, including a change with time, it is decided whether to block or not on all of the beams (step 403 ). FIG. 5 shows multiple beams arranged two-dimensionally (e.g., 16×16). In the embodiment, only those beams which have been decided to be defective as marked by “X” in FIG. 5 a are blocked to the sample. At step 404 , it is decided whether or not there are beams to be blocked. When it is decided that there are no beams to be blocked, the individual beams are controlled based on pattern data to carry out exposure as per the prior art (step 405 ). When it is decided that there are some beams to be blocked, the beams are blocked according to the decision made at step 403 (step 406 ). As only those beams with inadequate or bad properties are blocked to the sample in the embodiment, the states of the individual beams become as shown in FIG. 5 b , indicating beams to be irradiated onto the sample by white circles (mark 0 ) and beams not to be irradiated by black circles (mark □). According to the embodiment, as has already been described, the action of the common blanker blocks a beam to the sample when no voltage is applied to the associated blanker in the blanker array, and allows a beam to reach the sample when a voltage is applied to the associated blanker. Specifically, no voltage should be applied to those blankers which correspond to the black circles in FIG. 5B , regardless of pattern data to be exposed, while a voltage should be applied to those blankers which correspond to the white circles according to the pattern data to be exposed. Then, the first exposure is executed (step 407 ). In the exposure, those beams which have been decided not to be blocked to the sample (indicated by white circles in FIG. 5 b ) are controlled in the same way as done in the exposure step for the case where it is decided that there are no beams to be blocked (step 405 ). After step 407 , those pixels which should originally be exposed by the beams that are blocked regardless of pattern data are not in the first exposure. At step 408 , substitute beams for irradiating the unexposed pixels are decided. When all the beams adjacent to that beam which is blocked in the first exposure have good properties, the adjacent beams should be used. In the embodiment, as adjoining two beams both have bad properties as shown in FIG. 5 a , the third adjoining beam skipping the two defective beams is used to irradiate the associated unexposed pixel. Of course, any shifting can be taken if every pixel which could not been exposed in the first exposure can be exposed. At step 409 , data is shifted according to the decision made at step 408 . To irradiate an adjoining beam onto an unirradiated pixel, exposure should be executed by shifting pattern data by one beam. In case where the third adjoining beam skipping the two defective beams is used as in the embodiment, the pattern data should be shifted by two beams. At step 410 , those beams which are not used are blocked according to the decision made at step 408 . The beam states become as shown in FIG. 5 c in the embodiment, indicating beams to be irradiated onto the sample by white circles and beams not to be irradiated by black circles. At step 411 , the second exposure is executed. Accordingly, those pixels which could not be irradiated with beams at step 407 can be exposed using beams with good properties. As the exposure process is performed in the procedures, exposure can be done using only good electron beams even when some electron beams fail. Although defective beams are blocked to the sample after which the first exposure is executed, then those pixels which should originally be exposed by the blocked beams are exposed by using proper or good beams in the embodiment, the effect does not change if the order of the procedures is reversed. Only defective beams are blocked to the sample in the embodiment. From the viewpoint of suppressing the Coulomb's effect, however, it is desirable that the number of beams that reach the sample simultaneously should be as even as possible in terms of time. If beams are blocked in a stripe pattern as shown in FIG. 5 d or in a checkered pattern as shown in FIG. 5 e , the number of beams that reach the sample simultaneously can be made even in terms of time. Even in this case, the effect of the embodiment does not change as long as all defective beams can be blocked. (Second Embodiment) The second embodiment of the invention blocks defective electron beams to a sample and performs an exposure process by using only good beams without changing the mode of the multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus shown in FIG. 1 , while coping with bad properties of beams originated from failures or so in multibeam forming devices like those which are handled in the first embodiment. In the embodiment, deflector arrays 105 and 106 in FIG. 1 are used to block beams with bad properties. As described in the “BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION”, the deflector array should originally work to deflect passing electron beams to individually adjust the positions of intermediate images of electron sources formed on the blanker array 107 in a plane orthogonal to the optical axis. In the embodiment, however, when a failure occurs in the blanker array and a specific electron beam cannot be blocked to a sample, the deflector array is used as a blanker the blanker array is used as a blanking restriction. Referring to FIG. 6 , a description will now be given of the conventional way of using the deflector array and the method of substituting the deflector array for a blanker as done in the embodiment. FIG. 6 a is a diagram for explaining a case where a failure occurs in the blanker array. A beam 601 is adjusted by deflectors 604 and 607 in those deflectors which constitute the deflector arrays 105 and 106 , and passes at a desired position over the blanker 304 at a desired angle. As the beam 601 should be irradiated onto the sample, no voltage is applied to the blanker 304 and the beam 601 passes the blanking restriction 109 and reaches the sample (not shown). A beam 602 is adjusted by deflectors 605 and 608 in those deflectors which constitute the deflector arrays 105 and 106 , and passes at a desired position over the blanker 305 at a desired angle. As the beam 602 should not be irradiated onto the sample, no voltage is applied to the blanker 305 and the beam 602 is blocked by the blanking restriction 109 and does not reach the sample (not shown). A beam 603 is adjusted by deflectors 606 and 609 in those deflectors which constitute the deflector arrays 105 and 106 , and passes at a desired position over the blanker 306 at a desired angle. As the wire to apply a voltage to the blanker 306 has an open circuit, the trajectory of the beam 603 cannot be diverted using the blanker 306 . Regardless of whether the beam 603 should originally be irradiated onto the sample or not, therefore, the beam 603 passes the blanking restriction 109 and reaches the sample (not shown). FIG. 6 b is a diagram for explaining the embodiment. The beam 603 is deflected by deflectors 606 and 609 in those deflectors which constitute the deflector arrays 105 and 106 , and is blocked to the sample by the blanker array 107 . That is, substituting the deflector array for a blanker and substituting the blanker array for a blanking restriction eliminates a possibility of disabling blocking of a beam to the sample even when a voltage to be applied to the electrodes of the blanker array becomes uncontrollable due to the presence of an open circuit or so. Therefore, the exposure process can be continued by providing a step of exposing a pixel which should be exposed by the blocked beam by using another beam in a method similar to the method of the first embodiment. A similar effect can be acquired by substituting the deflector array for a blanker and blocking a bad beam to the sample by the blanking restriction as shown in FIG. 6 c. (Third Embodiment) FIG. 7 shows the structure of a multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus according to the third embodiment of the invention. In the embodiment, a movable shutter 701 is provided on the beam trajectory, specifically, between the aperture array 103 and the lens array 104 . The aperture of the movable shutter 701 has an approximately square shape large enough to be able to pass all of M×N beams split by the aperture array 103 at the height (z) of the movable shutter 701 . With the z direction being the beam traveling direction, the movable shutter 701 can move within a plane approximately perpendicular to the z direction. Adjusting the position of the movable shutter 701 within the xy plane can allow some (m×n) or all of the beams split by the aperture array 103 to reach the sample and block the remaining beams. That is, it is possible to block beams with bad properties and extract only beams with good properties. The performance that is demanded in moving the movable shutter 701 is the position accuracy as high as the interval between beams discretely split by the aperture array 103 . Because of the purpose of keeping blocking a specific beam during exposure, the movable shutter 701 is not required to move fast. Therefore, the movable shutter 701 is statically controlled by a shutter control circuit 702 . The pattern control circuit 204 irradiates beams based on pattern data onto the sample by dynamically controlling the blanker control circuit 205 , the deflector control circuit 206 and the stage control circuit 207 . The shutter control circuit 702 and the pattern control circuit 204 are controlled by the control computer 202 which is the interface to an operator. In FIG. 8 , reference symbol “ 801 ” denotes beams split by the aperture array 103 and reference symbol “ 802 ” denotes the aperture of the movable shutter 701 . In the embodiment, half of the beams formed by the aperture array 103 which are indicated by hatches are allowed to pass the aperture of the movable shutter 701 to be used for exposure, while the remaining half are blocked by the movable shutter 701 . Specifically, provided that the beams formed by the aperture array 103 are separated into first to fourth quadrant regions, there are four relationships between the movable shutter 701 and the beams formed by the aperture array 103 : the third and fourth quadrants of beams 801 are passed as shown in FIG. 8 a , the second and third quadrants of the beams 801 are passed as shown in FIG. 8 b , the first and third quadrants of the beams 801 are passed as shown in FIG. 8 c , and the fourth and first quadrants of the beams 801 are passed as shown in FIG. 8 d. Prior to the description of the exposure system according to the embodiment, the conventionally proposed multibeam exposure system will be described referring to FIGS. 1 and 9 . The individual blankers constituting the blanker array 107 control voltages to be applied to the individual beams split by the aperture array 103 to thereby control irradiation or non-irradiation of the associated electron beams to the sample. As the stage 116 on which the sample 115 is set is continuously moving in the y direction at this time, the deflector 114 deflects a plurality of electron beams to be irradiated onto the sample 115 and make the electron beams follow up the movement of the stage 116 . The continuous deflecting operation causes the individual electron beams to expose a pattern in associated elements of field on the sample 115 as shown in FIG. 9 . As the number of electron beams to be used in exposure is 16×16 in the embodiment, a pattern is exposed in 16×16 elements of field assigned to the individual beams at a time. This field consisting of 16×16 elements of field is defined as a sub-field. After a pattern is exposed in one sub-field (SF 1 ), the deflector deflects a plurality of electron beams in the direction (x direction) orthogonal to the direction of the continuous movement of the stage (y direction) to expose a pattern in a next sub-field (SF 2 ). As patterns are exposed one after another in the sub-fields arranged in the direction (x direction) orthogonal to the direction of the continuous movement of the stage (y direction) as shown in FIG. 9 , a pattern is exposed in one main-field (MF 1 ) comprised of sub-fields. The deflector 114 scans the main-fields (MF 2 , MF 3 , . . . ) laid out in the direction of the continuous movement of the stage 116 with beams, thereby exposing a pattern in a stripe (STRIPE 1 ) comprised of the main-fields. The width of the stripe is determined by the size of the sub-fields and the amount of deflection and is called a stripe width. Then, the stage 116 is moved in the x direction and a pattern is exposed in a next stripe (STRIPE 2 ). The multibeam exposure system conventionally proposed is constructed on the premise that all of the beams split by the aperture array 103 are controlled properly. By way of comparison, the embodiment handles a case where a specific beam in the beams split by the aperture array 103 becomes uncontrollable. In FIG. 10 , for example, white circles (ο) indicates beams with good properties and black circles (□) indicates beams with bad properties. When such a fault occurs, good half of the beams are extracted by the movable shutter 701 and used in exposure. That is, the upper half (the first and second quadrants) are blocked, and exposure is carried out using only the lower half (the third and fourth quadrants) indicated by the broken line in the diagram. Alternatively, the left half (the second and third quadrants) may be blocked, and exposure may be carried out using only the right half (the fourth and first quadrants) indicated by the broken line in the diagram. When such beam extraction is performed, the regions to be exposed at a time change according to the numbers of rows and columns of extracted beams, and are redefined as sub-fields. That is, when beams in the upper half (the first and second quadrants) and the lower half (the third and fourth quadrants) are extracted, one side of a sub-field in the y direction becomes half the length in the prior art, as shown in FIG. 11 a . Accordingly, one side of a main-field in the y direction also becomes half the length in the prior art as shown in FIG. 11 a . When the left half (the second and third quadrants) and the right half (the fourth and first quadrants) are extracted, one side of a sub-field in the x direction becomes half the length in the prior art, as shown in FIG. 11 b . In this case, one side of a main-field in the x direction may be made a half, but the throughput can be kept higher by performing an exposure process under the condition that the number of sub-fields constituting a main-field is increased, and both sides of each main-field are set to the same lengths in the x and y directions as those in the prior art. Referring to a flowchart illustrated in FIG. 12 , the exposure procedures according to the embodiment will be described below: After a sample is set on a stage (step 1201 ), the properties of all the beams to be used for exposure are measured (step 1202 ). The properties include the blanking property, the beam current and the beam shape. According to the result of measuring the beam properties, it is decided whether the requirement to achieve irradiation on the sample is fulfilled or not on all the beams (step 1203 ). At step 1204 , it is decided whether all the beams fulfill the requirement. When it is decided that all the beams fulfill the requirement, the individual beams are controlled based on the pattern data for exposure as done in the prior art (step 1205 ). When it is decided that there is at least one beam which does not fulfill the requirement, it is decided at step 1206 whether exposure with the extracted beams is possible or not. That is, given that the upper half (the first and second quadrants) of the beams extracted by the aperture array 103 is defined as a first group, the lower half (the third and fourth quadrants) is defined as a second group, left half (the second and third quadrants) is defined as a third group, and the right half (the fourth and first quadrants) is defined as a fourth group, it is decided whether or not there is any beam group in the first group to the fourth group whose component beams all fulfill the requirement for irradiation onto the sample. In other words, it is decided whether or not there is any beam group which can be used in exposure. When it is decided that there is a beam group which can be used in exposure at step 1206 , it is decided which one of the first group to the fourth group should be used in exposure at step 1207 . As beams with good properties are distributed only in the second quadrant in the embodiment, exposure is executed using the second group. Exposure may be executed using the fourth group. According to the decision at step 1207 , pattern data is recomputed as follows (step 1208 ). First, the sizes of the sub-field, the main-field and the stripe are decided from the numbers of rows and columns of extracted beams. Then, pattern data is finally separated into units of elements of field corresponding to the respective beams split by the aperture array 103 . Next, according to the decision made at 1207 , the movable shutter is moved (step 1209 ), and exposure is executed (step 1205 ). When it is decided that there is no beam group which can be used in exposure at step 1206 , it is decided to stop exposure (step 1210 ) and a pattern is displayed on the screen or so for a user. As the exposure process is carried out in the above-described procedures, exposure can be executed using only good beams even when an electron beam fails due to a failure in the associated multibeam forming device. The time needed for beam irradiation is twice the time needed when there are no bad beams. In the embodiment, the movable shutter 701 is provided between the aperture array 103 and the lens array 104 . This is because it is not only the height (z) at which beams split by the aperture array 103 are not merged with one another, but also the position where provision of the movable shutter 701 is relatively easy. In the principle, a similar effect is obtained when the movable shutter 701 is set at any height as long as it is the height (z) at which beams split by the aperture array 103 are not merged with one another. (Fourth Embodiment) In the fourth embodiment, the third embodiment is applied to making the drop of the throughput originated from a failure in a multibeam forming device as small as possible. In the embodiment, as in the third embodiment, the movable shutter 701 extracts a beam group comprised of those in the beams split by the aperture array with good properties. It is to be noted however that in half of the upper and lower beam groups or the right and left beam groups of the beams formed by the aperture array 103 are extracted the third embodiment, whereas the numbers of rows and columns of beams to be extracted by the movable shutter are given the degree of freedom in the fourth embodiment. Specifically, the numbers of rows and columns of beams to be extracted by a movable shutter 1302 are made variable by adjusting the relative positions of beams 1301 formed by the aperture array and the movable shutter 1302 , as shown in FIGS. 13 a , 13 b , 13 c and 13 d . To know the number of beams that are blocked, the current flowing in the movable shutter should be measured. In FIG. 14 a , white circles (ο) indicates beams with good properties and black circles (□) indicates beams with bad properties. When beams are extracted as indicated by the broken line in FIG. 14 a , for example, beams greater in number by five columns, i.e., 63% in the ratio, than that in case where only half of the entire beams are extracted as in the third embodiment. Data control becomes simpler if a restriction such as making the numbers of rows and columns of beams to be extracted an even number or a multiplication of four. In the normal exposure method (when there are no bad beam properties), the stripe width becomes an integer multiplication of the width of the sub-field (eight times in FIG. 9 ). As the numbers of rows and columns of beams to be extracted by the movable shutter can be set arbitrarily in the embodiment, the degree of freedom of the shape of the sub-field is increased. Therefore, the normal stripe width need not be an integer multiplication of the width of the sub-field in the embodiment. That is, given that the stripe width is set equal to the one in the normal exposure, a surplus portion 1501 may be produced at an edge portion of the stripe as indicated by the hatched portion in FIG. 15 a . To expose the surplus portion 1501 , blank data 1502 should be put in a part of the sub-field to expose the surplus sub-field. From the viewpoint of the throughput, this scheme cannot be said to be efficient. To cope with it, the stripe width should be changed to become an integer multiplication of the width of the sub-field as shown in FIG. 15 b. Referring to a flowchart illustrated in FIG. 16 , the exposure procedures according to the embodiment will be described below. After a sample is set on a stage (step 1601 ), the properties of all the beams to be used for exposure are measured (step 1602 ). The properties include the blanking property, the beam current and the beam shape. According to the result of measuring the beam properties, it is decided whether the requirement to achieve irradiation on the sample is fulfilled or not on all the beams (step 1603 ). At step 1604 , it is decided whether all the beams fulfill the requirement. When it is decided that all the beams fulfill the requirement, the individual beams are controlled based on the pattern data for exposure as done in the prior art (step 1605 ). When it is decided that there is at least one beam which does not fulfill the requirement, a beam group comprised only of beams with good properties is extracted according to one of four modes in the embodiment. The four modes are a mode of blocking right-hand columns by the movable shutter without changing the number of rows as shown in FIG. 13 a , a mode of blocking lower end rows by the movable shutter without changing the number of columns as shown in FIG. 13 b , a mode of blocking upper end rows by the movable shutter without changing the number of columns as shown in FIG. 13 c , and a mode of blocking left-hand columns by the movable shutter without changing the number of rows as shown in FIG. 13 d . As the number of beams that pass the aperture of the movable shutter differs depending on the mode, the number of beams that pass the aperture of the movable shutter, i.e., the number of effective beams is computed when each of the four modes is employed. At step 1607 , the mode in which the number of effective beams becomes the greatest is selected based on the result of computation at step 1606 . There may be a case where the number of effective beams becomes very small even with the use of the system of the embodiment, such as when a plurality of beams have bad properties. At step 1608 , therefore, it is decided whether the number of effective beams exceeds a preset threshold or not. When it is decided at step 1608 that the number of effective beams exceeds the preset threshold, pattern data is recomputed according to the selection made at step 1607 (step 1609 ). Next, the movable shutter is moved according to the selection made at step 1607 (step 1610 ), and exposure is executed (step 1605 ). When it is decided at step 1608 that the number of effective beams does not exceed the preset threshold, it is decided to stop exposure (step 1611 ), and a pattern is displayed on the screen or so for a user. Through the above-described procedures, exposure can be carried out using only beams with good properties even when some electron beams fail due to failures in the associated multibeam forming devices. The time needed for beam irradiation becomes shorter than the time in the third embodiment. When one beam fails, for example, the time needed for beam irradiation becomes twice as high at most. When beams in the first quadrant and the third quadrant have bad properties, for example, the method of the third embodiment cannot perform exposure, whereas the fourth embodiment can carry out exposure. Further, the numbers of rows and columns of beams to be extracted by the movable shutter can be made variable as shown in FIG. 13 e . As this method is used when a plurality of beams have bad properties as exemplified in FIG. 14 b , beams can be extracted more efficiently in some cases. (Fifth Embodiment) In the fifth embodiment, the third embodiment is also applied to making the drop of the throughput originated from a failure in a multibeam forming device as small as possible. In the embodiment, as in the third embodiment, the movable shutter 701 extracts a beam group comprised of those in the beams split by the aperture array with good properties. It is to be noted however that while the aperture of the movable shutter in the third embodiment has a square shape, the movable shutter has a cross shape in the fifth embodiment. In FIGS. 17 a to 17 c , reference symbol “ 1701 ” indicates beams split by the aperture array and reference symbol “ 1702 ” indicates the aperture of the movable shutter. Designing the shape of the movable shutter to a cross shape can allow ¾ of the beams split by the aperture array to be extracted. In FIG. 18 , white circles (ο) indicates beams with good properties and black circles (□) indicates beams with bad properties. When there is a beam with a good property, only the first quadrant of the beams split by the aperture array where a bad beam is present, i.e., ¼ of the entire beams are blocked by the movable shutter, and the remaining three quadrants from the second quadrant to the fourth one or the ¾ of the entire beams are passed to be used in exposure as shown in FIG. 18 a. This method is compared with the methods of the third and fourth embodiments in a case where the distribution of beams with bad properties is similar. In the third embodiment, half of the entire blanker or 16×8 beams are extracted and used in exposure. In the fourth embodiment, 16×10 beams are extracted and used in exposure. In the fifth embodiment, however, the number of beams to be used in exposure is 16×16×¾, which is 1.5 times the quantity in the method of the third embodiment and 1.2 times the quantity in the method of the fourth embodiment. The beams to be extracted by the movable shutter can be given a greater degree of freedom as the numbers of rows and columns of beams to be extracted by the movable shutter are made variable by adjusting the relative positions of the beams formed by the aperture array and the movable shutter as shown in FIG. 17 b . When there is a beam with a bad property at a peripheral portion, as shown in FIG. 18 b , therefore, the number of beams usable in exposure is increased as indicated by the broken line. When m×n beams at any of the four corners included in M×N beams split by the aperture array ate blocked by the cross-shaped movable shutter, the shape of a sub-field comprised of elements of field assigned to extracted beams becomes an L shape as shown in FIG. 19 , provided that the lengths of sides of an element of field assigned to a single beam are a and b. To fill a stripe without overlapping seamlessly using the shape, the intervals between adjoining sub-fields should be (M−m)×b and (N−n)×a. That is, when three quadrants are extracted and used in exposure, the relationship between a stripe and the regions to be exposed simultaneously becomes as shown in FIG. 20 a . When beams to be extracted are given the degree of freedom, the relationship between a stripe and the regions to be exposed simultaneously becomes as shown in FIG. 20 b. As a system structure similar to the structure of the embodiment can extract beams formed by the aperture array in a rectangular shape as shown in FIG. 17 c , the exposure method of the third embodiment or the fourth embodiment can be executed as well. (Sixth Embodiment) In the sixth embodiment, the drop of the throughput originated from a failure in a multibeam forming device is made as small as possible by adapting the third to fifth embodiments. In the embodiment, as in the third embodiment, the movable shutter extracts a beam group comprised of those in the beams split by the aperture array with good properties. It is to be noted however that beams are extracted by a single movable shutter in the third to fifth embodiments, whereas beams are extracted by two shutters which are independently movable in the sixth embodiment. That is, the embodiment takes a double-level shutter structure having an upper shutter and a lower shutter. In FIG. 21 , reference symbol “ 2101 ” indicates beams split by the aperture array, reference symbol “ 2102 ” indicates the aperture of the upper movable shutter, and reference symbol “ 2103 ” indicates the aperture of the lower movable shutter. Arbitrary numbers of rows and columns of beams can be extracted at an arbitrary position as indicted by the hatched portion in the diagram by adjusting the shapes of the apertures of the movable shutters, and the relative positions of the beams formed by the aperture array and the movable shutters. This can provide the beams to be extracted by the movable shutter with a greater degree of freedom, so that when there are a plurality of beams with bad properties, beams can be extracted efficiently. (Seventh Embodiment) FIG. 22 shows the layout of beams which are formed by multibeam forming device's in a multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus according to the seventh embodiment of the invention and are projected onto a sample. In the embodiment, there are M×N or 16×16 electron beams surrounded by a broken-line block 2201 which are to be used in exposure normally, i.e., when there are no beams with bad properties. Those beams are arrayed at equal pitches which are “1” on the sample surface. Thee are three relief beams 2202 , 2203 and 2204 formed outside the three corners of the broken-line block 2201 , namely the upper left corner, the upper right corner and the lower right corner. Relief exposure is executed by using a total of four relief beams or the three relief beams 2202 , 2203 and 2204 and a beam 2205 located at the lower left corner in the array of 16×16 beams which are surrounded by the broken-line block 2201 and are used in normal exposure. As the three relief beams are arranged outside the array of the array of 16×16 beams, which are surrounded by the broken-line block 2201 and are used in normal exposure, by one pitch of the array, the pitch of the four beams on the sample surface is 16×1. The feature of the apparatus that forms the relief beams lies in the addition of multibeam forming devices for the relief beams and a control system for the relief beams. Specifically, the aperture array is provided with apertures for the relief beams, the lens array is provided with lenses for the relief beams, the deflector array is provided with deflectors for the relief beams, and the blanker array is provided with blankers for the relief beams. In addition, a deflector control system and a blanker control system for the relief beams are provided to execute relief exposure using the relief beams. The exposure process is carried out as follows by using the relief beams. When there is beam with a bad property in the 16×16 beams surrounded by the broken-line block 2201 , the beam with a bad property is blocked by the same method as used in the first embodiment of the second embodiment, and then normal exposure is performed. The exposure method in use is a method similar to the conventionally proposed multibeam exposure method that has been explained in the foregoing description of the third embodiment referring to FIG. 9 . At this time, the relief beams are also blocked to the sample by the associated blankers. As a result, elements of field corresponding to the beam with a bad property are not exposed in all the sub-fields. The interval between the elements of field which have not been exposed due to blocking of the beams is equal to the interval between the sub-fields or 16×1. Next, exposure of those elements of field which should originally be exposed by blocked beams or relief exposure is executed by using a total of four beams, namely the three relief beams 2202 , 2203 and 2204 and the beam 2205 located at the lower left corner in the array of 16×16 beams which are surrounded by the broken-line block 2201 and are used in normal exposure. At this time, the interval between the four beams and the interval between the elements of field which should be exposed are both 16×1. As shown in FIG. 23 a , therefore, the elements of field that are lost due to the bad properties of four sub-fields can be exposed at a time in relief exposure by using the four beams. This can be said as utilization of the fact that a field constructed by the four beams to be used in relief exposure is larger by one pitch than a field constructed by 16×16 beams to be used in normal exposure (maximum allowable exposure region). When one beam has a bad property, therefore, a region which is conventionally exposed as four sub-fields can be exposed in a time equivalent to the time for exposure of five sub-fields. That is, an increase in beam irradiation time can be suppressed to 25%, regardless of the location of a beam which has a bad property. When two ore more beams have bad properties, an increase in beam irradiation time is 25% per beam with a bad property. For up to three bad properties, therefore, the beam irradiation time can be made shorter than that achieved by the method of the first embodiment. In the embodiment, relief exposure is executed using three relief beams and the beam at the lower left corner, a total of four beams. In other words, the beam 2205 at the lower left corner is used in relief exposure as well as in normal exposure. This requires that data for controlling the blanker at the lower left corner should be computed and transferred serially for each of the normal exposure and the relief exposure, which may limit the exposure speed. In this respect, relief exposure is executed using the three relief beams 2202 , 2203 and 2204 alone without using the beam 2205 at the lower left corner. At this time, elements of field which are lost due to bad properties for three sub-fields are exposed simultaneously in relief exposure as shown in FIG. 23 b . This can isolate blankers to be controlled in normal exposure from those in relief exposure, making it possible to perform data computation and transfer for blanker control in parallel. As compared with the case where relief exposure is performed using four beams, while the beam irradiation time is increased, the data computation time and the data transfer time are shortened, thus making the time needed for the exposure process shorter. (Eighth Embodiment) FIG. 24 shows the structure of a multibeam type electron beam exposure apparatus according to the eighth embodiment of the invention. With a crossover 101 being a light source, a condenser lens 102 forms approximately parallel electron beams. Reference symbol “ 103 ” is an aperture array having apertures arrayed two-dimensionally. Reference symbol “ 104 ” is a lens array having electrostatic lenses having the same focal length arrayed two-dimensionally. The lens array 104 is mounted on a stage 2401 which moves in a plane perpendicular to the beam axis. Reference symbols “ 105 ” and “ 106 ” are deflector arrays each having a two-dimensional array of electrostatic deflectors which can be driven individually. Reference symbol “ 107 ” is a blanker array having a two-dimensional array of electrostatic blankers which can be driven individually. The deflector arrays 105 and 106 and the blanker array 107 are mounted on a stage 2402 which moves in a plane perpendicular to the beam axis. The approximately parallel electron beams formed by the condenser lens 102 are split into a plurality of electron beams by the aperture array 103 . The split electron beams enter the electrostatic lenses in the lens array 104 . The position of the stage 2401 determines which lenses in the lens array 104 the beams split by the aperture array 103 enter. The lens array 104 gives convergence to the beams input to the lenses, thereby forming intermediate images of the crossover 101 at the height of the blanker array 107 . At this time, the position of the stage 2402 determines which blankers in the blanker array 107 the beams caught by the lens array 104 enter. A movable shutter 2403 is provided between the aperture array 103 and the lens array 104 to cause the beams split by the aperture array 103 to selectively reach the sample. In the embodiment, the movable shutter 2403 comprises two shutters which can independently move. Arbitrary numbers of rows and columns of beams can be extracted at an arbitrary position by adjusting the shape of the aperture of the movable shutter 2403 , and the relative positions of the beams formed by the aperture array 103 and the movable shutter 2403 . Specifically, the stage 2401 , the stage 2402 and the movable shutter 2403 are statically controlled by a stage control circuit 2404 , a stage control circuit 2405 and a shutter control circuit 2406 . A pattern control circuit 204 dynamically controls a blanker control circuit 205 , a deflector control circuit 206 and a stage control circuit 207 to irradiate a beam based on pattern data onto a sample 115 . The stage control circuit 2404 , the stage control circuit 2405 , the shutter control circuit 2406 and the pattern control circuit 204 are controlled by a control computer 202 which is the interface to an operator. Referring to FIG. 25 , extraction of arbitrary rows and columns at an arbitrary position in the embodiment will be described below. A solid-line block 2501 indicates beams split by the aperture array 103 . A one-dot chain line block 2502 indicates the array of lenses in the lens array 104 . A one-dot chain line block 2503 indicates the array of blankers in the blanker array 107 . Therefore, the hatched portion indicates beams which are affected by the aperture array 103 , the lens array 104 and the blanker array 107 . That portion of the beams 2501 split by the aperture array which excludes the hatched portion indicates beams which do not have associated lenses or blankers. From the viewpoint of contamination, it is not desirable to irradiate the beams to the lens array or the blanker array. Accordingly, the movable shutter 2403 blocks beams which do not have associated lenses or blankers. As there may be a case where the beams which are affected by the aperture array 103 , the lens array 104 and the blanker array 107 include a beam with a bad property, the movable shutter 2403 blocks this beam too. A thick-line block 2504 indicates beams which pass through the aperture of the movable shutter. That is, the thick-line block 2504 can be said to indicate beams with good properties which are well worked out by the multibeam forming devices. The position of the stages 2401 and 2402 , the aperture shape and the position of the movable shutter 2403 are adjusted in such a way as to maximize the number of beams which are split by the aperture array 103 , pass through the aperture of the movable shutter and well undergo convergence in the lens array 104 . Accordingly, the array of beams with good properties can be made as large as possible, and unnecessary beams can be blocked by the movable shutter. The array of beams with good properties selected by the movable shutter is projected in reduced size on the sample 115 set on the stage 116 by the electromagnetic lenses 110 , 111 , 112 and 113 . The position of the size-reduced projected image is determined by the amount of deflection of the deflector 114 . Although movement of the stages is used to select the lenses and blankers to pass the beams split by the aperture array in the embodiment, an aligner may be used to bring about a similar effect. Specifically, an aligner is provided between the aperture array and the lens array to adjust the irradiation position of the lens array. Another aligner is provided between the lens array and the blanker array to adjust the irradiation position of the blanker array. By blocking beams which do not have associated lenses or blankers by the movable shutter, the array of beams with good properties can be made as large as possible, and unnecessary beams can be blocked by the movable shutter. The following will discuss one example of an evaluation method for the properties of individual beams in the multibeam exposure method, which is essential in executing exposure using only beams with good properties. As the invention aims at selecting beams with desired properties from a plurality of multiple beams, properties common to all of multiple beams, such as aberration originated from the irradiation optical system and the objective optical system and the position accuracy of the stage, are not dealt with. Besides a bad property of each beam brought about by a failure in a multibeam forming device, a variation in the properties of individual beams is caused by irregular irradiation by the irradiation optical system, a deviation from the telecentric system and deformation by the objective optical system. The invention is therefore effective in those points. That is, the following four properties should be measured and evaluated whether they fulfill the desired property or not for all of the beams. (1) Spot shape on the sample (2) Spot position on the sample (3) Change in properties (1) and (2) with time (4) Blanking property With regard to the properties (1) to (3), the size and position of each electron beam converged on the sample can be measured by using, for example, a linear measurement mark placed perpendicular to the scan direction of electron beams. With regard to the property (4), specifically, whether irradiation or blocking of each beam to the sample is controlled well or not should be checked. That is, the beam current should be measured in cases where a voltage is applied to a blanker associated with each be and where no voltage is applied in the static control, and the response of the beam current to the voltage applied to a blanker should be measured in the dynamic control. To achieve the measurement, the level of the current of each electron beam can be measured with high precision and high speed by using, for example, a Faraday cup which is made of a heavy metal, such as tantalum, or a heavy metal with a larger atomic number than that of tantalum, and has a high aspect ratio. In the example, provided that the properties listed above were measured and evaluated for all of the beams, the position of the movable shutter was adjusted once a day to perform exposure using only those beams which have the desired property by using, for example, the method of the third embodiment. Depending on the degree of stability of the multibeam forming devices, the frequency of adjustment may be reduced to once a week or may be increased lot by lot or sample by sample. There is a possibility that improperness of a specific beam, which has not been detected from the results of measuring the four properties, becomes apparent through inspection of the result of exposure. In this respect, the inspection becomes more efficient if a QC (Quality Control) pattern more sensitive to a variation in the properties of the individual beams than a device pattern is exposed and is inspected. Alternatively, should a QC pattern be always exposed on each sample where a device pattern is to be exposed, a variation in the properties of beams can be monitored by executing extraction inspection at the adequate timing. The exposure accuracy demanded may change within the same sample depending on the position in the sample. That is, there may be a case where the threshold for the properties of the individual beams differs within a sample. In such a case, the number of electron beams to be used in exposure can be changed during exposure of the same sample based on the properties of the individual beams measured in advance. That is, the throughput can be improved as high as possible by always executing exposure with the lowest property required. Although the foregoing description of the embodiments has been given of the case where multiple beams are formed by using a single electron source, the invention is not limited to this case but can be adapted to exposure equipment constructed to form multiple beams using a plurality of electron sources. The invention is not restrictive to the use of electron beams, but is also effective when adapted to multibeam type electron exposure equipment using charged-particle beams such as ion beams.

Disclosed is equipment for charged-particle beam lithography capable of executing exposure even when an electron beam with a bad property is produced due to a failure in some multibeam forming element, without replacing the failing multibeam forming element and without reducing the exposure accuracy. The equipment includes means for forming a plurality of charged-particle beams arranged at predetermined intervals; a plurality of blankers which act on the plurality of charged-particle beams individually; a common blanker which acts on all of the plurality of charged-particle beams; and a blanking restriction for causing those charged-particle beams which are given predetermined deflection by the plurality of blankers to reach onto a sample, with a signal applied to the common blanker, and blocking those charged-particle beams which are not given the predetermined deflection by the plurality of blankers to the sample. The equipment blocks beams with bad properties to the sample and executes exposure using only those beams which have bad properties.

This is a divisional of application Ser. No. 08/040,189 filed on Mar. 26, 1993, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,475,011. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This work was in part supported by a grant from the National Institute of Health (GM42798). The invention relates to new taxanes possessing strong antitumor activities, precursors of these compounds, compositions including these compounds, and processes for synthesizing these compounds and methods for treating tumors by using these new compounds. Taxol is currently considered the most exciting "lead" compound in cancer chemotherapy. Taxol is a complex diterpene isolated from the bark of Taxus Brevifolia (Pacific Yew). Taxol possesses high cytotoxicity and strong antitumor activity against different cancers which have not been effectively treated by existing antitumor drugs. For example, taxol has been approved by FDA in late 1992 for the treatment of advanced ovarian cancer, and is currently in phase II clinical trials for breast and lung cancers. Although Taxol is an important "lead" compound in cancer chemotherapy, Taxol has limited solubility in aqueous media, resulting in serious limitations to its use. It is also common that better drugs can be derived from naturally occurring "lead" compounds. In fact, French researchers have discovered a new anticancer agent by modifying the C-13 side chain of Taxol. This unnatural compound, named "Taxotere", has t-butoxycarbonyl instead of benzoyl on the amino group of (2R,3S)-phenylisoserine moiety at the C-13 position and a hydroxyl group instead of acetoxy group at C-10. Taxotere has antitumor activity superior to Taxol with better bioavailability. Taxotere is currently in phase II clinical trials in the United States, Europe, and Japan. Taxol and Taxotere have chemical structures as follows: ##STR3## A recent report on clinical trials of Taxol and Taxotere has disclosed that Taxol has side effects such as nerve damage, muscle pain or disturbances in heart rhythm. Taxotere also has side effects. For example, Taxotere provokes mouth sores and a plunge in white blood cell count. There are other minor side effects for these two drugs. Taxol's poor water solubility causes practical problems in its pharmaceutical applications. For example, pharmaceutical formulations containing Taxol may require special carriers. Maximum dosages in Taxol drugs are also limited by the solubility of Taxol. Taxotere, on the other hand, has a somewhat improved water solubility and thus better pharmacological properties than Taxol, but this antitumor agent also has a solubility problem. It has been found that 14-Hydroxy-10-deacetylbaccatin III (14-OH-DAB), ##STR4## has much higher water solubility than the usual 10-deacetylbaccatin III. 10-deacetylbaccatin III is currently used for production of Taxol and Taxotere. This higher solubility of 14-OH-DAB is due to an extra hydroxyl group at the C-14 position. Therefore, new antitumor taxanes derived from 14-OH-DAB are expected to have substantially improved water solubility and pharmacological properties as therapeutic agents. The improved pharmacological properties are believed to be related to modifications in toxicity and activity spectra against different types of cancer. Accordingly, it is an object of the invention to develop new anti-tumor agents of the Taxol or Taxotere class which have distinct structural differences which enhance solubility. It is a further object of the present invention to provide a series of new taxanes derived from 14-OH-DAB which possess strong antitumor activities with better therapeutic profile. It is yet another object of the present invention to synthesize the new taxanes in high yield with a minimum number of syntheses steps. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Compounds of the formula (I) ##STR5## or the formula (II) ##STR6## are useful as antitumor agents or their precursors. In these compounds R 1 represents an unsubstituted or substituted straight chain or branched alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl, an unsubstituted or substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical, an unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl or heterocycloalkenyl radical; R 2 is an unsubstituted or substituted straight chain or branched alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, heterocycloalkenyl, aryl or heteroaryl; or R 2 can also be an RO-, RS- or RR'N- in which R represents an unsubstituted or substituted straight chain or branched alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, heterocycloalkenyl, aryl or heteroaryl; R' is a hydrogen or R is as defined above; R and R' can be connected to form a cyclic structure; R 3 represents a hydrogen or an acyl or an alkyl or an alkenyl or an alkynyl or an unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl or heterocycloalkenyl radical, or an unsubstituted or substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical or a hydroxyl protecting group; R 4 represents a hydrogen or an acyl radical or an alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl radical, an unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl or heterocycloalkenyl radical, an unsubstituted or substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical, or a hydroxyl protecting group; R 5 represents a hydrogen or an acyl radical or an alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl radical, an unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl or heterocycloalkenyl radical, an unsubstituted or substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical, or a hydroxyl protecting group; R 6 represents a hydrogen or an acyl radical or an alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl radical, an unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl or heterocycloalkenyl radical, an unsubstituted or substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical, or a hydroxyl protecting group; R 5 and R 6 can be connected to form a cyclic structure; R 7 represents an acyl group; R 8 represents a hydrogen or a hydroxyl protecting group. The new taxanes (I) and (II) are synthesized by processes which comprise coupling reactions, in the presence of a base, of baccatin of the formula (III) ##STR7## in which G 1 , G 2 , G 3 and G 4 represent a hydroxyl protecting group or an acyl or an alkyl or an alkenyl or an alkynyl or an unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl or heterocycloalkenyl radical, or an unsubstituted or substituted aryl or heteroaryl radical; G 3 and G 4 can be connected to form a cyclic structure; R 6 has been defined above; or of the formula (IV) ##STR8## in which G 1 , G 2 , G 4 , and R 6 have been defined above; with β-lactams of the formula (V) ##STR9## in which G is a hydroxyl protecting group such as ethoxyethyl (EE), triethylsilyl (TES) and dimethyl(tertbutyl)silyl (TBDMS), and R 1 and R 2 have been defined above. The new taxanes of the present invention have shown strong antitumor activities against human breast, non-small cell lung, ovarian, and colon cancer cells. It is therefore very important to develop new anti-cancer drugs which have fewer undesirable side effects, better pharmacological properties, and/or activity spectra against various tumor types different from both Taxol and Taxotere. For a better understanding of the present invention, together with other and further objects, reference is made to the following description and its scope will be pointed out in the appended claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The new taxanes of formulae (I) or (II), as shown above, are useful as antitumor agents or their precursors. The taxanes of the present invention possess strong antitumor activities against human breast, non-small cell lung, ovarian, and colon cancer cells. The new taxanes of the formula (I) are synthesized by modifying the baccatin of formula (III) in which ##STR10## G 1 , G 2 , G 3 , G 4 , and R 7 have been defined above. The new taxanes of formula (II) are synthesized by modifying the baccatin of formula (IV) ##STR11## in which G 1 , G 2 , G 4 , and R 7 have been defined above. Precursors of (III) and (IV) are readily available. Both baccatins (III) and (IV) may be prepared by chemically modifying 14β-hydroxy-10-deacetylbaccatin (14-OH-DAB), a naturally occurring compound found in Himalayan Yew. Methods of isolations of 14-OH-DAB have been described by Appendino et al. in "14β-Hydroxy-10-deacetylbaccatin III, a New Taxane from Himalayan Yew." J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans I, 2525-2529 (1992), the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Baccatins (III) and (IV) are coupled with β-lactams of formula (V) ##STR12## in which G, R 1 and R 2 have been defined above, to yield the new taxanes (I) and (II), respectively. β-lactams (V) are readily prepared from β-lactams (VI) which are easily obtained through a chiral enolate--imine cyclocondensation method developed in one of the inventors' laboratory as shown in Scheme 1. The cyclocondensation is described in Ojima et al., Tetrahedron, 1992, 48, 6985; Ojima, I. et al., J. Org. Chem., 56, 1681, (1991), and in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/842,444 filed on Feb. 27, 1992 the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. In this preparation, β-lactams (VI) are obtained in high yields with extremely high enantiomeric purities. Scheme 1 illustrates the synthesis of a chiral β-lactam. In Scheme 1, R* is a chiral auxiliary moiety which may be (-)-trans-2-phenyl-1-cyclohexyl, (-)-10-dicyclohexylsulfamoyl-D-isobornyl or (-)-menthyl; TMS is a trimethylsilyl radical; the base is lithium diisopropylamide or lithium hexamethyldisilazide; and G and R 1 have been defined above. The removal of the 4-methoxy phenyl group from the N-position (VI') to obtain β-lactams (VI) is accomplished by treatment with cerium ammonium nitrate (CAN). ##STR13## Referring now to Scheme 2, β-lactams (VIa) where G is triisopropylsilyl (TIPS) may be converted to the 3-hydroxy-β-lactams (VII), followed by protection with groups such as ethoxyethyl (EE) or triethylsilyl (TES) to give β-lactams (VI). The protecting groups can be attached to the hydroxyl group of β-lactams (VI) by methods which are generally known to those skilled in the art. β-Lactams (VI) where G is (tert-butyl)dimethylsilyl (TBDMS), may be directly obtained from the chiral enolate-imine cyclocondensation described above. β-Lactams (VI) may be reacted with acyl chlorides, chloroformates, and carbamoyl chlorides in the presence of a base to yield β-lactams (V). The β-lactams (V) may be coupled with baccatin (III) or (IV). Scheme 3 and 4 illustrate the coupling of β-lactams (V) baccatins (III) or (IV) in the presence of a base, followed by deprotection to yield the new taxanes (I) or (II), respectively in high yields. ##STR14## The taxanes thus obtained are represented by formulae I and II shown above. R 1 through R 8 are as generally defined above. R 1 , R 2 and R are each independently a straight chain or branched alkyl radical containing 1 to 10 carbon atoms, a straight chain or branched alkenyl radical containing 2 to 10 carbon atoms, or a straight chain or branched alkynyl radical containing 2 to 10 carbon atoms, a cycloalkyl radical containing 3 to 10 carbon atoms, a heterocycloalkyl radical containing 3 to 10 carbon atoms, a cycloalkenyl radical containing 3 to 10 carbon atoms, a heterocycloalkenyl radical containing 3 to 10 carbon atoms, a polycycloalkyl radical containing 6 to 20 carbon atoms, an aryl radical containing 6 to 20 carbons, a heteroaryl radical containing 3 to 15 carbon atoms; or R 2 can also be RO-, RS- or RR'N- radical in which R is as defined above; R' is a hydrogen or can also be R as defined above; R and R' can be connected to form a cyclic structure which has 2 to 10 carbon atoms; R 3 , R 4 , R 5 or R 6 are each independently hydrogen or an acyl radical having 1 to 20 carbons or R as defined above or a hydroxyl protecting group; R 7 is an acyl group having 1 to 20 carbons; R 8 is a hydrogen or a hydroxyl protecting group. Heteroaromatic groups may also include atoms of oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur. In addition, with respect to formula (I) and (II) above, R 3 can also be a hydrogen or G 1 ; R 4 can also be a hydrogen or G 2 ; R 5 can also be a hydrogen or G 3 ; R 6 can also be a hydrogen or G 4 ; and R 8 can also be a hydrogen or G, in which G, G 1 , G 2 , G 3 and G 4 have been previously defined. Each radical in R 1 , R 2 and R as defined above can be optionally substituted with one or more halogens, hydroxyl, amino, mercapto, cyano, carboxyl group, alkoxy, alkylamino, dialkylamino, alkylthio, alkoxycarboxyl group in which said alkyl portion has 1 to 15 carbon atoms aryloxy, arylthio, aryloxycarbonyl, in which said aryl portion has 6 to 20 carbon atoms, or heteroarylthio, heteroaryloxy carbonyl in which said heteroaryl portion has 3 to 15 carbon atoms. In one embodiment, R 1 can also be an alkyl radical selected from the group consisting of methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, isopentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, isohexyl, heptyl, isoheptyl, octyl, isooctyl, cyclohexylmethyl, cyclohexylethyl, benzyl, phenylethyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclooctyl, and adamantyl, or an alkenyl radical selected from the group consisting of vinyl, allyl, 2-phenylethenyl, 2-furylethenyl, 2-pyrrolyl-ethenyl, 2-pyridylethenyl, 2-thienylethyl, or an an unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl radical selected from the group consisting of ethynyl and propargyl or an aryl radical selected from the group consisting of phenyl, tolyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, 3,4-dimethoxyphenyl, 4-fluorophenyl, 4-trifluoromethylphenyl, 4-chlorophenyl, and naphthyl; or a heteroaryl radical selected from the group consisting of furyl, pyrrolyl, and pyridyl, or a cycloalkenyl radical selected from the group consisting of cyclopentenyl, cyclohexenyl and cycloheptenyl or a heterocycloalkyl selected from the group consisting of oxiranyl, pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, tetrahydrofuryl, and tetrahydropyranyl, or a heterocycloalkenyl radical selected from the group consisting of dihydrofuryl, dihydropyrrolyl, dihydropiranyl, and dihydropyridyl; R 2 is an unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl or heteroaryl radical selected from the group consisting of phenyl, tolyl, 4-fluorophenyl, 4-chlorophenyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, biphenyl, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, neopentyl, hexyl, heptyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexylmethyl, benzyl, phenylethyl, phenylethenyl, crotyl, allyl, vinyl, propargyl, pyridinyl, furyl, thienyl, pyrrolidinyl, and piperidinyl; or R 2 is RO-, RS-, or RR'N- wherein R is an unsubstituted or substituted alkyl radical selected from the group consisting of methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, isopentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, isohexyl, heptyl, isoheptyl, octyl, isooctyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclooctyl, and adamantyl, or an alkenyl radical selected from the group consisting of vinyl and allyl, or an aryl radical selected from phenyl and naphthyl, or a heteroaryl radical selected from the group consisting of furyl, pyrrolyl, and pyridyl, or a cycloalkenyl radical selected from the group consisting of cyclopentenyl, cyclohexenyl and cycloheptenyl, or a heterocycloalkyl radical selected from the group consisting of an oxiranyl, tetrahydrofuryl, pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, and tetrahydropiranyl, or a heterocycloalkenyl radical selected from the group consisting of dihydrofuryl, dihydropyrrolyl, dihydropiranyl, dihydropyridyl; R' is a hydrogen or R is as defined above; cyclic RR'N- is a radical including an aziridino, azetidino, pyrrolidino, piperidino or morpholino group; wherein said hydroxyl protecting group is selected from the group consisting of methoxymethyl, methoxyethyl, 1-ethoxyethyl, benzyloxymethyl, (β-trimethylsilylethoxyl)methyl, tetrahydropyranyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethoxylcarbonyl, benzyloxycarbonyl, tertbutoxycarbonyl, 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethoxymethyl, trimethylsilyl, triethylsilyl, tripropylsilyl, dimethylethylsilyl, dimethyl(t-butyl)silyl, diethylmethylsilyl, dimethylphenylsilyl and diphenylmethylsilyl; said acyl is selected from the group consisting of acetyl, chloroacetyl, dichloroacetyl, trichloroacetyl and trifluoroacetyl, propanoyl, butanoyl, pentanoyl, hexanoyl, heptanoyl, cyclohexanecarbonyl, octanoyl, nonanoyl, decanoyl, undecanoyl, dodecanoyl, benzoyl, phenylacetyl, nanphthalenecarbonyl, indoleacetyl, methoxycarbonyl, ethoxycarbonyl, propoxycarbonyl, and butoxycarbonyl; and R 5 and R 6 form a cyclic structure with two oxygen atoms of the skeleton of said taxane, wherein said cyclic structure is selected from the group consisting of carbonate, methylacetal, ethylacetal, propylacetal, butylacetal, phenylacetal, dimethylketal, diethylketal, dipropylketal, and dibutylketal. In another emobodiment R 1 may be phenyl, tolyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, 3,4-dimethoxyphenyl, 4-fluorophenyl, 4-trifluoromethyl-phenyl, 4-hydroxyphenyl, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl, pyridyl, furyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, N-methylpyrrolyl, 2-phenylethenyl, 2-furylethenyl, 2-pyridylethenyl, 2-thienylethenyl, 2-phenylethyl, 2-cyclohexylethyl, cyclohexylmethyl, isobutyl or cyclohexyl; R 2 is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, tolyl, 4-fluorophenyl, 4-chlorophenyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, biphenyl, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, neopentyl, hexyl, heptyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexylmethyl, benzyl, phenylethyl, and phenylethenyl; or R 2 is RO- wherein R is selected from the group consisting of a methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, isopentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, isohexyl, cyclohexyl, phenyl, benzyl and 9-fluorenylmethyl; or R 2 is RR'N- selected from the group consisting of a methylamino, ethylamino, propylamino, isopropylamino, butylamino, isobutylamino, tert-butylamino, neopentylamino, cyclohexylamino, phenylamino or benzylamino, dimethylamino, diethylamino, dipropylamino, dibutylamino, dipentylamino, dihexylamino, dicyclohexylamino, methyl(tert-butyl)amino, cyclohexyl(methyl)amino, methyl(phenyl)amino, pyrrolidiono, piperidino, or morpholino group; R 3 and R 4 are selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, acetyl, chloroacetyl, dichloroacetyl, trichloroacetyl, and trifluoroacetyl, benzoyl, phenylacetyl, acryloyl, and crotyl, cinnamoyl, allyl, benzyl, methoxymethyl, methoxyethyl, 1-ethoxyethyl, tetrahydropyranyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethoxylcarbonyl, benzyloxycarbonyl, tert-butoxycarbonyl, 9-fluroenylmethoxycarbonyl, trimethylsilyl, triethylsilyl, (tertbutyl)dimethylsilyl; R 5 is selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, acetyl, chloroacetyl, allyl, benzyl, acryloyl, crotyl, and cinnamoyl and R 6 is a hydrogen; wherein R 5 and R 6 are connected to form a cyclic structure selected from the group consisting of carbonyl, propylidene, butylidene, pentylidene, phenylmethylidene, dimethylmethylidene, diethylmethylidene, dipropylmethylidene, dibutylmethylidene, methoxymethylidene, ethoxymethylidene, methylene, ethylene, and propylene; R 7 is selected from the group consisting of benzoyl and cyclohexanecarbonyl; R 8 is selected from the group consisting of a hydrogen, 1-ethoxyethyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethoxylcarbonyl, trimethylsilyl, triethylsilyl, and tert-butyldimethylsilyl. Representative hydroxyl protecting groups include methoxylmethyl (MOM), methoxyethyl (MEM), 1-ethoxyethyl (EE), benzyloxymethyl, (β-trimethylsilylethoxyl)methyl, tetrahydropyranyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethoxylcarbonyl (Troc), benzyloxycarbonyl (CBZ), tert-butoxycarbonyl (t-BOC), 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (Fmoc), 2,2,2-trichloroethoxymethyl, trimethylsilyl, triethylsilyl, tripropylsilyl, dimethylethylsilyl, dimethyl(t-butyl)silyl, diethylmethylsilyl, dimethylphenylsilyl and diphenylmethylsilyl, acetyl, chloroacetyl, dichloroacetyl, trichloroacetyl or trifluoroacetyl. The coupling reaction of baccatin (III) or (IV) and β-lactam (V), as shown in Schemes 3 and 4, occurs at an alkali metal alkoxide which is located at the C-13 hydroxyl group of baccatin (III) or at the C-14 hydroxyl group of baccatin (IV). The alkoxide can be readily generated by reacting the baccatin with an alkali metal base. Representative alkyl metal bases include sodium hexamethyldisilazide, potassium hexamethyldisilazide, lithium hexamethyldisilazide, sodium diisopropylamide, potassium diisopropylamide, lithium diisopropylamide, sodium hydride, in a dry nonprotic organic solvent. Tetrahydrofuran (THF), dioxane, ether, dimethoxyethane (DME), diglyme, dimethylformamide (DMF), or mixtures of these solvents with hexane, toluene, and xylene are useful nonprotic organic solvents. The coupling reaction is preferrably carried out in a temperature range from about -100° C. to about 50° C., and more preferably from about -50° C. to about 25° C. The coupling reaction is also preferably carried out under an inert gas atmosphere such as nitrogen and argon. The amount of base used for the reaction is preferably approximately equivalent to the amount of baccatin when soluble bases such as sodium hexamethyldisilazide, potassium hexamethyldisilazide, lithium hexamethyldisilazide, sodium diisopropylamide, potassium diisopropylamide, lithium diisopropylamide are being used. The use of a slight excess of base does not adversely affect the reaction. When heterogeneous bases such as sodium hydride and potassium hydride are used, 5-10 equivalents of the base to the amount of baccatin are preferably employed. The coupling reaction at the metal alkoxide of baccatin is typically carried out by adding a solution of β-lactam in a dry non-protic organic solvent, as described above, in a preferred temperature range from about -100° C. to 50° C., and more preferably from about -50° C. to 25° C. The mixture of reactants is stirred for 15 minutes to 24 hours and the progress and completion of the reaction may be monitored by known methods such as thin layer chromatography (TLC). When the limiting reactant is completely consumed, the reaction is quenched by addition of a cold brine solution. The crude reaction mixture is worked up using standard isolation procedures, generally known to those skilled in the art, to yield the corresponding taxane. The ratio of β-lactam to baccatin is in a range from 2:1 to 1:2. More preferably a ratio of approximately 1:1 has been formed to be more economic and efficient, but this ratio is not critical for the reaction. Work-up means any routine isolation procedure used to obtain the product from the reaction mixture. The hydroxyl protecting groups can then be removed by using standard procedures which are generally known to those skilled in the art to give desired taxane derivatives. For example, 1-ethoxyethyl and triethylsilyl groups can be removed by adding 0.5N HCl at room temperature for 36 hours. A Troc group can be removed by adding with zinc and acetic acid in methanol at 60° C. for one hour without disturbing other functional groups or the skeleton of taxane. Another method of deprotection is treating triisopropylsilyl (TIPS) or (tert-butyl)dimethylsilyl (TBDMS) groups with fluoride ion. The compounds of the invention can be formulated in pharmaceutical preparations or formulated in the form of pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, particularly as nontoxic pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts or acceptable basic salts. These salts can be prepared from the compounds of the invention according to conventional chemical methods. Normally, the salts are prepared by reacting the free base or acid with stoichiometric amounts or with an excess thereof of the desired salt forming inorganic or organic acid in a suitable solvent or various combination of solvents. As an example, the free base can be dissolved in an aqueous solution of the appropriate acid and the salt recovered by standard techniques, for example, by evaporation of the solution. Alternatively, the free base can be dissolved in an organic solvent such as a lower alkanol, an ether, an alkyl ester, or mixtures thereof, for example, methanol, ethanol, ether, ethyl acetate, an ethyl acetate-ether solution, and the like, whereafter it is treated with the appropriate acid to form the corresponding salt. The salt is recovered by standard recovery techniques, for example, by filtration of the desired salt on spontaneous separation from the solution or it can be precipitated by the addition of a solvent in which the salt is insoluble and recovered therefrom. Due to their antineoplastic activity, the taxane compounds of the invention can be utilized in the treatment of cancers. The new compounds are administrable in the form of tablets, pills, powder mixtures, capsules, injectables, solutions, suppositories, emulsions, dispersions, food premix, and in other suitable forms. The pharmaceutical preparation which contains the compound is conveniently admixed with a nontoxic pharmaceutical organic carrier, usually about 0.01 mg up to 2500 mg. or higher per dosage unit, preferably 50-500 mg. Typical of pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are, for example, manitol, urea, dextrans, lactose, potato and maize starches, magnesium stearate, talc, vegetable oils, polyalkylene glycols, ethyl cellulose, poly(vinylpyrrolidone), calcium carbonate, ethyl oleate, isopropyl myristate, benzyl benzoate, sodium carbonate, gelatin, potassium carbonate, silicic acid, and other conventionally employed acceptable carriers. The pharmaceutical preparation may also contain nontoxic auxiliary substances such as emulsifying, preserving, wetting agents, and the like as for example, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine oleate, polyoxyethylene monostearate, glyceryl tripalmitate, dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, and the like. The compounds of the invention can also be freeze dried and, if desired, combined with other pharmaceutically acceptable excipients to prepare formulations suitable for parenteral, injectable administration. For such administration, the formulation can be reconstituted in water (normal, saline), or a mixture of water and an organic solvent, such as propylene glycol, ethanol, and the like. The dose administered, whether a single dose, multiple dose, or a daily dose, will, of course, vary with the particular compound of the invention employed because of the varying potency of the compound, the chosen route of administration, the size of the recipient and the nature of the patient's condition. The dosage administered is not subject to definite bounds, but it will usually be an effective amount, or the equivalent on a molar basis of the physiologically active free form produced from a dosage formulation upon the metabolic release of the active drug to achieve its desired pharmacological and physiological effects. The following non-limiting examples are illustrative of the present invention. The full scope of the invention will be pointed out in the claims which follow the specification. EXAMPLES β-lactams (VI) were obtained as shown in Scheme 1 through a chiral enolate-imine cyclocondensation method in which silyloxyacetates (A) were reacted with imines or aldimines (B) and (B') in the presence of a base such as lithium diisopropylamide or lithium hexamethyldisilazide. Procedures for obtaining the starting compounds (A) and (B) or (B') are described in Examples 1-12. The materials used in Examples 1-12 in the preparation of materials (A), (B) and (B') are readily commercially available. Example 1 Preparation of (-)-(1R,2S)-2-phenyl-1-cyclohexyltriisopropylsilyloxyacetate (A) A solution of (-)-(1R,2S)-2-phenyl-1-cyclohexyl hydroxyacetate (851 mg, 3.63 mmol) was prepared through esterification of benzyloxyacetyl chloride with (-)-(1R,2S)-2-phenyl-1-cyclohexanol followed by hydrogenolysis. Then, triisopropylsilyl chloride (840 mg, 4.36 mmol) and imidazole (618 mg, 9.08 mmol) in dimethylformamide (DMF) (1.7 mL) were stirred at room temperature for 12-20 hours. The mixture was poured into pentane (25 mL), and washed with water and brine. The combined organic layers were dried over anhydrous MgSO 4 and concentrated in vacuo. The crude product was subjected to a purification on a short silica gel column using hexane/chloroform (3/1) as the eluant to give pure (-)-(1R,2S)-2-phenyl-1-cyclohexyl triisopropylsilyloxyacetate (1.35 g, 95% yield) as a colorless oil. Identification data for the above triisopropylsilyloxy-acetate are shown below: [α] D 20 -17.1° (c 3.15, CHCl 3 ); IR (neat) 1759, 1730 ('CO) cm -1 ; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 0.93-0.99 (m, 21H), 1.30-1.62 (m, 4H), 1.72-2.0 (m, 3H), 2.10-2.19 (m, 1H), 2.66 (dt, J=11.5, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 3.90 (d, J=16.6 Hz, 1H), 4.07 (d, J=16.6 Hz, 1H), 5.07 (dt, J=10.6, 4.0 Hz, 1H), 7.16-7.30 (m, 5H). Anal. Calcd for C 23 H 38 O 3 Si: C, 70.72; H, 9.81. Found: C, 70.79; H, 9.85. Examples 2-4 Preparations of N-trimethylsilylimines (B) N-Trimethylsilylaldimines used in the cyclocondensation method can be readily obtained by the reaction of lithium hexamethyldisilazide with aldehydes. A typical procedure for the preparation of N-trimethylsilylbenzaldimine is described below. In 75 mL of anhydrous THF were added 17.29 mL (75 mmol) of hexamethyldisilazane and 30 mL (75 mmol) of N-butyllithium (2.5M in hexane) at 0° C. under nitrogen. After stirring for one hour, 7.65 mL (75 mmol) of benzaldehyde was added at room temperature, and the mixture was refluxed for 3 hours. Then, 9.52 mL (75 mmol) of freshly distilled trimethylsilyl chloride was added with a syringe. The mixture was refluxed for 2 hours. A white precipitate formed during this process. The reaction mixture was then cooled to room temperature and the liquid layer was transferred with a syringe to a distillation flask under nitrogen. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, and the oily residue was distilled under reduced pressure (68° C./1 mm Hg) to give pure N-trimethylsilylbenzaldimine as a pale yellow oil (10.6 g, 80%) having the identification data shown below: 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 0.18 (s, 9H), 7.33-7.36 (m, 3H), 7.72-7.75 (m, 2H), 8.89 (s, 1H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ -1.25, 128.34, 128.39, 131.96, 138.70, 168.32 N-trimethylsilyl(4-methoxy)benzaldimine and N-trimethylsilyl-(3,4-dimethoxy)benzaldimine were prepared in the same manner, from 4-methoxybenzaldehyde and 3,4-dimethoxy-benzaldehyde, respectively, in 78-82% yields. Identification data for the imines is set forth next to each one of these compounds. Example 3 N-Trimethylsilyl(4-methoxy)benzaldimine Pale yellow oil; bp 105° C./0.4 mmHg; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 0.00 (s, 9H), 3.60 (s, 3H), 6.69 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.50 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 8.66 (s, 1H). Example 4 N-Trimethylsilyl-(3,4-dimethoxy)benzaldimine Colorless oil; bp 140° C./0.2 mmHg; 1 H NMR δ 0.00 (s, 9H), 3.67 (s, 3H), 3.71 (s, 3H), 6.65 (d, J=8.2 Hz, 1H), 7.01 (dd, J=8.2, 1.8 Hz, 1H), 7.22 (d, J=1.8 Hz, 1H), 8.63 (s, 1H). Examples 5-12 Preparations of N-(4-Methoxyphenyl)aldimines (B') A typical procedure is described for the preparation of N-(4-methoxyphenyl)(4-fluoro)benzaldimine. To a solution of 4.81 g (39 mmol) of p-anisidine in 60 mL of dichloromethane was added 4.85 g (39 mmol) of 4-fluorobenzaldehyde. The mixture was stirred over anhydrous magnesium sulfate at room temperature for 15 hours. The dehydration agent was filtered off and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuo to give a crude imine. The crude imine was recrystallized from hexane/dichloro/methane to yield 7.69 g (86%) of pure N-(4-methoxyphenyl)(4-fluoro)benzaldimine as white needles. Identification data for this imine are shown below: Mp 99° C.; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 3.82 (s, 3H), 6.92 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.13 (t, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 7.21 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 2H), 7.88 (dd, J=8.6, 5.7 Hz, 2H), 8.39 (s, 1H). Other N-(4-methoxylphenyl)aldimines were prepared in high yields in the same manner. Identification data for these imines are shown next to each one of these compounds. Example 6 N-(4-Methoxyphenyl)benzaldimine White solid; mp 71°-72° C.; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 3.93 (s, 3H), 6.93 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H), 7.23 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H), 7.46 (m, 3H), 7.87 (m, 2H), 8.48 (s, 1H). Example 7 N-(4-Methoxyphenyl)(4-trifluoromethyl)benzaldimine White needles; mp 124° C.; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 3.81 (s, 3H), 6.91 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H), 7.15 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H), 7.75 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 8.10 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 8.39 (s, 1H). Example 8 N-(4-Methoxyphenyl)furfuraldimine Yellow pellets; mp 68°-70° C.; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 3.82 (s, 3H), 6.54 (dd, J=3.5, 1.8 Hz, 1H), 6.90 (d, J=3.5 Hz, 1H), 6.92 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.26 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.59 (d, J=1.8 Hz, 1H), 8.31 (s, 1H). Example 9 N-(4-Methoxyphenyl)-3-phenylpropenaldimine Yellow leaves; mp 119°-121° C.; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 3.81 (s, 3H), 6.90-7.60 (m, 7H), 8.28 (m, 1H) (ca. 1:1 mixture of stereoisomers). Example 10 N-(4-Methoxyphenyl)-3-(2-furyl)propenaldimine Yellow needles; mp 71°-73° C.; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 3.78 (s, 3H), 6.45 (dd, J=3.4, 1.6 Hz, 1H), 6.52 (d, J=3.4 Hz, 1H), 6.87 (d, J=15.8 Hz, 1H), 6.90 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 6.98 (dd, J=15.8, 8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.18 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.46 (d, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 8.20 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H). Example 11 N-(4-Methoxyphenyl)-3-methylbutanaldimine Yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.02 (d, J=6.7 Hz, 6H), 2.03 (m, 1H), 2.33 (dd, J=6.9, 5.3 Hz, 2H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 6.86 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H), 7.03 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 2H), 7.86 (t, J=5.3 Hz, 1H). Example 12 N-(4-Methoxyphenyl)cyclohexylacetaldimine Yellow oil; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.00-1.80 (m, 11H), 2.34 (dd, J=6.7, 5.4 Hz, 2H), 3.79 (s, 3H), 6.86 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.02 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.86 (t, J=5.4 Hz, 1H); IR (neat) 3033-2849, 1505, 1244, 1038, 803 cm -1 . Chiral enolate-imine cyclocondensation reactions were run to obtain the 4-substituted-2-azetidinones (VI) and (VI') shown in Scheme 1. Other azetidinones having different substituents for R 1 were prepared by following the same procedures set forth in Examples 13 and 15. The identification data for these azetidinones is shown in Examples 14 and 16-20, respectively. Examples 13-14 Preparations of (3R,4S)-3-silyloxy-4-substituted-2-azetidinones (VI) A typical procedure is described for the preparation of (3R,4S)-3-triisopropylsilyloxy-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (VIa). To a solution of 645 μL (4.6 mmol) of diisopropylamine in 10 mL of THF, was added 1.85 mL (4.6 mmol, 2.5M) of n-butyllithium at 0° C. The solution was stirred 1 h at 0° C. followed by the addition of 1.5 g (3.8 mmol) of (-) TIPS ester in 15 mL of THF over a 1 hour period (using a cannula) at -78° C. The reaction was stirred 2 hours at this temperature followed by the addition of 817 mg (4.6 mmol) of N-trimethylsilyl benzaldimine in 15 mL of THF over a 2 h period at -95° C. The reaction was stirred overnight at this temperature and allowed to slowly warm up at room temperature. The reaction was quenched by addition of saturated NH 4 Cl. The aqueous layer was extracted with ether. The organic layer was washed with 3% HCl and brine, dried over MgSO 4 and concentrated. The crude oil was purified by chromatography on silica gel using 1:5 EtOAc/hexanes as the eluent to give 1.03 g (84%) of (3R,4S)-3-Triisopropylsilyloxy-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (VIa) as a white solid. Identification data for (VIa) are shown below: Mp 76°-77° C.; [α] D 20 +52.7° (c, 100, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.86-0.93 (m, 21H), 4.81 (d, J=4.7 Hz, 1H), 5.17 (dd, J=4.7, 2.6 Hz, 1H), 6.18 (bs, 1H), 7.17-7.35 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 11.8, 17.4, 17.5, 59.6, 79.9, 127.9, 128.0, 128.1, 136.4, 170.0; IR (KBr) 3234, 2946-2866, 1760, 1458 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 18 H 29 NO 2 Si: C 67.66; H 9.15; N 4.38. Found: C 67.64; H 9.25; N 4.44. Example 14 (3R,4S)-3-Triisopropylsilyloxy-4-(2-phenylethenyl)-2-azetidinone (VIb) 72%; colorless liquid; 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.98-1.02 (m, 21H), 4.36 (dd, J=4.6, 8.3 Hz, 1H), 5.09 (dd, J=2.3, 4.6 Hz, 1H), 6.29 (dd, J=8.3, 16.0 Hz, 1H), 6.59 (d, J=16.0 Hz, 1H), 6.83, (bs, 1H), 7.23-7.39 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 11.79, 17.61, 17.66, 58.34, 79.86, 126.05, 126.45, 127.90, 128.56, 134.41, 136.30, 169.69; IR (neat) 3262, 3032, 2944, 2865, 1748, 1672, 1623 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 20 H 31 NO 2 Si: C, 69.52; H, 9.04; N, 4.05. Found: C, 69.75; H, 9.02; N, 3.89. Examples 15-20 Preparations of (3R,4S)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-3-silyloxy-4-substituted-2-azetidinones (VI') To a solution of 2.51 mmol of diisopropylamine in 15 mL of THF was added 2.51 mL of n-butyllithium (2.5M in THF) at -10° C. After 30 min, lithium diisopropylamide (LDA) was generated and the solution was cooled to -95° C. A solution of 2.17 mmol of chiral ester in 5 mL of THF was added. After 1 hr, a solution of 2.5 mmol of the appropriate imine in 3 mL of THF was added. The mixture was stirred at -95° C. overnight, and the progress of the reaction was monitored by TLC or 1 H NMR. The reaction was quenched with saturated NH 4 Cl and THF was removed using a rotary evaporator. Ether (10 mL) was added and the aqueous layer was extracted with ether (10 mL×3). Drying and removal of the solvent gave the crude product which was purified by silica gel column chromatography (hexane/ethyl acetate=10:1) to afford the corresponding pure β-lactam. The enantiomeric excess was determined by HPLC using a CHIRALCEL OD column using n-hexane/isopropyl alcohol (i-PrOH) (90/10) as the eluant. Example 15 (3R,4S)-4-(isobutyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-3-triisopropylsilyloxy-2-azetidinone (VI'-c) 87%; pale yellow solid; mp 59°-60° C.; [α] D 20 +60.46° (c 1.26, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.96 (d, J=6.4 Hz, 3H), 1.03 (d, J=6.4 Hz, 3H), 1.10-1.30 (m, 21H), 1.60-1.68 (m, 1H), 1.70-1.92 (m, 2H), 3.75 (s, 3H), 4.16-4.22 (m, 1H), 5.06 (d, J=5.1 Hz, 1H), 6.86 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.32 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 12.34, 17.82, 17.91, 22.18, 23.37, 25.34, 35.89, 55.50, 57.33, 76.34, 114.52, 118.73, 131.00, 156.29, 165.58; IR (KBr) 2946, 1742, 1513, 1458, 1249 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 23 H 39 NO 3 Si: C, 68.10; H, 9.70; N, 3.45. Found: C, 68.26; H, 9.85; N, 3.35. Example 16 (3R,4S)-4-(Cyclohexylmethyl)-1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-3-triisopropylsilyloxy-2-azetidinone (VI'-d) 83%; low melting point solid; [α] D 20 +43.7° (c 0.92, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.85-1.95 (m, 34H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 4.19-4.25 (m, 1H), 5.05 (d, J=5.1 Hz, 1H), 6.86 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.32 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 12.15, 17.76, 17.83, 26.12, 26.22, 26.47, 32.84, 34.22, 34.51, 55.36, 56.41, 76.13, 114.30, 118.45, 130.81, 155.99, 165.55; IR (neat) 2925-2865, 1749, 1513, 1464, 1448, 1389, 1246, 1174, 1145, 1128, 939, 882, 828, 684 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 26 H 43 NO 3 Si: C, 70.06; H, 9.72; N, 3.14. Found: C, 69.91; H, 9.71; N, 3.02. Example 17 1-(4-Methoxyphenyl)-3-triisopropylsilyloxy-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-azetidinone (VI'-f) White solid; mp 121°-122° C.; [α] D 20 +82.5° (c 0.724, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 0.82-0.84 (m, 18H), 0.86-1.01 (m, 3H), 3.62 (s, 3H), 5.02 (d, J=4.9 Hz, 1H), 5.11 (d, J=4.9 Hz, 1H), 6.68 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 2H), 6.96-7.25 (m, 6H); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3050, 2974, 2868, 1748 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 25 H 34 NO 3 FSi: C, 67.69; H, 7.72; N, 3.16. Found: C, 67.77; H, 7.83; N, 3.19. Example 18 1-(4-Methoxyphenyl)-3-triisopropylsilyloxy-4-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2-azetidinone (VI'-g) White solid; mp 132°-133° C.; [α] D 20 +89.7° (c 0.925, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 0.87-1.15 (m, 21H), 3.74 (s, 3H), 5.21 (d, J=4.9 Hz, 1H), 5.27 (d, J=4.9 Hz, 1H), 6.79 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.25 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.46 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.60 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3050, 2975, 2868, 1750, 878 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 26 H 34 NO 3 F 3 Si: C, 63.26; H, 6.94; N, 2.84. Found: C, 63.36; H, 7.13; N, 2.88. Example 19 1-(4-Methoxyphenyl)-3-triisopropylsilyloxy-4-(2-furyl)-2-azetidinone (VI'-h) White solid; mp 109°-110° C.; [α] D 20 -86.2° (c 1.4, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 0.98-1.10 (m, 21H), 3.75 (s, 3H), 5.20 (d, J=4.9 Hz, 1H), 5.24 (d, J=4.9 Hz, 1H), 6.35-6.40 (m, 2H), 6.81 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.30 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.42 (m, 1H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 11.96, 17.52, 17.57, 55.43, 57.19, 78.13, 110.23, 110.63, 114.44, 118.55, 131.08, 142.80, 148.51, 156.45, 165.27. Anal. Calcd for C 23 H 33 NO 4 Si: C, 66.47; H, 8.00; N, 3.37. Found: C, 66.56; H, 8.13; N, 3.30. Example 20 1-(4-Methoxyphenyl)-3-triisopropylsilyloxy-4-{2-(2-furyl)ethenyl}-2-azetidinone (VI'-i) White solid; mp 103.5°-105.5° C.; [α] D 20 -128.4° (c 2.8, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.05-1.09 (m, 21H), 3.76 (s, 3H), 4.69 (dd, J=4.9, 8.6 Hz, 1H), 5.15 (d, J=4.9 Hz, 1H), 6.25 (dd, J=8.6, 16.0 Hz, 1H), 6.29 (d, J=3.3 Hz, 1H), 6.37 (dd, J=1.8, 3.3 Hz, 1H), 6.57 (d, J=16.0 Hz, 1H), 6.83 (m, 2H), 7.34-7.41 (m, 3H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 12.11, 17.70, 17.74, 55.54, 61.94, 77.18, 78.45, 107.88, 108.42, 111.26, 114.54, 118.70, 123.46, 123.82, 142.46, 190.99; IR (KBr) 2948, 2866, 1743, 1513, 1389, 1246, 1181, 1120 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 25 H 35 NO 4 Si: C, 67.99; H, 7.99; N, 3.17. Found: C, 68.07; H, 7.94; N, 3.10. The transformation of β-lactam intermediates (VI') to β-lactams (VI) as shown in Scheme 1 was accomplished by methods discussed in Examples 21-23. Azetidinones obtained in this manner, (VIc) to (VIj), exemplify different R 1 groups. Identification data for (VIc) to (VIj) are shown next to each compound. Examples 21-23 Transformation of N-(4-methoxyphenyl)-β-lactams (VI') to β-lactams (VI) To a solution of 0.24 mmol of 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)-β-lactam in MeCN (20 mL) was added 0.65 mmol of cerium ammonium nitrate (CAN) in 10 mL CH 3 CN and 20 mL of water in 20 min at -15° C. After stirring for 1 hour, it was diluted with water (20 mL), and the mixture was then extracted with ethyl acetate (15 mL×2). The combined organic layer was washed with water (7 mL), 5% Na 2 SO 4 (10 mL×2), 5% Na 2 CO 3 (10 mL ) and brine (5 mL) in sequence. Drying, removal of the solvent in vacuo followed by decolorization with activated charcoal afforded the crude product. This product was further purified by silica gel column chromatography using hexanes/ethyl acetate, 3/1 eluent to furnish N-deprotected β-lactam. Example 21 (3R,4S)-4-(isobutyl)-3-triisopropylsilyloxy-2-azetidinone (VIc) 83%; yellow oil; [α] D 20 +35.45° (c 1.33, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.93 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 3H), 0.96 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 3H), 1.05-1.25 (m, 22H), 1.52 (m, 1H), 1.67 (m, 1H), 3.78 (m, 1H), 4.96 (dd, J=4.8, 2.4 Hz, 1H), 6.02 (bs, 1H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 12.12, 17.72, 17.80, 22.29, 23.08, 25.35, 39.08, 54.45, 78.04, 170.00; IR (neat) 3238, 1759, 1465, 1184 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 16 H 33 NO 2 Si: C, 64.16; H,11.1; N, 4.68. Found: C, 64.17; H, 10.96; N, 4.47. Example 22 (3R,4S)-4-(Cyclohexylmethyl)-3-triisopropylsilyloxy-2-azetidinone (VId) 85%; yellow oil; [α] D 20 +12.44° (c 1.46, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0,97-1.25 (m, 32H), 1.40-1.70 (m, 2H), 3.80 (dt, J=8.4, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 4.95 (dd, J=4.8, 2.4 Hz, 1H), 6.05 (bs, 1H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 12.06, 17.77, 17.82, 26.16, 26.25, 26.46, 33.15, 33.82, 34.85, 37.72, 53.89, 77.98, 169.98; IR (neat) 3238, 1759, 1465, 1184 cm 31 1. Anal. Calcd for C 19 H 37 NO 2 Si: C, 67.20; H, 10.98; N, 4.12. Found: C, 67.40; H, 10.79; N, 3.98. Example 23 Preparation of (3R,4S)-3-Triisopropylsilyloxy-4-(2-cyclohexylethyl)-2-azetidinone (VIj) A mixture of (VIb) (100 mg, 0.29 mmol) in methanol (10 mL) and 5% Rh-C catalyst (10 mg) was hydrogenated at 50° C. and 800 psi of hydrogen for 20 hours. After the catalyst was filtered out and the solvents evaporated in vacuo, the residue was purified on a short silica gel column using hexane/ethyl acetate (5/1) as the eluant to give 95 mg (93% yield) of VIj as a colorless liquid: [α] D 20 -162.3° (c 1.46 CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.07-1.72 (m, 36H), 3.61-3.67 (m, 1H), 4.94 (dd, J=2.4, 4.8 Hz, 1H), 6.42 (bs, 1H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 12.02, 17.79, 26.31, 26.60, 27.54, 33.19, 33.39, 33.54, 37.71, 56.44, 77.74, 170.15; IR (neat) 3236 ('NH), 2925, 2866, 1760 ('CO), 1464, 1451, 1384, 1348, 1244 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 27 H 39 NO 3 Si: C, 71.48; H, 8.66; N, 3.09. Found: C, 71.35; H, 8.66; N, 3.01. The conversion of 3-TIPSO-4-substituted-2-azetidinones or β-lactams VI to β-lactams VII as shown in Scheme 2 is accomplished by methods of preparations discussed in Examples 24-28. Identification data for each β-lactam (VIIa)-(VIIe) follow each compound. Examples 24-28 Preparation of 3-hydroxy-4-substituted-2-azetidinones (VII) To a solution of 2.6 mmol of 3-triisopropylsilyloxy-4-substituted-2-azetidinone in 20 mL of THF, was added at room temperature. 3.1 mmol (1M in THF) of n-butyl fluoride (NBu 4 F). After 5 h, the solvent was evaporated and the crude oil was directly purified by chromatography on silica gel using 5:1 EtOAc/hexanes eluent to afford of 3-hydroxy-4-substituted-2-azetidinone: Example 24 (3R,4S)-3-Hydroxy-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (VIIa) 100%; white solid; mp 189°-190° C.; [α] D 20 +181.6° (c 0.5, CH 3 OH); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ 4.84 (d, J=4.7 Hz, 1H), 5.04 (d, J=4.7 Hz, 1H), 7.25-7.35 (m, 5H); IR (KBr) 3373, 3252, 1732, 1494 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 9 H 9 NO 2 : C 66.25%, H 5.56%, N 8.58% Found: C 66.42% H 5.74% N 8.62%. Example 25 (3R,4S)-3-Hydroxy-4-(2-phenylethenyl)-2-azetidinone (VIIb) 82%; white solid; mp 143°-144° C.; [α] D 20 +21.9° (c 1.05, MeOH); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ 4.35 (ddd, J=0.8, 4.7, 7.7 Hz, 1H), 4.93 (d, J=4.7 Hz, 1H), 6.28 (dd, J=7.7, 16.0 Hz, 1H), 7.18-7.43 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ 58.95, 79.63, 126.83, 127.58, 128.88, 129.61, 135.28, 137.96, 172.79; IR (KBr) 3320, 3276, 1754, 1464 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 11 H 11 NO 2 : C, 69.83; H, 5.86; N, 7.40. Found: C, 69.72; H, 5.92; N, 7.24. Example 26 (3R,4S)-3-Hydroxy-4-(isobutyl)-2-azetidinone (VIIc) 94%; white solid; mp 141°-142° C.; [α] D 20 +26.6° (c 0.70, MeOH); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, MeOH-d 4 ) δ 0.94 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 3H), 0.97 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 3H), 1.45 (m, 2H), 1.71 (sept, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 3.75 (m, 1H), 4.79 (d, J=4.7 Hz, 1H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, MeOH-d 4 ) δ 22.62, 23.48, 26.53, 39.90, 55.47, 77.76, 173.18; IR (KBr) 3274, 3178, 1762, 1685, 1155 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 7 H 13 NO 2 : C, 58.72; H, 9.15; N, 9.78. Found: C, 58.55; H, 9.41; N, 9.69. Example 27 (3R,4S)-4-(Cyclohexylmethyl)-3-hydroxy-2-azetidinone (VIId) 92%; white solid; mp 147°-148° C.; [α] D 20 +8.73° (c, 0.573, CH 3 OH); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, MeOH-d 4 ) δ 0.88-1.82 (m, 13H), 3.78 (m, 1H), 4.79 (d, J=4.7 Hz, 1H); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, DMSO-d 6 ) δ 0.86-1.72 (m, 13H), 3.58 (m, 1H), 4.63 (m, 1H), 5.82 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 8.13 (d, J=5.6, 1H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, MeOH-d 4 ) δ 27.29, 27.41, 27.48, 34.07, 35.06, 36.11, 38.52, 55.02, 77.65, 173.22; IR (KBr) 3301, 3219, 2915, 2847, 1754, 1694, 1168 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 10 H 17 NO 2 : C, 65.54, H, 9.35, N, 7.64. Found: C, 65.72, H, 9.46, N, 7.42. Example 28 3R,4S)-4-cyclohexyl-3-hydroxy-2-azetidinone (VIIe) A suspension of 500 mg (3.06 mmol) of 4-phenyl-3-hydroxy-2-azetidinone VIa and 15 mg of Rh-C in 10 mL of methanol was heated at 90° C. under 800 psi in an autoclave. After 5 days, the hydrogen pressure was released and the catalyst filtered on celite. Evaporation of the solvent afforded a solid which was recrystallized in ethyl acetate to give 440 mg (85%) of VIIe as a white solid: White solid; mp 140°-140.5° C.; [α] D 20 +65.1° (c 0.66, CH 3 OH); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, MeOH-d 4 ) δ 0.75-1.10 (m, 2H), 1.12-1.35 (m, 3H), 1.40-2.00 (m, 6H), 3.28 (dd, J=9.7, 4.6 Hz, 1H), 4.81 (d, J=4.6 Hz, 1H); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, DMSO-d 6 ) δ 0.75-1.00 (m, 2H), 1.10-1.35 (m, 3H), 1.37-1.55 (m, 1H), 1.58-1.85 (m, 5H), 3.10 (dd, J=9.6, 4.7 Hz, 1H), 4.67 (m, 1H), 5.87 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.21 (bs, 1H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, DMSO-d 6 ) δ 25.08, 25.36, 26.07, 28.83, 29.17, 37.51, 59.04, 76.41, 170.21; IR (KBr) 3312, 3219, 2928, 1726 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 9 H 15 NO 2 : C, 63.88, H, 8.93, N, 8.28. Found: C, 63.70, H, 9.00, N, 8.06. Once formed, β-lactams (VII) required protection at the hydroxyl group. The protecting groups were attached by methods described in Examples 29-33 to yield β-lactams (VI). The identification data for β-lactams (VI) protected by different G groups are shown after each compound (VIa-EE) to (VIe-EE). Examples 29-33 Preparation of 3-(hydroxy-protected)-4-substituted-2-azetidinones (VI) To a solution of 1.9 mmol of 3-hydroxy-4-substituted-2-azetidinone in 20 mL of THF, was added at 0° C. 3.9 mmol of ethyl vinyl ether. After 2 hours, at 0° C., the reaction mixture was diluted with ether and washed with saturated NaHCO 3 . The organic layer was dried over Na 2 CO 3 , filtered and concentrated to yield of 3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-substituted-2-azetidinone: Example 29 (3R,4S)-3-(1-Ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (VIa-EE) 100%; white solid; mp 78°-80° C.; 1 H NMR δ (CDCl 3 ) [0.98 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.05 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 3H], [1.11 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 1.12 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 3H], [3.16-3.26 (m), 3.31-3.42 (m), 3.59-3.69 (m), 2H], [4.47 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.68 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 1H], [4.82 (d, J=4.7 Hz), 4.85 (d, J=4.7 Hz), 1H], 5.17-5.21 (m, 1H), 6.42 (bd, 1H), 7.35 (m, 5H); IR (KBr) 3214, 2983, 2933, 1753, 1718, 1456 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 13 H 17 NO 3 : C, 66.36; H, 7.28; N, 5.95. Found: C, 66.46; H, 7.11; N, 5.88. Example 30 (3R,4S)-3-1(Ethoxyethoxy)-4-(2-phenylethenyl)-2-azetidinone(VIb-EE) 98%; white solid; mp 98°-99° C.; 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [1.17 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 1.18 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 3H], [1.26 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.35 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 3H], [3.44-3.52 (m), 3.60-3.68 (m), 3.75-3.82 (m), 2H], 4.41 (dd, J=4.9, 8.5 Hz, 1H), [4.81 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.90 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 1H], [5.11 (d, J=4.9 Hz), 5.11 (d, J=4.9 Hz), 1H], 6.01 (bs, 1H), [6.27 (dd, J=8.5, 15.9 Hz), 6.28 (dd, J=8.5, 15.9 Hz), 1H], [6.61 (d, J=15.9 Hz), 6.63 (d, J=15.9 Hz), 1H], 7.27-7.42 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 15.04, 20.37, 20.42, 57.22, 57.81, 61.23, 62.22, 78.77, 79.29, 99.50, 99.82, 125.56, 125.79, 126.59, 128.12, 128.65, 134.47, 134.58, 136.15, 168.59, 168.77; IR (KBr) 3310, 3030, 2963, 1770 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 15 H 19 NO 3 : C, 68.94; H, 7.33; N, 5.36. Found: C, 69.13; H, 7.44; N, 5.16. Example 31 (3R,4S)-3-(1-Ethoxyethoxy)-4-(isobutyl)-2-azetidinone (VIc-EE) 100%; colorless oil: [α] D 20 +20.93° (c 1.72, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.86 (d, J=6.5 Hz, 3H), 0.92 (d, J=6.5 Hz, 3H), 1.17 (t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), [1.29 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 1.34 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 3H], 1.46 (m, 2H), 1.62 (m, 1H), [3.49 (m), 3.69 (m), 2H)], 3.80 (m, 1H), [4.79 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.90 (q, J=5,4 Hz), 1H], 4.87 (m, 1H), 6.78 (bs, 1H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 15.08, 20.42, (21.98, 22.06), (23.15, 23.22), 25.35, (39.01, 39.10), (53.35, 53.69), (61.24, 62.24), (77.79, 77.92), (99.75, 100.05), (169.56, 169.65); IR (neat) 3269, 2956, 2871, 1758, 1468, 1382, 1340, 1152, 1115, 1083, 1052, 936, 893 cm -1 . Example 32 (3R,4S)-4-(Cyclohexylmethyl)-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-2-azetidinone (VId-EE) 100%; colorless oil; [α] D 20 +10.92° (c 1.42, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.84-1.71 (m, 13H), 1.16 (t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), [1.28 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 1.33 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 3H], 3.48 (m, 1H), [3.72 (m), 3.8 (m), 2H], [4.78 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.85 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 1H], 4.82 (m, 1H), 6.76 (bs, 1H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 14.37, 19.72, 25.30, 25.44, 25.63, (32.02, 32.13), (33.09, 33.17), (34.03, 34.07), (36.98, 37.07), (52.15, 52.49), (60.49, 61.52), (75.97, 76.39), (99.00, 99.35), (168.98, 169.05); IR (neat) 3278, 2924, 2852, 1758, 1448, 1382, 1150, 1114, 1086, 938, 886 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 14 H 25 NO 3 : C, 65.85; H, 9.87; N, 5.49. Found: C, 66.03; H, 9.71; N, 5.30. Example 33 (3R,4S)-4-Cyclohexyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-2-azetidinone (VIe-EE) 100%; white solid; mp 87°-89° C.; [α] D 20 +83° (c 0.76, CH 3 OH); 1 H NMR δ (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) 0.84 (m, 2H), 1.07-1.34 (m, 9H), 1.66 (m, 6H), 3.32 (m, 1H), [3.42 (q, J=7.7 Hz), 3.54 (q, J=7.7 Hz), 3.65 (q, J=7.7 Hz), 3.74 (q, J=7.7 Hz), 2H], 4.81 (m, 1H), [4.80 (m), 4.90 (q, J=5.2 Hz), 1H], 6.92 (bs, 1H); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3412, 2989, 2931, 1760, 1443, 1155, 1114 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 13 H 27 NO 3 : C, 64.70; H, 9.61; N, 5.80. Found: C, 64.82; H, 9.66; N, 5.64. Protected β-lactams (VI) in which G represents protecting groups described elsewhere in the specification were reacted with acyl chlorides, chloroformates or carbamoyl chlorides in the presence of a base according to preparation methods described in Examples 34 to 52. The resulting β-lactams obtained in Examples 34 to 52 are shown in Scheme 2. Identification data for β-lactams (Va) to (Vd) in which G represents different protecting groups are listed after each β-lactam following each example. Example 34 Preparations of 1-acyl-3-(hydroxy-protected)-4-substituted-2-azetidinones (Va) A typical procedure is described for the preparation of (3R,4S)-1-benzoyl-3-(ethoxylethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Va-EE). To a solution of VIa-EE (460 mg, 1.9 mmol), 4(dimethylamino)pyridine DMAP (5 mg), and triethylamine (542 mL, 3.9 mmol) in 20 mL of dichloromethane, was added dropwise benzoyl chloride (340 mL, 2.9 mmol) at 0° C. with stirring. The cooling bath was removed and the mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 h. The reaction mixture was washed with saturated aqueous NH 4 Cl and brine, dried over anhydrous Na 2 CO 5 and concentrated in vacuo to give the oily crude product. The crude product was purified through a short silica gel column (eluant: EtOAc/hexanes=1/5) to afford pure Va-EE (611 mg, 92%) as a colorless oil: IR (neat) 3064-2933, 1798, 1682, 1450 cm -1 ; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ [1.04 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.14 (d, J=5.4 Hz)] (3H), 1.11-1.17 (m, 3H), 3.23-3.74 (m, 2H), [4.57 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.76 (q, J=5.4 Hz)] (1H), 5.28 (d, J=6.2 Hz, 1H), [5.43 (d, J=6.2 Hz), 5.46 (d, J=6.2 Hz )] (1H), 7.30-7.65 (m, 8H). Examples 35-46 Preparations of 1-alkoxy- and 1-aryloxy-carbonyl-3-(hydroxy-protected)-4-substituted-2-azetidinones (Vb) To a solution of 2.2 mmol of 3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-substituted-2-azetidinone, 5 mg of DMAP, 4.5 mmol of triethylamine in 20 mL of dichloromethane, was added dropwise at 0° C. 3.3 mmol of alkyl chloroformate dissolved in 5 mL of dichloromethane. The reaction mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. The organic layer was washed several times with brine, dried over Na 2 CO 3 and concentrated. The crude solid was purified by chromatography on silica gel to yield N-protected β-lactam: Example 35 (3R,4S)-1-Methoxycarbonyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vb-a-EE) 62%; pale yellow oil; [α] D 20 +98.2° (c 1.1, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [0.97 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.08 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 3H], 1.10 (bt, J=7.3 Hz, 3H), [3.21 (dq, J=9.5, 7.1 Hz), 3.32 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.64 (dq, J=9.5, 7.1 Hz), 2H], [3.76 (s), 3.77 (s), 3H], [4.48 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.69 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 1H], [5.11 (d, J=5.9 Hz), 5.14 (d, J=5.9 Hz), 1H], 5.23 (d, J=5.9 Hz, 1H), 7.34 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ (14.96, 15.07), (19.84, 20.69), 53.59, (60.74, 62.36), (61.14, 61.92), (76.21, 77.21), (99.16, 99.56), (127.73, 128.03, 128.31, 128.36, 128.62, 128.85), (133.41, 133.58), (149.51, 149.57), (165.21, 165.67); IR (neat) 3033, 2979, 2957, 1821, 1738, 1654, 1440, 1336, 1101 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 15 H 19 NO 5 : C, 61.42; H, 6.53; N, 4.78. Found: C, 61.55; H, 6.51; N, 4.90. Example 36 (3R,4S)-1-Ethoxycarbonyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vb-b-EE) 82%; colorless oil; [α] D 20 +100.9° (c 1.08, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [0.95 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.06 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 3H], 1.08 (bt, J=7.3 Hz, 3H), [1.19 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 1.20 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 3H], [3.20 (dq, J=9.4, 7.1 Hz), 3.31 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.32 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.63 (dq, J=9.4, 7.1 Hz), 2H], [4.18 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 4.19 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 2H], [4.47 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.67 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 1H], [5.09 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 5.13 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 1H], 5.21 (d, J=5.8 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 14.14, (14.95, 15.07), (19.86, 20.05), (60.76, 62.35), 62.36, (61.14, 61.90), (76.18, 77.20), (99.17, 99.53), (127.73, 128.02, 128.25, 128.30, 128.50, 128.63), (133.59, 133.77), (148.99, 149.05), (165.33, 165.79); IR (neat) 2978, 2934, 1814, 1731, 1646, 1540, 1456, 1323, 1175, 1096 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 16 H 21 NO 5 : C, 62.53; H, 6.89; N, 4.56. Found: C, 62.45; H, 6.63; N, 4.83. Example 37 (3R,4S)-1-n-Butoxycarbonyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vb-c-EE) 83%; colorless oil; [α] D 20 +70.4° (c 1.25, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.79 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 3H), [0.94 (d, J=5.1 Hz), 1.07 (d, J=5.1 Hz), 3H], 1.07 (t, J=7.4 Hz, 3H), 1.20 (m, 2H), 1.51 (quint, J=6.7 Hz, 2H), [3.21 (m), 3.30 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.61 (m), 2H], 4.09 (m, 2H), [4.46 (q, J=5.2 Hz), 4.66 (q, J=5.2 Hz), 1H], [5.07 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 5.11 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 1H], 5.19 (d, J=5.8 Hz, 1H), 7.28 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 13.50, (14.95, 15.29), 18.71, (19.84, 20.05), 30.42, (60.77, 62.33), (61.25, 62.02), 66.51, (76.24, 77.26), (99.17, 99.52), (127.76, 128.03, 128.22, 128.27, 128.50, 128.60), (133.61, 133.80), (148.96, 149.02), (165.40, 165.85); IR (neat) 2961, 2933, 1817, 1732, 1653, 1456, 1394, 1250, 1099 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 18 H 25 NO 5 : C, 64.46; H, 7.51; N, 4.18. Found: C, 64.44; H, 7.57; N, 4.24. Example 38 (3R,4S)-1-tert-Butoxycarbonyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vb-d-EE) 83%; white solid; mp 90°-91° C.; [α] D 20 +70.4° (c 1.25, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [0.96 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.08 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 3H], [1.09 (t, J=7.0 Hz), 1.10 (t, J=7.0 Hz), 3H], [1.36 (s), 1.37 (s), 9H], [3.23 (dq, J=9.5, 7.1 Hz), 3.32 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.65 (dq, J=9.5, 7.1 Hz), 2H], [4.48 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.69 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 1H], [5.03 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 5.07 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 1H], 5.18 (d, J=5.8 Hz, 1H), 7.31 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ (14.98, 15.08), (19.89, 20.10), 27.84, (60.74, 62.32), (61.28, 62.08), (75.91, 76.54), (99.10, 99.41), (127.76, 128.07, 128.20, 128.42, 128.85), (133.98, 134.16), 147.56, (165.61, 166.04); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3025, 2982, 2932, 1809, 1725, 1601, 1497, 1331, 1256, 1152 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 18 H 25 NO 5 : C, 64.46; H, 7.51; N, 4.18. Found: C, 64.50; H, 7.41; N, 4.17. Example 39 (3R,4S)-3-(1-Ethoxyethoxy)-1-phenoxycarbonyl-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vb-e-EE) 79%; white solid; mp 50°-52° C.; [α] D 20 +64.9° (c 0.94, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [1.00 (d, J=5.3 Hz ), 1.11 (m), 3H], [1.14 (m), 3H], [3.27 (m), 3.35 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.70 (m), 2H], [4.54 (q, J=5.3 Hz), 4.74 (q, J=5.3 Hz), 1H], [5.25 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 5.29 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 1H], 5.34 (d, J=5.8 Hz, 1H), 7.03-7.39 (m, 10H); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3028, 2981, 2934, 1815, 1744, 1591, 1486, 1327, 1192 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 20 H 21 NO 5 : C, 67.59; H, 5.96; N, 3.94. Found: C, 67.33; H, 6.06; N, 3.75. Example 40 (3R,4S)-3-(1-Ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-1-phenylmethoxycarbonyl-2-azetidinone (Vb-f-EE) 44%; white solid; mp 58°-60° C.; [α] D 20 +91.4° (c 1.16, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [0.97 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 1.09 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 3H], [1.10 (t, J=7.0 Hz), 1.11 (t, J=7.0 Hz), 3H], [3.23 (dq, J=9.5, 7.1 Hz), 3.33 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.66 (dq, J=9.5, 7.1 Hz), 2H], [4.50 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.70 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 1H], [5.13 (d, J=5.6 Hz), 5.15 (d, J=5.6 Hz), 1H], [5.19 (s), 5.20 (s), 2H], 5.23 (d, J=5.6 Hz, 1H), 7.21 (m, 2H), 7.26-7.37 (m, 8H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ (14.99, 15.10), (19.90, 20.10), (60.83, 62.41), (61.64, 62.14), 68.01, (76.31, 77.28), (99.19, 99.53), (127.37, 127.86, 128.07, 128.16, 128.36, 128.52, 128.63, 128.85), (133.49, 133.68), 134.89, (148.72, 148.78), (165.37, 165.81); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3028, 2981, 2934, 1815, 1733, 1604, 1450, 1380, 1004 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 21 H 23 NO 5 : C, 68.28; H, 6.28; N, 3.79. Found: C, 68.07; H, 6.43; N, 3.72. Example 41 (3R,4S)-1-tert-Butoxycarbonyl-4-cyclohexyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-2-azetidinone (Vb-g-EE) 91%; colorless oil; [α] D 20 +62.5° (c 1.12, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 1.10-1.28 (m, 6H), 1.15 (t, J=7.0 Hz, 3H), [1.27 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.31 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 3H], [1.45 (s), 1.46 (s), 9H], 1.63-1.70 (m, 5H), [3.43 (dq, J=9.2, 7.0 Hz), 3.62 (m), 3.75 (d, J=7.0 Hz), 3.78 (d, J=7.0 Hz), 2H], 3.85 (t, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), [4.78 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.88 (m), 1H], [4.85 (d, J=6.1 Hz), 4.86 (d, J=6.1 Hz), 1H]; 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 15.07, (20.25, 20.37), (26.05, 26.14), 26.26, (27.33, 27.95), (29.05, 29.20), (30.04, 30.23), (37.54, 37.64), (61.19, 62.53), (62.06, 62.32), (75.42, 75.85), 83.06, 100.11, 148.72, (166.70, 166.76); IR (neat) 2980, 2931, 2854, 1807, 1725, 1450, 1370, 1329, 1212, 1118 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 18 H 31 NO 5 : C, 63.32; H, 9.15; N, 4.10. Found: C, 63.15; H, 8.97; N, 3.96. Example 42 (3R,4S)-1-tert-Butoxycarbonyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-(2-phenylethenyl)-2-azetidinone (Vb-h-EE) 86%; white solid; mp 69°-73° C.; 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [1.16 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 1.18 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 3H], [1.25 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.36 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 3H], 1.48 (s, 9 H), [3.47 (m), 3.62 (m), 3.80 (m), 2H], 4.68 (dd, J=5.8, 8.8 Hz, 1H), [4.82 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.91 (q, 5.4 Hz), 1H], [5.09 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 5.11 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 1H], [6.23 (dd, J=8.8, 15.8 Hz), 6.25 (dd, J=8.8, 15.8 Hz), 1H], [6.72 (d, J=15.8 Hz), 6.73 (d, J=15.8 Hz), 1H], 7.27-7.44 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 14.98, 20.31, 27.98, 60.24, 60.85, 61.46, 62.36, 63.58, 83.38, 99.63, 99.87, 122.45, 122.63, 126.69, 128.20, 128.61, 136.15, 136.34, 136.38, 147.74, 147.79, 165.33, 165.53; IR (KBr) 3027, 3020, 2984, 2933, 1809, 1723 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 20 H 27 NO 5 : C, 66.46; H, 7.53; N, 3.88. Found: C, 66.60; H, 7.50; N, 3.87. Example 43 (3R,4S)-1-tert-Butoxycarbonyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-(isobutyl)-2-azetidinone (Vb-i-EE) 80%; yellow oil; [α] D 20 +77.45° (c 0.216, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.89 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 6H), 1.41 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H), [1.25 (d, J=5.3 Hz ), 1.31 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 3H], 1.45 (s, 9H), 1.51-1.67 (m, 3H), [3.48 (dq, J=9.3, 7.1 Hz), 3.55-3.71 (m, 1H), 3.80 (dq, J=9.3, 7.1 Hz), 2H], 4.08 (q, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), [4.70 (q, J=5.3 Hz), 4.90 (q, J=5.3 Hz), 1H], 4.85 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 1H); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 14.95, (20.11, 20.28), (22.42, 22.59), 22.70, (24.89, 25.07), 27.83, (37.03, 37.31), (56.14, 56.38), (61.07, 62.27), (75.65, 75.92), 82.98, 99.91, 148.1, (166.1, 165.9); IR (neat) 2931, 2960, 2872, (1790, 1807), (1708, 1726), (1454, 1465), 1332, 1256, 1048, 1158, 996, 955, 857, 834, 770 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 16 H 29 NO 5 : C, 60.93; H, 9.27; N, 4.44. Found: C, 61.19; H, 9.41; N, 4.37. Example 44 (3R,4S)-1-tert-Butoxycarbonyl-4-cyclohexylmethyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-2-azetidinone (Vb-j-EE) 93%; yellow oil; [α] D 20 +75.64° (c 0.78, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 0.81-1.74 (m, 13H), 1.19 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H), 1.48 (s, 9H), [1.30 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 1.35 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 3H], [3.45 (dq, J=9.3, 7.1 Hz), 3.62-3.71 (m), 3.78 (dq, J=9.3, 7.1 Hz), 2H], 4.01 (m, 1H), [4.81 (q, J=5.3 Hz), 4.91 (q, J=5.3 Hz), 1H], [4.86 (d, J=6.1 Hz), 4.87 (d, J=6.1 Hz), 1H]; 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 15.03, 20.19, 20.36, 26.10, 26.36, 27.91, (33.17, 33.31), (33.35, 33.49), (34.33, 34.58), (35.39, 35.68), (55.77, 55.99), (61.14, 62.21), (75.74, 75.90), 82.96, (99.86, 99.95), 147.96, 166.13; IR (neat) 2979, 2923, 2850, 1719, 1807, 1449, 1336, 1154 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd. for C 19 H 33 NO 5 : C, 64.20; H, 9.36; N,3.94. Found: C, 64.00; H, 9.17; N, 4.02. Examples 45-50 Preparations of 1-(N-monosubstituted-carbamoyl)-3-(hydroxy-protected)-4-substituted-2-azetidinones (Vd) To a solution of 0.5 mmol of a 3-(1-hydroxy-protected)-4-substituted-2-azetidinone (VI) in 6 mL of tetrahydrofuran, was added dropwise at -78° C. 0.6 mmol of n-butylitheum (n-BuLi). After 5 min, 1 mmol of an isocyanate was added. The reaction mixture was stirred 30 min at -78° C. and quenched by addition of 2 mL sat. NH 4 Cl solution. The reaction mixture was diluted with 30 mL of ether and the organic layer was washed several times with brine, dried over Na 2 CO 3 and concentrated. The crude solid was purified by chromatography on silica gel to yield the corresponding N-carbamoyl β-lactam (Vd). Example 45 (3R,4S)-3-(1-Ethoxyethoxy)-1-phenylcarbamoyl-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vd-a-EE) 66%; pale yellow solid; mp 152°-155° C.; [α] D .sup.° +87.8° (c 0.9, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [1.07 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.13 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 3H], 1.16 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H), [3.26 (dq, J=9.5, 7.1 Hz), 3.37 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.39 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.67 (dq, J=9.5, 7.1 Hz), 2H], [4.53 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.72 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 1H], 5.28 (m, 2H), [6.59 (bs), 6.60 (bs), 1H], 7.10-7.55 (m, 10H), 8.68 (bs, 1H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ (15.04, 15.16), (19.98, 20.11), (60.99, 62.53), 61.80, (76.05, 76.66), (99.34, 99.70), (119.63, 120.69, 124.37, 127.67, 127.95, 128.40, 128.45, 128.67, 128.85, 129.04, 129.12, 130.49), 133.48, (137.03, 137.28), (147.23, 147.29), (168.12, 168.52); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3342, 3017, 2982, 2932, 1773, 1719, 1602, 1548, 1445, 1312, 1224, 1210 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 20 H 22 N 2 O 4 : C, 67.78; H, 6.26; N, 7.90. Found: C, 67.92; H, 5.98; N, 8.17. Example 46 (3R,4S)-1-tert-Butoxycarbonyl-4-phenyl-3-(1,1,1-trichloroethoxycarbonyl)-2-azetidinone (Vb-a-Troc) White solid; mp 122°-124° C.; [α] D 20 +28° (c 0.5, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 1.39 (s, 9H), 4.43 (d, J=11.7 Hz, 1H), 4.55 (d, J=11.7 Hz, 1H), 5.28 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H), 5.76 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H), 7.30 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 27.81, 60.80, 77.03, 78.76, 84.40, 127.73, 128.58, 129.09, 131.55, 147.71, 152.17, 160.34; IR (CHCl 3 ) 3016, 2976, 1819, 1771, 1732, 1683, 1244 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 17 H 18 Cl 3 NO 6 : C, 46.54; H, 4.14; N, 3.19. Found: C, 46.33; H, 4.34; N, 3.33. Example 47 (3R,4S)-3-Acetyl-1-tert-butoxycarbonyl-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vb-a-Ac) White solid; mp 63°-64° C.; [α] D 20 +32.1° (c 0.81, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 1.37 (s, 9H), 1.65 (s, 3H), 5.22 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H), 5.83 (d, J=5.5 Hz, 1H), 7.23-7.33 (m, 5H); 3 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 19.71, 27.81, 60.84, 75.94, 84.07, 127.43, 128.31, 128.67, 132.44, 147.25, 162.39, 168.83; IR (CHCl 3 ) 3026, 2984, 1815, 1752, 1731, 1497, 1371, 1286, 1224, 1152, 1024 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 6 H 19 NO 5 : C, 62.94; H, 6.27; N, 4.59. Found: C, 63.17; H, 6.14; N, 4.52. Example 48 (3R,4S)-1-tert-Butylcarbamoyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vb-b-EE) 74%; pale yellow viscous oil; [α] D 20 +144.3° (c 0.7, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [0.96 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 1.05 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 3H], 1.10 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H), [1.33 (s), 1.34 (s), 9H], [3.21 (dq, J=9.3, 7.0 Hz), 3.30 (q, J=7.0 Hz), 3.33 (q, J=7.1 Hz), 3.62 (dq, J=9.1, 7.0 Hz), 2H], [4.46 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.66 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 1H], 5.10-5.19 (m, 2H), [6.59 (bs), 6.60 (bs), 1H], 7.23-7.36 (m, 5.4 Hz), 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ (14.86, 14.99), (19.75, 19.95), (28.81, 29.30), (60.62, 61.20), (60.80, 62.29), (75.57, 76.76), (98.91, 99.34), (127.07, 127.40, 127.70, 128.17, 128.29, 128.53), (133.71, 133.86), (148.54, 148.59), (167.67, 168.13); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3362, 3035, 2977, 2932, 1767, 1710, 1605, 1537, 1457, 1366, 1320, 1282, 1217, 1100 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 18 H 26 N 2 O 4 : C, 64.65; H, 7.84; N, 8.38. Found: C, 64.46; H, 7.75; N, 8.39. Example 49 (3R,4S)-1-Benzylcarbamoyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vb-c-EE) 50%; pale yellow viscous oil; [α] D 20 +66.2° (c 0.8, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [0.99 (d, J=5.5 Hz), 1.08 (d, J=5.5 Hz), 3H], 1.12 (m, 3H), [3.16-3.40 (m), 3.63 (m), 2H], [4.35-4.55 (m), 4.69 (q, J=5.5 Hz), 3H], 5.21 (m, 2H), [7.03 (bs), 7.05 (bs), 1H], 7.32 (m, 10H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ (15.01, 15.14), (19.90, 20.11), 43.83, (60.66, 62.44), (60.75, 61.54), (75.93, 77.04), (99.16, 99.56), (127.25, 127.64, 127.69, 128.17, 127.93, 128.35, 128.55, 128.64, 128.74), (133.59, 133.76), 137.80, 150.02, (167.73, 168.19); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3379, 3090, 3033, 2980, 2930, 1773, 1707, 1604, 1536, 1455, 1319, 1270, 908 cm -1 . Anal. Calcd for C 21 H 24 N 2 O 4 : C, 68.46; H, 6.57; N, 7.60. Found: C, 68.30; H, 6.66; N, 7.51. Example 50 (3R,4S)-3-(1-Ethoxyethoxy)-1-ethylcarbamoyl-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vd-d-EE) 63%; pale yellow oil; [α] D 20 +96.7° (c 0.9, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [0.96 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 1.04 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 3H], 1.05-1.18 (m, 3H), [3.13-3.39 (m), 3.59 (m), 4H], [4.45 (q, J=5.3 Hz), 4.65 (q, J=5.3 Hz), 1H], 5.16 (m, 2H), [6.60 (bs), 6.62 (bs), 1H], 7.27 (m, 5H); 13 C NMR (63 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 14.98, (19.84, 29.93), 34.79, (60.56, 61.35), (60.72, 62.35), (75.91, 77.03), (99.14, 99.54), (127.28, 127.55, 127.85, 128.27, 128.40), (133.74, 133.89), (149.87, 149.93), (167.62, 168.07); IR (CHCl 3 ) 3378, 3035, 2980, 2934, 1774, 1704, 1537, 1455, 1321, 1271, 1112, 1025 cm -1 . Examples 51-52 Preparations of 1-(N,N-dsubstituted-carbamoyl)-3-(hydroxy-protected)-4-substituted-2-azetidinones (Vd) A typical procedure is described for the preparation of (3R,4S)-(-)-1-morpholinecarbonyl-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vc-b). To a solution of 30 mg (0.13 mmol) of 3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone VIa-EE in 2 mL of CH 2 Cl 2 , 2 mg of DMAP and 0.05 mL of triethylamine was added at room temperature. After 5 min, 22.9 mg (0.15 mmol) of morpholinecarbonyl chloride was added. The reaction mixture was stirred for 2 h at room temperature. The reaction mixture was diluted with 20 mL of CH 2 Cl 2 and the organic layer was washed two times with brine, dried over Na 2 CO 3 and concentrated. The crude solid product was purified by chromatography on silica gel to yield pure Vc-b: 87%; pale yellow oil; 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [0.90 (d, J=5.3 Hz), 1.01 (d, J=5.3 Hz)] (3H), [1.04 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 1.18 (t, J=7.1 Hz)] (3H), 3.20 (m, 4H), [3.28 (m), 3.53 (m), 3.67 (m)] (2H), 3.60 (m, 4H), [4.41 (q, J=5.3 Hz), 4.63 (q, J=5.3 Hz)] (1H), {5.07 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 5.08 (d, J=5.8 Hz)] (1H), [5.29 (d, J=5.8 Hz), 5.32 (d, J=5.8 Hz)] (1H), 7.23-7.27 (m, 5H). Example 52 (3R,4S)-(-)-1-(N,N-Dimethylcarbomoyl)-3-(1-ethoxyethoxy)-4-phenyl-2-azetidinone (Vc-a) 55%; colorless liquid; 1 H NMR (250 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ [0.98 (d, J=5.4 Hz), 1.10 (d, J=5.4 Hz)] (3H), 1.12 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 1.13 (t, J=7.1 Hz), 3H], 3.16 (bs, 6H), [3.37 (m), 3.67 (m)] (2H), [4.47 (q, J=5.4 Hz), 4.71 (q, J=5.4 Hz)] (1H), [5.11 (d, J=5.7 Hz), 5.12 (d, J=5.7 Hz)] (1H), 5.34 (t, J=5.7 Hz, 1H), 7.34 (m, 5H). Examples 53-56 below provide methods of preparation of baccatins (III) and (IV) by using 14-OH-DAB, a natural compound, which was commercially obtained. Identification data for the baccatins (IIIa), (IIIb) (III-b) and (IVa) are shown following these examples. Example 53 Preparation of 7,10-diTroc-14-hydroxy-10-deacetylbaccatin-III-1,14-carbonate (IIIa) 14-Hydroxy-10-deacetylbaccatin III (14-OH-DAB) (910 mg, 1.63 mmol) was dissolved in 18 mL of anhydrous pyridine. The solution was heated at 80° C. and 1 mL of trichloroethylchloroformate was added. After stirring for 5 min, another 0.4 mL of trichloroethylchloroformate was added and the mixture was stirred for 30 sec (total quantity of trichloroethylchloroformate: 1.4 mL, 2.15 g, 9.71 mmol, approximately 6 equivalents). The reaction flask was removed from the oil bath and the reaction mixture was checked by thin layer chromatography (TLC) to confirm the completion of the reaction. Then, some drops of methanol and a piece of ice were added to remove the excess chloroformate. The reaction mixture was extracted with CHCl 3 and the extract was washed with 0.1N hydrochloric acid and saturated brine. After drying over anhydrous MgSO 4 and removal of the solvent, the residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexanes (1:1) as the eluant to give 1.16 g (75%) of IIIa as a white solid. The identification data from IIIa is shown below: 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.20 (s, 3H, H17), 1.28 (s, 3H, H16), 1.88 (s, 3H, H19), 2.08 (m, 1H, H6β), 2.18 (s, 3H, H18), 2.33, (s, 3H, 4-OAc), 2.63 (m, 1H, H6α), 3.75 (bs, 1H, H14), 3.82 (d, J=7.1 Hz, 1H, H3), 4.20 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, H20β), 4.34 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, H20α), 4.61 (d, J=11.8 Hz, 1H, Troc), 4.79 (s, 2H, Troc), 4.91 (d, J=11.8 Hz, 1H, Troc), 4.97 (bs, 1H, H5), 5.01 (bs, 1H, OH), 5.01 (bs, 1H, H13), 5.59, (dd, J=7.2, 10.6 Hz, 1H, H7), 6.10 (d, J=7.1 Hz, 1H, H2), 6.25 (s, 1H, H10), 7.50 (m, 2H), 7.65 (m, 1H), 8.03 (d, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 10.80, 15.22, 21.56, 22.21, 25.63, 33.05, 41.28, 46.71, 56.44, 68.93, 71.79, 75.78, 76.00, 76.54, 77.56, 79.03, 79.91, 83.49, 84.09, 88.25, 94.10, 127.87, 129.01, 129.86, 130.92, 134.38, 144.81, 152.76, 153.12, 153.18, 164.73, 170.64, 199.97. Example 54 Preparation of 14-Acetyl-7,10-DiTroc-14-hydroxy DAB (IIIb) To a solution of 594 mg (0.654 mmol) of 7,10-diTroc-14-hydroxy-10-deacetylbaccatin III (IIIa) in 30 mL of pyridine, was added 230 mL (3.27 mmol, 5 equiv.) of acetyl chloride at -10° C. The reaction mixture was stirred at -10° C. for 24 h. The reaction mixture was extracted with EtOAc and washed with 0.1N hydrochloric acid and brine The extract was dried over anhydrous MgSO 4 and concentrated in vacuo to give the crude product. The crude product was purified by flash column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexanes (1:1) as the eluant to give 402 mg (65%) of IIIb as a white solid having the identification data listed below: mp 225°-226° C.; 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.10 (s, 3H), 1.21 (s, 3H), 1.88 (s, 3H), 2.02 (s, 3H), 2.05 (m, 1H, H6β), 2.19 (s, 3H), 2.38 (s, 3H), 2.64 (m, 1H, H6α), 2.74 (s, 1H, OH), 3.19 (bs, 1H, OH), 3.98 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H, H3), 4.23 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, H20α), 4.30 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, H20β), 4.61 (d, J=11.8 Hz, 1H, TROC), 4.72 (m, 1H, H13), 4.77 (d, J=7.1 Hz, 1H, TROC), 4.91 (d, J=11.8 Hz, 1H, TROC), 4.98 (m, 1H, H5), 5.39 (d, J=5.4 Hz, 1H, H14), 5.62 (dd, J=7.1, 10.5 Hz, 1H, H7), 5.84 (d, J=7.3 Hz, 1H, H2), 6.30 (s, 1H, H10), 7.44-7.62 (m, 3H), 8.03-8.06 (m, 2H). Anal. Calcd for C 37 H 40 Cl 6 O 16 : C, 46.61; H, 4.23. Found: C, 46.80; H, 4.39. Example 55 Preparation of 14-hydroxy-2-cyclohexanecarbonyl-2-debenzoyl-10-deacetyl baccatin III (III-B) A suspension of 14-hydroxy10-deacetylbaccatin III (500 mg, 0.899 mmol) and 5% Rh-C catalyst (50 mg) in MeOH (8 mL) and EtOAc (2 mL) was hydrogenated at 50° C. and 900 psi of hydrogen for 36 h. After the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature, hydrogen gas was released, the catalyst filtered off, and the solvents evaporated in vacuo to give the crude product. The crude product was submitted to purification by column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexanes (1:1) as the eluant to give 498 mg (98%) of III-B as a white solid having the identification data listed below: 1 H NMR (DMSO-d 6 ) δ 0.88 (s, 6H), 1.46 (s, 3H), 1.86 (s, 3H), 2.14 (s, 3H), 1.12-2.24 (m, 13H), 3.59 (m,2H), 3.93 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 3.99 (d, J=7.0 Hz, 1H), 4.25 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 4.36 (m, 1H), 4.39 (s, 1H), 4.76 (d, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 4.88 (bd, J=9.1 Hz, 1H), 4.96 (d, J=7.1 Hz, 1H), 5.08 (d, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 5.29 (d, J=7.1 Hz, 1H), 5.45 (d, J=5.2 Hz, 1H), 6.64 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 1H); 13 C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ) δ 9.36, 14.51, 21.14, 22.05, 24.82, 25.04, 25.23, 26.40, 28.11, 28.44, 36.41, 42.04, 42.56, 45.78, 57.17, 70.70, 72.21, 73.22, 74.08, 74.54, 75.05, 75.39, 79.80, 83.58, 135.15, 139.11, 169.52, 174.62, 209.87. Example 56 Preparation of 7,10-DiTroc-14-hydroxy-10-deacetyl baccatin III (IVa) 14-Hydroxy-10-deacetylbaccatin III (14-OH-DAB) (900 mg, 1.61 mmol) was dissolved in 18 mL of anhydrous pyridine. The solution was heated at 80° C. and 0.92 mL (1.42 g, 6.44 mmol, 4 equivalents) of trichloroethylchloroformate was added. After stirring for 5 min, the reaction flask was removed from the oil bath and the reaction mixture was checked by thin layer chromatography (TLC) to confirm the completion of the reaction. Then, some drops of methanol and a piece of ice were added to remove the excess chloroformate. The reaction mixture was extracted with CHCl 3 and the extract was washed with 0.1N hydrochloric acid and saturated brine. After drying over anhydrous MgSO 4 and removal of the solvent, the residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexanes (1:1) as the eluant to give 808 mg (55%) of IVa as a white solid: 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.10 (s, 3H, H17), 1.18 (s, 3H, H16), 1.83 (s, 3H, H19), 2.02 (m, 1H, H6β), 2.14 (s, 3H, H18), 2.30 (s, 3H, 4-OAc), 2.61 (m, 1H, H6α), 3.22 (m, 1H, OH), 3.61 (s, 1H, OH), 3.66 (m, 1H, OH), 3.89 (d, J=7.1 Hz, H3), 4.01 (m, 1H, H14), 4.18 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, H20β), 4.28 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, H20α), 4.60 (d, J=11.9 Hz, 1H, Troc), 4.73 (m, 1H, H13), 4.77 (s, 2H, Troc), 4.83 (d, J=11.9 Hz, 1H, Troc), 4.95 (m, 1H, H5), 5.57 (dd, J=7.1, 10.6 Hz, 1H, H7), 5.79 (d, J=7.1 Hz, 1H, H2), 6.24 (s, 1H, H10), 7.40-7.60 (m, 3H), 8.02 (bd, 2H). Examples 57-62 describe the syntheses of taxanes of the present invention by coupling of the β-lactams(V) with baccatins(III) and (IV) as prepared in previous examples. The coupling reactions took place in the presence of a base as shown in Schemes 3 and 4. In Example 57 the hydroxyl groups at C7 and C10 were protected, however, deprotection was carried out in Example 58. In Example 59 both coupling and deprotection took place for the syntheses of both taxanes Ib and Ic. Examples 57-62 Synthesis of 7,10-diTroc-10-deacetyl-14-hydroxy-Taxol-1,14-carbonate (Ia-diTroc) To a solution of baccatin IIIa (86.9 mg, 0.093 mmol) and N-benzoyl-β-lactam Va-a-EE (47.3 mg, 0.14 mmol) in 3.0 mL of THF, was added sodium hexamethyl disilazide (NaHMDS) 0.13 mL (1.2 eq, 0.85M soln. in THF) at -40° C. over the period of 30 min. TLC analysis of the reaction mixture revealed that baccatin IIIa was completely consumed. The reaction mixture was quenched with 10 mL saturated NH 4 Cl solution. The reaction mixture was extracted with ether (10 mL×3), then dichloromethane (10 mL), and the combined extracts were washed with brine, dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and concentrated to give the crude product. The crude product was purified by column chromatography using EtOAc/hexane (1/2) as the eluant to give 95.9 mg of 2'-EE-7,10-diTroc-10-deacetyl-14-hydroxy-Taxol-1,14-carbonate as a white solid. This compound was treated with 0.5N hydrochloric acid in THF at room temperature for 1 h. The reaction mixture was dried and purified by chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexane (2/3) as the eluant to give 65.5 mg (75% overall yield) of taxane Ia-diTroc as a white solid having the identification data listed below: mp 178°-180° C.; [α] D 20 -5.9° (c 0.85, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.30 (s, 6H, H16,H17), 1.89 (s, 3H, H19), 1.92, (s, 3H, H18), 2.08 (m, 1H, H6β), 2.56 (s, 3H, 4-OAc), 2.62 (m, 1H, H6α), 3.81 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H, H3), 4.09 (bs, 1H, 2'-OH), 4.24 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H, H20β), 4.31, (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H, H20α), 4.60 (d, J=11.9 Hz, 1H, Troc), 4.76 (s, 2H, Troc), 4.87-4.94 (m, 4H, Troc,H5, H2', H14), 5.55 (dd, J=7.1, 10.5 Hz, 1H, H7), 5.93 (dd, J=2.8, 8.9 Hz, 1H, H3'), 6.11 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H, H2), 6.19 (s, 1H, H10), 6.47 (d, J=6.2 Hz, 1H, H13), 7.21 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H, NH), 7.31-7.64 (m, 11H), 7.75 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 2H), 8.12 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 10.93, 14.63, 22.39, 22.51, 25.39, 33.07, 41.64, 46.39, 54.92, 56.47, 68.88, 73.87, 74.42, 75.78, 75.88, 77.22, 77.45, 78.29, 79.61, 80.17, 83.59, 88.01, 94.02, 94.07, 126.80, 127.31, 127.73, 128.34, 128.64, 129.07 (2), 130.16, 132.04, 132.46, 133.44, 134.35, 137.53, 139.71, 151.63, 153.06, 153.15, 164.79, 167.69, 171.37, 172.03, 199.33; IR (CHCl 3 ) 3038, 2951, 1820, 1761, 1737, 1667, 1479, 1379, 1250, 1220; Anal. Calcd for C 52 H 49 NCl 6 O 19 : C, 51.85; H, 4.10; N, 1.16. Found: C, 51.67; H, 3.86; N, 1.13. Example 58 Synthesis of 10-deacetyl-14-hydroxy-Taxol-1,14-carbonate (Ia) Taxane Ia-diTroc (100 mg) was treated with Zn dust (200 mg) in acetic acid at 40° C. for several hours. The reaction mixture was filtered on a glass filter and the filtrate was condensed in vacuo. The residue was redissolved in CH 2 Cl 2 , and Zn salt was removed by filtration to give the crude product. The crude product was recrystalized using EtOAc/hexane (3:1) to give pure taxane Ia (48 mg, 72%) as a white powder: 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.21 (s, 3H), 1.27 (s, 3H), 1.78 (s, 3H), 1.85 (m, 1H, H6β), 2.04 (s, 3H), 2.54 (s, 3H, 4-OAc), 2.56 (m, 1H, H6α), 3.80 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H, H3), 3.93 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 1H, 2'-OH), 4.28 (m, 4H, H20, H7, OH), 4.88 (m, 3H, H5, H14, H2'), 5.16 (s, 1H, H10), 5.93 (m, 1H, H3'), 6.07 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H, H2), 6.44 (d, J=5.8 Hz, 1H, H13), 7.23-7.60 (m, 12H), 7.73 (bd, 2H), 8.14 (bd, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 10.10, 14.22, 14.39, 21.11, 22.17, 22.61, 25.57, 36.67, 41.62, 45.97, 54.71, 57.86, 60.47, 69.43, 71.63, 73.82, 73.99, 74.66, 76.18, 77.27, 79.76, 80.43, 84.13, 88.37, 126.79, 127.40, 127.91, 128.28, 128.59, 129.07, 130.22, 131.98, 133.56, 134.25, 135.76, 136.22, 137.67, 151.89, 165.02, 167.67, 171.09, 172.06, 209.76. Example 59 Synthesis of 13-[(2R,3S)-3-(tert-butoxycarbonyl) amino-2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl]-10-deacetyl-14-hydroxybaccatin-III-1,14-carbonate (Ic) To a solution of baccatin IIIa (100 mg, 0.107 mmol) and N-t-BOC-β-lactam Vb-d-EE (52 mg, 0.155 mmol) in 3.0 mL of THF, was added NaHMDS 0.12 mL (1.1 eq, 1.0M soln. in THF) at -30° C. over the period of 10 min. TLC analysis of the reaction mixture revealed that baccatin IIIa was completely consumed. The reaction mixture was poured into a 100 mL beaker which contained 10 mL saturated NH 4 Cl solution to quench the reaction. The reaction mixture was extracted with ether (10 mL×3), then dichloromethane (10 mL), and the combined extracts were washed with brine, dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and concentrated to give a light yellow solid (170 mg). The crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexane (1/1) as the eluant to afford taxane 13-[(2R,3S)-3-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)amino-2-EEO-3-phenylpropanoyl]-10-deacetyl-14-hydroxybaccatin-III-1,14-carbonate (Ic-EE) (118 mg, 88%) as a white solid. The product was directly used for the next step to remove EE and Troc protecting groups all at once. The crude taxane Ic-EE (157 mg) was treated with Zn dust (480 mg) in 2 mL glacial acid at room temperature for 8 hrs, then the temperature was raised to 50° C. for 4 hours. The solution was filtered, and the filtrate was poured into ice-cold saturated sodium bicarbonate solution (20 mL). The solution was extracted with dichloromethane (20 mL), the extract was dried over anhydrous MgSO 4 , and concentrated to give a white solid, which was further purified by column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexane (2/1) as the eluant to afford taxane Ic (63 mg, 70% overall yield from the baccatin IIIa) having the identification data shown below: mp 190° C. (decomp.); [α] D 20 -22.83° (c, 0.193, CHCl 3 ); 1 H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 1.36 (s, 9H, t-Boc), 1,77 (s, 3H, H 19 ), 1.82 (m, 1H, H 6b ), 1.87 (s, 3H, H 18 ), 2.43 (bs, 3H, 4-OAc), 2.55 (m, 1H, H 6a ), 3.69 (bs, 1H, OH), 3.80 (d, J=7.5 Hz, H 3 ), 4.20˜4.30 (m, 3H, H 20 , H 5 ), 4.69 (s, 1H, OH), 4.75 (d, J=6.7 Hz, H 14 ), 4.92 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H, H 7 ), 5.19 (s, 1H, H 10 ), 5.30 (m, 1H, H 3' ), 5.62 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 1H, H 2' ), 6.01 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 1H, H 2 ), 6.45 (d, J=5.9 Hz, 1H, H 13 ), 7.51-7.64 (m, 8H), 8.02 (d, J=7.3 Hz); 13 C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ 9.97, 14.37, 21.98, 22.52, 25.69, 28.24, 29.68, 36.74, 41.67, 45.94, 57.91, 69.36, 71.65, 74.09, 74.31, 74.82, 76.09, 79.64, 80.58, 83.98, 88.09, 126.61, 128.13, 128.96, 129.93, 134.18, 135.82, 136.52, 138.00, 151.87, 155.70, 164.78, 170.64, 171.89, 209.69; IR (neat) 3403, 2931, 1817(amide), 1734, 1715, 1703, 1242, 1085. Anal. Calcd for C 4 H 51 NO 16 : C, 62.18; H, 6.05; N, 1.65. Found: C, 61.91; H, 6.33; N, 1.61. Example 60 Synthesis of 14-[(2R,3S)-3-(N-Benzoyl) amino-2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl]-10-deacetyl-14-hydroxybaccatin III (IIa) To a solution of baccatin IVa (79.6 mg, 0.09 mmol) and N-benzoyl-β-lactam Va-a-EE (45.8 mg, 0.14 mmol) in 3.0 mL of THF, was added NaHMDS 0.13 mL (1.2 eq, 0.85M soln. in THF) at -40° C. over the period of 30 min. TLC analysis of the reaction mixture revealed that baccatin IIIa was completely consumed. The reaction mixture was quenched with 10 mL saturated NH 4 Cl solution. The reaction mixture was extracted with ether (10 mL×3), then dichloromethane (10 mL), and the combined extracts were washed with brine, dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and concentrated to give the crude product. The crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexanes (1:3) as the eluant to give 90.2 mg (82%) of 14-[(2R,3S)-3-(N-Benzoyl)amino-2-EEO-3-phenylpropanoyl]-10-deacetyl-14-hydroxy-baccatin III (IIa-EE) as a white solid. This protected taxane IIa-EE was treated with Zn in acetic acid at 60° C. for 9 h. The reaction mixture was filtered on a glass filter and the filtrate was condensed in vacuo. The residue was redissolved in CH 2 Cl 2 , and Zn salt was removed by filtration to give the crude product. This crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexanes (3:1) as the eluant to give 33.7 mg (75%) of taxane IIa as a white powder having the identification data shown below: mp 198°-202° C.; [α] D 20 -13.2 (c 0.38, MeOH); 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.17 (s, 3H), 1.20 (s, 3H), 1.74 (s, 3H, H19), 1.84 (m, 1H, H6b), 2.14 (s, 3H, H18), 2.17 (s, 3H, 4-OAc), 2.60, (m, 1H, H6a), 3/07 (bs, 1H, 2'-OH), 4.03 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 1H, H3), 4.14 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, H20), 4.27 (m, 3H, H20, H7, 10-OH), 4.55 (m, 1H, H2'), 4.99 (bd, 1H, H5), 5.07 (m, 1H, H13), 5.17 (d, J=5.8 Hz, 1H), 5.34 (s, 1H, H10), 5.65 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 1H, H14), 5.83 (bd, 2H, H2, H3'), 6.91 (d, J=9.4 Hz, 1H, NH), 7.36-7.59 (m, 11H), 7.77 (bd, 2H), 8.15 (bd, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 9.53, 15.32, 20.66, 22.08, 26.03, 29.69, 37.06, 42.85, 46.50, 54.68, 58.00, 71.63, 72.06, 73.60, 75.03, 76.60, 77.12, 78.82, 80.31, 83.98, 127.10, 127.24, 128.25, 128.42, 128.84, 129.04, 130.62, 132.51, 133.59, 135.04, 137.89, 140.68, 166.49, 168.13, 170.86, 172.12, 211.58; IR (CHCl 3 ) n 3632, 3434, 3026, 3016, 2943, 2838, 1724, 1648; Anal. Calcd for C 45 H 49 NO 14 : C, 65.29; H, 5.97; N, 1.69. Found: C, 65.15; H, 6.01; N, 1.79. This example included a deprotection step to obtain taxane (IIa) as shown in Scheme 4. Example 61 Synthesis of 7,10-diTroc-14-[(2R,3S)-3-(tertbutoxycarbonyl)amino-2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl]-10-deacetyl-14-hydroxybaccatin III (IIb-diTroc) To a solution of 50 mg (0.055 mmol) of baccatin IVa in 10 mL of THF, 0.06 mL (0.06 mmol) of NaHMDS was added at -40° C. over 10 min period. A solution of 25 mg (0.083 mmol) of N-t-BOC-β-lactam Vb-d-EE in THF was added at -40° C. and stirred for 1 hr. The reaction was quenched by addition of saturated NH 4 Cl at -40° C. The organic layer was separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with ethyl acetate. The combined organic extracts were dried over anhydrous Na 2 CO 3 and concentrated in vacuo. The crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexanes (1:3) as the eluant to give 54.2 mg (82%) of 7,10-diTroc-14-[(2R,3S)-3-(tertbutoxycarbonyl)amino-2-EEO-3-phenylpropanoyl]-10-deacetyl-14-hydroxybaccatin III (IIb-diTroc-EE) as a white solid. This protected taxane IIb-diTroc-EE was treated with 0.5N HCl in THF at room temperature for 1 hr. The reaction mixture was dried over anhydrous Na 2 CO 3 and purified by column chromatography on silica gel using ETOAc/hexanes (1:3) as the eluant to give 40.0 mg (81%) of taxane IIb-diTroc as a white powder: 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.19 (s, 3H, H17), 1.24 (s, 3H, H16), 1.45 (s, 9H), 1.85 (s, 3H), 2.03 (m, 1H, H6b), 2.24 (s, 3H, H18), 2.37 (s, 3H, 4-OAc), 2.65 (m, 1H, H6a), 3/01 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 1H, OH), 4.01 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 1H, H3), 4.15 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, H20), 4.32 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, H20), 4.36 (d, J=5.6 Hz, 1H, NH), 4.62 (d, J=11.8 Hz, 1H), 4.79 (s, 2H), 4.92 (d, J=11.8 Hz, 1H), 4.95-5.02 (m, 3H, H2', H5, OH), 5.18 (d, J=9.5 Hz, 1H, H13), 5.34 (d, J=9.5 Hz, 1H, H14), 5.63 (dd, J=7.2, 10.5 Hz, 1H, H7), 5.71 (d, J=5.1 Hz, 1H, H3'), 5.84 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 1H, H2), 6.34 (s, 1H, H10), 7.29-7.60 (m, 8H), 8.12 (bd, 2H); 13 C NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 15.33, 22.25, 28.11, 28.17, 28.30, 28.45, 28.50, 33.26, 42.85, 46.82, 55.98, 56.51, 71.88, 73.05, 73.60, 76.22, 76.57, 77.61, 77.67, 77.88, 79.65, 80.01, 81.31, 83.54, 83.60, 94.21, 126.97, 128.29, 128.37, 128.74, 128.92, 130.48, 131.21, 133.67, 138.55, 144.71, 153.07, 153.22, 156.23, 166.22, 171.04, 171.97, 200.88; This example shows only the coupling of baccatin(IVa) with β-lactams(Vb-d) protected with EE to obtain a protected taxane as shown in Scheme 4. In this example the taxane which was obtained was IIb-diTroc. Example 62 Synthesis of 14-[(2R,3S)-3-(tert-butoxycarbonyl) amino-2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl]-10-deacetyl-14-hydroxybaccatin III (IIb) To a solution of 108 mg (0.09 mmol) of IIb-diTroc in 2 mL of acetic acid and 3 mL of MeOH, 240 mg of Zn (activated) was added at room temperature. The temperature was increased to 60° C. and the mixture was stirred for 2 hrs. The reaction mixture was filtered on a glass filter and the filtrate was condensed in vacuo. The residue was redissolved in CH 2 Cl 2 , and Zn salt was removed by filtration to give 116 mg of crude product. This crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using EtOAc/hexanes (4:1) as the eluant to give 48.8 mg (70%) of taxane IIb as a white powder: 1 H NMR (CDCl 3 ) δ 1.15 (s, 3H), 1.16 (s, 3H), 1.45 (s, 9H), 1.73 (s, 3H), 1.81 (m, 1H, H6b), 2.13 (s, 3H), 2.36 (s, 3H), 2.60 (m, 1H, H6a), 3/03 (d, J=5.7 Hz, 1H, OH), 4.02 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H, H3), 4.17 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H, H20), 4.25-4.34 (m, 4H, H20, H7), 4.83 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.99 (m, 2H, H2', H5), 5.18 (d, J=9.5 Hz, 1H, H13), 5.31 (s, 1H, H10), 5.37 (d, J=9.5 Hz, 1H, H14), 5.67 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 1H, H3'), 5.83 (d, J=6.9 Hz, 1H, H2), 7.31-7.56 (m, 8H), 8.12 (bd, 2H); This example illustrates the deprotection step of IIb-diTroc to obtain the taxane IIb as shown in Scheme 4. The procedures set forth above describe highly sophisticated and elegant protocols for production of significantly enhanced compounds useful in the treatment of cancer. Thus, while there have been described what are presently believed to be the preferred embodiments of the present invention, those skilled in the art will realize that other and further modifications can be made to the invention without departing from the true spirit of the invention, such further and other modifications are intended to be included herein within the scope of the appended claims.

The present invention is directed to novel taxanes useful as chemotherapeutic agents or their precursors. Processes for preparing the novel taxanes include coupling reactions, in the presence of a base, of baccatin of formula (III) or (IV) ##STR1## with β-lactams of formula (V). ##STR2## The invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions including the novel taxanes and methods for treatment of certain cancers with these new compounds.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to the use of back-scattered microwave radiation for non-invasive monitoring and diagnostics of biological activity, physiologic activity, anatomical structure and the pathology of various organs of living animals and man. 2. Description of the Prior Art The use of microwaves in monitoring biological activity and pathological diagnostics is receiving more and more attention, particularly because microwaves are capable of penetration of soft tissue and can be used in non-invasive techniques for monitoring the heart, brain and other organs. Two examples of such techniques are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,483,860 to Namarow and 3,951,314 to Malech. U.S. Pat. No. 3,483,860 to Namarow discloses a method for monitoring intrasomatic circulatory functions and organ movement wherein low power microwave signals are modulated with an audio frequency and transmitted through a horn antenna positioned on a subject's chest. A portion of such signals is reflected back and received through a directional coupler. The received signals are modulated in accordance with heart action, i.e. variations in blood flow during the pumping cycle and movement of the heart and adjacent bodily organs. The modulated signals are amplified and demodulated in a receiver, the modulation envelope being impressed on the audio carrier frequency. While providing an important diagnostic tool, because of the use of a horn antenna large areas are irradiated and it is not possible to isolate for diagnosis small localized areas. Also, since the system depends on variations in blood flow or muscle or heart movement, it cannot be used for medical diagnosis of areas such as the brain which is free from movement or the spine which is substantially transparent to microwaves. U.S. Pat. No. 3,951,134 to Malech discloses a method and apparatus for remotely monitoring brain waves. Electromagnetic signals of different frequencies are simultaneously transmitted to the brain of the subject. It is suggested that the signals of different frequencies penetrate the subject's skull and mix to form an interference waveform which is modulated by brain activity. The modulated interference waveform is re-transmitted from the brain and picked up by the antenna and processed in received electronics to develop a signal representing intra-brain activity. While the Malech patent provides a means of monitoring brain function which may be a useful barometer of organic functions, it is too technically cumbersome to be accepted as a general diagnostic tool by the general practioner. Over the years researchers have reported various techniques for using microwaves as a means for biological studies and reference may be made to the following publications. (1) C. Susskind, "Possible Use of Microwaves in the Management of Lung Disease," Proc. IEE, Vol. 61, pp. 673-74 (May 1973); (2) C. Susskind and A. R. Perrins, "Oscillograph Field Plotter," Electronics, Vol. 24, pg. 140 (September 1951); (3) P. C. Pedersen et al., "An Investigation of the Use of Microwave Radiation for Pulmonary Diagnostics," IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, Vol. BME-22, pp. 410-12 (September 1976); (4) P. C. Pedersen et al., "Microwave Reflection and Transmission Measurements for Pulmonary Diagnosis and Monitoring," IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, Vol. BME-25, pp. 40-48 (January 1978); (5) D. G. Bragg et al., "Monitoring and Diagnosis of Pulmonary Edema by Microwaves: A Preliminary Report," Investigative Radiology, Vol. 12, pp. 289-91 (May-June 1977); (6) D. W. Griffin, "MW Interferometers for Biological Studies," Microwave Journal, Vol. 21, pp. 69-72 (May 1978); (7) H. P. Schwan, "Microwave Biophysics," Microwave Power Engineering, E. C. O'Kresss, ed. (Academic Press. 1968) pp. 213-34; (8) O. M. Salati et al., "Radio Frequency Radiation Hazards," Electronic Industries, pp. 96-101 (November 1962); (9) J. Yamaura, "Mapping of Microwave Power Transmitted Through the Human Thorax," Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 67, pp. 1170-71 (August 1978; and (10) J. C. Lin et al., "Microwave Apexcardiography," IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MT-27, pp. 618-20 (June 1979). While much research has been funded to develop microwave techniques for diagnostic testing and large amounts of funds have been spent in the development of sophisticated laboratory electronics to support such research, little attention has been paid toward the development of diagnostic instruments or tools capable of every day use by the general practioner. Perhaps one reason for the absence of interest in this area is the traditional reluctance of medical practioners in deviating from accepted practice and the use of tools or instruments radically different from those which have served the profession well over the years. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is a primary object of the present invention to provide a microwave diagnostic instrument for probing and monitoring on-going biological activity, physiologic activity, anatomical structure and the pathology of various organs of living animals and man. Another object of the present invention is to provide a portable microwave diagnostic instrument which can operate at safe levels of radiation and which can be used for monitoring heart and other organ activity and to study activities of the brain and spinal cord. A further object of the present invention is to provide a portable microwave diagnostic instrument that may be used as a substitute for a stethoscope by converting localized heart activity into monaural or binaural sounds. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a portable diagnostic instrument capable of monitoring electrical activity of the brain and spinal cord. Accordingly, the present invention relates to a method and apparatus for directing and concentrating a low power level microwave signal on localized body areas such as the heart and other organs, spine and brain to non-invasively monitor on-going biological or neural activity. A Gunn diode feeds power into one end of a short, insulated dielectric wave guide, the free end of which houses a point contact semiconductor isolated by a metal shield from the incident beam. The wave guide concentrates and directs a pencil shaped beam through the free end onto a small localized area. Back scattered radiation is detected, filtered, amplified and recorded to reflect on-going biological or neural activity. The microwave instrumentation is housed to form a compact portable unit capable of being carried by a physician much the same way as a stethoscope and includes two ear tubes connected to receive the audio output of the amplifier through an audio converter to provide a monaural or binaural signal indicative of the on-going biological or neural activity. A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Other objects and advantages of the invention will be further apparent from the following description and the accompanying drawings which form part of the instant specification and which are to be read in conjunction therewith, and in which like reference numerals are used to identify like parts throughout the several views. In the drawings, FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a "microprobe" in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a enlarged, fragmentary view of the free end of the waveguide shown in FIG. 1 within the dash line circle; FIG. 3 is a diagramatic view of a microwave diagnostic instrument in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 4 is a partial diagramatic and enlarged view of the microwave diagnostic instrument of FIG. 3 showing a further embodiment of the "microprobe" in elevation with part of the housing removed for clarity; FIG. 5 is a bottom view of the "microprobe" of FIG. 4 looking into the waveguide exit ports; FIG. 6 illustrates a typical laboratory set up for the present invention for detecting heart activity in a mouse; FIG. 7 is a combined schematic and diagramatic view of an amplitude to frequency converter in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 8 illustrates modulated and microwave signals as recorded at various locations on the chest of a mouse using the microprobe of the present invention; FIG. 9 shows a graphical representation of a target area scanned by the microprobe of the present invention; FIG. 10 shows the modulated microwave signal response taken along different points of the target area of FIG. 9; FIG. 11 shows a modulated, microwave signal response from a human heart taken at three different positions; FIG. 12 shows modulated, microwave signals developed from matched diodes arranged in a semi-circular pattern on the dorsal surface of the head of an animal; FIG. 13 shows recordings obtained from the occipital regions of a head of an animal when stimulated with a light source; and FIG. 14 shows recordings obtained from the spinal cord of an animal. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to FIG. 1, there is shown the "heart" of the microwave monitoring system of the present invention which for convenience will be referred to as the "microprobe" 10. Microprobe 10 comprises a conventional miniature self-contained Gunn diode 12 and associated resonating chamber 13 formed by planar walls and having an output window 14 in one wall. Diode 12 is powered by a suitable DC voltage supply not shown in FIG. 1. The DC supply may be a well known type such as Thornton model MWG-103, or batteries. Gunn diode 12 has its output window 14 coupled to one end of a tapered dielectric waveguide 16 mounted to wall 18 of resonating chamber 13. Guide 16 has a decreasing or reducing taper in the direction of its output end. As shown in FIG. 1, waveguide 16 is truncated to form a frustum of a solid regular trapezoid and has a small groove 20 cut into the free end of the waveguide forming microwave exit ports 22 and 24 to each side of the groove. Groove 20 is lined with a metallic shield 26 which may be of aluminum or copper as shown more clearly in FIG. 2 and a detector diode 28 is mounted within the groove which together with the reflector serves as a housing for the small diode detector. Negligible power due to field fringing is received at the detector unless an object is placed in front of the waveguide to produce backscattering of radiation. The outer planar surfaces of waveguide 16 may also be provided with a metallic shield 27 of aluminum foil or copper foil. Other metal layers such as gold or silver may also be utilized. Such a shield is not essential for operation of the microprobe; however, the shield improves microwave response and cancels stray fields. Waveguide 16 is preferably a solid dielectric such as plexiglass; however, any suitable plastic transparent to microwaves may be used. The material selected should be such that the impedance at the exit ports 22-24 approximates the impedance of the subject to be monitored, i.e. the surface against which the microprobe is pressed. To this end, the impedance of the waveguide may be modified by incorporating into the plastic suitable fillers such as titanium dioxide to change the dielectric constant of the solid material forming the waveguide. While waveguide 16 is shown as having flat tapering sides forming a solid regular trapezoid, other shapes will readily suggest themselves. For example, waveguide 16 may take the form of a truncated cone. It is, however, important that the dielectric waveguide 16 tapers to a gradually reduced cross section at the output end such that the microwave power output signal from the Gunn diode 12 is polarized and focused into a beam as it passes through the inside of the dielectric guide. The cross sectional area of the output end of the guide at exit ports 22 and 24 should be approximately 1 square centimeter. The high refractive index of the dielectric serves to shorten the effective wavelength and allows propagation of the beam through the exit ports 22 and 24 at the end of the waveguide in the order of 1 square centimeter or less. Thus, there is provided a highly localized beam which enables diagnostic measurements to be made of discreet areas of organs. The localization can be further restricted by increasing the frequency of the microwave source. In the preferred embodiment, the diode provides a continuous frequency output of 10 gigahertz. However, by varying the diode and resonating chamber, the output frequency of the emitted signal can be changed over a wide range of, say, 5 gigahertz to 20 gigahertz. The continuous wave output radiation has a total power output level of less than 10 milliwatts. Thus, monitoring of biophysical activity of a life system can be accomplished safely with a minimum of hazard to the life system. The penetration depth, defined as the distance to attentuate the beam power to 1/e of the incident level for a 10 gigahertz wave is 0.34 cm. in high water content tissue and 3.0 cm. in fat or boney tissue. The wavelength in these two types of tissue are 0.46 cm. and 1.41 cm. respectively. Many geometries are possible for detecting scattered microwave radiation at all angles from 0° to 180°. The microprobe 10 may be scanned slowly across the area of the life system or subject being monitored and evaluated or several detectors may be arranged in an array. It is also possible to detect backscattered waves by physically separating the detector 28 from the microprobe 10. This advantageously enables one to obtain spatial distribution of the scattered waves. However, in the preferred embodiment the detector diode 28 is disposed at the center of the exit end of the waveguide, centrally disposed between ports 22 and 24. This arrangement provides a better signal to noise ratio and minimizes power level requirements. Referring to FIG. 3, there is illustrated a portable microwave diagnostic instrument constructed in accordance with the present invention. As should be apparent, the instrument is specifically designed to approximate the physical appearance of a stethoscope. To this end, microprobe 10 is housed in a T-shaped cylindrical casing 30 having a flat surface 32 adapted to be placed against the skin of the subject. Diaphragm 32 includes a central window shaped to correspond to the output end of waveguide 16 and is in flush engagement with the outer perimeter of the exit end of the dielectric waveguide. A shielded cable 33 provides the necessary electrical connections between microwave source diode 12 and detector diode 28 to a solid state miniaturized integrated circuit conveniently packaged in casing 30. The integrated circuit includes a power source 36, amplifier 38 and a voltage to frequency converter 40 which provides an audio output signal correlated to the biophysical activity of the subject which in the case of FIG. 3 is cardiac activity. The output of the voltage to frequency converter is coupled via cable 42 to a pair of ear tubes 44 and 46 extending from spring member 48. Spring member 48 enables the ear tubes to be spread apart for insertion into the ears in a conventional manner. The output of the circuit may be monophonic or split between the two ear tubes to provide a binaural response. As should be readily apparent, the packaging of the integrated circuit board enables the control components, together with the ear piece and microprobe element 10 to be slipped into and conveniently carried in a coat pocket, much the same as a stethoscope. Further miniaturization of the circuits onto semiconductor chips in accordance with conventional technology enables the power source 36, amplifier 40 and voltage to frequency converter 34 to be advantageously housed within the casing 30 for the microprobe element. To this end, as shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, Gunn diode 12 fits snugly within the upper section 31 of casing 30 which is of a reduced dimension compared to the base portion 33 of the casing. The area within the casing 30 and around waveguide 16 forms a cavity 52. At one end of cavity 52 is mounted a semiconductor chip 54 comprising the amplifier stages 38 and voltage to frequency converter 40. To the other side of cavity 52 is mounted power source or battery 36. Diaphragm 32 is coupled to a resilient spring element shown diagrammatically at 56 which operatively connects an on/off switch 58. Switch 58 is normally open until diaphragm 32 is pressed against the subject. Pressure on diaphragm 32 causes the spring element to flex and close switch 58 establishing electrical power connection between the Gunn diode and electrical circuits and the battery power source. To this end, switch 58 has one end connected by conductor 60 to the positive terminal of the power source 36 and its other end connected by suitable conductors 61 to chip 54 and diode 12. A common ground may be established through the use of a metal case or an internal metal band 62 within the case. Alternatively, the internal surface of the case may be provided with suitable conductive strips formed by thin layers deposited by conventional laminating processes. Referring now to FIG. 6, there is shown a typical laboratory set up for monitoring cardiac activity of a mouse. Test results were obtained using an ICR mouse 64, female, adult weighing approximately 30 grams. The output detector 28 which may be a point contact Shottky diode is connected via shielded cable 65 to a AC amplifier stage 66 having a gain of 10 4 -10 6 . Amplifier stage 66 may include one or more conventional stages. Additionally, pre-amplifiers may be included. Conventional IC components may be utilized such as National Semiconductor quad op-amp 4 stage amplifier LM324N and National Semiconductor LM381AN pre-amplifier. The output of the amplifier 66 is coupled via conductor 67 to a oscilloscope 68 and a polygraph recorder 70 (Grass 7WC12PA) for making permanent recordings. An audio output is provided by connecting the output of amplifier 66 to an amplitude to frequency converter 72 which in turn has its output connected to head phones 74 via conductor 73. FIG. 7 illustrates a typical arrangement for achieving an audible response from backscattered radiation due to biophysical activity of a subject. The output of the Gunn diode is AC coupled to amplifier 66 to remove any DC components. The output of amplifier 66 provides a sub-audible signal which is applied via line 71 to base electrode input of transistor 76. Transistor 76 has its collector/emitter electrodes connected across an RC timing control loop comprising resistors 77 and 78 and capacitor 79. Resistors 77 and 78 are selectively connected into the circuit depending on the position of switch 80. Depending on which resistor is selected establishes whether breathing or lung sounds are filtered or incorporated into the output signal. Lung sounds appear as background noise and conventionally in a stethoscope the heartbeat is heard with the background breathing noise. In the present invention, by switching in a lower value resistance, the sounds due to slow voltage variations occasioned by breathing ##EQU1## are effectively filtered out. The RC network sets the dc input level to the oscillator 82 which is a conventional 1000 cycle voltage controlled oscillator having its audio output connected to phones 74. Variations of the sub-audible input are thus translated into varying tone signals. Advantageously, a conventional squelch arrangement may be provided at the output of the oscillator to avoid low level noise in the phones. The basic principle of operation consists of the fact that both the heart and the brain modulate an incoming continuous wave microwave signal; and that this modulation appears in the scattered beam. The scattered beam carries information imposed on it by the organ activity. This modulated scattered wave is detected with a simple diode detector and converted into an identically modulated electric signal. The continuous component of the electric signal is removed by filtering while the sub-audible low frequency modulated signal components (up to approximately 100 Hz) are amplified, and monitored or displayed either on an oscillograph, or a chart recorder, or by conversion to an audio signal. Since these signals represent information imposed on the microwave radiation by the organ, they therefore reflect the operation of that organ. This phenomenon provides a new technique for probing the physiologic activity, the anatomical structure, and the pathology of the various organs of living animals and man. At the present time, the mechanism for the modulation by the organ of the microwave radiation is not well understood. It was thought to reflect changes induced by mechanical activities of the various organs, but experiments tend to indicate the response may be due in part to electrical activity. Although the mechanism for modulation is not completely understood, nevertheless, with this new technique, it is exceedingly easy to obtain significant information regarding the activity of the heart. The modulation signals are rich and complicated, consisting of many peaks and valleys of different amplitudes and halfwidths. It is obvious that these signals contain a significantly larger quantity of information concerning heart activity than does the standard EKG. There is no apparent dead time in these signals. Because of the ease with which these signals can be obtained from a simple apparatus, they lend themselves well to utility in the medical field of cardiology. By scanning manipulations of the probe over the heart area, these signals may be used to present a visual image of various areas of the heart on an oscilloscope screen. Such an instrument would provide the cardiologist with a totally new capacity for examination of the heart function in animal and human patients for the detection of pathologic conditions. The basic method was shown to work on mice. The mouse was anesthetized with an injection of sodium pentobarbital (1 cc, 40 mg/kg, injected subcutaneously under the skin of the back). The anesthetic was administered to make the animal tractable for the experiments, and is not necessary for the effect. The mouse is then turned on its back as shown in FIG. 6 and the microprobe positioned above the chest in contact with the skin. Skin contact enhances the strength of the signal and may either eliminate an additional source of extraneous reflected power from the air-skin interface, or provide a better impedance match for power transfer. The microwave power is turned on, and the electrical signal from the detector 28 is coupled to the solid state amplifier 66 of approximately 1000 gain. The input and output of the amplifier are both AC coupled. This removes the DC component. The band width of the amplifier is approximately 1000 Hz. The output of the amplifier was fed into a Grass Polygraph Recorder. In FIG. 8, there are presented a series of recordings taken on the Grass Polygraph Recorder used in a single channel mode. Each of the recordings is from a slightly different position on the chest. The chart speed is 25 mm/sec. The heart signals recorded can be obtained only from a region of roughly 1/2 cm 2 , centered over the animal's heart. The signals consist of two different types. The first are the signals A appearing approximately once per second and are of high amplitude. These reflect the breathing mode of the animal. The pulses B that appear at approximately five per second are the heart beats of the animal. It can be seen that the modulated microwave signal for the heart beat consists of at least six, and possibly more, peaks and trough; that the shape of these modulated signals change with the position over the chest; and finally, that the signal strength is extremely high since the gain of the Grass Polygraph Recorder was set at 1 mv/cm. The signals change when the microprobe is moved away from the region of the heart, and, at a sufficient distance away, the microprobe can only pick up the signals due to the breathing mode, and the heart pulses have disappeared, as shown in the recording taken over the abdomen. Referring to FIG. 9, the chest of a mouse was graphed with a 6 mm square of 1 mm blocks, `0-0` refers to a position directly over the heart. The numbers, +2, +4, and +6, -2, -4, and -6, refer to successive 2 mm movements up and down, respectively, from the reference position 0,0. The graphs of FIG. 10 show the change in the nature of the signals as one scans a small portion of the animal's body around the mouse heart with a microprobe. FIG. 11 shows a chart recording of modulated signals derived by the present invention from a human heart at three different positions. The variations suggest the localizability of the beam and the mapping capacity of the system. It is obvious that the human microwave cardiogram is far more complex than the standard electrocardiogram shown in the upper left hand corner of the recording. A significantly larger amount of information is embodied in the modulated microwave heart beat signal than is present in the EKG and the apparatus allows one to examine the physiologic activity of the heart in a living animal with minimal irritation and to obtain a rich supply of information that is presently beyond the capacity of the EKG and other known instruments. A further development consists of a Stereophonic diagnostic instrument. By the use of two independent microprobes whose separation distance and angular orientations are selectively varied, there is provided a three-dimensional sound picture of the heart activity. The output of each microprobe is fed into one channel of a stereo amplifier, the output of which goes to one loudspeaker or channel of a stero amplifier, the output of which goes to one loudspeaker or headphone. Another application is in microwave cardiography. As demonstrated above, the output of the diode can be fed directly to a chart recording for a permanent record. The resulting signal is a complex composed of a number of peaks of varying amplitudes and halfwidths. By comparing normal hearts with abnormal hearts, a determination of pathologic conditions of the heart by simple examination of the chart can be made. Also, the microprobe can be placed serially at different positions around the heart region of the chest to obtain additional information due to the different geometry; or the microprobe can be mechanically or electrically moved in a scanning pattern across the surface of the chest to provide additional information. Variations in the shape of the modulated signals with geometry can provide further information on the localization of abnormalities. From any single microprobe in a given position over the chest cavity there is a time varying signal reflecting the microwave modulating activity of the heart. It is possible, by a number of known means, to convert this modulated signal into a visual display of the heart in actual real time movement. For example, an array of microwave sources and detectors can be electrically scanned in a timed sequence and the outputs presented to the intensity control of a synchronously scanned oscilloscope beam. The time for one complete scan must be short compared to the movement time of the heart. This, then, provides a rough two-dimensional picture in time of the heart movement. An alternative embodiment would be to have the microprobe movement rapidly scanning the chest cavity in synchrony with the oscilloscope beam. The microwave beam may also be converted from a continuous wave to a pulsed beam, with the pulse frequency sufficiently high so that the scanning beam time for one frame would give a good resolution. The parameters are not too dissimilar to a vidicon television system. As hereinbefore noted, modulation due to heart activity has generally been thought to be the results of mechanical muscle movement. However, experiments in connection with microwaves scattered from the heads and spinal cords, contain modulations in amplitude which reflect on going biological activity in these organs and which suggest the response is due to neural activity and interaction on the input beam. The animals used in the detection of brain activity are the ICR mouse, female, adult, weighing approximately 30 grams, and the Dutch belted rabbit, female, adult, weighing approximately 1 kilogram. The animals were anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital to put them in the dormant state. The animals were then mounted in a stereotaxic holder made of wood and glass to minimize disturbance of the microwaves. These heads are rigidly restrained. The microprobe is placed on the dorsal surface of the head of the anesthetized animal. The probe need not make direct contact with the skin for signals to be obtained. In some cases the animal's fur was shaved, and, in one case, the skin of the surface of the head was resected to expose the skull. In this latter case the same signals were obtained, thus removing the possibility that skin or muscle movements are the source of the signals. The modulated signals consist of a variety of types, differing in frequencies, amplitudes and wave forms. The dominant form of activity sensed by the microprobe is the lowest frequency range, between 0.5 and 2 hertz. These signals are rhythmic pulsations which are closely associated with the animal's respiration. These signals may be monophasic, or, as is more usual, biphasic. These types of signals are called "breathing modes". In some cases they appear to be sharp, with a full width at half maximum, of about 0.1 seconds; in other cases the width can be 3 to 4 times larger. A second type of signal found in the rabbit, related to these "breathing mode" spikes are those resembling alpha wave spindles. These are at a frequency of 8 hertz, while interspindle spikes occur at a frequency of about 16 hertz. Similar signals in the mouse do not appear to be related to the "breathing modes". The high frequency cutoff of the polygraph eliminated possible higher frequency components. With either a dead animal, or one in a deeply anesthetized state (though still breathing) no signals are detected. As the anesthetic wears off (though the animals are still torpid) the signals emerge from the background noise thus monitoring the depth of anesthesia. These signals are shown in FIG. 12 as recorded by an array of 7 different, but roughly matched, diodes arranged in a semicircle above the head, from left to right. The microwave beam entered frontally at a 90° angle to the array. These, and other data, illustrate that the "breathing mode" is not distributed uniformly across the head. The spatial distribution varies smoothly as a function of position of the diode array. Bilateral asymmetry is often observed. The "breathing mode" is variable in time at a given position, i.e. particular positions alternately pulsated and then became silent for a period of many minutes. The wave form also can appear in a mirror image of itself in various places on the cranium at different times. The confirmation that these microwave signals reflect electrical activity of the brain is the appearance of evoked responses. Such signals have appeared in both the mouse and the rabbit using a variable frequency light source. A light emitting diode was chosen whose light was in the yellow spectral region. The frequency was controlled by applying a sinusoidal voltage to it from an Ando ULO-5 oscillator. To avoid electrical interference with the microprobe, the light from the diode was conducted via a 30 cm. glass rod to the eye of the dark adapted animal. The microwave semiconducting diode detector was shown to be insensitive to visible light, and, in any case, a black cloth covered the head of the animal, preventing the light from reaching the diode. On a number of occasions, a change in the microwave signals when the stimulus was applied has been observed. A recording, clearly showing an entrainment of the microprobe signals with the light signals, is shown in FIG. 13. These recordings were obtained from the occipital regions of the head. The microprobe of the invention has also been used to probe the spinal cord of both the mouse and the rabbit and the resultant modulated signals obtained are illustrated in FIG. 14. Movement of the microprobe a few millimeters away from the spine in either direction causes a loss of these signals. These signals contain the "breathing mode" pattern with a superimposed spike frequency at 6 hertz, plus smaller amplitude, but higher frequency spikes at 16 hertz. For purposes of comparison, it is noted that the heart beat rate as determined by the probe over the animal's chest was 4-5 hertz for the mouse and 3-4 hertz for the rabbit. Thus, neither the brain nor the spinal cord signals can easily be attributed to the heart movement, or to coordinated blood pressure waves. The simplest assumption to make is to attribute the signals we have reported here to purely mechanical movements, but it has become difficult to sustain this argument. The fact that the signal strength is a function of the depth of anesthesia, and does not appear in a deeply anesthetized animal which is still breathing, cannot easily be reconciled with purely mechanical movements. The plasticity of the signals, both with position and time, the changes in wave form, and the evident asymmetry across the head, further increase our doubts. The appearance of evoked response activity suggests more than a purely mechanical source for these signals. We, therefore, believe that it is at least possible that some, if not all, of these microprobe signals reflect, either directly or indirectly, underlying electrical activity of the brain and spinal cord.

A portable microprobe uses 10 gigahertz CW microwave radiation at a power level of less than 10 milliwatts for recording of a number of biophysical phenomena associated with the cardiac and neural activity of the life system. The microprobe consists of a Gunn diode feeding power into a short, insulated dielectric waveguide, the free end of which houses a point contact semiconductor diode isolated by a metal shield from the incident beam. The wave guide concentrates and delivers a pencil shaped beam into the tissue of interest and the back-scattered radiation is modulated and detected by the diode. The detected signal is filtered, amplified and recorded to reflect on-going biological activity. The receiver electronics is housed in a small self-contained package and has its output connected through a flexible attachment to two ear tubes which enable continuous monitoring of the audio response through an electrical and audio converter indicative of the on-going biological activity. By scanning step wise across the chest, the microprobe allows localization of many details of cardiac activity. The microprobe can also be used to monitor activities of the brain and the spinal cord.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates to a wireless relay TDD (Time Division Duplexing) system, especially to a relay station (RS), a base station (BS) and a mobile terminal (MT) in a wireless relay TDD system. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Currently, RS (Relay Station) has been introduced into IMT-Advanced system for extending the network coverage and enhancing the transmission efficiency. The possibility of implementing RS dual-direction receiving and transmission in different sub-carriers is proposed in the proposals of 3GPP R1-090665 and 3GPP R1-090734. However, no matter whether the proposal that RS implements dual-direction communication can be adopted, how RS satisfies the synchronization requirements with MT (Mobile Terminal) and eNB (evolved Node B) at the same time at the switching point of transmitting/receiving or receiving/transmitting is an urgent issue to be resolved. [0003] In prior art, the eNB and RS may employ two kinds of synchronization, that is, GPS (Global Positioning System) and AI (Air Interface) synchronization. FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 show the schematic diagrams of the occurred interference problems of the eNB and RS under synchronization of GPS and synchronization of AI respectively. It is to be noted that, the interference problems are described in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 by taking the frame structure of configuration 1 proposed in 3GPP TS36.211, v8.5.0 as an example, and without loss of generality, other frame structures in TDD system have the same interference problem as well. [0004] Referring to FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 , assuming that the third sub-frame is the backhaul from RS to eNB, and the eighth sub-frame is the backhaul from eNB to RS. Here, the eighth sub-frame is “stolen UL”, that is, in the frame structure defined in TDD system, originally the eighth sub-frame should be an uplink sub-frame, but now it is used as a downlink sub-frame. It is to be noted that the eighth sub-frame here acting as a downlink sub-frame is only for embodying all of the possibly occurred problems in the same frame. In practical application, the eighth sub-frame may still act as an uplink sub-frame. [0005] Usually, because the distance between eNB and RS is relative long, there will be transmission latency in the data transmission between eNB and RS. Assuming that the distance between eNB and RS is r, the transmission latency between eNB and RS is r/c, wherein, c is velocity of light. The transmission latency between MT and RS may be neglected because the distance between MT and RS is relative short. [0006] As shown in FIG. 1 , for a RS, only after it finishes receiving the second sub-frame from MT, can it send the third sub-frame to the eNB. Because there is transmission latency from the RS to the eNB, the eNB has to send the fourth sub-frame to the RS before completely finishing receiving the third sub-frame from the RS. Therefore, the eNB can only receive part of data of the third sub-frame from the RS and has to give up receiving other data. If the length (namely the latency from the RS to the eNB) of data which the eNB gives up to receive is greater than CP (Cyclic Prefix), then the eNB can not completely recover the content of the third sub-frame from the RS. [0007] Similarly, for the reason of transmission latency from the eNB to the RS, the RS has to send the ninth sub-frame to the MT before completely finishing receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB. Therefore the RS can only receive part of data of the eighth sub-frame from the eNB and has to give up receiving other data, thereby it may cause that the RS can not completely recover the content of the eighth sub-frame from the eNB. [0008] Because the eNB and the RS are under synchronization of AI in FIG. 2 , there is no interference problem between the eighth sub-frame and the ninth sub-frame, however, it may be seen from FIG. 2 that the interference problem between the third sub-frame and the fourth sub-frame is more serious than that under synchronization of GPS. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0009] In order to solve the aforesaid disadvantages in the prior art, the present invention proposes a method and device for eliminating interference in a wireless relay TDD system, particularly, by reducing the GP (Guard Period) of a relay station by a predetermined time length and performing data receiving and data sending by using the reduced predetermined time length, interference caused by non-synchronization between an eNB and a RS is avoided. [0010] According to the first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of eliminating interference in a wireless relay TDD system, wherein, the method comprises the step of: reducing the GP of a relay station by a predetermined time length and performing data receiving and data sending by using the reduced predetermined time length. [0011] According to the second aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of eliminating interference in a relay station of a wireless relay TDD system, wherein, the method comprises the step of: reducing the GP of a relay station by a predetermined time length and performing data receiving and data sending by using the reduced predetermined time length. [0012] According to the third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of assisting a relay station to eliminate interference in a base station of a wireless relay TDD system, wherein, the method comprises the step of assisting the relay station that uses the method according to the aforesaid second aspect, to perform data receiving and sending. [0013] According to the fourth aspect of the present invention, there is provided an interference eliminating device for eliminating interference in a wireless relay TDD system, wherein, the interference eliminating device is used for reducing the GP of a relay station by a predetermined time length and performing data receiving and data sending by using the reduced predetermined time length. [0014] According to the fifth aspect of the present invention, there is provided an assisting interference eliminating device, for assisting a relay station to eliminate interference in a base station of a wireless relay TDD system, wherein, the assisting interference eliminating device is used for assisting the relay station that uses the interference eliminating device according to the aforesaid fourth aspect, to perform data receiving and sending. [0015] By using the technical solution of the present invention, interference caused due to non-synchronization between an eNB and a RS may be avoided. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0016] By reading the detailed description of the non-limiting embodiments with reference to the following drawings, other features, objects and advantages of the present invention will become apparent: [0017] FIG. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the occurred interference problems of the eNB and RS under synchronization of GPS in the prior art; [0018] FIG. 2 shows a schematic diagram of the occurred interference problems of the eNB and RS under synchronization of AI in the prior art; [0019] FIG. 3 shows a schematic diagram of the frame structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a first embodiment of the present invention; [0020] FIG. 4 shows a flowchart of system method of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a first embodiment of the present invention; [0021] FIG. 5 shows a schematic diagram of the frame structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a second embodiment of the present invention; [0022] FIG. 6 shows a flowchart of system method of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a second embodiment of the present invention; [0023] FIG. 7 shows a schematic diagram of the frame structure of eliminating interference by occupying the resource of the GP for data transmission when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a third embodiment of the present invention; [0024] FIG. 8 shows a flowchart of system method of eliminating interference by occupying the resource of the GP for data transmission when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a third embodiment of the present invention; [0025] FIG. 9 shows a schematic diagram of the frame structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of AI, according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0026] FIG. 10 shows a flowchart of system method of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the OP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of AI, according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0027] FIG. 11 shows a block diagram of system structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention; [0028] FIG. 12 shows a block diagram of system structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a sixth embodiment of the present invention; [0029] FIG. 13 shows a block diagram of system structure of eliminating interference by occupying the resource of the GP for data transmission when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a seventh embodiment of the present invention; and [0030] FIG. 14 shows a block diagram of system structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of AI, according to an eighth embodiment of the present invention; [0031] In drawings, same or similar reference signs refer to the same or similar component. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS [0032] In the followings, the present invention is described in detail with reference to the drawings. [0033] Usually, because RS cell is smaller than eNB cell, it is feasible for RS to use a shorter GP compared with eNB. [0034] Preferably, the GP for RS may be half of the GP for eNB. Even if RS only uses half of the GP for eNB, it is enough for RS, since half the GP means: [0035] 1) the adius of RS cell is at least 10 km; [0036] 2) the RS's transmission power is only about 6 dB lower than the eNB's transmission power; [0037] 3) the RS cell can cover from the eNB to the cell edge if the RS is located at the middle position of the eNB and the cell edge; [0038] 4) the RS cell can cover the middle point between the eNB and the RS if the RS is located at the cell edge. [0039] Certainly, the GP for RS may be reduced to a value that is smaller than half of the GP for eNB, but it will not influence the essence of the technical solution of the present invention. [0040] Hereinafter, reducing the GP for RS to half of the GP for eNB is taken as example to describe the technical solution of the present invention. [0041] At the same time, hereinafter, the magnitude of transmission latency between the eNB and the RS being equal to half of the magnitude of the GP for eNB (that is, the magnitude of transmission latency between the eNB and the RS is equal to the magnitude of the reduced GP for RS, GP/2) is taken as example to describe the present invention. Embodiment 1 [0042] The embodiment is for the scenario that the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of GPS and the RS 1 sends the third sub-frame to the eNB 2 after finishing receiving the second sub-frame from the MT 0 . [0043] FIG. 3 shows a schematic diagram of the frame structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a first embodiment of the present invention. [0044] FIG. 4 shows a flowchart of method of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a first embodiment of the present invention. [0045] In FIG. 3 , the 0 th sub-frame is a downlink sub-frame, the first sub-frame is a special sub-frame, the second sub-frame is an uplink sub-frame, the third sub-frame is an uplink sub-frame, and the fourth sub-frame is a downlink sub-frame. Wherein, Dw (DwPTS) in the second sub-frame is downlink synchronization time slot, G (GP) is guard period, and Up (UpPTS) is uplink synchronization time slot. [0046] Comparing FIG. 2 with FIG. 3 , it can be seen that the eNB 3 may completely finish receiving the third sub-frame from RS before starting to send the fourth sub-frame by reducing the GP of the RS 1 to half of the GP of the eNB 2 in this embodiment. [0047] After the MT 0 starts up, firstly downlink synchronization should be established with cell, and then uplink synchronization can be started to establish. How the MT 0 establishes downlink synchronization is the prior art, and those skilled in the art should understand it, which will not be described in detail for the purpose of simplicity. [0048] In the present invention, the process of the MT 0 establishing uplink synchronization with the RS 1 is the same as that in the prior art, and the only difference is that, after the MT 0 sends uplink synchronization code to the RS 1 , information of timing advancing comprised in the uplink timing advancing signaling that is fed back to the MT 0 by the RS 1 will change, namely, the RS 1 will add original GP/2 timing advancing to original timing advancing. That is to say, the moment at which the MT 0 starts to send uplink sub-frames will be ahead of the moment indicated by original timing advancing by GP/2. [0049] To be specific, the MT 0 firstly sends the uplink synchronization code to the RS 1 at UpPTS time slot when the MT 0 performs random access. After the RS 1 receives the uplink synchronization code from the MT 0 , it sends the uplink timing advancing signaling to the MT 0 in the step S 11 . Wherein, the uplink timing advancing signaling comprises information of timing advancing, and in the present invention, the information of timing advancing equals to the original timing advancing plus GP/2 timing advancing. Then, in the step S 12 , the MT 0 receives uplink timing advancing signaling from RS 1 , and the MT 0 may know when it should send uplink sub-frames to reach uplink synchronization with the RS 1 according to information of timing advancing comprised in the uplink timing advancing signaling. [0050] Because the RS 1 adds GP/2 timing advancing to the original timing advancing, in the step S 13 , the MT 0 sends the second sub-frame (that is, the uplink sub-frame from the MT 0 to the RS 1 ) to the RS 1 ahead of the original sending moment of the second sub-frame by GP/2. [0051] Then, in the step S 14 , the RS 1 starts to receive the second sub-frame from the MT 0 ahead of the original receiving moment by GP/2. Because the MT 0 starts to send the second sub-frame to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2, the RS 1 finishes receiving the second sub-frame from the MT 0 ahead of time by GP/2. [0052] Because the RS 1 finishes receiving the second sub-frame ahead of time by GP/2, and accordingly, in the step S 15 , the RS 1 starts to send the third sub-frame (that is, the uplink sub-frame from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 ) to the eNB 2 ahead of time by GP/2. [0053] After that, in the step S 16 , the eNB 2 receives the third sub-frame from the RS 1 . [0054] Considering that the transmission latency from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 is GP/2, and the RS 1 sends the third sub-frame ahead of the original sending moment by therefore, as shown in FIG. 3 , the eNB 2 completely finishes receiving the third sub-frame from the RS 1 before starting to send the fourth sub-frame to the RS 1 so that the receiving of the third sub-frame and the sending of the fourth sub-frame of the eNB 2 will not cause interference. [0055] Certainly, while the RS 1 sends the third sub-frame to the eNB 2 , the RS 1 may also sends downlink data to the MT 0 using other frequency bands. Embodiment 2 [0056] The embodiment is for the scenario that the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of GPS and the RS 1 sends the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 after finishing receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . And, in the embodiment, the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is different from the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 . [0057] FIG. 5 shows a schematic diagram of the frame structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a second embodiment of the present invention. [0058] FIG. 6 shows a flowchart of method of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a second embodiment of the present invention. [0059] For the purpose of simplicity, the frequency band used for the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is called as the frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 ; the frequency band used for the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 is called as the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 . [0060] Similar to the embodiment 1, after the MT 0 receives the uplink timing advancing signaling from the RS 1 (corresponding to the step S 21 and the step S 22 in FIG. 6 respectively), in the step S 23 , the MT 0 sends uplink data to the RS 1 in the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 (in FIG. 5 , denoted by “ ”) ahead of time by GP/2. Because the MT 0 sends uplink data to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2, accordingly, in the step S 24 , the RS 1 receives uplink data from the MT 0 in the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2. [0061] At the same time, because the MT 0 finishes sending uplink data to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2, part of time-frequency resources of the MT 0 for sending uplink data become idle. [0062] Because this part of time-frequency resources become idle, in the step S 25 , the eNB 2 sends to the RS 1 a first data block corresponding to GP/2 time length in the eighth sub-frame in the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 , and sends to the RS 1 the remaining second data block in the eighth sub-frame in a frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 (in FIG. 5 , denoted by “ ”). [0063] Preferably, the first data block intercepted from the eighth sub-frame comprises a reference symbol, in such a way that the RS 1 can estimate the channel state from the MT 0 to the RS 1 after receiving the first data block. Certainly, if the first data block intercepted from the eighth sub-frame does not comprise a reference symbol, the eNB 2 may firstly add the reference symbol into the first data block before sending the first data block, in such a way that the RS 1 can estimate the channel state from the MT 0 to the RS 1 after receiving the first data block. [0064] It is to be noted, the first data block intercepted from the eighth sub-frame should be sent within a specific time slot so that the RS 1 can just receive the first data block on a time frequency resource that becomes idle after the MT 0 finishes sending the uplink data ahead of time by GP/2. [0065] Then, in the step S 26 , the RS 1 receives the first data block on a time frequency resource that becomes idle after the MT 0 finishes sending the uplink data ahead of time by GP/2, and receives a second data block in the frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 . After then, the two parts of data blocks are merged to get the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . [0066] Because the first data block in the eighth sub-frame is sent to the RS 1 using the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 , as shown in FIG. 5 , the RS 1 has already finished receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 before starting to send the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 so that the receiving of the eighth sub-frame and the sending of the ninth sub-frame of the RS 1 will not cause interference. Embodiment 3 [0067] The embodiment is for the scenario that the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of GPS and the RS 1 sends the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 after finishing receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . And, in the embodiment, the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is the same as the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 . [0068] FIG. 7 shows a schematic diagram of the frame structure of eliminating interference by occupying the resource of the GP for data transmission when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a third embodiment of the present invention; [0069] FIG. 8 shows a flowchart of system method of eliminating interference by occupying the resource of the GP for data transmission when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a third embodiment of the present invention; [0070] In FIG. 7 , the fifth sub-frame is a downlink sub-frame, the sixth sub-frame is a special sub-frame, the seventh sub-frame is an uplink sub-frame, the eighth sub-frame is an uplink sub-frame, and the ninth sub-frame is a downlink sub-frame. Wherein, Dw (DwPTS) in the sixth sub-frame is downlink synchronization time slot, G (GP) is guard period, and Up (UpPTS) is uplink synchronization time slot. [0071] As shown in FIG. 7 , in the embodiment, assuming that the eighth sub-fra “stolen UL”, which is taken as downlink sub-frame. That is, the eNB 2 sends the eighth sub-frame to the RS 1 , and the RS 1 sends the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 after finishing receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . [0072] Because there is transmission latency in the data transmission from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 , the RS 1 does not finish receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 while preparing to send the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 . Based on this, the eNB 2 sends part of data of the eighth sub-frame within the GP of specific sub-frame (the sixth sub-frame) in advance, and sends the remaining data of the eighth sub-frame by still using the original time frequency resources. In this way, the RS 1 just starts to send the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 after finishing receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . [0073] To be specific, in the step S 31 , the eNB 2 sends to the RS 1 a first data block corresponding to GP/2 time length in the eighth sub-frame via the frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 within the GP of specific sub-frame. [0074] Accordingly, considering the transmission latency from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 , in the step S 32 , the RS 1 receives the first data block from the eNB 2 within the specific time slot of GP. [0075] Preferably, as shown in FIG. 7 , the RS 1 starts to receive the first data block from the eNB 2 at the GP/4 after the starting moment of GP, and finishes receiving the first data block from the eNB 2 at the GP/4 before the end moment of GP. [0076] Based on this, considering the transmission latency of GP/2 from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 , in order to enable the RS 1 to receive the first data block from the eNB 2 within the specific time slot of GP, the eNB 2 should start to send the first data block to the RS 1 at the last GP/4 of DwPTS time slot. [0077] It is to be noted, usually, the downlink synchronous signal sent within DwPTS time slot only occupies the very narrow frequency band, which is different from the frequency band occupied by the downlink data transmission from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 , therefore, even if the eNB 2 starts to send the first data block to the RS 1 from the last GP/4 of the DwPTS time slot, it will not cause interference with that the eNB 2 sends the downlink synchronous signal within DwPTS time slot. [0078] Certainly, the RS 1 may also start to receive the first data block from the eNB 2 at the starting time of GP, and accordingly, the eNB 2 needs to start to send the first data block to the RS 1 at the GP/2 before the starting time of GP. Embodiment 4 [0079] The embodiment is for the scenario that the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of AI and the RS 1 sends the third sub-frame to the eNB 2 after finishing receiving the second sub-frame from the MT 0 . And, in the embodiment, the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is different from the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 . [0080] FIG. 9 shows a schematic diagram of the frame structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of AI, according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0081] FIG. 10 shows a flowchart of method of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of AI, according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0082] For the purpose of simplicity, the frequency band used for the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is called as the frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 ; the frequency band used for the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 is called as the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 . [0083] Because the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of AI, therefore, referring to FIG. 2 , there is no interference between the eighth sub-frame and the ninth sub-frame, but the interference between the third sub-frame and the fourth sub-frame is more serious. [0084] Similar to the embodiment 1, the MT 0 firstly sends the uplink synchronization code to the RS 1 at UpPTS time slot when the MT 0 performs random access. After the RS 1 receives the uplink synchronization code from the MT 0 , it sends the uplink timing advancing signaling to the MT 0 in the step S 41 . Wherein, the uplink timing advancing signaling comprises information of timing advancing, and in the present invention, the information of timing advancing equals to the original timing advancing plus GP/2 timing advancing. Then, in the step S 42 , the MT 0 receives uplink timing advancing signaling from RS 1 , and the MT 0 may know when it should send uplink sub-frames to reach uplink synchronization with the RS 1 according to information of timing advancing comprised in the uplink timing advancing signaling. [0085] Because the RS 1 adds GP/2 timing advancing to the original timing advancing, in the step S 43 , the MT 0 sends the second sub-frame (that is, the uplink sub-frame from the MT 0 to the RS 1 ) to the RS 1 ahead of the original sending moment by GP/2. [0086] Then, in the step S 44 , the RS 1 starts to receive the second sub-frame from the MT 0 ahead of the original receiving moment by GP/2. Because the MT 0 starts to send the second sub-frame to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2, the RS 1 finishes receiving the second sub-frame from the MT 0 ahead of time by GP/2. Because the RS 1 finishes receiving the second sub-frame ahead of time by GP/2, accordingly, the RS 1 starts to send the third sub-frame (that is, the uplink sub-frame from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 ) to the eNB 2 ahead of time by GP/2. [0087] Because the MT 0 finishes sending uplink data to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2, part of time-frequency resources of the MT 0 for sending uplink data become idle. [0088] Based on this, in the step S 45 , the RS 1 sends to the eNB 2 a first data block corresponding to GP/2 time length in the third sub-frame on the time frequency resource that becomes idle after the MT 0 finishes sending the uplink data ahead of time by GP/2, and at the same time sends to the eNB 2 the remaining second data block in the third sub-frame ahead of time by GP/2 in the frequency band from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 . [0089] Then, in the step S 46 , the eNB 2 receives the first data block from the RS 1 in the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 , and receives the second data block from the RS 1 in the frequency band from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 . [0090] After the eNB 2 receives the first data block and the second data block on the different frequency bands, the two parts of data blocks are merged to get the third sub-frame from the RS 1 . [0091] In a variation, if the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is the same as the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 , the RS 1 may send the first data block by only using the time frequency resource that becomes idle after the MT 0 finishes sending the uplink data ahead of time by GP/2. Based on this, the data block of (2P-GP/2) time length in the third sub-frame which is sent to the eNB 2 by the RS 1 is discarded, wherein P is the latency time of transmission from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 . If the latency time of transmission from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 is GP/2, a data block of GP/2 time length in the third sub-frame which is sent to the eNB 2 by the RS 1 is discarded. [0092] Hereinbefore, the technical solution of the present invention is described from the aspect of method; hereinafter, the technical solution of the present invention will be further described from the aspect of device module. Embodiment 5 [0093] The embodiment is for the scenario that the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of GPS and the RS 1 sends the third sub-frame to the eNB 2 after finishing receiving the second sub-frame from the MT 0 . [0094] FIG. 11 shows a block diagram of system structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention. The MT 0 , the eNB 2 and an interference eliminating device 11 in the RS 1 are shown in the FIG. 11 , wherein the interference eliminating device 11 comprises a first sending means 111 , a first receiving means 112 and a second sending means 113 . [0095] In the embodiment, the contents of FIG. 3 are taken as reference here together. [0096] In FIG. 3 , the 0 th sub-frame is a downlink sub-frame, the first sub-frame is a special sub-frame, the second sub-frame is an uplink sub-frame, the third sub-frame is an uplink sub-frame, and the fourth sub-frame is a downlink sub-frame. Wherein, Dw (DwPTS) in the second sub-frame is downlink synchronization time slot, G (GP) is guard period, and Up (UpPTS) is uplink synchronization time slot. [0097] Comparing FIG. 2 with FIG. 3 , it can be seen that the eNB 3 may completely finish receiving the third sub-frame from RS before starting to send the fourth sub-frame by reducing the GP of the RS 1 to half of the GP of the eNB 2 in this embodiment. [0098] After the MT 0 starts up, firstly downlink synchronization should be established with cell, and then uplink synchronization can be started to establish. How the MT 0 establishes downlink synchronization is the prior art, and those skilled in the art should understand it, which will not be described in detail for the purpose of simplicity. [0099] In the present invention, the process of the MT 0 establishing uplink synchronization with the RS 1 is the same as that in the prior art, and the only difference is that, after the MT 0 sends uplink synchronization code to the RS 1 , information of timing advancing comprised in the uplink timing advancing signaling that is fed back to the MT 0 by the RS 1 will change, namely, the RS 1 will add original GP/2 timing advancing to original timing advancing. That is to say, the moment at which the MT 0 starts to send uplink sub-frames will be ahead of the moment indicated by original timing advancing by GP/2. [0100] To be specific, the MT 0 firstly sends the uplink synchronization code to the RS 1 at UpPTS time slot when the MT 0 performs random access. After the RS 1 receives the uplink synchronization code from the MT 0 , the first sending means 111 in the interference eliminating device 11 in the RS 1 sends the uplink timing advancing signaling to the MT 0 . Wherein, the uplink timing advancing signaling comprises information of timing advancing, and in the present invention, the information of timing advancing equals to the original timing advancing plus GP/2 ing advancing. Then, the MT 0 receives uplink timing advancing signaling from RS 1 , and the MT 0 may know when it should send uplink sub-frames to reach uplink synchronization with the RS 1 according to information of timing advancing comprised in the uplink timing advancing signaling. [0101] Because the RS 1 adds GP/2 timing advancing to the original timing advancing, the MT 0 sends the second sub-frame (that is, the uplink sub-frame from the MT 0 to the RS 1 ) to the RS 1 ahead of the original sending moment of the second sub-frame by GP/2. [0102] The first receiving means 112 in the interference eliminating device 11 in the RS 1 starts to receive the second sub-frame from the MT 0 ahead of the original receiving moment by GP/2. Because the MT 0 starts to send the second sub-frame to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2, the first receiving means 112 in the RS 1 finishes receiving the second sub-frame from the MT 0 ahead of time by GP/2. [0103] Because the first receiving means 112 in the RS 1 finishes receiving the second sub-frame ahead of time by GP/2, and accordingly, the second sending means 113 in the interference eliminating device 11 in the RS 1 starts to send the third sub-frame (that is, the uplink sub-frame from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 ) to the eNB 2 ahead of time by GP/2. [0104] After that, the eNB 2 receives the third sub-frame from the RS 1 . [0105] Considering that the transmission latency from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 is GP/2, and second sending means 113 in the RS 1 sends the third sub-frame ahead of the original sending moment by GP/2, therefore, as shown in FIG. 3 , the eNB 2 completely finishes receiving the third sub-frame from the RS 1 before starting to send the fourth sub-frame to the RS 1 so that the receiving of the third sub-frame and the sending of the fourth sub-frame of the eNB 2 will not cause interference. [0106] Certainly, while the RS 1 sends the third sub-frame to the eNB 2 , the RS 1 may also sends downlink data to the MT 0 using other frequency bands. Embodiment 6 [0107] The embodiment is for the scenario that the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of GPS and the RS 1 sends the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 after finishing receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . And, in the embodiment, the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is different from the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 . [0108] FIG. 12 shows a block diagram of system structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a sixth embodiment of the present invention. The MT 0 , an interference eliminating device 12 in the RS 1 and an assisting interference eliminating device 22 in the eNB 2 are shown in FIG. 12 , wherein, the interference eliminating device 12 comprises a third sending means 121 , a second receiving means 122 and a third receiving means 123 , and the assisting interference eliminating device 22 comprises a sixth sending means 221 . [0109] In the embodiment, the contents of FIG. 5 are taken as reference here together. [0110] For the purpose of simplicity, the frequency band used for the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is called as the frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 ; the frequency band used for the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 is called as the frequency band from the NIT 0 to the RS 1 . [0111] Similar to the embodiment 5, after the MT 0 receives the uplink timing advancing signaling from the third sending means 121 in the interference eliminating device 12 in the RS 1 , the MT 0 sends uplink data to the RS 1 in the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 (in FIG. 5 , denoted by “ ”) ahead of time by GP/2. Because the MT 0 sends uplink data to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2, accordingly, the second receiving means 122 in the interference eliminating device 12 in the RS 1 receives uplink data from the MT 0 in the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2. [0112] At the same time, because the MT 0 finishes sending uplink data to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2, part of time-frequency resources of the MT 0 for sending uplink data become idle. [0113] Because this part of time-frequency resources become idle, the sixth sending means 221 in the assisting interference eliminating device 22 in the eNB 2 sends to the RS 1 a first data block corresponding to GP/2 time length in the eighth sub-frame in the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 , and sends to the RS 1 the remaining second data block in the eighth sub-frame in a frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 (in FIG. 5 , denoted by “ ”). [0114] Preferably, the first data block intercepted from the eighth sub-frame comprises a reference symbol, so that the RS 1 can estimate the channel state from the MT 0 to the RS 1 after receiving the first data block. Certainly, if the first data block intercepted from the eighth sub-frame does not comprise a reference symbol, the sixth sending means 221 in the eNB 2 may firstly add the reference symbol into the first data block before sending the first data block, so that the RS 1 can estimate the channel state from the MT 0 to the RS 1 after receiving the first data block. [0115] It is to be noted, the first data block intercepted from the eighth sub-frame should be sent within a specific time slot so that the RS 1 can just receive the first data block on a time frequency resource that becomes idle after the MT 0 finishes sending the uplink data ahead of time by GP/2. [0116] Then, the third receiving means 123 in the interference eliminating device 12 in the RS 1 receives the first data block on a time frequency resource that becomes idle after the MT 0 finishes sending the uplink data ahead of time by GP/2, and receives a second data block in the frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 . After then, the two parts of data blocks are merged to get the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . [0117] Because the first data block in the eighth sub-frame is sent to the RS 1 using the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 , as shown in FIG. 5 , the RS 1 has already finished receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 before starting to send the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 so that the receiving of the eighth sub-frame and the sending of the ninth sub-frame of the RS 1 will not cause interference. Embodiment 7 [0118] The embodiment is for the scenario that the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of GPS and the RS 1 sends the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 after finishing receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . And, in the embodiment, the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is the same as the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 . [0119] FIG. 13 shows a block diagram of system structure of eliminating interference by occupying the resource of the GP for data transmission when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of GPS, according to a seventh embodiment of the present invention. The interference eliminating device 13 in the RS 1 and the assisting interference eliminating device 23 in the eNB 2 are shown in FIG. 13 , wherein, the interference eliminating device 13 comprises the fourth receiving means 131 , the assisting interference eliminating device 23 comprises the seventh sending means 231 . [0120] In the embodiment, the contents of FIG. 7 are taken as reference here together. [0121] In FIG. 7 , the fifth sub-frame is a downlink sub-frame, the sixth sub-frame is a special sub-frame, the seventh sub-frame is an uplink sub-frame, the eighth sub-frame is an uplink sub-frame, and the ninth sub-frame is a downlink sub-frame. Wherein, Dw (DwPTS) in the sixth sub-frame is downlink synchronization time slot, G (GP) is guard period, and Up (UpPTS) is uplink synchronization time slot. [0122] As shown in FIG. 7 , in the embodiment, assuming that the eighth sub-frame is “stolen UL”, which is taken as downlink sub-frame. That is, the eNB 2 sends the eighth sub-frame to the RS 1 , and the RS 1 sends the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 after finishing receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . [0123] Because there is transmission latency in the data transmission from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 , the RS 1 does not finish receiving the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 while preparing to send the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 . Based on this, the eNB 2 sends part of data of the eighth sub-frame within the GP of specific sub-frame (the sixth sub-frame) in advance, and sends the remaining data of the eighth sub-frame by still using the original time frequency resources. In this way, the RS 1 just starts to send the ninth sub-frame to the MT 0 after finishing receiving, the eighth sub-frame from the eNB 2 . [0124] To be specific, the seventh sending means 231 in the assisting interference eliminating device 23 in the eNB 2 sends to the RS 1 a first data block corresponding to GP/2 time length in the eighth sub-frame via the frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 within the GP of specific sub-frame. [0125] Accordingly, considering the transmission latency from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 , the fourth receiving means 131 in the interference eliminating device 13 in the RS 1 receives the first data block from the eNB 2 within the specific time slot of GP. [0126] Preferably, as shown in FIG. 7 , the fourth receiving means 131 in the RS 1 starts to receive the first data block from the eNB 2 at the GP/4 after the starting moment of GP, and finishes receiving the first data block from the eNB 2 at the GP/4 before the end moment of GP. [0127] Based on this, considering the transmission latency of GP/2 from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 , in order to enable the fourth receiving means 131 in the RS 1 to receive the first data block from the eNB 2 within the specific time slot of GP, the seventh sending means 231 in the eNB 2 should start to send the first data block to the RS 1 at the last GP/4 of DwPTS time slot. [0128] It is to be noted, usually, the downlink synchronous signal sent within DwPTS time slot only occupy the very narrow frequency band, which is different from the frequency band occupied by the downlink data transmission from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 , therefore, even if the eNB 2 starts to send the first data block to the RS 1 from the last GP/4 of the DwPTS time slot, it will not cause interference with that the eNB 2 sends the downlink synchronous signal within DwPTS time slot. [0129] Certainly, the RS 1 may also start to receive the first data block from the eNB 2 at the starting time of GP, and accordingly, the eNB 2 needs to start to send the first data block to the RS 1 at the GP/2 before the starting time of GP. Embodiment 8 [0130] The embodiment is for the scenario that the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of AI and the RS 1 sends the third sub-frame to the eNB 2 after finishing receiving the second sub-frame from the MT 0 . And, in the embodiment, the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is different from the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 . [0131] FIG. 14 shows a block diagram of system structure of eliminating interference by reducing the length of the GP when the eNB and RS are under synchronization of AI, according to a eighth embodiment of the present invention. The MT 0 an interference eliminating device 14 in the RS 1 and an assisting interference eliminating device 24 in eNB 2 are shown in FIG. 14 , wherein the interference eliminating device 14 comprises a fourth sending means 141 , a fifth receiving means 142 and a fifth sending means 143 , and the assisting interference eliminating device 24 comprises a sixth receiving means 241 . [0132] In the embodiment, the contents of FIG. 9 are taken as reference here together. [0133] For the purpose of simplicity, the frequency band used for the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is called as the frequency band from the eNB 2 to the RS 1 ; the frequency band used for the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 is called as the frequency band from the MT 0 to the RS 1 . [0134] Because the eNB 2 and the RS 1 are under synchronization of AI, therefore, referring to FIG. 2 , there is no interference between the eighth sub-frame and the ninth sub-frame, but the interference between the third sub-frame and the fourth sub-frame is more serious. [0135] Similar to the embodiment 5, the MT 0 firstly sends the uplink synchronization code to the RS 1 at UpPTS time slot when the MT 0 performs random access. After the RS 1 receives the uplink synchronization code from the MT 0 , the fourth sending means 141 in the interference eliminating device 14 in the RS 1 sends the uplink timing advancing signaling to the MT 0 . Wherein, the uplink timing advancing signaling comprises information of timing advancing, and in the present invention, the information of timing advancing equals to the original timing advancing plus GP/2 timing advancing. Then, the MT 0 receives uplink timing advancing signaling from RS 1 , and the MT 0 may know when it should send uplink sub-frames to reach uplink synchronization with the RS 1 according to information of timing advancing comprised in the uplink timing advancing signaling. [0136] Because the RS 1 adds GP/2 timing advancing to the original timing advancing, the MT 0 sends the second sub-frame (that is, the uplink sub-frame from the MT 0 to the RS 1 ) to the RS 1 ahead of the original sending moment by GP/2. [0137] The fifth receiving means 142 in interference eliminating device 14 in the RS 1 starts to receive the second sub-frame from the MT 0 ahead of the original time by GP/2. Because the MT 0 starts to send the second sub-frame to the RS 1 ahead of receiving moment by GP/2, the fifth receiving means 142 in the RS 1 finishes receiving the second sub-frame from the MT 0 ahead of time by GP/2. Because The fifth receiving means 142 in the RS 1 finishes receiving the second sub-frame ahead of time by GP/2, accordingly, the fifth sending means 143 in interference eliminating device 14 in the RS 1 starts to send the third sub-frame (that is, the uplink sub-frame from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 ) to the eNB 2 ahead of time by GP/2. [0138] Because the MT 0 finishes sending uplink data to the RS 1 ahead of time by GP/2, part of time-frequency resources of the MT 0 for sending uplink data become idle. [0139] Based on this, the fifth sending means 143 in the interference eliminating device 14 in the RS 1 sends to the eNB 2 a first data block corresponding to GP/2 time length in the third sub-frame on the time frequency resource that becomes idle after the MT 0 finishes sending the uplink data ahead of time by GP/2, and at the same time sends to the eNB 2 the remaining second data block in the third sub-frame ahead of time by GP/2 in the frequency band from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 . [0140] The sixth receiving means 241 in the assisting interference eliminating device 24 in the eNB 2 receives the first data block from the RS 1 in the frequency hand from the MT 0 to the RS 1 , and receives the second data block from the RS 1 in the frequency band from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 . [0141] After the eNB 2 receives the first data block and the second data block on the different frequency bands, the two parts of data blocks are merged to get the third sub-frame from the RS 1 . [0142] In a variation, if the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the eNB 2 and the RS 1 is the same as the frequency band occupied by the data transmission between the MT 0 and the RS 1 , the RS 1 may send the first data block by only using the time frequency resource that becomes idle after the MT 0 finishes sending the uplink data ahead of time by GP/2. Based on this, the data block of (2P-GP/2) time length in the third sub-frame which is sent to the eNB 2 by the RS 1 is discarded, wherein P is the latency time of transmission from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 . If the latency time of transmission from the RS 1 to the eNB 2 is GP/2, a data block of GP/2 time length in the third sub-frame which is sent to the eNB 2 by the RS 1 is discarded. [0143] The detailed embodiments of the present invention are described hereinbefore, it needs to be understood that the present invention is not limited to the aforesaid specific embodiments, those skilled in the art may make all kinds of variation or modification within the scope of the appended claims.

The present invention provides a method and a device for eliminating interference in a wireless relay TDD system. Data is sent between a relay station and a base station by occupying time slots of guard period, thereby the interference caused by non-synchronization between the base station and the relay station is eliminated.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application is based upon and claims the benefit of priority of the prior Japanese Patent Application No. 2015-212125, filed on Oct. 28, 2015, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD [0002] The embodiments discussed herein are related to augmented reality. BACKGROUND [0003] In recent years, there has been performed display of contents, which is called augmented reality (hereinafter, called AR) and in which, by using a smartphone or the like incorporating a camera, markers installed in articles are image-captured, thereby displaying the contents on a captured image screen. In addition, in authoring in which an AR content is associated with an AR marker serving as a marker installed in an article, inputting of the AR content is performed in a state in which the AR marker is image-captured. [0004] Related technologies are disclosed in, for example, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 2015-001875, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 2013-004001, and International Publication Pamphlet No. WO 2012/105175. SUMMARY [0005] According to an aspect of the invention, an information processing system includes circuitry configured to acquire a first image captured by an imaging device, extract, from the first image, a plurality of candidate areas each including an object having a shape corresponding to a shape of a marker to be used for augmented reality, control a display to display a first composite image that applies a predetermined graphical effect on the candidate areas in the first image, receive selection of a first area of the candidate areas from among the candidate areas, acquire identification information corresponding to a first marker included in the first area from a source other than the first image, receive an input corresponding to a first position on the first image as an arrangement position of content to be virtually arranged with reference to the first marker, convert the first position into positional information in a coordinate system corresponding to the first area, and store, in a memory, the positional information, the identification information, and the content in association with one another. [0006] The object and advantages of the invention will be realized and attained by means of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the claims. [0007] It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0008] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a configuration of an information processing device of a first embodiment; [0009] FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating an example of a content storage unit; [0010] FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating an example of a positional relationship; [0011] FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating another example of the positional relationship; [0012] FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating an example of extraction of AR marker candidates; [0013] FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating an example of a captured image screen at a time of editing; [0014] FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating another example of a captured image screen at a time of editing; [0015] FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating an example of a captured image screen at a time of display; [0016] FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating another example of a captured image screen at a time of display; [0017] FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating an example of display control processing of the first embodiment; [0018] FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating an example of content display processing; [0019] FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a configuration of an information processing device of a second embodiment; [0020] FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating an example of display control processing of the second embodiment; [0021] FIG. 14 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a configuration of an information processing device of a third embodiment; [0022] FIG. 15 is a flowchart illustrating an example of display control processing of the third embodiment; and [0023] FIG. 16 is a diagram illustrating an example of a computer to execute a display control program. DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS [0024] Since an angle of view of a camera is narrow in a case where authoring is performed by using a terminal such as a smartphone, a range of AR contents able to be edited at one time becomes narrow. On the other hand, in a state in which all AR contents come within the angle of view, it becomes difficult to recognize an AR marker. Therefore, in a case where AR contents are arranged for the same AR marker over a wide range, it is difficult to simultaneously arrange or operate all the AR contents. [0025] In one aspect, an object of the technology disclosed in embodiments is to set AR contents even at a distance at which it is difficult to recognize an AR marker. [0026] Hereinafter, examples of a display control method, a display control program, and an information processing device, disclosed by the present application, will be described in detail, based on drawing. Note that the present embodiments do not limit the disclosed technology. In addition, the following embodiments may be arbitrarily combined to the extent that these do not contradict. First Embodiment [0027] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a configuration of an information processing device of a first embodiment. An information processing device 100 illustrated in FIG. 1 extracts a predetermined shape from an acquired captured image and receives inputting of identification information and specification of a position on a captured image screen. The information processing device 100 causes the storage unit 120 to store therein a positional relationship between an extraction position of the predetermined shape and the specified position while associating the positional relationship with the input identification information. Upon extracting, based on an AR marker having a predetermined shape, identification information, the information processing device 100 displays an AR content corresponding to the identification information, in accordance with a positional relationship stored in the storage unit 120 . From this, the information processing device 100 is able to set the AR content even at a distance at which it is difficult to recognize the AR marker. [0028] As illustrated in FIG. 1 , the information processing device 100 includes a camera 110 , a display operation unit 111 , a storage unit 120 , and a control unit 130 . Note that in addition to the functional units illustrated in FIG. 1 , the information processing device 100 may include various kinds of functional units included in a known computer, for example, functional units such as a communication unit, various kinds of input devices, and a sound-output device. As examples of the information processing device 100 , various kinds of terminals such as a tablet terminal, a smartphone, and a mobile phone may be adopted. [0029] The camera 110 image-captures an object assigned with an AR marker or an AR marker candidate. The camera 110 uses, as an imaging element, for example, a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor, a charge coupled device (CCD) image sensor, or the like, thereby image-capturing an image. The camera 110 subjects light received by the imaging element to photoelectric conversion and performs analog-digital (A-D) conversion, thereby generating a captured image. The camera 110 outputs the generated captured image to the control unit 130 . In addition, if the control unit 130 inputs a stop signal, the camera 110 stops outputting of a captured image, and if a start signal is input, the camera 110 starts outputting of a captured image. In other words, if, for example, the start signal is input, the camera 110 outputs a captured image as a moving image, and if the stop signal is input, the camera 110 stops outputting of the moving image. [0030] Note that as an AR marker to be image-captured, a marker, which stores information by dividing, into areas, an area within, for example, a black border of a white square shape having the black border and paining the individual areas in white and black, may be used. In addition, regarding the AR marker, while not being able to be recognized as an AR marker on a captured image, a quadrangle area seems to be an AR marker in some cases. In this case, the relevant area is defined as an AR marker candidate. Furthermore, AR marker candidates include an area that is close to a square shape and that seems to be an AR marker while not being an AR marker. [0031] The display operation unit 111 corresponds to a display device for displaying various kinds of information and an input device to receive various kinds of operations from a user. As the display device, the display operation unit 111 is realized by, for example, a liquid crystal display or the like. In addition, as the input device, the display operation unit 111 is realized by, for example, a touch panel or the like. In other words, in the display operation unit 111 , the display device and the input device are integrated. The display operation unit 111 outputs, as operation information to the control unit 130 , an operation input by the user. [0032] The storage unit 120 is realized by, for example, a semiconductor memory element such as a random access memory (RAM) or a flash memory or a storage device such as a hard disk or an optical disk. The storage unit 120 includes a content storage unit 121 . In addition, the storage unit 120 stores therein information used for processing in the control unit 130 . [0033] The content storage unit 121 stores therein AR contents while associating the AR contents with marker IDs (Identifiers) of respective AR markers. FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating an example of a content storage unit. As illustrated in FIG. 2 , the content storage unit 121 includes items such as a “marker ID”, a “positional relationship”, and a “content”. The content storage unit 121 stores therein marker IDs while associating each one of the marker IDs with, for example, groups of positional relationships and contents. [0034] The “marker ID” is an identifier to identify an AR marker. The “positional relationship” is information indicating a relative position between an AR content and an AR marker. The “positional relationship” is able to be expressed by coordinates with, for example, a side of an AR marker as a reference value. The “content” is an AR content to be displayed in accordance with an AR marker. As the “content”, for example, an arrow “←” indicating a check point, a character string “attention!” for calling attention, an image, a 3 D content, a moving image, and so forth may be used. In an example of the first row of FIG. 2 , a content “←” and so forth to be displayed at a position of coordinates (1,1) are associated with a marker ID “M001”. Note that the coordinates are expressed by, for example, 3 axes of x, y, and z and the z-axis may be omitted in a case where the z-axis is “0”. [0035] Here, by using FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 , a positional relationship between an AR marker and an AR content will be described. FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating an example of a positional relationship. In the example of FIG. 3 , a star serving as an AR content corresponds to a case of being located at “2” from the center of an AR marker in an x-axis direction and being located at “0” from the center of the AR marker in a y-axis direction, in other words, being located at coordinates (2,0) while a side of the AR marker is defined as “1”. [0036] FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating another example of the positional relationship. FIG. 4 is an example of display of an AR content in an image obtained by image-capturing an oblique lateral view of the AR marker. In the example of FIG. 4 , a value of the z-axis is calculated based on a ratio between a length of the x-axis of the AR marker and a length of the y-axis thereof, and the position of the star serving as the AR content is expressed based on the coordinates (x,y,z). In addition, in the example of FIG. 4 , the magnitude and direction of inclination, in other words, the positive or negative of the z-axis is calculated in accordance with ratios of facing sides of the AR marker. [0037] Returning to the description of FIG. 1 , by using a RAM as a working area, a program stored in an internal storage device is executed by, for example, a central processing unit (CPU), a micro processing unit (MPU), or the like, thereby realizing the control unit 130 . In addition, the control unit 130 may be realized by, for example, an integrated circuit such as an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or a field programmable gate array (FPGA). The control unit 130 includes a reception unit 131 , a storage control unit 132 , and a display control unit 133 and realizes or performs functions and operations of information processing to be described later. Note that an inner structure of the control unit 130 is not limited to the configuration illustrated in FIG. 1 and may adopt another configuration if the other configuration performs the information processing to be described later. In addition, the control unit 130 causes the display operation unit 111 to display a captured image input by the camera 110 . [0038] If the display operation unit 111 inputs operation information to the effect that authoring is to be initiated, the reception unit 131 acquires a captured image from the camera 110 and outputs the stop signal to the camera 110 . At this time, the reception unit 131 causes the display operation unit 111 to display the acquired captured image. The reception unit 131 scans the acquired captured image and determines whether or not one or more AR marker candidates exist. In a case where no AR marker candidate exists, the reception unit 131 outputs the start signal to the camera 110 . [0039] In a case where one or more AR marker candidate exists, the reception unit 131 extracts shapes of the respective AR marker candidates from the captured image. In other words, the reception unit 131 extracts predetermined shapes from the acquired captured image. The reception unit 131 causes the AR marker candidates, from which shapes thereof on the captured image are extracted, to be highlighted. Here, each of the predetermined shapes only has to be a shape from which the size and inclination of the relevant shape are able to be measured or calculated. [0040] On the captured image caused to be displayed by the display operation unit 111 , the reception unit 131 starts receiving selection for the AR marker candidates. The reception unit 131 determines whether or not selection is received. In a case where no selection is received, the reception unit 131 waits for reception of selection. In a case where selection is received, the reception unit 131 starts receiving a marker ID. [0041] The reception unit 131 determines whether or not a marker ID is received. In a case where no marker ID is received, the reception unit 131 waits for reception of a marker ID. In a case where a marker ID is received, the reception unit 131 associates the received marker ID with the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received and implements authoring of a AR content corresponding to the relevant AR marker candidate. [0042] The reception unit 131 receives the marker ID, based on, for example, inputting to the display operation unit 111 , performed by a user. In addition, the reception unit 131 may receive, for example, identification information, in other words, a marker ID, extracted by recognizing an AR marker immediately before this scanning of the captured image. Furthermore, the reception unit 131 may implement the authoring in a state in which the user comes close to AR marker candidates once and moves away therefrom after causing the AR marker to be recognized and a wide angle of view is secured. [0043] Here, extraction of AR marker candidates will be described by using FIG. 5 . FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating an example of extraction of AR marker candidates. As illustrated in FIG. 5 , in a captured image screen 10 , areas 11 to 13 are extracted as AR marker candidates. In the captured image screen 10 , the user performs selection on the AR marker candidates of the areas 11 to 13 . In the example of FIG. 5 , an AR marker candidate of the area 11 installed in an article 14 is selected. Note that while not being an AR marker, each of AR marker candidates of the areas 12 and 13 is an area that seems to be an AR marker. [0044] As the authoring, first the reception unit 131 receives a position on the captured image, at which an AR content is to be arranged. Regarding, for example, specification of a position, the reception unit 131 receives specification of a position with a side of an AR marker as a reference value. The reception unit 131 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , the received position on the captured image, at which the AR content is to be arranged, while associating, with the marker ID, the received position on the captured image, at which the AR content to be arranged. In other words, the reception unit 131 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , the position on the captured image, at which the AR content is to be arranged, while associating, with the marker ID received for the corresponding AR marker candidate, the position on the captured image, at which the AR content to be arranged. In addition, in a case where AR contents are to be arranged, the reception unit 131 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , positions of the AR contents and the marker ID while associating the positions of the respective AR contents with the marker ID. Furthermore, the reception unit 131 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , the position of the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received and the input AR contents. [0045] If the reception unit 131 inputs the position of the corresponding AR marker candidate, the marker ID, and the positions of the AR contents, the storage control unit 132 stores, in the content storage unit 121 , a positional relationship between the position of the corresponding AR marker candidate and the positions of the AR contents while associating the positional relationship with the marker ID. In addition, the storage control unit 132 stores, in the content storage unit 121 , the AR contents while associating the AR contents with the marker ID. In other words, the storage control unit 132 stores an authoring result in the content storage unit 121 . Here, the positional relationship may be expressed by relative coordinates in which the position of, for example, the corresponding AR marker candidate serve as a reference. If storing of the authoring result is completed, the storage control unit 132 outputs the start signal to the camera 110 . [0046] Here, by using FIG. 6 and FIG. 7 , the authoring, in other words, editing of AR contents will be described. FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating an example of a captured image screen at a time of editing. As illustrated in FIG. 6 , an AR marker candidate 21 is displayed in a captured image screen 20 at a time of editing. In the captured image screen 20 , first, a user selects an AR marker candidate 21 and inputs a marker ID. In the captured image screen 20 , next, the user inputs AR contents 22 to 26 . At this time, the captured image screen 20 corresponds to an image image-captured from a distance at which it is difficult to recognize the AR marker candidate 21 as an AR marker. [0047] FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating another example of a captured image screen at a time of editing. FIG. 7 is a captured image screen at a time of editing in a case where the AR marker candidate of the area 11 is selected in the example of FIG. 5 . As illustrated in FIG. 7 , in a captured image screen 30 , a user selects an AR marker candidate 31 installed in the article 14 and inputs a marker ID. In the captured image screen 30 , next, the user inputs AR contents 32 and 33 . In the same way as the captured image screen 20 in FIG. 6 , the captured image screen 30 at this time corresponds to an image image-captured from a distance at which it is difficult to recognize the AR marker candidate 31 as an AR marker. [0048] Returning to the description of FIG. 1 , upon recognizing an AR marker within a captured image in a case where the display operation unit 111 displays the captured image input by the camera 110 , the display control unit 133 extracts identification information, in other words, a marker ID, based on the recognized AR marker. Upon extracting the marker ID, the display control unit 133 references the content storage unit 121 and causes an AR content corresponding to the marker ID to be displayed on the captured image screen, based on a positional relationship. [0049] Here, by using FIG. 8 and FIG. 9 , a captured image screen at a time of display of an AR content will be described. FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating an example of a captured image screen at a time of display. As illustrated in FIG. 8 , in a captured image screen 40 , if an AR marker 41 is recognized, the AR contents 22 to 24 associated with the marker ID of the AR marker 41 are displayed. Here, the marker ID of the AR marker 41 is the same as the marker ID of the AR marker candidate 21 in FIG. 6 . In the captured image screen 40 , the AR marker 41 is located on a right side on the captured image screen, and the AR contents 22 to 24 located on the left side and the upper side of the AR marker 41 are displayed. In other words, in the captured image screen 40 , since the user comes closer to the AR marker 41 than in the captured image screen 20 in FIG. 6 , it is possible to recognize the AR marker 41 . However, since the angle of view is narrow, a state in which it is difficult to display all the AR contents set in the captured image screen 20 in FIG. 6 is produced. [0050] Next, it is assumed that the user moves the information processing device 100 so that the AR marker 41 moves from the right side on the captured image screen and is located on a left side thereon, compared with the state of FIG. 8 . A captured image screen in this case is illustrated in FIG. 9 . FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating another example of a captured image screen at a time of display. In a captured image screen 42 in FIG. 9 , the AR marker 41 is located on a left side on the captured image screen, and the AR contents 24 to 26 located on the right side and the upper side of the AR marker 41 are displayed. [0051] Next, an operation of the information processing device 100 of the first embodiment will be described. FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating an example of display control processing of the first embodiment. [0052] The control unit 130 outputs the start signal to the camera 110 . The control unit 130 causes the display operation unit 111 to display a captured image input by the camera 110 . If the display operation unit 111 inputs operation information to the effect that authoring is to be initiated, the reception unit 131 acquires a captured image from the camera 110 and outputs the stop signal to the camera 110 . If the stop signal is input by the control unit 130 , the camera 110 stops outputting of a captured image (step S 1 ). [0053] The reception unit 131 scans the acquired captured image (step S 2 ) and determines whether or not one or more AR marker candidates exist (step S 3 ). In a case where no AR marker candidate exists (step S 3 : negative), the reception unit 131 outputs the start signal to the camera 110 and returns to step S 1 . [0054] In a case where one or more AR marker candidates exist (step S 3 : affirmative), the reception unit 131 extracts shapes of the respective AR marker candidates from the captured image. The reception unit 131 causes the AR marker candidates, from which shapes thereof on the captured image are extracted, to be highlighted (step S 4 ). On the captured image caused to be displayed by the display operation unit 111 , the reception unit 131 starts receiving selection for the AR marker candidates (step S 5 ). The reception unit 131 determines whether or not selection is received (step S 6 ). In a case where no selection is received (step S 6 : negative), the reception unit 131 repeats the determination in step S 6 . [0055] In a case where selection is received (step S 6 : affirmative), the reception unit 131 starts receiving a marker ID (step S 7 ). The reception unit 131 determines whether or not a marker ID is received (step S 8 ). In a case where no marker ID is received (step S 8 : negative), the reception unit 131 repeats the determination in step S 8 . [0056] In a case where a marker ID is received (step S 8 : affirmative), the reception unit 131 associates the received marker ID with the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received and implements authoring of a AR content corresponding to the relevant AR marker candidate (step S 9 ). As the authoring, first the reception unit 131 receives a position on the captured image, at which the AR content is to be arranged. The reception unit 131 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , the position on the captured image, at which the AR content is to be arranged, while associating, with a marker ID received for the AR marker candidate, the position on the captured image, at which the AR content to be arranged. In addition, the reception unit 131 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , the position of the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received and the input AR content. [0057] If the reception unit 131 inputs the position of the corresponding AR marker candidate, the marker ID, and the position of the AR content, the storage control unit 132 stores, in the content storage unit 121 , a positional relationship between the position of the AR marker candidate and the position of the AR content while associating the positional relationship with the marker ID. In addition, the storage control unit 132 stores, in the content storage unit 121 , the AR content while associating the AR content with the marker ID. In other words, the storage control unit 132 stores an authoring result in the content storage unit 121 (step S 10 ). If storing of the authoring result is completed, the storage control unit 132 outputs the start signal to the camera 110 . If the start signal is input, the camera 110 starts outputting of a captured image (step S 11 ). [0058] Upon recognizing an AR marker within the captured image in a case where the display operation unit 111 displays the captured image input by the camera 110 , the display control unit 133 performs content display processing (step S 12 ). Here, the content display processing will be described by using FIG. 11 . FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating an example of the content display processing. [0059] The display control unit 133 recognizes an AR marker on a captured image (step S 121 ) and extracts identification information, based on the recognized AR marker (step S 122 ). Upon extracting identification information, in other words, a marker ID, the display control unit 133 references the content storage unit 121 and causes an AR content corresponding to the marker ID to be displayed on a captured image screen (step S 123 ) and returns to former processing. From this, the display control unit 133 is able to display the AR content corresponding to the AR marker. [0060] Returning to the description of the display control processing in FIG. 10 , if the content display processing finishes, the display control unit 133 terminates the display control processing. From this, the information processing device 100 is able to set the AR content even at a distance at which it is difficult to recognize the AR marker. In other words, it becomes possible for the information processing device 100 to perform the authoring having a range broader than in the related art. In addition, the information processing device 100 is able to display the set AR content. [0061] In this way, the information processing device 100 extracts a predetermined shape from the acquired captured image and receives inputting of the identification information and specification of a position on the captured image screen. In addition, the information processing device 100 causes the storage unit 120 to store therein a positional relationship between an extraction position of the predetermined shape and the specified position while associating the positional relationship with the input identification information. In addition, upon extracting, based on the AR marker having a predetermined shape, identification information, the information processing device 100 displays an AR content corresponding to the identification information, in accordance with the positional relationship stored in the storage unit 120 . As a result, it is possible to set the AR content even at a distance at which it is difficult to recognize the AR marker. [0062] Regarding specification of a position, the information processing device 100 receives specification of a position with a side of an AR marker as a reference value. As a result, it is possible to easily arrange an AR content at a relative position based on the corresponding AR marker. [0063] In addition, the information processing device 100 receives, as inputting of identification information, the identification information most recently extracted based on an AR marker. As a result, it is possible to easily receive the inputting of the identification information. [0064] In addition, in the information processing device 100 , a predetermined shape is a shape from which the size and inclination of the shape are able to be measured or calculated. As a result, it is possible to display an AR content corresponding to the image-capturing direction of an AR marker. [0065] In addition, the information processing device 100 extracts a predetermined shape from an acquired captured image and receives inputting of identification information. In addition, upon receiving specification of a position at which an AR content is to be arranged on a captured image screen, the information processing device 100 causes the storage unit 120 to store therein a positional relationship between an extraction position of the predetermined shape and the specified position while associating the positional relationship with the input identification information. In addition, upon extracting, based on an AR marker having a predetermined shape, identification information, the information processing device 100 displays an AR content corresponding to the identification information, in accordance with the positional relationship stored in the storage unit 120 . As a result, it is possible to set the AR content even at a distance at which it is difficult to recognize the AR marker. Second Embodiment [0066] While, in the above-mentioned first embodiment, the authoring is implemented after a marker ID serving as the identification information is received, a marker ID may be received after the authoring is implemented, and an embodiment in this case will be described as a second embodiment. FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a configuration of an information processing device of the second embodiment. Note that the same symbol is assigned to the same configuration as that of the information processing device 100 of the first embodiment, thereby omitting the redundant descriptions of a configuration and an operation thereof. [0067] An information processing device 200 of the second embodiment includes a reception unit 231 in place of the reception unit 131 in the information processing device 100 of the first embodiment. [0068] If the display operation unit 111 inputs operation information to the effect that authoring is to be initiated, the reception unit 231 acquires a captured image from the camera 110 and outputs the stop signal to the camera 110 . At this time, the reception unit 231 causes the display operation unit 111 to display the acquired captured image. The reception unit 231 scans the acquired captured image and determines whether or not one or more AR marker candidates exist. In a case where no AR marker candidate exists, the reception unit 231 outputs the start signal to the camera 110 . [0069] In a case where one or more AR marker candidates exist, the reception unit 231 extracts shapes of the respective AR marker candidates from the captured image. In other words, the reception unit 231 extracts predetermined shapes from the acquired captured image. The reception unit 231 causes the AR marker candidates, from which shapes thereof on the captured image are extracted, to be highlighted. [0070] On the captured image caused to be displayed by the display operation unit 111 , the reception unit 231 starts receiving selection for the AR marker candidates. The reception unit 231 determines whether or not selection is received. In a case where no selection is received, the reception unit 231 waits for reception of selection. In a case where the selection is received, the reception unit 231 implements authoring of a AR content corresponding to the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received. [0071] As the authoring, first the reception unit 231 receives a position on the captured image, at which the corresponding AR content is to be arranged. The reception unit 231 receives specification of a position of the corresponding AR content with a position of, for example, the corresponding AR marker candidate as a reference. If inputting of the corresponding AR content is completed and the authoring is completed, the reception unit 231 starts receiving a marker ID. Note that a user may come close to the corresponding AR marker candidate, thereby causing the reception unit 231 to recognize an AR marker and to receive the corresponding marker ID. [0072] The reception unit 231 determines whether or not a marker ID is received. In a case where no marker ID is received, the reception unit 231 waits for reception of a marker ID. In a case where a marker ID is received, the reception unit 231 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , the received marker ID while associating the received marker ID with the AR content for which the authoring is completed and the position of the AR content. In addition, the reception unit 231 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , the position of the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received. [0073] Next, an operation of the information processing device 200 of the second embodiment will be described. Since, in the second embodiment, compared with the display control processing of the first embodiment, processing operations in steps S 1 to S 6 and S 10 to S 12 are the same as those of the first embodiment, the descriptions thereof will be omitted. Since in the second embodiment, processing operations in steps S 21 to S 23 are performed in place of those in steps S 7 to S 9 in the first embodiment, steps S 21 to S 23 will be described. FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating an example of display control processing of the second embodiment. [0074] In a case where selection is received (step S 6 : affirmative), the reception unit 231 implements authoring of an AR content corresponding to the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received (step S 21 ). As the authoring, first the reception unit 231 receives a position on the captured image, at which the corresponding AR content is to be arranged. The reception unit 231 receives specification of a position of the corresponding AR content with a position of, for example, the corresponding AR marker candidate as a reference. If inputting of the corresponding AR content is completed and the authoring is completed, the reception unit 231 starts receiving a marker ID (step S 22 ). [0075] The reception unit 231 determines whether or not a marker ID is received (step S 23 ). In a case where no marker ID is received (step S 23 : negative), the reception unit 231 repeats the determination in step S 23 . In a case where a marker ID is received (step S 23 : affirmative), the reception unit 131 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , the received marker ID while associating the received marker ID with the AR content for which the authoring is completed and the position of the AR content. In addition, the reception unit 231 outputs, to the storage control unit 132 , the position of the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received. From this, the information processing device 200 is able to set the AR content even at a distance at which it is difficult to recognize an AR marker. In other words, it becomes possible for the information processing device 200 to perform the authoring having a range broader than in the related art. In addition, the information processing device 200 is able to display the set AR content. Third Embodiment [0076] In each of the above-mentioned embodiments, a case where no AR content is associated with the marker ID of an AR marker before authoring is described as an example. In contrast, authoring may be performed on an AR marker whose marker ID is associated with an AR content, and an embodiment in this case will be described as a third embodiment. FIG. 14 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a configuration of an information processing device of the third embodiment. Note that the same symbol is assigned to the same configuration as that of the information processing device 100 of the first embodiment, thereby omitting the redundant descriptions of a configuration and an operation thereof. [0077] An information processing device 300 of the third embodiment includes a reception unit 331 and a storage control unit 332 in place of the reception unit 131 and the storage control unit 132 , respectively, in the information processing device 100 of the first embodiment. [0078] If the display operation unit 111 inputs operation information to the effect that authoring is to be initiated, the reception unit 331 acquires a captured image from the camera 110 and outputs the stop signal to the camera 110 . At this time, the reception unit 331 causes the display operation unit 111 to display the acquired captured image. The reception unit 331 scans the acquired captured image and determines whether or not one or more AR marker candidates exist. In a case where no AR marker candidate exists, the reception unit 331 outputs the start signal to the camera 110 . [0079] In a case where one or more AR marker candidates exist, the reception unit 331 extracts shapes of the respective AR marker candidates from the captured image. In other words, the reception unit 331 extracts predetermined shapes from the acquired captured image. The reception unit 331 causes the AR marker candidates, from which shapes thereof on the captured image are extracted, to be highlighted. [0080] On the captured image caused to be displayed by the display operation unit 111 , in other words, a captured image screen, the reception unit 331 starts receiving selection for the AR marker candidates. The reception unit 331 determines whether or not selection is received. In a case where no selection is received, the reception unit 331 waits for reception of selection. In a case where the selection is received, the reception unit 231 starts receiving a marker ID. [0081] The reception unit 331 determines whether or not a marker ID is received. In a case where no marker ID is received, the reception unit 331 waits for reception of a marker ID. In a case where a marker ID is received, the reception unit 331 references the content storage unit 121 and causes an AR content corresponding to the marker ID to be displayed on the captured image screen, based on a positional relationship. Note that regarding an AR content, no information of a positional relationship may exist and in that case, the AR content is displayed at a preliminarily defined position on the captured image screen, such as the upper right of the screen. [0082] The reception unit 331 implements authoring of an AR content corresponding to an AR marker candidate. The reception unit 331 receives a position on the captured image, in other words, the captured image screen, at which the corresponding AR content is to be arranged. In addition, for an already arranged AR content, the reception unit 331 receives specification of a specific arrangement position on the captured image screen. At this time, in a case where the already arranged AR content has information of a positional relationship, the information of a positional relationship is updated, and in a case where the relevant AR content has no information of a positional relationship, information of a positional relationship with the position of the corresponding AR marker candidate is generated. The reception unit 331 outputs, to the storage control unit 332 , the position on the captured image, at which the corresponding AR content is to be arranged, while associating the position on the captured image with the corresponding marker ID received for the corresponding AR marker candidate. In addition, the reception unit 331 outputs, to the storage control unit 332 , the position of the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received and the input AR content. [0083] In this way, the reception unit 331 extracts a predetermined shape from the acquired captured image and receives inputting of identification information. In addition, the reception unit 331 references the content storage unit 121 and causes an AR content to be displayed on the captured image screen, the AR content being associated with the input identification information and being stored. In other words, the reception unit 331 has functions of both a reception unit and a first display control unit. In addition, at this time, the display control unit 133 has a function of a second display control unit. [0084] If the reception unit 331 inputs the position of the corresponding AR marker candidate, the marker ID, and the position of the corresponding AR content, the storage control unit 332 stores, in the content storage unit 121 , a positional relationship between the position of the AR marker candidate and the position of the AR content while associating the positional relationship with the marker ID. In addition, the storage control unit 132 stores, in the content storage unit 121 , a newly input AR content while associating the newly input AR content with the corresponding marker ID. At this time, regarding an AR content already stored in the content storage unit 121 , the storage control unit 332 updates, with a new positional relationship, the positional relationship of the relevant AR content. In addition, in a case where the relevant AR content has no information of a positional relationship, a new positional relationship is stored while being associated with the relevant AR content. In other words, the storage control unit 332 stores an authoring result in the content storage unit 121 . If storing of the authoring result is completed, the storage control unit 332 outputs the start signal to the camera 110 . [0085] Next, an operation of the information processing device 300 of the third embodiment will be described. Since, in the third embodiment, compared with the display control processing of the first embodiment, processing operations in steps S 1 to S 8 , S 11 , and S 12 are the same as those of the first embodiment, the descriptions thereof will be omitted. Since in the third embodiment, processing operations in steps S 31 to S 33 are performed in place of those in steps S 9 and S 10 in the first embodiment, steps S 31 to S 33 will be described. FIG. 15 is a flowchart illustrating an example of display control processing of the third embodiment. [0086] In a case where a marker ID is received (step S 8 : affirmative), the reception unit 331 references the content storage unit 121 and causes an AR content corresponding to the marker ID to be displayed on a captured image screen, based on a positional relationship. [0087] The reception unit 331 implements authoring of an AR content corresponding to an AR marker candidate (step S 32 ). The reception unit 331 receives a position on a captured image, at which the corresponding AR content is to be arranged. In addition, for an already arranged AR content, the reception unit 331 receives specification of a specific arrangement position on the captured image screen. The reception unit 331 outputs, to the storage control unit 332 , a position on the captured image, at which the corresponding AR content is to be arranged, while associating the position on the captured image with the corresponding marker ID received for the corresponding AR marker candidate. In addition, the reception unit 331 outputs, to the storage control unit 332 , the position of the AR marker candidate for which the selection is received and the input AR content. [0088] If the reception unit 331 inputs the position of the corresponding AR marker candidate, the marker ID, and the position of the corresponding AR content, the storage control unit 332 stores, in the content storage unit 121 , a positional relationship between the position of the AR marker candidate and the position of the AR content while associating the positional relationship with the marker ID. In addition, the storage control unit 132 stores, in the content storage unit 121 , a newly input AR content while associating the newly input AR content with the corresponding marker ID. In other words, the storage control unit 332 stores an authoring result in the content storage unit 121 (step S 33 ). From this, the information processing device 300 is able to update and set the AR content even at a distance at which it is difficult to recognize an AR marker. In other words, it becomes possible for the information processing device 300 to perform the authoring having a range broader than in the related art. In addition, the information processing device 300 is able to display the set AR content. [0089] In this way, the information processing device 300 extracts a predetermined shape from the acquired captured image and receives inputting of identification information. In addition, the information processing device 300 references a storage content of the storage unit 121 storing therein AR contents while associating the AR contents with identification information and causes an AR content to be displayed on the captured image screen, the AR content being associated with the input identification information and being stored. In addition, upon receiving, for the displayed AR content, specification of a specific arrangement position on the captured image screen, the information processing device 300 causes the storage unit 120 to store therein a positional relationship between the extraction position of the predetermined shape and the specified specific arrangement position while associating the positional relationship with the input identification information. In addition, upon extracting, based on an AR marker having the predetermined shape, identification information, the information processing device 300 displays an AR content corresponding to the identification information, in accordance with the corresponding positional relationship stored in the storage unit 120 . As a result, it is possible to set the AR content even at a distance at which it is difficult to recognize the AR marker. [0090] Note that while, in each of the above-mentioned embodiments, an AR marker is used as a marker for associating an AR content, there is no limitation thereto. For example, a bar code, a QR code (registered trademark), feature extraction based on image recognition, and so forth, which are each able to recognize a target object, are available as the marker. [0091] In addition, while, in each of the above-mentioned embodiments, an image captured by the camera 110 is defined as a target of processing, there is no limitation thereto. For example, a captured image, which is preliminarily image-captured by another camera and which includes AR marker candidates stored in a storage medium, may be defined as a target of processing. [0092] In addition, individual illustrated configuration elements of individual units do not have to be physically configured as illustrated in drawings. In other words, a specific embodiment of the distribution or integration of the individual units is not limited to one of embodiments illustrated in drawings, and all or some of the individual units may be configured by being functionally or physically integrated or distributed in arbitrary units in accordance with various loads, various statuses of use, and so forth. For example, the reception unit 131 and the storage control unit 132 may be integrated. In addition, the individual processing operations illustrated in drawings are not limited to the above-mentioned orders, may be simultaneously implemented insofar as contents of processing operations do not contradict one another, and may be implemented by changing the orders thereof. [0093] Furthermore, all or arbitrary part of various kinds of processing functions performed in each of devices may be performed on a CPU (or a microcomputer such as an MPU or a micro controller unit (MCU)). It goes without saying that all or arbitrary part of various kinds of processing functions may be performed on a program analyzed and performed in the CPU (or the microcomputer such as the MPU or the MCU) or may be performed on hardware based on hard-wired logic. [0094] By the way, various kinds of processing described in each of the above-mentioned embodiments may be realized by causing a computer to execute a preliminarily prepared program. Therefore, in what follows, an example of a computer to execute a program having the same functions as those of each of the above-mentioned embodiments will be described. FIG. 16 is a diagram illustrating an example of a computer to execute a display control program. [0095] As illustrated in FIG. 16 , a computer 400 includes a CPU 401 to perform various kinds of arithmetic processing operations, an input device 402 to receive data inputs, and a monitor 403 . In addition, the computer 400 includes a medium reading device 404 to read programs and so forth from a storage medium, an interface device 405 for being coupled to various kinds of devices, and a communication device 406 for being coupled to another information processing device or the like by using a wired line or wireless. In addition, the computer 400 includes a RAM 407 to temporarily store therein various kinds of information, and a hard disk device 408 . In addition, the individual devices 401 to 408 are coupled to a bus 409 . [0096] In the hard disk device 408 , a display control program having the same functions as those of the individual processing units of the reception unit 131 , 231 , or 331 , the storage control unit 132 or 332 , and the display control unit 133 , illustrated in FIG. 1 , FIG. 12 , or FIG. 14 . In addition, in the hard disk device 408 , various kinds of data for realizing the content storage unit 121 and the display control program are stored. [0097] The input device 402 receives, from a user of the computer 400 , inputting of various kinds of information such as, for example, operation information. The monitor 403 displays, for the user of the computer 400 , various kinds of screens such as, for example, captured image screens. The camera 110 is coupled to the interface device 405 , for example. The communication device 406 is coupled to, for example, a network, not illustrated, and exchanges various kinds of information with another information processing device. [0098] The CPU 401 reads individual programs stored in the hard disk device 408 and deploys and executes the individual programs in the RAM 407 , thereby performing various kinds of processing. In addition, these programs are able to cause the computer 400 to function as the reception unit 131 , 231 , or 331 , the storage control unit 132 or 332 , and the display control unit 133 illustrated in FIG. 1 , FIG. 12 , or FIG. 14 . [0099] Note that the above-mentioned display control program does not have to be stored in the hard disk device 408 . The computer 400 may read and execute, for example, a program stored in a storage medium readable by the computer 400 . The storage medium readable by the computer 400 corresponds to, for example, a portable recording medium such as a CD-ROM, a DVD disk, or a universal serial bus (USB) memory, a semiconductor memory such as a flash memory, a hard disk drive, or the like. In addition, the display control program may be stored in advance in a device coupled to a public line, the Internet, a LAN, and so forth, and the computer 400 may read, from these, and execute the display control program. [0100] All examples and conditional language recited herein are intended for pedagogical purposes to aid the reader in understanding the invention and the concepts contributed by the inventor to furthering the art, and are to be construed as being without limitation to such specifically recited examples and conditions, nor does the organization of such examples in the specification relate to a showing of the superiority and inferiority of the invention. Although the embodiments of the present invention have been described in detail, it should be understood that the various changes, substitutions, and alterations could be made hereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

A system includes circuitry configured to acquire a first image, extract a plurality of candidate areas each including an object having a shape corresponding to a shape of a marker to be used for augmented reality, control a display to display a first composite image that applies a predetermined graphical effect on the candidate areas in the first image, receive selection of a first area from among the candidate areas, acquire identification information corresponding to a first marker included in the first area from a source other than the first image, receive an input corresponding to a first position on the first image as an arrangement position of content to be virtually arranged with reference to the first marker, convert the first position into positional information in a coordinate system corresponding to the first area, and store the positional information, the identification information, and the content.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates to a transducer for measurement signals measured by a sensor and, more particularly, relates to a USB transducer which transmits measurement signals to a USB terminal of a computer through a USB cable. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] In the field of equipment for environmental analysis, process analysis, laboratory analysis, and industrial analysis, measuring instruments and measuring systems that display measurement signals measured by various kinds of sensors or that convert the signals into an analog output for transmission are generically called transducers. Generally, such transducers are provided with switches or like operating parts for making settings for the transducer itself or for controlling the sensor. [0003] FIG. 7 shows a prior art transducer. In the figure, the transducer 10 is connected to a sensor 11 and external power supply 12 , and the output of the transducer 10 is coupled to a computer 14 via an A/D converter 13 , if necessary. The transducer 10 comprises a measuring section 101 for making measurements, an operation section 102 having switches or the like, and a display section 103 for displaying measurement data. [0004] The measuring operation in FIG. 7 will be described step by step. First, the sensor 11 is set ready for the measurement. After that, power is turned on to the transducer 10 . Next, the transducer 10 is placed in a setup mode, and various settings, such as the setting of upper and lower set values for the measurement range, the setting of alarm set points, the setting for temperature compensation, and the setting of response speed, are made from the operation section 102 of the transducer 10 . When the measurement setup of the transducer 10 is completed, the transducer 10 is placed in a measurement mode to start the measurement. Measurement data is transmitted from the sensor 11 and displayed on the display section 103 . Then, the transducer 10 is switched to a transmission mode to transmit the measurement data to the computer 14 for analysis. [0005] In the prior art, analog transmission (DC 4 to 20 mA, etc.) or serial data communication such as RS-232C has been used as a method for transmitting the measurement data from the transducer to the computer. [0006] In the case of analog transmission, the A/D converter 13 for converting the data into a digital signal must be provided as shown by dashed lines, thus requiring the use of an extra device before connection to the computer 14 . [0007] In the case of serial communication using RS-232C, the A/D converter is not needed, but few instruments are equipped with RS-232C and, if equipped with RS-232C, such instruments are often expensive; for this reason, in the field of equipment for environmental analysis, process analysis, laboratory analysis, and industrial analysis, measuring systems using RS-232C are not prevalent (reference document 1). [0008] Another method of transmission is one that uses the GPIB (General Purpose Interface Bus) interface. This interface allows a number of devices to be connected in a daisy chain on a single bus. However, equipment that uses this interface system is bulky, its volume being as large as 100 cm 3 or more, and requires the use of an independent power supply. GPIB ensures reliable data transmission by using a method called three-wire handshaking. While reliable data transmission can be achieved, GPIB is slow in such cases as when a setup operation and a measurement value read operation are repeated. (Reference document 2) [0009] There is a high-speed version of GPIB, but this is intended for the transmission of large volumes of data (such as waveform data). Further, the cable length of GPIB is specified in the standard, and the expensive cable is usually rugged and bulky. [0010] In the prior art, when processing a plurality of measurement data by computer, a plurality of arrays of sensors 11 a to 11 e , transducers 10 a to 10 e , and computers 14 a to 14 e have been arranged as shown in FIG. 8 , and the processing has been performed using a data management device 15 . As a result, the overall system becomes large, causing problems in terms of space and cost. (Reference document 3) [0011] Furthermore, it has not been possible to control the transducer 10 from the computer 14 , and power has had to be supplied externally. [0012] Reference document 1: Yokogawa Technical Report, Vol. 44, No. 1, 2000, pp. 19-24. [0013] Reference document 2: http://www.ocs-1v.co.jp/LabVIEW/Sub3 — 5.htm [0014] Reference document 3: [0000] http://toyonakakeisou.com/02FA/01Keisoku/01Keisoku.htm SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0015] There are various limitations when using the prior art transducer 10 by incorporating it into other equipment, and these limitations have impeded the incorporation of the transducer into other equipment. For example, as measurement values are checked using a display meter or a digital display, and various settings and operations are performed using buttons or keys on the system, the transducer has had to be mounted in a surface section of an instrument. FIG. 9 shows an example in which the transducer 10 is mounted by cutting a panel 16 . Reference numeral 17 is a fixing device for fixing the transducer in place. [0016] In this way, design freedom in terms of the incorporation of the measuring system has been greatly limited. [0017] Further, when using a personal computer to process and analyze the data measured by the prior art measuring system, as the measurement value is output in the form of an analog signal in the prior art transducer, the signal has had to be converted into a digital signal for input to the personal computer. This has led to the problem that the accuracy of the measurement value decreases due to a conversion error associated with the signal conversion. Furthermore, this prior art system also has required the use of an A/D converter, resulting in an increase in cost. [0018] There has also been the following problem. Conventionally, software has been provided to users in a general-purpose standardized form. On the other hand, user requests vary widely, and it is strongly requested by users that application software be made customizable, demanding that the source code of the special application software be disclosed. However, disclosure of the source code has involved difficult problems, as the disclosure means disclosing information including know-how. For such reasons, the user requests have not been adequately addressed. [0019] It is an object of the present invention to solve the above problems associated with the prior art measuring system. More specifically, the invention is directed to the provision of a user-friendly system that ensures freedom for incorporating the measuring system into other equipment, reduces the conversion error associated with the signal conversion, reduces the cost of the A/D converter, and allows simultaneous processing of a plurality of data, while also addressing the user request for customization of application software. [Means for Solving the Problems] [0020] In view of the above technical problems, the system of the present invention is constructed so that measurement signals from various kinds of measuring instruments, for example, equipment for environmental analysis, process analysis, laboratory analysis, industrial analysis, or the like, can be directly coupled to a USB terminal of a computer, thereby making it possible to observe, record, and store the results of the measurements and to analyze the data. In this configuration, the transducer can be controlled by a control signal supplied from the computer via the USB cable, and power for the transducer can also be supplied from the computer. The invention thus achieves a system that processes a plurality of measurements simultaneously and analyzes the plurality of measurement data using a single computer. [0021] According to a first mode of the present invention, there is provided a USB transducer comprising: input means for taking a measurement signal from a sensor; output means for transferring signals to and from an external computer via a USB cable; and signal processing means for processing the measurement signal as well as a signal transferred from the external computer. [0022] According to a second mode of the present invention, the signal processing means according to the first mode includes: a CPU which receives the measurement signal from the sensor, converts the measurement signal into a digital signal, performs processing based on a command signal from the computer, and performs processing for converting the digital signal into measurement data; and a controller which converts the data into data ready for processing by the computer, and which converts the signal transferred from the external computer into a signal format ready for processing by the CPU. [0023] According to a third mode of the present invention, the USB transducer according to the first or second mode is configured so that power for the USB transducer is supplied from the computer through the USB cable. [0024] [Effect of the Invention] [0025] Using the USB cable, signal transmission/reception and supply of power can be accomplished using a single cable connection. Thus, according to the present invention, not only can the measurement data be displayed on the computer display, but various settings for measurements can also be made on the computer while confirming the settings on the screen of the computer connected to the device of the present invention. Since power, for example, DC power (DC5V, 500 mA), necessary for the operation of the transducer is supplied from the computer, there is no need to provide a separate power supply. [0026] Further, when incorporating the device (USB transducer) of the present invention into other equipment, since there is no need to provide setting/operation keys, display meter, digital display or the like on the device, and since the size of the device is small, no limitation is imposed when incorporating the device into other equipment, and thus the design freedom in terms of the shape and mounting of the device can be greatly enhanced. [0027] As the signal that the device of the present invention outputs for transmission to the computer is a digital signal, the output of the device of the present invention is not converted and, therefore, provides a highly accurate measurement signal. There is also no need to provide an extra device such as an A/D converter. [0028] Furthermore, most computers (both desktop and notebook types) currently sold on the market are fitted with terminals for USB connection, which is thus the most prevalent connection method. [0029] In the case of the prior art transducer, there are cases where, depending on the quality of the power supply in the actual operating environment, the transducer is affected by external perturbations such as excessive noise, leading to malfunctioning of the transducer; on the other hand, when USB cable is used, stable operation of the transducer can be achieved because the quality of the power supplied from the computer is assured by the computer (USB interface) technical standard. Furthermore, the invention can achieve a system that makes a plurality of measurements simultaneously and performs data processing to analyze the plurality of measurement data using a signal computer. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0030] The above object and features of the present invention will be more apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments with reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein: [0031] FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing how a USB transducer according to the present invention is connected to a sensor and a computer; [0032] FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the USB transducer according to the present invention; [0033] FIG. 3 is a functional block diagram of the USB transducer according to the present invention; [0034] FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing an arrangement for connection of USB transducers, sensors, and a computer when making a plurality of measurements; [0035] FIG. 5 is a perspective view showing the external appearance of the USB transducer of the present invention; [0036] FIG. 6A is a diagram showing connections for pH and ORP measurements using the USB transducer of the present invention; [0037] FIG. 6B is a diagram showing connections for resistance/temperature measurement using the USB transducers of the present invention; [0038] FIG. 7 is a diagram showing the configuration of a prior art transducer and its connections to a sensor and a computer; [0039] FIG. 8 is a block diagram showing an arrangement for connection of USB transducers, sensors, computers, and a data management device when making a plurality of measurements according to the prior art; and [0040] FIG. 9 is a perspective view for explaining the condition in which the prior art transducer is mounted in another equipment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0041] Embodiments of the present invention will be described below with reference to the drawings. [0042] FIG. 1 is a diagram showing a measuring system that uses a USB transducer according to the present invention. The output of a sensor 1 is connected to the USB transducer 2 whose output, in turn, is connected to a computer 4 by means of a USB cable 3 . A measurement signal from the sensor 1 is input to the USB transducer 2 , which then transfers the measurement signal to the computer 4 . At the same time, the computer 4 is configured to be able to set up the operation of the USB transducer 2 by sending the commands through the USB cable, check the measurement value, provide an instruction for computation, and process the data for analysis. Power for the transducer 2 is supplied from the computer 4 through the USB cable 3 . [0043] FIG. 2 shows the configuration of the USB transducer 2 of the present invention. The USB transducer 2 includes an input connector 23 as an input means, a CPU 21 and a USB controller 22 as signal processing means for processing signals, and a USB terminal 24 as an output means. [0044] The CPU 21 is connected to the USB controller 22 , and the USB controller 22 is connected to the USB terminal 24 . The USB terminal 23 is connected to the computer 4 via the USB cable 3 . [0045] The measurement signal from the sensor 1 is input to the CPU 21 , transferred through the USB controller 22 and the USB terminal 23 , and sent to the computer 4 through the USB cable 3 . The signal from the computer 4 is transferred through the USB cable 3 and the USB terminal 23 and input to the USB controller 22 and the CPU 21 . In the figure, dashed lines indicate power supply lines over which the computer 4 supplies power to the USB transducer 2 . [0046] The CPU 21 includes an A/D converter 211 , a computation circuit 212 , and a memory 213 . The A/D converter 211 is connected to the computation circuit 212 which in turn is connected to the memory 213 . The analog measurement signal from the sensor is converted by the A/D converter 211 into a digital signal which is supplied to the computation circuit 212 . The computation circuit 212 performs computation, for example, for converting the digital signal into measurement data by using the output of the A/D converter 211 and the data and program stored in the memory 212 , and stores the result of the computation in the memory 213 or supplies the result to the USB controller 22 . An identifier for identifying the transducer 2 , instrument set values, and firmware for the transducer are prestored in the memory 213 . [0047] Each transducer has an identifier for uniquely identifying the transducer, and the identifier unique to the transducer 2 is prestored in the memory 213 . Using this identifier, the computer 4 can switch the mode between setup, measurement, and transmission for each individual one of transducers 2 a to 2 e when making different kinds of measurements (for example, pH and ORP measurements), and can make various settings and manage the measurement for each individual transducer. [0048] The quantity to be measured is predetermined for each transducer 2 and, to make this distinction, an identifier indicating the quantity to be measured by the transducer 2 is prestored in the memory 213 . [0049] The USB controller 22 converts the result of the computation received from the CPU 21 into a signal format that can be received by the computer 4 , and outputs the signal via the USB terminal 23 onto the USB cable 3 for transmission to the computer 4 . Conversely, the signal from the computer 4 is converted into a signal format that can be received by the CPU, and sent to the USB transducer 2 via the cable 3 and via the USB terminal 24 . [0050] FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing a functional representation of the USB transducer 2 of the present invention. The USB transducer 2 includes at least an A/D converting means 26 and a functional means 27 . The functional means 27 comprises at least a time stamping means 271 and a command executing means 272 . [0051] The A/D converting means 26 converts the analog measurement signal received from the sensor into a digital signal and is identical to the A/D converter 211 shown in FIG. 2 . [0052] The time stamping means in the functional means 27 measures the measurement time 271 and appends a time stamp to the measurement data. [0053] The command executing means 272 interprets a command received from the computer, and executes the command in the transducer 2 . Commands to be executed here include, for example, commands for alarm setting, measurement range setting, timer and other device setting, etc. and commands for performing computation for correcting the measurement data. [0054] One feature of the USB transducer configuration according to the present invention is that all the functions and instructions necessary for controlling the USB transducer are predefined as commands (instruction words) for the user and that the means (command executing means) is provided for executing the commands. In the present invention, a command means a process to be executed in the transducer. [0055] Usually, when controlling a device by using software, the contents of a command (describing the action and mathematical equation to be performed by the command) are directly written to a control program. In this case, the contents of the command (in particular, the mathematical equation and numeric value correcting means) may contain important know-how, and often, such contents cannot be disclosed to general users. [0056] As a result, the user cannot create a control program specific to his use. If, for example, the mathematical equation is disclosed, unpredictable computation results can occur unless the user correctly understand the mathematical equation. [0057] In view of this, the present inventors have devised a method in which instruction statements for setting conditions and the processing of a plurality of equations are predefined as single-line commands (instruction words) and the process to be executed by each particular command is stored in a memory within the transducer so that a control program can be executed by specifying the instruction word. With this method, an environment necessary for the construction of an application program can be provided to the user without disclosing the condition settings, important equations, and the details of computation. [0058] As earlier described, there are two kinds of commands, one concerning transducer setting and the other describing the details of computation. In practice, the command executing means is configured to store in a program area within the memory 213 a program that executes an instruction in response to each particular command, and to cause the computation circuit 212 to execute the command. [0059] In the above configuration, when a command is sent to the USB transducer 2 from the computer 4 , the command is executed using the computation means 212 and the program stored in the memory of the transducer 2 . [0060] Examples of transducer commands for pH measurement are shown below. [0061] 1. Examples of condition setting commands [0062] OFFSET: [0063] Set electromotive force corresponding to pH=7, and store the set value in memory. [0064] CRACK: [0065] Set electrode crack detection function and store the setting in memory. [0066] 2. Examples of computation commands [0067] CAL: [0068] For example, a true value C which is a value effective as measurement data is obtained by subtracting correction value B, an offset value, from the measurement value A measured by the sensor 1 ; here, when a user command CAL for true value calculation is issued from the computer 4 , the operation C=A−B is performed in the USB transducer 2 . [0069] TEMP_COMP: [0070] This command sets the sample solution temperature compensating function for the pH value, and stores the setting in memory. The sample solution temperature compensating function compensates for the pH-temperature characteristics of the sample solution, and the pH value is compensated for temperature in accordance with the following equation. [0071] pH value after compensation=Raw pH value−(Solution temperature−25° C.)×Solution temperature compensation coefficient [0072] In the above equation, the solution temperature compensation coefficient represents the amount of change of the pH value for a temperature change of 1° C. This coefficient value varies from one sample solution to another. [0073] Next, an operation will be described referring to FIG. 2 . First, when the USB transducer 2 of the present invention is connected to the computer 4 via the USB cable 3 , operating power is supplied to the transducer 2 which is thus started up. Thereupon, the transducer identifier and the sensor identifier are automatically sent to the computer 4 . Next, the USB transducer 2 is placed in a setup mode by a command from the computer 4 , and receives the various setting commands from the computer 4 to make necessary settings, thus becoming ready for measurement. [0074] When the setup for the measurement is completed, the USB transducer 2 is placed in a measurement mode by a command from the computer 4 . In this mode, the sensor 1 makes the prescribed measurement. The signal measured here is an analog signal, which is sent to the USB transducer 2 where the analog signal is converted by the A/D converting means 22 into a digital signal. Further, in the CPU 21 , using the data and program prestored in the memory 213 the computation means 212 corrects the digital signal for changes in temperature and for individual differences of hardware by performing computation under the conditions prespecified by the user, and outputs the final measurement data. That is, the A/D-converted digital signal is based, for example, on the voltage of the electromotive force generated from the sensor and, when measuring the pH, the digital signal is converted to the pH value corresponding to the voltage value, and computation for correction, etc. is performed. On the other hand, the time stamping means 271 measures the measurement time, and appends to the digital signal a time stamp that indicates the time of the measurement ( FIG. 3 ). [0075] The signal is then output from the USB transducer 2 , passes through the USB cable 3 , and is input to the computer 4 . [0076] When the user corrects the measurement value, for example, the pH value, by temperature compensation, the TEMP_COMP command is sent to the transducer 2 from the application software running on the computer 4 . The computation means 212 in the CPU 21 then recognizes the TEMP_COMP command from among the commands prestored in the memory 213 , and performs the specified computation (action) to execute the temperature compensation in accordance with the previously made setting. Likewise, when any particular command is sent to the transducer 2 from the application software running on the computer 4 , the command is recognized and the specified function or computation is executed in the transducer 2 . The result of the execution is stored in the memory 214 or sent to the computer 4 via the USB controller. [0077] FIG. 4 shows a configuration in which a plurality of transducers 2 a to 2 e are connected to one computer 4 . Using the transducer identifiers earlier described, the computer 4 can automatically identify the plurality of connected transducers 2 a to 2 e and manage the respective measurement data. In the illustrated example, five transducers are connected. In the preferred embodiment of the invention, up to 12 transducers, for example, can be automatically identified. The transducers can be handled without having to be aware of the type of sensor (the quantity to be measured). The transducer identifiers may be used in combination with the sensor identifiers to further enhance the reliability with which the quantities to be measured are identified. [0078] FIG. 5 is a perspective view showing the external appearance of the USB transducer 2 , and reference numeral 23 indicates an input means via which a signal from the sensor is input, i.e., a connector to which a signal line from the sensor is connected. On the opposite side from the connector 23 , there is provided an output means of the USB transducer 2 , that is, a connector (USB terminal 24 ) for connecting to the USB cable (this connector is not shown here, as it is a connector well known to any person skilled in the art). [0079] FIGS. 6A and 6B show application examples that use the transducers of the present invention. [0080] In FIG. 6A , two USB transducers ( 2 a and 2 b ) according to the present invention are used to measure the measurement data received from a pH sensor 1 a and an ORP (Oxidation Reduction Potential) sensor 1 b . The input terminals of the USB transducers 2 a and 2 b are connected to the pH sensor 1 a and the ORP sensor 1 b , respectively. The output terminals are connected to the computer 4 via respective USB cables 3 a and 3 b and via a hub 5 . [0081] The USB transducer 2 a connected to the pH sensor 1 a is a dedicated transducer for the pH sensor, and the USB transducer 2 b connected to the ORP sensor 1 b is a dedicated transducer for the ORP sensor. Accordingly, the computer 4 can automatically identify the type of each USB transducer. [0082] In the figure, the measurement signal from each sensor, which includes temperature data, is sent to the corresponding USB transducer through four lines. In this configuration, the pH of the solution, the temperature of the solution, and the ORP measurement data taken from the solution whose ORP is measured are simultaneously read into the computer 4 and displayed on the display of the computer 4 . The illustrated example has shown as an example the configuration in which two sensors, the pH sensor and the ORP sensor, are connected, but it will be appreciated that only one sensor may be used. It is also possible to use a dissolved oxygen (DO) sensor as the sensor. In that case, a USB transducer dedicated for the dissolved oxygen (DO) sensor is used, as a matter of course. Here, as data measured by the dissolved oxygen (DO) sensor is influenced by solvent temperature and chloride ion concentration, compensation buttons for selecting solvent temperature and chloride ion concentration compensation methods to compensate for the data can be added on the display (not shown) of the computer 4 . [0083] With the traditional RS-232C interface, because of its specification, it has been difficult to read two or more measurement signals simultaneously into a computer. Further, while a system similar to the one of the present invention can be constructed using a GPIB interface, the interface and the cable are generally expensive and, if a plurality of data are to be captured simultaneously and displayed on the computer, a special program for that purpose has had to be created. [0084] According to the present invention, as the plurality of USB transducers in accordance with the present invention can be easily connected to one computer using a commercially available USB hub, and as each transducer can be automatically identified at the computer end and each measurement data can be automatically measured, displayed, and stored, there is no need to create a special program for that purpose. As the time of the measurement is appended to each measurement data, the variation of the data can be automatically displayed. Further, the computer can analyze the measurement data by effectively using the time data. Furthermore, as the power for the USB transducer is supplied from the computer, and the transducer body is small for this type of transducer, the space required for conducting an experiment can be saved. In the experiment conducted here, a computer, two USB transducers, a USB hub, a pH sensor, and an ORP sensor were arranged on a desk measuring 30 cm by 60 cm. After connecting the USB cables, the three parameters, i.e., the pH, the temperature of the pH solution, and the ORP were read at intervals of one second, and the parameters were able to be displayed simultaneously on the display (not shown) and recorded. [0085] FIG. 6B shows an example in which a specimen resistance/temperature measuring instrument is constructed using two USB transducers ( 2 a and 2 b ) of the present invention dedicated for voltage and temperature sensors, respectively. The resistance/temperature measurement here means measuring a change in the resistance value of the specimen with respect to a change in temperature. [0086] In FIG. 6B , reference numeral 6 designates the test specimen for the resistance/temperature measurement. This is, for example, a rectangular specimen measuring 1 cm in length, and 5 mm in width 3 mm in thickness (top view). Vapor deposition electrodes 6 a and 6 b are respectively formed on the upper and lower ends of the specimen 6 , and two vapor deposition electrode bands 6 c and 6 d , each encircling the specimen 6 , are formed at two positions spaced apart in the height direction. This specimen 6 is placed in a thermostatic chamber 7 , and a constant current source 9 is connected to the electrodes 6 a and 6 b . A temperature sensor 8 is placed inside the thermostatic chamber 7 . [0087] The first USB transducer 2 a is connected to the electrode bands 6 c and 6 d of the specimen 6 via cable 10 a and 10 b , and the second USB transducer 2 b is connected to the temperature sensor 8 via cables 11 a and 11 b . The first and second USB transducers are dedicated USB transducers for the voltage and temperature sensors, respectively. Their outputs are connected to a hub 5 via the respective USB cables 3 a and 3 b , and the output of the hub 5 is connected to the computer 4 via a cable 12 . [0088] The resistance and temperature of the specimen 6 are measured while supplying, for example, a direct current of 1 μA to 1 A from the constant current source 9 in the direction directed from the electrode 6 a toward the electrode 6 b. [0089] For the resistance/temperature measurement of the specimen 6 , the temperature sensor 8 is placed in close proximity to the specimen 6 , and the terminal voltage between the two vapor deposition electrode bands 6 c and 6 d of the specimen 6 is transmitted to the second USB transducer 2 b and, via the USB hub 5 , on to the computer 4 which displays the voltage on the display (not shown) connected to the computer 4 . [0090] The type of each USB transducer (in this case, the dedicated USB transducers for the voltage and temperature sensors) is automatically identified by the computer, and the measurement data received from the first USB transducer 2 a and second USB transducer 2 b are automatically and periodically measured, displayed, and stored in a memory (not shown) by the computer. In the example of the USB transducer that the inventor fabricated in accordance with the present invention, the measurement was successfully made with a particular value within the range of −100 V to 100 V, for example, with 50 V, and the accuracy of the measurement was 1 mV. [0091] On the other hand, the level of the temperature measurement signal that the second USB transducer outputs differs depending on the type of the temperature sensor 8 (for example, when the temperature sensor is a thermocouple sensor, the measurement temperature range and the accuracy vary depending on the type of the thermocouple (B, R, S, N, K, etc.); therefore, voltage versus temperature calibration must be done for each type of sensor. For this purpose, a set button for selecting the type of thermocouple can be added on the screen of the computer display. [0092] Further, by clicking on an electrode crack detection function on the computer, a fault condition can be detected immediately when a break occurs in the thermocouple. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY [0093] In the field of equipment for environmental analysis, process analysis, laboratory analysis, and industrial analysis, the applicability of the present invention is enormous, because measurement data can be directly handled by a computer and because a plurality of data can be processed simultaneously. Furthermore, as the transducer of the present invention is compact in construction and does not require the provision of a dedicated power supply, design freedom when incorporating the transducer into a system is enhanced, which greatly facilitates the construction of the system. It has been verified as described above that the present invention is particularly useful for applications where the transducers are connected to a pH sensor, an ORP sensor and voltage and temperature sensors. CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0094] This application claims priority of Japanese Patent Application Number 2006-031646, filed on Feb. 8, 2006.

The present invention is directed to the provision of a user-friendly system that ensures freedom for incorporating the measuring system into other equipment, reduces a conversion error associated with signal conversion, reduces the cost of an A/D converter, and allows simultaneous processing of a plurality of data. A USB transducer according to the present invention comprises: an input section which receives a measurement signal from a measuring device; a controller which converts measurement data into digital data and further converts the digital data into data ready for processing by a computer; and an output section having a USB connection terminal for outputting the data generated by the controller to the computer by using a USB cable, and for receiving a control signal from the computer.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] This invention relates to a packing for an injector device for the placement of a subcutaneous infusion set on a patient. [0002] Medical needles are widely used in the course of patient treatment, particularly for delivery of selected medications. In one form, hollow hypodermic needles are employed for transcutaneous delivery of the medication from a syringe or the like, an insertion needle used in conjunction with an injector device is employed for transcutaneous placement of a soft and relatively flexible tubular cannula, followed by removal of the insertion needle and subsequent infusion of medical fluid to the patient through the cannula. [0003] It is often necessary for a patient to transcutaneously place the medical needle himself. Diabetic patients for example frequently place a subcutaneous infusion set with a cannula for subsequent programmable delivery of insulin by means of a medication infusion pump. [0004] Some patients are reluctant or hesitant to pierce their own skin with a medical needle, and thus encounter difficulties in correct needle placement for proper administration of the medication. Such difficulties can be attributable to insufficient manual skill to achieve proper needle placement or alternately to anxiety associated with anticipated discomfort as the needle pierces the skin. This problem can be especially significant with medications delivered via a subcutaneous infusion set, since incorrect placement can cause kinking of the cannula and resultant obstruction of medication flow to the patient. Cannula kinking can be due to infusion set placement at an incorrect angle relative to the patient's skin, and/or needle placement with an incorrect force and speed of insertion. [0005] In relation to the known devices several different problems are recognized. Either the packing is compact and easy to handle but do not leave room for storage of extra equipment or accessories which is necessary or nice to have when applying the infusion set and protection of the insertion needle, or the packing can comprise extra equipment or accessories but is difficult to handle e.g. because it has a separate needle cover attached to the injector device which needle cover has to be removed before use. [0006] The invention of the present application indicates a solution to these problems. [0007] In order to provide the patient with a system comprising an injector device, an infusion set and necessary accessories such as tubing and connection (hub) for e.g. a pump or a reservoir which system can assure correct, easy and safe insertion of the infusion set, it is an advantage if the injector device combined with the infusion set and all other necessary components are delivered to the patient in one packing which is easy to gain access to and where the system is in a ready-to-use form making it uncomplicated for the patient to remove the injector from the sterile packing, connect the tubing of the infusion set to e.g. a pump or a reservoir and inject the infusion device, without having to interconnect any components of the system whether that could be attaching the infusion set to the injector or connecting the tubing to the infusion part. [0008] An example of injector devices which can be enclosed in the packing is disclosed in WO03/026728, incorporated by reference herein. [0009] The present invention is aimed at providing a packing for an injector device, which allows for protecting the sharp-pointed needle which is used to penetrate the patient's skin and allows for including tubing and large or heavy pieces such as a hub beside the injection device inside the packing. The present invention also aims at providing a packing which allows for the injection device to take at least two positions inside the packing, in a first position the injection device is secured to the packing and in a second position it is possible to remove the injection device from the packing. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] The invention concern a packing inside which an injector device combined with an infusion set and at least one insertion needle can be kept under sterile conditions which packing comprises at least a first part made of a material which can not be penetrated by an insertion needle, a second part which is attached to the first part before use in such a way that the conditions inside the packing remains sterile, a first storage room storing the injector device combined with an infusion set and an insertion needle and characterized in that the first part provides a further storage room isolated from the insertion needle. [0014] The storage room is an open room defined by the walls of the first part of the packing and by a surface of the combined injector device. The extra storage room can be used for keeping equipment such as fittings for external equipment, connectors attached to the tubing from the infusion device etc. under sterile conditions, while at the same time protecting the insertion needle which will normally be <0.5 mm in outer diameter, preferably <0.3 mm in outer diameter. These very thin insertion needles are normally used when insertion is performed with an injector device as the injector device assures that the insertion needle penetrates the skin of the patient in a correct angle without twisting or bending the insertion needle. [0015] In one embodiment of the invention the further storage room is adjacent to the proximal side of the infusion set and the further storage room has at least one wall provided by a needle cover extending from the inner surface of the first part toward the proximal side of the infusion set thereby isolating the insertion needle. In this embodiment the needle cover is integrated with the cover isolating the needle/cannula side of the injector device from the surroundings. [0016] In a second embodiment of the invention the further storage room is adjacent to a non-proximal side of the insertion device. A non-proximal side is a distal side of the injector device combined with the infusion set and the at least one insertion needle. In this second embodiment there is no needle cover isolating the needle/cannula side of the injector device from the surroundings, the further storage room is formed by the first part of the packing and e.g. a distal surface of the combined injector device. [0017] In the second embodiment of the invention the further storage room is preferably adapted for at least partly holding the injection device after use, this can be done by providing the further storage room with restrictions which restrictions will secure the injection device to the inside of the first packing after use. [0018] Preferably the first part of the packing is constructed with a bottom part and walls standing upright form the bottom part and forming a rim opposite the bottom part and the second part comprises one piece of material which can be secured to the rim. [0019] In a preferred embodiment the walls, seen from a sectional view through upright standing material, form at least two sections each formed as a partial circle with at least two centres C 1 and C 2 and the centres C 1 and C 2 are placed with a distance D between them. Preferably the radius of the two partial circles, R 1 and R 2 , are not identical, R 2 <R 1 . [0020] In a preferred embodiment the section with the centre C 1 has a radius R 1 large enough to hold the injector device without restricting removal of the device from the packing, and preferably this section should be large enough to hold the injector device wrapped with at least one layer of infusion tubing. [0021] In a specially preferred embodiment the section with the centre C 2 has a radius R 2 large enough to hold the housing of the injector device, and preferably the section with the centre C 2 has restrictions which secure the injector device to the first part of the packing. These restrictions should prevent the used injection device to move out of the first part of the packing in a direction parallel with the walls of the first part of the packing. Also such restrictions could prevent the used injection device to move between the section with centre C 1 and the section with centre C 2 . [0022] The invention also concerns a combined injector device comprising an infusion set, at least one insertion needle, a housing, the injection device is releasably connected to the infusion set and the infusion set is connected to an infusion tubing, where the infusion tubing is placed outside the housing of the injector device during storage under sterile conditions. As it is preferred to remove the tubing from the packing before the injection device is removed from the clean packing, it is more efficient to place the tubing outside the housing of the injection device as this makes the tubing accessible. Preferably the infusion tubing is coiled around the outer surface of the housing during storage. [0023] In a more preferred embodiment the invention concerns an injector device combined with an infusion set and an insertion needle which combination before use is kept under sterile conditions in a packing comprising at least a first part made of a material which can not be penetrated by an insertion needle, a second part which is attached to the first part before use in such a way that the conditions inside the packing remains sterile, and the injector device comprises a housing and is releasably connected the infusion set which infusion set is connected to an infusion tubing, characterized in that the infusion tubing is placed between the outer surface of the housing of the injector device and the inner surface of a first part of the packing during storage. [0027] In a more preferred embodiment the invention concerns an injector device assembly for transcutaneously placing a hollow cannula of a subcutaneous infusion set through the skin of a patient where the injector device is releasably connected to the infusion set ( 14 ) during storage, and where the injector device comprises: a device housing, a plunger slidably received within the device housing for movement between an advanced position and a retracted position, an insertion needle is either secured to the plunger for receiving and supporting the cannula of the subcutaneous infusion set or insertion needle is constituted by the cannula, the infusion set, which is releasably connected to the plunger, is in a position oriented for transcutaneous placement of the cannula upon movement of the plunger from the retracted position to the advanced position, a drive for urging the plunger from the retracted position toward the advanced position to transcutaneously place said cannula of said subcutaneous infusion set received on said insertion needle, and the infusion set comprises: a housing connected to an infusion tubing by a suitable connector, wherein the infusion tubing is positioned close to the outer surface of the housing of the injector device during storage, and preferably the infusion tubing is coiled wholly or partly around the housing of the injector device, and more preferred the outer surface of the housing is provided with guiding or positioning means for the tubing. [0032] One purpose of the packing according to the present invention is to form a closed shell around the injector and the infusion set in order to prevent the device from being polluted with micro organisms. A second purpose is to protect the injection needle, which could be the cannula, from impacts from the surroundings as the cannula/injection needle is very thin and delicate, and also to protect the surroundings from the injection needle, especially when the insertion needle has been used and has to be disposed of. A third purpose is to make it possible to include a whole system for injecting an infusion set and connecting this set to a device such as a pump or a reservoir in a packing in a ready-to-use state. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0033] The accompanying drawings illustrate the invention. [0034] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a known infusion device suitable for use with an injector device, and [0035] FIG. 2 shows in an exploded view a known embodiment of an injector device assembly wherein the plunger has an insertion needle secured thereto, [0036] FIGS. 3 a and 3 b show in a perspective view the known injector device of FIG. 1 with the plunger in the advanced position, [0037] FIGS. 4 a and 4 b show in a perspective view the injector device of FIG. 2 with the plunger in the retracted position, [0038] FIGS. 4 c - 4 e show views similar to FIGS. 3 a , 4 a and 4 b with part of the housing being cut away, [0039] FIGS. 5 A and B show respectively a view of the inner surface and a view of the outer surface of a first part of a packing of one embodiment according to the invention, [0040] FIG. 6 shows a view of a first part of a packing of a second embodiment according to the invention, [0041] FIG. 7 shows a three-dimensional view of the second embodiment of FIG. 6 , [0042] FIG. 8 shows a housing of an injector device according to the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0043] FIG. 1 shows an example of an infusion set 14 suitable for use with an injector device. The infusion set 14 includes a housing 3 with an internal chamber (not shown). The internal chamber receives medication via infusion tubing 113 which may be detachably connected to the housing 3 by any suitable connector 7 . The base 24 of the housing 3 may be a flexible sheet of a woven material secured to the housing 3 such as by means of an adhesive and carrying an adhesive covered by a release sheet 14 ′ which is removed to expose the adhesive prior to placement of the infusion set. The infusion set 14 has a protruding soft and flexible cannula 26 , which communicates with the internal chamber. An internal passage which is sealed by a sealing membrane 4 and which is penetrated by the insertion needle of the injector device extends through the housing opposite the cannula 26 . [0044] FIG. 2 shows in an exploded view a known embodiment of an injector device assembly. [0045] FIGS. 3 and 4 show the same embodiment in different views and positions. [0046] The packing of the injector device 310 includes a housing 328 and respective removable covers 342 , 394 . The cover 342 has a hollow for accommodating a part of an insertion needle 312 when the cover 342 is secured to the housing 328 , such as by snap engagement with the rim 309 of the housing 328 . The cover 342 , the housing 328 , a plunger 330 and a drive with a spring for advancing the plunger 330 to the advanced position can be made of plastics while the cover 394 may be a flexible foil secured to the housing 328 by an adhesive. Preferably, the covers 342 , 394 serve as bacterial barriers, the flexible foil 394 being of medical paper. An insertion needle 312 is preferably secured in a stable manner to the plunger 330 of the injection device, such as by press-fitting, the plunger 330 having a narrow central passage wherein an end of the insertion needle 112 is lodged. The plunger 330 and the drive may be formed integrally as a single component in a molding process. [0047] The ring-shaped housing 328 is flexible in the sense that the application of a manual force against diametrically opposed depressions 303 of fingertip size will give rise to a slight deformation of the housing 328 such that it assumes a slightly oval shape when viewed from above for bringing about a release of the plunger in the retracted position and cause a spring-loaded movement of the plunger 330 towards the advanced position, as will be explained. For maintaining the plunger 330 in the retracted position the housing 328 is provided with two opposed ledges 366 . Moreover, the housing 328 is provided with opposed dovetail projections 301 extending along the same general direction as the insertion needle 312 and adapted to connect with complementary recesses in the aforementioned spring, to secure the spring in relation to the housing 328 . [0048] The plunger 330 generally includes a head 332 , a hub 331 and, opposite the head 332 , an enlarged gripping portion 331 ′ which allows a user to manually pull the plunger 330 to a retracted position. The head 332 normally carries a marking M representing the place where the 113 tubing exits the infusion set 314 located there under whereby the user can check the orientation of the tubing after placement of the infusion set. The head 332 moreover has a recess 332 ′ for accommodating the infusion set 326 with cannula 326 through which the insertion needle 312 extends, the infusion set 314 preferably being maintained in position by frictional engagement of the insertion needle 312 with an inside surface of the infusion set 314 . The plunger 330 has two opposed rigid walls 306 extending radially outwardly from the hub 331 . The walls 306 extend in the axial direction of the device 310 , i.e. in the same general direction as the insertion needle 312 , and are connected to the aforementioned spring. Moreover, as best seen in FIG. 3 d , the walls 306 each carry a lateral projection 307 with a finger 358 which is releasably locked in engagement with a corresponding one of the ledges 366 of the housing 328 by snap action in the retracted position of the plunger 330 . The depressions 303 preferably being offset with respect to the ledges 366 by about 90° will cause the opposed ledges 366 to move apart when the aforementioned manual force is applied and the housing 328 assumes an oval shape, thereby bringing the finger 358 on each wall 306 out of engagement with the corresponding ledge 366 . For retaining a proximal part of the tubing 113 (not shown) which is wound around the plunger 330 , wall 306 has a groove G best seen in FIGS. 4 c and 4 d sized to receive a small length of the tubing 113 and to prevent the infusion set 314 from being inadvertently pulled away from the plunger 330 by the user when the tubing is unwound for connection with a medical fluid supply. [0049] The drive which acts to drive the plunger 330 from the retracted position towards the advanced position when the fingers 358 are disengaged comprises a spring including four thin and flexible plastics strips, of which two opposed strips 336 A extend about halfway around the plunger 330 at the level of the gripping portion 331 ′ while two other opposed strips 336 B extend about halfway around the plunger 330 at the level of the head 332 , as viewed in the advanced and unbiased position of the plunger shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 a - e . One end 336 ′ of one of the strips 336 A and one end 336 ′ of one of the strips 336 B is rigidly connected to one of the walls 306 , while one end 336 ′ of the other one of the strips 336 A and one end 336 ′ of the other one of the strips 336 B is rigidly connected to the other one of the walls 306 . Preferably, the strips 336 A and 336 B are integrally connected with the walls 306 in a molding process where the plunger 330 and the spring formed from the strips 336 A and 336 B is formed in one molding operation. [0050] The spring also comprises two rigid opposed rigid walls 302 that extend in the axial direction of the device 310 and that are each rigidly connected with the second end 336 ″ of one of the strips 336 A and the second end 336 ″ of one of the other strips 336 B. The rigid walls 302 are preferably integrally connected with the strips 336 A and 336 B at the second end thereof. The walls rigid 302 each have an axially extending recess 305 which is complementary with the dovetail projection 301 on the housing 328 . When the plunger 330 with the spring is mounted within the housing 328 the dovetail projection 301 is slid into the recess 305 by axial movement; by selecting proper dimensions of the dovetail projection 301 , and possibly also by performing this operation at a predetermined temperature, a press-fit may result that prevents subsequent removal of the plunger 330 . Alternatively, or additionally, the plunger 330 may be secured using glue, or using a welding process. The two rigid walls 302 of the spring also comprise a respective projection 308 with a lower surface which in the advanced position of the plunger 330 is essentially coplanar with the rim 309 of the housing 328 . The projections 308 include a clip-like retainer C for securing a distal part of the tubing 113 wound around the plunger 330 , thereby maintaining the tubing in position until unwound by the user. [0051] As will be understood, the walls 302 are fixed in relation to the housing 328 , and the strips 336 A and 336 B, being thin and flexible, define the parts of the spring that undergo a change in shape upon retraction of the plunger 330 and that through this change of shape generate the force acting on the plunger 330 via the connections at the ends 336 ′ and required to advance the plunger 330 to the advanced position upon disengagement of the fingers 358 . The shape of the strips 336 A and 336 B in the deformed condition when the plunger 330 is held in the retracted position is shown in FIGS. 4 a - d . The connection between the strips 336 A, 336 B and the walls 302 , 306 being rigid, in the sense that bending moments arising in the strips 336 A, 336 B upon retraction of the plunger 330 are transferred to the walls 302 , 306 , brings about a deformation of the strips 336 A, 336 B as shown. [0052] It will be understood that the resiliency of the spring is generally defined by the elastic properties of the flexible strips 336 A, 336 B which should be selected such that the drive is capable of advancing the plunger 330 to the advanced position at least once, following retraction. The spring would normally allow the piston to be retracted several times, and provide the required force for subsequently advancing the plunger 330 . However, the device being normally a disposable unit requires the spring to be formed with the capability to only a limited number of times advance the plunger 330 at one given speed, and the spring need not be capable of returning the plunger to the exact original position after several times of use. [0053] As seen best in FIG. 2 , the two strips 336 B each carry a wall member 304 which provides support for a tubing (not shown) connected to the infusion set 314 and wound around the plunger 330 in the annular space 315 between the plunger 330 and the housing 328 . [0054] In this embodiment the housing 328 constitutes the packing and this necessitates that the tubing 113 is wound around on the inside of the housing 328 in order for the tubing to be protected by the packing. [0055] FIGS. 5 A and B shows an embodiment of a first part 1 of the packing according to the invention seen from the side being adjacent to the insertion needle, this embodiment has one storage room which isolates the insertion needle 9 a and one storage room for accessories 9 b . In this embodiment the first part 1 replaces the removable cover 342 of the known injection device and the second part is constituted by the housing 328 and the second removable cover 394 . The cover 342 is made of a relatively hard material and has a hollow for accommodating the insertion needle 312 when the cover 342 is secured to the housing 328 , but the cover is only intended to protect the insertion needle 312 from impacts and actions coming from the outside of the packing. In order to protect the delicate insertion needle 312 from actions coming from the inside of the packing, e.g. actions origination from accessories to the combined injection system laying unsecured in the sterile storage room next to the insertion needle 312 , the first part 1 is provided with a needle cover 8 extending from the inner surface 7 of the first part 1 and completely surrounding the insertion needle 312 . In this embodiment the second storage room 9 b which is isolated from the insertion needle 312 has the form of a circular band with a vacant circular centre in which the insertion needle 312 , 26 is positioned when the first part 1 of the packing is joined to the injector device 310 , but the needle cover 8 could also have the form of a wall being connected at two positions to the inner surface 7 of the first part 1 of the packing as illustrated in FIG. 5 B. [0056] The needle cover 8 is preferably made of a continuous sheet of material providing a continuous protective wall for the insertion needle 312 but the needle cover 8 can be made of a material different from the first part 1 of the packing and the needle cover 8 can also be made as a non-continuous wall e.g. be made of upright standing posts or the like which provides for a non-continuous wall but although non-continuous the wall continues to protect the insertion needle 312 against the unit or units being stored between the inner walls 7 of the first part 1 of the packing and the insertion needle 312 as long as the openings in the needle cover 8 are small enough to prevent contact between the unsecured unit(s)/accessories and the insertion needle 312 . [0057] FIG. 5 C shows the first part 1 of the packing seen from the outer side i.e. the non-sterile side of the packing. [0058] FIG. 6 shows a first part 1 of a packing according to the invention, the first part 1 of the packing consist of a rim 2 d and a shaped hollow comprising a bottom part 2 a , 2 b and a wall part 2 c with an inner surface 7 . In order to provide the packing with an adequate steadiness, the bottom part is preferably constituted with a plurality of hollow 2 a and elevated 2 b areas. In FIG. 5 the bottom part is provided with four hollows 2 a forming a cross-like elevated part 2 b . The elevated part 2 b extends along the line A-A and along the lines from C 1 -B on both sides of the rim 2 d. [0059] The first part 1 of the packing covers the cannula side of the injection device 310 , 310 ′ inside the packing and is made of a relatively hard material such as polypropylene (PP) or polyethylene (PE) or another material which cannot be penetrated by the injection needle. The relatively hard material will protect the injection needle against impacts from the surroundings and also the surroundings will be protected against the injection needle 312 . The injection needle can either be a sharp needle 312 unreleasably connected to the injector device 310 , 310 ′ or it can be the cannula 26 , 326 of the infusion set 14 when the cannula is constructed of a hard material. A second part of the packing (not shown) of this embodiment covers the opening of the first part 1 of the packing which opening is formed of the rim 2 d and turned away from the injection needle 312 , 26 . This means that the second part of the packing does not need to protect the insertion needle and can be made of a soft material which is e.g. glued or welded to the rim 2 d of the first part 1 of the packing. [0060] When seen from the rim side, which will also be referred to as the top side, the packing of this embodiment has the form of two partial circles with different diameter, D 1 and D 2 . The two circles are larger than half their full size which means that the line B-B where they meet forms the narrowest part of the shape formed by the rim 2 d . No matter which forms the two sections may have it will be preferred to provide the space shaped by the walls 2 c with a reduced cross-section indicated with a line (B-B) in FIG. 5 . The center of the largest partial circle is marked with C 1 and the center of the smallest partial circle is marked with C 2 and the position where the line B-B crosses the line A-A is marked with O. The line B-B will in this embodiment always be perpendicular to the line A-A and cross the line A-A at a position between the two center markings C 1 and C 2 . The distance D between the two center markings C 1 and C 2 is in the figure named d C1-O-C2 . [0061] In this embodiment the distance between the inner surface of the walls 2 c at the line B-B is almost the same as the outer diameter of the housing 328 of the injector device 310 , 310 ′, preferably the distance between the inner surface of the walls 2 c at line B-B is slightly smaller than the housing 328 of the injector device and the walls 2 c have a certain flexibility which will make it possible to force the housing 328 of the injector device 310 , 310 ′ from the circle part with the largest diameter to the circle part with the smallest diameter and then lock the injector device 310 , 310 ′ in this position as the flexibility of the walls 2 c of the packing will prevent the injector device from slipping back into the circle part with the largest diameter. [0062] In a preferred embodiment the device has the following measures: [0000] Outer radius of the housing 328 incl. guiding means 5 =57 mm Outer radius of the housing 328 excl. guiding means 5 =55 mm d C1-B =R 1 =30.2 mm d C2-B =R 2 =27.7 mm D=d C1-O-C2 =20.0 mm d C1-O =13.74 mm d B-O =√{square root over (30.2 2 −13.74 2 )}=26.89 mm d B-B =2*d B-O =53.77 mm (distance between inner walls at line B-B) [0063] The first part 1 of the packing can be provided with means for locking the injector device 310 , 310 ′ to the inside of the packing of the circle part with the smallest diameter. This can be done in a simple way by extending the rim 2 d of the circle part with the smallest diameter either partly, i.e. by forming protrusions extending inwardly from the rim 2 d toward the center C 2 , or as a whole i.e. the whole rim is extended toward the center C 2 thereby decreasing the diameter of the partial circle part at the rim 2 d level. Which solution is the most appropriate would depend on the material used to make the first part 1 of the packing and the rim 2 d of the packing, generally the more stiff and steady the material is the fewer protrusions or the smaller protrusion area will be needed to detain the injector device inside the packing. [0064] The height H representing the total height of the first part 1 of the packing comprising both the walls 2 c and the bottom part 2 a , 2 b should be deep enough to surround and protect the insertion needle. [0065] The area of the packing placed closest to—and facing—the insertion needle, in this embodiment the central part of the packing along the line A-A, will have a height H sufficient to enclose and protect the insertion needle whether the injection device is placed in the partial circle with the smallest or the largest diameter. [0066] FIG. 6 shows a three-dimensional view of the embodiment from FIG. 5 . [0067] FIG. 7 shows an embodiment of an injection device which can be packed in the embodiment of the packing described in FIGS. 5 and 6 . In this embodiment guiding means 5 are placed on the outer surface 6 of the housing 328 . [0068] Like the known device shown if FIG. 2-4 the injection device 310 ′ comprise a ring-shaped housing 328 which is flexible in the sense that the application of a manual force against diametrically opposed depressions 303 of fingertip size (Only one is shown) will give rise to a slight deformation of the housing 328 such that it assumes a slightly oval shape when viewed from above for bringing about a release of a plunger in the retracted position and cause a spring-loaded movement of the plunger towards an advanced position. For maintaining the plunger in the retracted position the housing 328 is provided with two opposed ledges 366 . The housing 328 is also provided with opposed dovetail projections 301 extending along the same general direction as the insertion needle and adapted to connect with complementary recesses in the spring, to secure the spring in relation to the housing 328 . The plunger can be as described above and shown in FIGS. 2 , 3 and 4 . [0069] As the packing will isolate the injector device 310 ′ from the surroundings it is not necessary to keep the tube 113 inside the housing 328 before use, and the injector device is provided with horizontal flanges 5 which can keep the coiled tube 113 in place when the injector device is placed inside the packing. [0070] Before use and during storage the injector device 310 ′ is kept inside the packing, the needle/cannula side of the injector device 310 ′ is turned towards the first part of the packing and a second part of packing is secured to the rim 2 d of the first part of the packing in order to assure an airtight closure of the sterile packing. The injector device 310 ′ is placed in the circle part with the largest diameter and the center C 1 , the tube 113 is coiled around the injector device 310 ′ and fitted in between the flanges 5 , the connector (not shown) which is unreleasably fastened to the tube 113 and which can connect the tube to e.g. a pump and/or a reservoir for medication is placed in the circle part with the smallest diameter. [0071] When the user wants to insert an infusion set 14 to the skin the following steps are performed: I. The second part of the packing is removed. Preferably the second part (not shown) of the packing has the form of a flexible membrane made by e.g. paper or plastic being glued or molded to the rim 2 d of the first part 1 of the packing. II. The user take hold of the connector placed in the circle part with the smallest diameter, unwind the tube 113 which is coiled around the injector device 310 ′ and connects the tube 113 to a device that can provide fluid through the tube 113 e.g. to a pump combined with a reservoir. III. After unwinding the tube 113 it will be easy for the user to lift the injector device 310 ′ out of the first part 1 of the packing, bring the plunger to the retracted position, place the injector device 310 ′ against the skin and press the diametrically opposed depressions 303 thereby forcing the plunger to a forward position and inserting the infusion set 14 . The infusion set 14 is left inserted in the patient's skin while the injector device 310 ′ is removed. IV. After use the injector device 310 ′ is replace in the first part 1 of the packing in the circle part with the largest diameter, and from there the injector device 310 ′ is pushed into the circle part with the smallest diameter. Preferably the circle part with the smallest diameter is provided with means for retaining the injector device inside the first part 1 of the packing which will make it possible to dispose of the injector device after use without having to think about how to prevent surroundings from being exposed to the infected needle of the injector device 310 ′. [0077] In order to make it possible to place the injector device 310 ′ inside the first part of the packing it is necessary that the outer dimension of the injector device, preferably the outer dimensions of the injector device 310 ′ with the tube 113 coiled around it, is smaller than the inner dimension of at least a part of the first part 1 of the packing, preferably the inner dimension of the circle part with the largest diameter. [0078] In order to fasten the injector device 310 ′ inside the packing after use, at least a part of the packing is provided with a restricted room. In one embodiment this restricted room is partly constructed of the circle part with the smallest diameter and the center C 2 . The restriction can comprise a combination of a reduced cross-section e.g. as formed at the line B-B and one or more protrusions extending inward at the rim level.

This invention relates to a packing for an injector device for the placement of a subcutaneous infusion set on a patient. An insertion needle used in conjunction with an injector device is employed for transcutaneous placement of a soft and relatively flexible tubular cannula, followed by removal of the insertion needle and subsequent infusion of medical fluid according to the present invention can storage an injector device combined with an infusion set and an insertion needle under sterile conditions. The packing comprises at least—a first storage room storing the injector device combined with an infusion set and an insertion needle, —a first part ( 1 ) providing a further storage room ( 9 b ) isolated from the insertion needle ( 312, 26 ), is constructed with a bottom part ( 2 a , 2 b ) and walls ( 2 c ) standing upright form the bottom part ( 2 a , 2 b ), —a second part which is attached to the first part ( 1 ) before use in such a way that the conditions inside the packing remain sterile, and seen from a sectional view through the walls ( 2 c ), the walls ( 2 c ) are forming at least two sections each formed as a partial circle with at least two centres C 1 and C 2 and the centres C 1 and C 2 are placed with a distance D between them.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/043,933, filed Apr. 10, 2008, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to articles formed from titanium alloys, and more specifically to articles having varying microstructures in pre-selected regions and methods therefore. Titanium fan and compressor blade dovetails are susceptible to fretting and edge of contact (EOC) fatigue failures at the dovetail/disk slot contact location due to high contact stresses. Exemplary compressor blade dovetail fatigue failures are due to a) loss of wear coating on the dovetail surface, b) lever arm failures, c) vane bushing failures, and d) stick/slip condition with the mating titanium spool. One approach used to address the problem of premature fatigue failure is replacement of a Ti6Al4V alloy with Ti4Al4Mo2Sn (Ti442) alloy. This high strength alloy considerably reduces dovetail failures. However, recurrence of dovetail failures pose a high cost to business and further reductions in fatigue failure are sought. Generally, fan and compressor titanium-based blades comprise equiaxed alpha+beta titanium alloys. This microstructure provides a good balance of mechanical properties for the combined airfoil/dovetail structure. It is known in the titanium industry that titanium articles having bimodal (alpha+beta) or martensitic microstructures have superior high cycle fatigue (HCF) properties compared to mill annealed titanium articles. Articles having martensitic or bimodal microstructures are slightly harder and stronger than coarse or slow cooled microstructures. An increase in the hardness and yield strength of the titanium alloys increases the resistance to crack initiation by fatigue. Thus, any improvement in the strength of the titanium alloy increases fatigue resistance including resistance to environmentally- or contact-driven fatigue. Martensitic and bimodal structures may be obtained through high temperature heat treat followed by water quench. However, the necessary heat treat/quench cycle cannot be applied to a substantially net-shaped airfoil due to dimensional distortion during heat treat and quench. Thus, the heat treat/quench process is not feasible on a complete blade. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide the dovetail region of a compressor blade that capitalizes on the high strength and fatigue resistance of bimodal and/or martensitic structure while preserving the airfoil dimension and mechanical properties. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The above-mentioned need or needs may be met by exemplary embodiments which provide an article including a body comprising a titanium base alloy. The article includes at least a first portion and a second portion adjacent the first portion. The first portion comprises an alpha+beta microstructure and the second portion comprises a microstructure selected from a martensitic microstructure or a bimodal microstructure. In an exemplary embodiment, the microstructure of the second portion is achieved by selectively heating at least a surface region of the second portion followed by immediate quenching without substantially heating the first portion. An exemplary embodiment is directed to a method that includes providing a near net-shaped article comprising a body comprising a titanium base alloy. The article includes a first portion and a second portion adjacent the first portion, wherein the near net-shaped article exhibits an alpha+beta microstructure substantially throughout the first and second portions. Thereafter, the second portion is processed to provide a pre-selected region of the second portion with a modified microstructure selected from a martensitic microstructure and/or a bimodal microstructure without substantially modifying the microstructure of the first portion. An exemplary embodiment is directed to a method that includes providing a near net-shaped article comprising a body comprising a titanium alloy and having a first portion encompassing an airfoil region being shaped to substantially an airfoil final dimension and a second portion encompassing an unfinished dovetail region. The near net-shaped article exhibits an alpha+beta microstructure substantially throughout the first and second portions. Thereafter, at least a surface region of the second portion is selectively heated, followed by immediate quenching without substantially heating the first portion to provide a pre-selected region of the second portion with a modified microstructure selected from a martensitic microstructure and/or a bimodal microstructure without substantially modifying the microstructure of the first portion. Thereafter, the second portion is processed to a final body dimension. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The subject matter which is regarded as the invention is particularly pointed out and distinctly claimed in the concluding part of the specification. The invention, however, may be best understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing figures in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a titanium alloy compressor blade. FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of a compressor blade having an unmodified airfoil and a dovetail having a modified microstructure substantially throughout the dovetail thickness. FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of a compressor blade having an unmodified airfoil and a dovetail having a modified microstructure in pre-selected regions. FIG. 4 is a schematic representation of an unfinished dovetail having a modified microstructure and an exemplary induction heating assembly. FIG. 5 is a micrograph of a portion of an unmodified airfoil exhibiting annealed alpha+beta microstructure. FIG. 6 is a micrograph of a portion of a modified dovetail exhibiting a martensitic microstructure. FIG. 7 is a micrograph of a portion of a modified dovetail exhibiting a bimodal (alpha+beta/martensitic) microstructure. FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating an exemplary process. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to the drawings wherein identical reference numerals denote the same elements throughout the various views, FIG. 1 depicts a component article of a gas turbine engine such as a compressor blade 20 . The compressor blade 20 is formed of a titanium-base alloy as will be discussed in greater detail below. The compressor blade 20 includes an airfoil 22 that acts against the incoming flow of air into the gas turbine engine and axially compresses the air flow. The compressor blade 20 is mounted to a compressor disk/spool (not shown) by a dovetail 24 which extends downwardly from the airfoil 22 and engages a slot on the compressor disk. A platform 26 extends longitudinally outwardly from the area where the airfoil 22 is joined to the dovetail 24 . The airfoil 22 has a leading edge 30 , a trailing edge 32 , and a tip 34 remote from the platform 26 . The airfoil 22 is relatively thin measured in a transverse direction (i.e., perpendicular to a chord to the convex side drawn parallel to the platform). The dovetail 24 is relatively thick measured perpendicular to its direction of elongation. The compressor blade 20 is made of a titanium-base alloy, which is an alloy having more titanium than any other element. One particular titanium-base alloy is known as Ti-442, having a nominal composition, in weight percent, of about 4 percent aluminum, about 4 percent molybdenum, about 2 percent tin, about 0.5 percent silicon, balance titanium. Another titanium-base alloy is known as Ti-811, having a nominal composition, in weight percent, of about 8 percent aluminum, about 1 percent molybdenum, about 1 percent vanadium, balance titanium. Another exemplary titanium-base alloy is known as Ti 64, having a nominal composition, in weight percent, of about 6 percent aluminum, about 4 percent vanadium, balance titanium. In an exemplary embodiment, a near net-shape article is forged from a selected titanium alloy. As used herein, “near net-shape article” means that at least a portion of the article (i.e., the airfoil) has been shaped to substantially its final dimensions, but at least another portion of the article (i.e., the dovetail) has not been finally shaped. In the embodiments disclosed herein, the term “unfinished dovetail” is used to signify the dovetail potion of a near-net shape compressor blade that must still undergo final shaping processes. The unfinished dovetail distorts during the heat treatment/water quenching hardening process. Subsequent to the final forge operation, but prior to final shaping, the near net-shape article undergoes one or more process steps to achieve a desired modified microstructure in the dovetail. FIG. 4 depicts a near net-shape compressor blade 40 including an airfoil 42 and unfinished dovetail 44 . Airfoil 42 has an alpha+beta microstructure that is maintained throughout subsequent processing. After achieving the desired alpha+beta phase in the near-net shape article, including airfoil 42 , the unfinished dovetail 44 is subjected to one or more selected process steps to attain a modified microstructure in pre-selected regions or throughout the dovetail thickness. In an exemplary embodiment, the modified microstructure 45 includes a martensitic microstructure throughout the dovetail thickness, schematically represented in FIG. 2 . In another exemplary embodiment, the modified microstructure 45 includes a bimodal microstructure. The martensitic microstructure 46 may be present at the periphery of the dovetail, referred to herein as “skin depth,” schematically represented in FIG. 3 . Typically “skin depth” is about 5 to 10 mills in from the outer surface. In an exemplary embodiment, the high strength unfinished dovetail 44 is achieved through a heat treatment immediately followed by a water quench. The heat treatment may be provided by induction heating, laser treatment, or electron beam methods. An exemplary apparatus is schematically represented in FIG. 4 . An exemplary apparatus includes a hollow ceramic vessel 48 adapted for insertion of the unfinished dovetail 44 . In this embodiment, induction heating coils 50 are utilized to provide the requisite heat treatment. Alternate heating methods may be utilized. For example, it is contemplated that laser beams may be utilized to heat pre-selected regions of the unfinished dovetail 44 . Alternately, electron beam radiation may be utilized. An important consideration is the rapidity with which the water quench can occur after heating. Those with skill in the art will appreciate that induction heating, laser treatment, or electron beam methods can provide a rapid, controlled heating environment. The temperature and duration of the heat treatment, followed by adequate water quench, impacts the resulting microstructure within the dovetail. For example, heat treatment below the beta solvus temperature, followed by immediate quenching, is a prerequisite for a bimodal microstructure. Heat treatment above the beta solvus temperature, followed by immediate quenching, results in martensitic microstructure. The depth of the modified microstructure (i.e., skin depth) may be dependent on the duration of the heat treatment. In general, only the unfinished dovetail 44 is subjected to the additional heat treatment, thus preserving the alpha+beta structure of the airfoil 42 shown in FIG. 5 . FIGS. 6 and 7 respectively show the martensitic microstructure and the bimodal structure achieved in the dovetail according to embodiments disclosed herein. Following the heat treatment/quench process, the near net shape blade is finished to a final shape. FIG. 8 depicts an exemplary process for achieving the desired microstructure in the airfoil and dovetail. The near net-shaped article is provided following a final forging operation (Step 110 ). The article is subjected to one or more subsequent processes (Step 112 ). The subsequent processes may include heat treating, milling cleaning, inspecting etc., as necessary. During or after any of the individual processes provided in Step 112 , the unfinished dovetail is subjected to the controlled heat treatment/water quench process to achieve the desired microstructure (Step 114 ). After hardening of the unfinished dovetail, the article is finished to its final dimension (Step 116 ). Step 116 may include one or more of broaching, machining, shot peening, plasma coating or other processes known to those with skill in the art. Exemplary embodiments disclosed here are particularly directed to compressor blades. However, the principles disclosed herein are applicable to other articles and processes where selected hardening is desired. EXAMPLES Example 1 Triple Phase Ti442 Fan and Compressor Blade. 1350° F./4-6 hr anneal for airfoil toughness; Heat treat dovetail region at 1600° F.-1750° F. for up to five minutes for fatigue resistance in air or argon atmosphere; Immediate water quench; Vacuum stress relieve at 1020° F. for 2 hrs. Dovetail heat treat accomplished by induction, laser, or electron beam. Hardening occurs throughout dovetail thickness or skin depth. Results: Blade is martensite—OR—bimodal structure at dovetail—AND—alpha+beta in the airfoil. In one embodiment, short induction heating, generally less than 15 seconds, results in skin depth martensitic structure. Induction heating for from 15 to 180 seconds results in a martensitic structure throughout the dovetail thickness. The strength of the dovetail is increased about 30% over comparable unmodified dovetail. For example, an observed Ti442 dovetail hardness increased to 47 Rc from its original 36 Rc (unmodified structure) In an exemplary embodiment, the strength of Ti442 dovetails having a modified microstructure is comparable to Inco 718 alloy. It is contemplated that the stress relieve process may be performed at temperatures from about 1000° F. to about 1200° F. Example 2 Triple Phase Ti64 Fan and Compressor Blade. 1300° F./2 hr anneal for airfoil toughness; For fatigue resistance, heat treat dovetail region at 1700° F.-1850° F. for up to 5 minutes in air or argon atmosphere; Immediate water quench; Stress relieve at 1020° F. for 2 hrs. Heat treat accomplished by induction, laser or electron beam. Hardening throughout dovetail thickness or skin depth. Results: Blade is martensite—OR—bimodal structure at dovetail—AND—alpha+beta in the airfoil. An observed Ti64 dovetail hardness increased to greater than 40 Rc from its original (unmodified) hardness. Example 3 Triple Phase Ti811 Fan and Compressor Blade. 1350° F./2 hr anneal for airfoil toughness/age; For fatigue resistance, heat treat dovetail at 1800° F.-1950° F. for up to 5 minutes in air or argon atmosphere; Immediate water quench; Stress relieve at 1020° F.-1350° F. for 2 hrs. Heat treat accomplished by induction, laser, or electron beam. Hardening throughout dovetail thickness or skin depth. Results: Blade is martensite—OR—bimodal structure at dovetail—AND—alpha+beta in the airfoil. A preferred stress relief is 2 hrs at 1020° F. after induction hardening. An observed Ti811 dovetail hardness increased to greater than 36 Rc from it original (unmodified) hardness. This written description uses examples to disclose the invention, including the best mode, and also to enable any person skilled in the art to make and use the invention. The patentable scope of the invention is defined by the claims, and may include other examples that occur to those skilled in the art. Such other examples are intended to be within the scope of the claims if they have structural elements that do not differ from the literal language of the claims, or if they include equivalent structural elements with insubstantial differences from the literal language of the claims.

Article (e.g., turbine engine fan or compressor blade) comprising a titanium alloy has a first portion with alpha+beta microstructure and a second portion with martensitic or a bimodal microstructure. The modified microstructure of the second portion is provided by selectively heating, and immediately quenching, the second portion without substantially heating the first portion. An exemplary method includes providing a near net-shaped article having a first portion (e.g., an airfoil region) and a second portion (e.g., an unfinished dovetail region). Initially, the article comprises an alpha+beta microstructure throughout. Thereafter, the second portion is selectively heated, followed by immediate quenching, without substantially heating the first portion, to modify the microstructure of the second portion to a martensitic or bimodal microstructure without substantially modifying the microstructure of the first portion. Thereafter, the second portion may be processed to a final body dimension.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to projection video systems and specifically to a color correction systems for a projection video systems utilizing a single light valve, but multiple sources of illumination. Most commercially available projection video systems utilize separate projection systems for each of the three primary colors. The systems thus require three light valves with separate optical systems which must be accurately converged on the screen, which adds to complexity and expense. Recently, projection video systems utilizing only a single light valve have been developed. One such system is a color field sequential system, in which the normal video field, 1/60th of a second, is broken into three parts, or color subfields of 1/180th of a second. During the three color subfields, the light valve is illuminated with red, green and blue light sequentially. While the light valve is illuminated with any given color, the video data corresponding to that color is displayed on the light valve. The eye then fuses the three color sub-fields into a single, full color field. The eye also fuses successive video fields and frames into full motion, full color video. Recently, improved light valves particularly suitable for use in projection television systems have become available. One such device is a so-called deformable mirror device (sometimes called a digital mirror device or DMD) which is illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 5,079,544 and patents referenced therein, in which the light valve consists of an array of tiny movable mirror-like pixels for deflecting a beam of light either to the display screen (on) or away from the display optics (off). This device is suitable for use in a field sequential system because its pixels are capable of being switched very rapidly. By further rapid switching of the pixels a grey scale is generated. In addition to improved light valves for use in projection video systems, improved projection lamps are also now available. These projection lamps are highly efficient and have a long life. Furthermore, these lamps are physically quite small and have a small arc length. Small size and small arc length can significantly reduce the size and cost of the optics used to project the light onto the light valve as well as onto the viewing surface. Smaller optics can considerably reduce the overall cost of a video projection system since the optical elements of the system are a very significant portion of the overall cost. Many such lamps are also capable of following an electrical drive signal with good fidelity, i.e. they have a fast rise and fall time and can follow any reasonable waveform, including squarewaves. One such lamp is the Philips CSL-R100W Ultra High Pressure Projection lamp. However, many otherwise suitable lamps may not have even color distribution across the visible spectrum, i.e. they may be deficient in one or more colors. Furthermore, these lamps have carefully designed thermal properties which require operation at a given power level in order to assure optimal power dissipation. Accordingly, such lamps require a consistent power input over time, such as 100 watts. If greater power is input to the lamp, the lamp will have a significantly shortened life span but turning down the power input to the lamp will cause the lamp to become unstable or go out altogether. The present invention is directed towards providing a three-lamp, single light valve projection video system that can take full advantage of these improved projection lamps while operating the lamps at optimum parameters. In addition to correcting for any color spectrum deficiencies of the projection lamps used in a projection video system, a suitable video projection system must also provide for color correction of the dichroic filters utilized to convert the white light output from the projection lamps to the primary colors. Dichroic filters are manufactured in a batch process and there are sample to sample variations in the colorimetry of these filters. Additionally upon exposure to the intense light of projection lamps, the colors of the dichroic filters may fade. Accordingly, any suitable projection system must be able to compensate for batch to batch variation and/or fading of the dichroic filters. Finally, a suitable projection video system should also provide for color correction based on user preference, either statically or dynamically. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/141,145 filed Oct. 21, 1993 entitled "Color Correction System for Video Projector", is directed to a method for dynamically color correcting a projection video system utilizing a single projection lamp, a color wheel of dichroic filters and a single light valve. The disclosure of U.S. application Ser. No. 08/141,145 is hereby incorporated by reference, as if fully set forth herein. The present application is directed to a color video projection system utilizing multiple projection lamps and a single light valve. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention is directed to a color correction system for a projection video system utilizing a single light valve with multiple projection lamps. The system is capable of varying the light output of the projection lamps without varying the electrical power input thereto so as to permit the lamps to be driven in accordance with their operating parameters. The system occludes unwanted optical output in synchronization with system requirements and is responsive to user input as well as dynamically electrically controllable. The video projection system includes a light valve for modulating light impinging thereon with the video signal and three projection lamps, one for each of the primary colors, which are activated sequentially. Positioned in the light path between two of the lamps and the light valve are occluders which block and unblock the light output from their associated lamp. The lamps which have the occluders are operated such that each lamp may be driven with a series of non-occluded pulses and occluded pulses. The occluded pulses occur when the occluder blocks the light output from the lamp. The more a desired reduction in output in one of the colors is required, the non-occluded pulses are reduced and the corresponding occluded pulses are increased. This permits adjustment of the color temperature of the system to user preference without adversely affecting the electrical properties of the lamp. As such, the electrical power input to each of the lamps remains within operational parameters but the optical output of a particular color as seen by the light valve and thus the viewer is reduced. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For better understanding of the invention, reference is made to the detailed specification to follow, which is to be taken in conjunction with the following drawing figures; FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a projection video system using multiple projection lamps and a single light valve; FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic diagram of a color projection video system utilizing three projection lamps and a single light valve and a means for dynamically adjusting the colorimetry of the system; and FIG. 3 is a timing diagram of the driving and occluded pulses for the three projection lamps. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 illustrates schematically an illumination system for projection color video system utilizing three projection lamps to illuminate a single light valve. This illumination arrangement nearly triples the brightness of the projected image over a single lamp, single light valve system. FIG. 1 illustrates an illumination system 10 for illuminating a light valve 12 by three projection lamps 14, 16 and 18. The projection lamps 14, 16 and 18 are driven from a power source 20 by a sequential switch (commutator) 22 operated by control electronics 23. As is shown in FIG. 1, the white light emitted by each of the lamps is directed to dichroic mirrors 24, 26. Dichroic mirror 24 reflects green light and transmits blue light. Thus, the light from lamp 14 after passing through dichroic mirror 24 will have color components other than be blue subtracted and the light from lamp 16 after reflecting from dichroic mirror 24 will be green as its other components will not be reflected from mirror 24. Dichroic mirror 26 reflects red light and passes blue and green light. Thus, the red components of light emitted by lamp 18 will be reflected by dichroic mirror 26 to light valve 12. The net result of the lamp and filter arrangement is that when lamp 14 is activated by switch 22, light valve 12 will be illuminated by blue light only, when lamp 16 is activated, DMD 12 will be illuminated by green light only and when lamp 18 is activated, light valve 12 will be illuminated by red light only. Integrator optics 28 may be disposed between dichroic mirror 26 and light valve 12 so as to provide a uniform field of illumination. Light valve 12 modulates the light under the control of light valve electronics 33 in accordance with the incoming video information 34. After modulation by light valve 12, the light passes to optics 30 and viewing screen 32. Light valve electronics 33 also provides a sync output signal 38 to the input of electronics 23 which controls switch 22. The color subfields generated will be integrated by the eye into a full color picture. FIG. 2 illustrates a multiple lamp, single light valve projection video system 60 which permits varying the light output of the projection lamps, so as to provide for color control, without varying the electrical power input to the projection lamps so that the optimal operating conditions are maintained. System 60 includes a light valve 62 driven by light valve electronics 64 which in turn receives an input video signal 66. Light valve 62 modulates light impinging thereon in accordance with video signal 66 under the control of the light valve electronics 64. Light valve 62 is sequentially illuminated with red, green and blue light. While light valve 62 is illuminated with a given color (a color sub-field), the video data corresponding to that color is displayed on the light valve by light valve electronics 64. The eye fuses the three color subfields into a single full color field and successive video fields into a full motion, full color video. The modulated light from the light valve is projected by projection optics 68 to a viewing screen 70, which may be of the front or rear projection configuration. A synchronization signal 72 is output from light valve electronics 64 to a lamp controller/driver 74. Lamp controller/driver 74 has separate drive (power) outputs 76, 78, 80 to three separate projection lamps 82, 84, 88. Disposed in the output path of projection lamps 82, 84, 88 are dichroic filters 90, 92. Dichroic filter 90 reflects red light and passes blue and green light. Thus, the red component of the white light output of lamp 82 will be reflected by dichroic mirror 90 to light valve 62. Dichroic filter 92 reflects blue light and passes green light. Thus, the green component of the white light output of projection lamp 84 will be passed through of dichroic filter 92 and will impinge on light valve 62 after passing through dichroic filter 90 which also passes green light. Dichroic filter 92 will also reflect the blue component of projection lamp 88 and illuminate light valve 62 with it after passing through dichroic filter 90. Thus, the net result of the arrangement of projection lamps 82, 84, 88 and dichroic filters 90, 92 is that projection lamp 82 functions as the "red" illumination lamp, projection lamp 84 functions as the "green" illumination lamp and projection lamp 88 functions as the "blue" projection lamp. Also disposed in the illumination path of "green" projection lamp 84 is an occluder (shutter wheel) 94. A second occluder 96, is positioned in front of "blue" lamp 88. Occluders 94, 96 have been illustrated in their simplest form, that is of circular rotating wheels which are approximately 2/3 opaque with light transmissive segment 98 in wheel 94 and a light transmissive segment 100 in wheel 96. Occluders 94, 96 are driven by phase locked servo motors 102, 103 which are controlled by occluder driver 104 which receives a control input 105 from lamp controller/driver 74. Lamp controller/driver 74 includes user inputs 106 R , 106 G and 106 B so that the overall colorimetry of the projected image may be adjusted. Additionally, a color sensor 107 located at the output of light valve 62 may also input a signal 108 to lamp controller/driver 74 to permit automatic adjustment of color temperature. The synchronization and drive arrangement for the three lamps 82, 84, 88 and the two occluders 94, 96 is shown in FIG. 3. If extremely precise color control or a greater range of adjustment is needed, a third occluder can be positioned in front of "red" lamp 82, however there is generally no need for occluders in front of all of the lamps because the relative color balance of the system can be adjusted by changing the light output of two of the three primary colors. As a practical matter, the un-occluded lamp will be that of the color which the lamp is least spectrally efficient. For the purposes of this discussion, we will assume that this is "red" lamp 82. FIG. 3 illustrates the electrical power output to the "red", "green" and "blue" lamps through lines 76, 78 and 80. As is indicated on the bottom (red) graph of FIG. 3, the small tick marks indicate the color subfields with the video field comprising three color subfields. The lowermost graph of FIG. 3 illustrates the power output through line 76 to lamp 82 which forms the red illumination. As is seen a positive going pulse 110 is applied to lamp 82 for one color subfield (in this case red). No power is applied to lamp 82 for the next two color subfields (i.e. the green and the blue subfields). Thereafter, a negative going pulse 110' is applied to lamp 82 through line 76. The result of this operation is that lamp 82 is energized for one-third of the video field with an amplitude A R with pulses both positive 110 and negative 110 going so that the lamp is driven under optimal conditions. In FIG. 3 the electrical power input to the lamps is the amplitude of the pulses times the duration of the pulses. As is seen in FIG. 3, the amplitude A R of "red" pulses 110 is greater than that of the other colors as will be described in detail below. The middle timing chart of FIG. 3 illustrates the power input to lamp 88 which is the "blue" lamp by the action of dichroic filter 92. Also disposed in the illumination path of lamp 88 is occluder 96. As is seen, lamp 88 is powered by a series of positive pulses 112 and negative pulses 112' for one-third of the video field (i.e. during the "blue" color subfield). Pulses 112, 112' occur when the light transmissive segment 100 of occluder 96 is positioned in front of lamp 88. However, the blue power pulses 112, 112' have an amplitude A B (illustrated by the height of pulses 112, 112' in graph 4) which is less than that of red pulses 110, 110'. Thus, the total power of non-occluded pulses 112 and 112' is less than the full power requirement of lamp 88. However, as noted above, many sophisticated projection lamps cannot be operated at less than full power, averaged over a period of time, without operational difficulties which can lead to premature lamp failure. In order to restore proper electrical power input to lamp 88, it is activated with a series of compensatory pulses 114, 114' which are again both positive and negative going. However, the pulses 114, 114' occur when the opaque portion of occluder wheel 96 is positioned so as to block the light output from lamp 88. Thus, there is no light output to light valve 62 by lamp 88 during pulses 114, 114'. The duration and amplitude of the pulses 114 and 114' are adjusted so as to restore the total electrical power input to lamp 88 to the desired amount so that its operational characteristics will not be affected. The amplitude A B of non-occluded pulses 112', 112 is less than that of "red" pulses 110, 110'. However, the total electrical power input to lamp 88 is the sum of non-occluded pulses 112, 112', and occluded pulses 114, 114'. The result of this operation is that the optical output of lamp 88 to light valve 62 is reduced but its electrical input remains at the optimal level so that its operational characteristics are not affected. Similarly, "green" lamp 84 is driven with a series of non-occluded pulses 116, 116' and a series of occluded pulses 118, 118'. It is seen that the amplitude A G of non-occluded pulses 116 are the lowest which means that the non-occluded electrical input to the "green" lamp 84 is the lowest, which would be the case where the lamp is spectrally efficient in green. Accordingly, the compensatory occluded pulses 118, 118' are the largest so that the total power input to lamp 84 remains at the optimum level. In summary, as the drive arrangement in FIG. 3 illustrates, all of the lamps see exactly the same input electrical power so that their operating characteristics are optimum. In operation, if the user deems the picture on screen 70 to be "too green", the user would operate control 106 G which causes lamp controller 74 to alter the relationship of the driving pulses on line 78 to lamp 84. If a reduction in green is desired, non-occluded pulses 116, 116' are reduced in amplitude. However, in order to maintain proper electrical power input to lamp 84, occluded pulses 118, 118' are increased in amplitude so that the total electrical power to lamp 84 remains the same. Since, however, the non-occluded pulses have been reduced in amplitude, the total light output of lamp 84 is reduced and thus the overabundance of green is compensated for. A similar operation will occur with respect to blue lamp 88. If the picture projected on screen 70 is too blue, non-occluded pulses 112, 112' to lamp 88 are reduced and occluded pulses 114, 114' would be increased by operation of control 106 B . The question arises as to how to compensate for a picture that is "too red" since "red" lamp 82 has no occluding device positioned in front of it and, as noted above, its power input cannot be turned down without possible malfunction. The answer is that both blue and green power is reduced by controls 106 G , 106 B so that the relative amount of red increases. The automatic control of color sensor 107 would also cause lamp controller/driver 74 to operate in a similar manner to adjust the color balance to a preset point. Occluder driver 104 drives motors 102, 103 so that the light transmissive portions of occluders 94, 96 are positioned in front of their respective lamps 84, 88 during the time that the non-occluded pulses occur. Occluder driver 104 receives a control input from lamp controller/driver 74 which in turn is synchronized to light valve 62 by light valve electronics 64 so that occluders 94, 96 are synchronized to the incoming video and illumination signals. As a practical matter the requirement that the light valve be loaded with video data constrains the start and stop points of the non-occluded pulses to defined non-arbitrary locations. However the occluded pulses 114, 114', 118 and 118' may occur at any time during the other two-thirds of the video field, the timing between occluders 94, 96 and the occluded pulses is thus not particularly critical. It is merely necessary that the occluded pulses occur during the period when the output of the respective lamps are occluded. Further, the waveform of the occluded pulses is not critical and may be of any form sufficient to drive the lamps under optimum operating conditions. The waveforms of the occluded pulses may also be utilized to facilitate re-ignition of the lamps by the non-occluded pulses. The devices used to occlude the light output from the projection lamps need not be motor driven shutter wheels as illustrated in FIG. 2. The occluders may be any form of controllable shutter suitable for occluding the output of projection lamps. Such suitable occluders can be mechanical shutters operated electrically or shutters in the form of electrically operated dispersive liquid crystal devices. The only requirement is that the shutter be capable of a synchronized operation with the illumination of the lamps. Mechanical variable density occluders could also be used to provide the function of the occluder wheels, however this would preclude dynamic color adjustment. Lamp controller/driver 74 may be implemented in a number of ways. Similar to the lamp driver in application Ser. No. 141,145 referred to previously; controller driver 74 may consist of a voltage output square wave generator coupled to a current amplifier whose three outputs follow the voltage inputs. Many commercially available power supplies may also be used,the only requirement is that the controller driver be capable of proportioning the power output between the non-occluded and occluded pulses so that the total power supplied to each lamp remains constant. The three separate color controls 106 R , 106 B , and 106 G may also be replaced with a single "tint" control. The above-described embodiments are merely illustrative of the principles of the present invention. Numerous modifications and variations thereof will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention.

A color correction system for a video projection system utilizing a single light valve for modulating light impinging thereon with a video signal and three projection lamps, one for each of the primary colors, which are activated sequentially. Positioned in the light path between two of the lamps and the light valve are occluders which block and unblock the light output from their associated lamp. The lamps which have the occluders are operated such that each lamp may be driven with a series of non-occluded pulses and occluded pulses. The occluded pulses occur when the occluder blocks the light output from the lamp. The more a desired reduction in light output in one of the colors is required, the non-occluded pulses are reduced and the corresponding occluded pulses are increased. This permits adjustment of the colorimetry of the system without adversely affecting the electrical properties of the lamp. As such, the electrical power input to each of the lamps remains within operational parameters but the light output of a particular color as seen by the light valve, and thus the viewer, may be reduced.

CLAIM FOR PRIORITY This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/231,025, filed on Aug. 30, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,668,946 and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/316,022, filed on Aug. 31, 2001, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field The present invention generally relates to predicting traffic volume on the Internet, and more specifically to predicting traffic volume to assist in marketing, planning, execution, and evaluation of advertising campaigns for the Internet. 2. Related Art The number of users on the Internet continues to grow at an astounding rate while businesses continue to rapidly commercialize its use. As they surf through websites, users generate a high volume of traffic over the Internet. Increasingly, businesses take advantage of this traffic by advertising their products or services on the Internet. These advertisements may appear in the form of leased advertising space on websites, which are similar to rented billboard space in highways and cities or commercials broadcasted during television/radio programs. Experience has shown that it can be difficult to plan, execute, and/or evaluate an advertising campaign conducted over the Internet. Unlike billboards and commercials, there are very few tools (e.g., Nielson ratings, etc.) to accurately measure or predict user traffic on the Internet. One method for measuring exposure of advertisements posted on a website may be based on daily traffic estimates. This method allows one to control the exposure of an ad and predict the traffic volume (i.e., number of impressions, viewers, actions, website hits, mouse clicks, etc.) on a given site at daily intervals. However, there is no control over how this exposure occurs within the day itself because the method assumes a constant rate of traffic throughout the day. Experience has shown that website traffic typically exhibits strong hourly patterns. Traffic may accelerate at peak-hours, and hence, so does ad exposure. Conversely, at low traffic times, ads may be viewed at a lower rate. These daily (as opposed to hourly) estimates exhibit high intra-day errors, which result in irregular or uneven ad campaigns that are not always favored by advertisers. This situation is illustrated in FIG. 1 , where a pattern of under-over-under estimation is evident. Traffic volume in the hours of 12:00 am to 5:00 am, 6:00 am to 2:00 pm, and 3:00 pm to 11:00 pm are overestimated, underestimated, and overestimated, respectively. FIG. 2 shows error size for each hour relative to the traffic volume for the entire day. Note that errors tend to average out during the day. However, during times of high relative error, ad campaigns based on a daily traffic estimate tend to accelerate; while at times of low (negative) relative error, these same ad campaigns tend to dramatically decelerate. This situation yields an uneven campaign with “run-away” periods followed by “stalled” periods of exposure. Campaign unevenness is a symptom of prediction errors (positive or negative). As illustrated in FIG. 2 , taking the values of these hourly errors relative to a day's total traffic can give a good indication of the gravity of the campaign's failure to predict intra-day traffic patterns. By summing the absolute value of these relative hourly errors, it is clear that the prediction errors can amount to close to half (48.32%) of the day's total traffic, even though the prediction for the overall daily traffic is accurate. A single hour's prediction error as a percentage of that hour's actual traffic can be much more dramatic. For instance, the hour starting at 9:00 am has a predicted traffic volume of 156,604, but the actual traffic volume is only 15,583, which is an error of 905% for that hour. Similarly for the hours of 1:00 am to 4:00 am, underestimation (per hour) ranges between 40 and 50 percent relative to the actual traffic volume for each respective hour. Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, it is difficult to predict the amount of time it will take before advertising goals for a particular advertisement are met. Therefore, it would be beneficial to provide a mechanism to better estimate traffic volume. SUMMARY OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Methods, systems, and articles of manufacture of the present invention may assist in planning, execution, and evaluation of advertising campaigns on the Internet. Particularly, methods, systems, and articles of manufacture of the present invention may help evaluate and/or predict traffic volume on the Internet. One exemplary embodiment of the invention relates to a method for predicting traffic. The method may comprise receiving historical traffic data for a location, and computing a prediction of traffic volume for a particular time at the location using the historical traffic data and at least one prediction algorithm. Additional embodiments and aspects of the invention are set forth in the detailed description which follows, and in part are obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of methods, systems, and articles of manufacture consistent with the present invention. It is understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the invention and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. In the drawings: FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary pattern of under-over-under estimation consistent with the prior art; FIG. 2 illustrates exemplary errors in the pattern relative to a day's total traffic consistent with the prior art; FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate exemplary linear relationships in hourly traffic consistent with features and principles of the present invention; FIGS. 4A and 4B compare the performance between various exemplary prediction methods consistent with features and principles of the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary predictability map consistent with features and principles of the present invention; FIG. 6 illustrates an exemplary system for predicting traffic consistent with features and principles of the present invention; FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary method for predicting traffic consistent with features and principles of the present invention; and FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary method for conducting an ad campaign consistent with features and principles of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Reference is now made in detail to exemplary embodiments of the invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, the same reference numbers are used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts. As discussed above, one method for predicting traffic may estimate a daily traffic volume for a location and use the estimate to compute a constant traffic rate throughout the day. However, other methods (e.g., hour-of-day means method, previous-hour method, previous-hour-plus-drift method, point-slope method, etc.) described below, may also be used to compute traffic predictions using different time intervals, such as with hourly predictions. One exemplary method for predicting traffic may compute traffic averages for each hour of a day. The hour-of-day means (HDM) method may assume that traffic depends only on the hour of the day regardless of an overall traffic trend at other times of the day. For example, let x i,k j represent the measured traffic volume of location j during hour k of day i. Assuming x i,k j =v k j where v k j is a random variable with mean μ k j and variance (σ k j ) 2 that describes the traffic volume at location j according to the k th hour (k=0, . . . , 23), the family of x i,k j for i=1, 2, . . . is then a sequence of independent, identically distributed (i.i.d.) random variables. For illustrative purposes, the following example focuses on a single location. Hence, the superscript j may be dropped from the notation. Letting E i,k [.] denote an expectation operator conditioned on hour k of day i (i.e., the history of the traffic volume for the location is known up to hour k of day i), the HDM method may then use the expectation as a forecast of the traffic volume for the next hour, which yields E i,k [x i,k+1 ]=E[v k+1 ]=μ k+1 As one of ordinary skill in the art of traffic estimation can appreciate, for all l less than i, the HDM method may have E l,k [x i,k ]=μ k A traffic volume predictor v k for μ k may be constructed using the above results. From a history containing n days of measured traffic volume data, v k may be computed as V _ k = 1 n ⁢ ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ x i , k for each k=0, . . . , 23. Therefore, in the HDM method, the traffic volume prediction {circumflex over (x)} k at an hour k for any day is given by {circumflex over (x)} k = v k which is simply the mean of the measured traffic volume at hour k over a history of n days. The history of n days may be n consecutive or nonconsecutive days. The variance of the predictor v k is given by var ⁡ [ v _ k ] = σ ^ k 2 n where {circumflex over (σ)} k 2 is the estimated variance of the measured traffic volume at hour k over n days and is given by σ ^ k 2 = 1 n - 1 ⁢ ( ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ( x i , k 2 ) - n ⁢ v _ k ) Hence, the rate of reduction of the variance of {circumflex over (v)} k (in percentage terms) as the history increases from n to n+1 is n/(1+n 2 ), or approximately 1/(1+n) as n becomes large. This result shows that gaining accuracy in traffic volume prediction may become increasingly difficult after the history grows beyond a certain number of days. Even assuming that hourly means of traffic volume are stationary (i.e., they don't change over time), accuracy in their estimation is limited by available computational resources. Because of the slowdown in the prediction's convergence and the estimated magnitude of the variance for typically measured traffic at a location, a three-month history provided to the predictor v k would give predictions exhibiting up to 20% volatility. Table 1 shows some exemplary results for high traffic locations. TABLE 1 Volatility comparison History Size Volatility of Prediction (days) (%) 30 ~20 60 ~13 90 ~10 120 ~10 Another exemplary method for predicting traffic may assume that traffic at a location obeys a random walk with zero mean scenario. That is, traffic at a given hour may be predicted by traffic at a previous hour plus a zero-mean, random disturbance. The previous-hour (PrevHr) method can capture the effect of “traffic momentum” (i.e., the momentum of traffic from the previous hour carries over to the next hour). For example, the PrevHr method may assume the following structure x i,k+1 j =x i,k j +ε k j where ε k j is a random variable with E[ε k j ]=0 and var(ε k j )=σ ε k j 2 . Limiting the analysis to a single location, superscript j may be dropped from the notation. Using expectation E i,k [.] as a forecast of the traffic volume for x i,k+1 and a history of measured traffic volume up to day i and hour k, the following equation is obtained: E i,k [x i,k+1 ]=E i,k [x i,k +ε k ]=x i,k Therefore, the predicted traffic volume {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1 at day i and hour k+1 is given by, {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1 =x i,k which is the measured traffic volume at day i and hour k. Note that for any hour m occurring after hour k, this method may predict the traffic volume at hour m to be the last measured traffic volume in the history. Another exemplary method for predicting traffic may combine recent traffic information (e.g., traffic information from the previous hour) and a history of changes (i.e., drift) in traffic. The previous-hour-plus-drift (PrevHr+) method assumes the changes are of an additive, incremental form and the increments are adjusted according to the hour of the day, which allows the method to accommodate daily patterns observed in historical traffic data. For example, the PrevHr+ method may assume the following structure: x i,k+1 j =Δ k+1 +x i,k j where Δ k is a random variable describing the traffic increment for an hour k of the day. In this equation, the following convention is used: x i,0 j =Δ 0 +x i-1,23 j . Again, dropping the superscript j and using the expectation as a forecast for the expected traffic volume, the following equation is obtained: E i,k [x i,k+1 ]=E i,k [Δ k+1 ]+x i,k As one of ordinary skill in the art can appreciate, traffic for m hours into the future may be forecasted in a recursive manner. That is, the above equation may be recursively applied to yield E i , k ⁡ [ x i , k + m ] = ∑ s = 1 m ⁢ ⁢ ( E i , k ⁡ [ Δ k + s ] ) + x i , k using the following conventions: x i-1,24 =x i,0 and E i,k [Δ k+s ]=E i,k └Δ mod(k+s,24) ┘. With a traffic history of n days, a traffic increment estimator may estimate the expectation E i,k [Δ k ] using Δ ^ k = 1 n - 1 ⁢ ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ( x i , k - x i , k - 1 ) Therefore, the forecast for the expected traffic volume may be rewritten as E i,k [x i,k+1 ]={circumflex over (Δ)} k+1 +x i,k and the predicted traffic volume {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1 at day i and hour k+1 is then given by {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1 ={circumflex over (Δ)} k+1 +x i,k which is the estimated traffic increment at hour k+1 plus the measured traffic volume in the previous hour. The increment estimator {circumflex over (Δ)} k may only use the most recent three months of historical traffic data to generate the estimate because using more data may not significantly reduce the variance of the estimate. Using more data may also increasingly expose the estimate to incorrect modeling due to long-term, structural changes in traffic patterns. An increment variance estimator may approximate the variance of Δ k using σ ^ Δ k 2 = 1 n - 1 ⁢ ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ( x i , k - x i , k - 1 - Δ ^ k ) 2 The variance estimator may be useful when the historical traffic data contains extreme traffic volume values or outlying data, as defined below. It is not unusual to encounter extreme values coming from errors or by omission in historical traffic data. For instance, a chain of missing values in the historical traffic data at times where traffic is typically high for a certain location may indicate that there has been some historical data capture problem. Of course, it may also mean that the location became unpopular and that traffic for those times was indeed zero. This type of atypical data is referred to as outlying data. The criteria for deciding between what is legitimate data and what is outlying data is rather subjective. However, traffic volume prediction may be improved if these extreme values are removed or corrected. In one exemplary embodiment of the present invention, a filter may be used to correct or remove outlying data from the historical data. The filter may employ a criteria that assumes a measured traffic volume at some time (e.g., at day i and at hour k) in the historical data is outlying data when the measured traffic volume at that time lies more than N d standard deviations from the mean of the measured traffic volume at hour k over a history of n days. For example, the filter may estimate {circumflex over (Δ)} k and {circumflex over (σ)} Δ k 2 in the manner described above. If a measured traffic volume x i,k meets the following parameters: x i,k >x i,k−1 +{circumflex over (Δ)} k +N d {circumflex over (σ)} Δ k or x i,k >x i,k−1 +{circumflex over (Δ)} k −N d {circumflex over (σ)} Δ k then the measured traffic volume x i,k may be classified as outlying data and the filter may substitute x i,k−1 +{circumflex over (Δ)} k for x i,k in the historical traffic data. The predicted traffic volume may then be calculated using the corrected data as previously described. Another exemplary method for predicting traffic may add another degree of freedom to the PrevHr+ method because the explanatory impact of recent traffic may vary according to the time of day in addition to a time-of-day dependent, additive shock. This method may assume a linear relationship between x i,k j and x i,k+1 j , and hence, is called the point-slope method. FIG. 3A shows an example of the linear relationship. It plots the measured traffic volume at the third hour versus the fourth hour of each day in February, 2001 at a test location. The plot shows the measured traffic volumes of the third and fourth hour form a linear pattern. This pattern may be found at most locations, but the strength and form of the linear relationship varies by hour and across locations. For example, FIG. 3B shows a similar relationship five hours later at the same location for the eighth and ninth hours, but while the relationship is still fairly linear, it significantly differs in slope (the solid line represents a 45-degree line in both FIGS. 3A and 3B ). In general, for most locations, the relationship between traffic at subsequent hours is linear enough to justify using the point-slope method as a first-order approximation. From the above observations, the point-slope method may assume the following structure: x i,k+1 j =a k+1 j +b k+1 j x i,k j +ε k+1 j where a k j is a mean hour-of-day additive increment, b k j is a constant or a loading for the hour prior to hour k, and ε k j is a random variable (i.e., noise term) with zero mean (i.e., E i,k [ε k+1 ]=0) at location j and hour k. Focusing on one location (i.e., dropping superscript j), using the expectation as a forecast for the expected traffic volume, and recognizing that E i,k [x i,k ]=x i,k , the following equation is obtained: E i,k [x i,k+1 ]=a k+1 +b k+1 E i,k [x i,k]+E i,k [ε k+1] =a k+1 +b k+1 x i,k Traffic for more distant times in the future may be forecasted in a recursive manner. More specifically, a forecast for traffic volume m hours after the hour k may be given by E i , k ⁡ [ X i , k + m ] = ∑ h = 1 m ⁢ ⁢ ( a k + h ⁢ ∏ s = h + 1 m ⁢ ⁢ b k + s ) + ∏ h = 1 m ⁢ ⁢ b k + h ⁢ x i , k As one of ordinary skill in the art can appreciate, the point-slope method, discussed above, uses a linear regression with x i,k as regress and and x i,k−1 as regressor. The coefficients a k and b k may not be directly observable from the historical traffic data, but they may be estimated using, for example, a least squares method. The least squares method may estimate a k and b k by minimizing a sum of squared errors ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ⅇ i , k 2 = ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ( x i , k - a ^ k - b ^ k ⁢ x i , k - 1 ) 2 where e i,k is a prediction error between a predicted traffic volume at hour k of day i and the measured traffic volume at hour k of day i. Using first-order conditions to minimize ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ⅇ i , k 2 , the point-slope method may solve for coefficients â k and {circumflex over (b)} k to yield b ^ k = ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ( x i , k ⁢ x i , k - 1 ) - n ⁢ x _ k ⁢ x _ k - 1 ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ( x i , k - 1 ) 2 - n ⁢ x _ k - 1 2 a ^ k = x _ k + b ^ k ⁢ x _ k - 1 where x _ k = 1 n ⁢ ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ x i , k ⁢ ⁢ and ⁢ ⁢ x _ k - 1 = 1 n ⁢ ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ x i , k - 1 with the convention x i,−1 =x i-1,23 . We may substitute the coefficient estimates for the coefficients a k and b k in the expected traffic volume forecast, and the predicted traffic volume {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1 at day i and hour k+1 is then given by {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1 =â k+1 {circumflex over (b)} k+1 x i,k In one exemplary embodiment, the hourly traffic predictions from any of the HDM, PrevHr, PrevHr+, and point-slope methods may be combined to predict the traffic volume for a location (e.g., a website) over a period of time comprising m z hours. Using the point-slope method as an example, let {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1,z represent the predicted traffic volume for hour k+1 of day i in time niche z. Then, {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1,z may be calculated using {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1,z =â k+1 +{circumflex over (b)} k+1 x i,k From the previous results for E i,k [x i,k+m ], the traffic volume m hours after hour k of day i at a location may be calculated using x ^ i , k + m = ∑ h = 1 m ⁢ ⁢ ( a ^ k + h ⁢ ∏ s = h + 1 m ⁢ ⁢ b ^ k + s ) + ∏ h = 1 m ⁢ ⁢ b ^ k + h ⁢ x i , k If H z is a set of hours k+m, then the predicted traffic volume for a location during the H z hours may be calculated by d ^ = ∑ k + m ∈ H z ⁢ ⁢ x ^ i , k + m which is simply the sum of the individual hourly traffic volume predictions for the time defined by H z . In general, the point-slope method may provide consistently accurate traffic volume predictions, but when the measured traffic volume contains structural traffic changes (e.g., outlying data), the method may “blow up” (i.e., yield extraordinarily large predictions). The traffic volume predictions may be filtered to prevent the blow ups using mathematical functions, distributions, or other criteria. For example, one embodiment of the present invention may construct a test statistic filter f({circumflex over (x)} i,k ), such that f ⁡ ( x ^ i , k ) = { 1 ; if ⁢ ⁢ x _ k - t c ⁢ σ ^ k ≤ x ^ i , k ≤ x _ k + t c ⁢ σ ^ k 0 ; otherwise where t c is a threshold estimate, x k is the estimated mean of the measured traffic volume at hour k over n days, and {circumflex over (σ)} k is the estimated standard deviation of the measured traffic volume at hour k over n days. Table 2 shows the exemplary critical values of t c corresponding to the number of days n that may be used to compute the predicted traffic volume {circumflex over (x)} i,k . The t c values in Table 2 are based on a student-t distribution cumulative density function (c.d.f.) with a 99% cumulative probability criterion, but as one of ordinary skill in the art can appreciate, the values of t c may be based on any other statistical/mathematical function (e.g., discrete function, continuous function, Poisson c.d.f., binomial c.d.f., etc.) with any other criterion. TABLE 2 Critical values of t c n t c <20 2.878 21 2.861 22 2.845 23 2.831 24 2.819 25 2.807 26 2.797 27 2.787 28 2.779 29 2.771 30 2.763 31 2.756 32 2.750 33 to 42 2.704 43 to 62 2.660  63 to 122 2.617 >122 2.576 One exemplary embodiment of the present invention may use filter f({circumflex over (x)} i,k ) to measure whether {circumflex over (x)} i,k is believable based on historical traffic data. A problem with this is that if a permanent regime or behavioral change occurs in a traffic pattern, then past traffic data may become irrelevant. In spite of this, filter f({circumflex over (x)} i,k ) may be used to indicate whether a location's traffic pattern is stable enough for the point-slope method to be effective. If this is not the case, then when f({circumflex over (x)} i,k ) is zero, one embodiment may revert to other methods (e.g., HDM method, PrevHr method, etc.) that may not blow up in the face of pattern changes. Table 3 uses various exemplary predictability scores to compare the performance of the HDM, PrevHr, PrevHr+, and point-slope methods in predicting traffic volume at a test location for a period from Feb. 1, 2001 to Feb. 28, 2001. TABLE 3 Location A from Feb. 1, 2001 to Feb. 28, 2001 Total traffic = 92,407,331 impressions (total traffic volume) Daily Point- Mean HDM PrevHr PrevHr+ Slope Mean Error 3,396  (7,705) 123 103  (347) Standard Dev. 89,496 33,252 35,301 18,323 16,262 Maximum Error 239,809 175,126  186,993 146,510 144,192  Minimum Error 26    1 21 14    4 Normalized L1 47% 15% 17% 7% 6% Score The predictions were computed using a 90-day sliding window of historical traffic data (i.e., when calculating the prediction for each hour of the day, only the most recent 90 days of traffic data were used). The comparison is made in terms of hourly prediction errors, where each method observed (i.e., recorded in the historical traffic data) the traffic volume for the last 90 days up to hour k of day i and computed a prediction {circumflex over (x)} i,k+1 for the next hour's traffic based on the observation. Each method continued predicting the traffic volume for the subsequent hour as the previous hour of traffic volume was observed. Then, from the prediction and the measured traffic volumes, the prediction errors e i,k were computed, as defined by e i,k =x i,k −{circumflex over (x)} i,k The predictability scores in Table 3 were calculated using e _ = 1 24 ⁢ n ⁢ ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ∑ k = 0 23 ⁢ e i , k (mean error), σ e = 1 24 ⁢ n - 1 ⁢ ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ∑ k = 0 23 ⁢ ( ⅇ i , k 2 - 24 ⁢ n ⁢ e _ 2 ) (standard deviation), e max = max { i , k } ⁢  e i , k  (maximum error), e min = min { i , k } ⁢  e i , k  (minimum error), and L ⁢ ⁢ 1 = ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ∑ k = 0 23 ⁢ ⁢  e i , k  ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ∑ k = 0 23 ⁢ x i , k × 100 ⁢ % (normalized L1 score) Although the above lists the mean error, standard deviation, maximum error, minimum error, and normalized L1 score as possible predictability scores, other metrics (e.g., total traffic, etc.) may be used as a predictability score. From Table 3, we can see that the PrevHr+ and the point-slope methods are among the best performers. The point-slope method in particular exhibits the lowest standard deviation and maximum error. The prediction method selected may depend on a user's objectives and willingness to trade-off error mean and variance. Table 3 also shows that the point-slope model has the lowest normalized L1 score. This may come at the expense of a higher mean error. However, this mean error may be orders of magnitude below what a method using daily means (instead of hourly predictions) would yield. Predictability scores may provide a good criterion for selecting a method of predicting traffic based on a desired smoothness in deployment of an ad campaign. A smoothly deployed ad campaign exposes users to advertisements at a predictable pace. Hence, a smooth ad campaign may use a method that accurately predicts traffic volume. In contrast, an unsmoothly deployed ad campaign exposes users to advertisements unpredictably or even haphazardly until the exposure reaches a predetermined level that signifies the end of the campaign. FIGS. 4A and 4B provide a visual perspective of the relative effectiveness of the different methods. The figures show the hourly traffic predictions of each method and the actual traffic for the test location on Feb. 18, 2001. The methods with better predictability scores seem to deliver more accurate predictions because their predictions match the later observed traffic volume more closely than the methods with worse predictability scores. In these figures, it is also easy to see some of the characteristics and possible limitations of each method. A predictability score gives a measure of the size of a method's prediction error for an analyzed time period. That is, it may give a measure of a location's traffic predictability and may be used to compare the predictability of different locations. This is an important criterion when seeking smooth campaigns because it provides a comparison metric across different locations. The predictability score may be used for campaign decision-making. Campaigns with a high smoothness priority may deliver ads at locations based on the knowledge that the locations with a better predictability score may be more predictable and are likely to deliver smoother campaigns. Note that a first location's predictability score may be better than a second location's predictability score if the first score is lower or higher than the second score. For example, consider the normalized L1 score in Table 4 for a second location B during the month of February. Compared with the performance results in Table 3, the location for Table 4 may be deemed less predictable because its normalized L1 score using the point-slope model is 12%, which is lower than the score (6%) for Table 3's location. However, the second location has less total traffic (i.e., 8,962,345 impressions) than the first location (i.e., 92,407,331 impressions). In general, lower traffic locations may be less predictable, so a predictability score based on total traffic would be better if it is higher. TABLE 4 Location B from Feb. 1, 2001 to Feb. 28, 2001 Total traffic = 8,962,345 impressions (total traffic volume) Daily Point- Mean HDM PrevHr PrevHr+ Slope Mean Error (1,003) 3,203  (26)  (27) 344 Standard Dev. 5,851 4,049 2,862 2,396 2,263 Maximum Error 15,482  15,309 11,292  8,907 8,578 Minimum Error    1 8   4   4 6 Normalized L1 32% 27% 15% 12% 12% Score It may be better to direct smoothness-sensitive campaigns towards locations with a better predictability score. Generalizing this idea, we can form a predictability map that compares how safe (in terms of smoothness) a location is relative to other locations. FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary predictability map consistent with features and principles of the present invention. The map plots a predictability score, such as the L1 score, against the average daily traffic volume for three test locations. Although the predictability map in FIG. 5 is a scatter plot, one of ordinary skill in the art can appreciate that the predictability map may take the form of a contour plot, bar graph, line graph, or any other type of graph. From the map, location C appears to be a better target for a smoothness-sensitive campaign than location B because of its lower L1 score. However, we may target a group of locations for an ad campaign. The predictability score PRG of the group of locations may then be calculated using PR G = ∑ j ∈ G ⁢ ⁢ T j ⁢ PR j ∑ j ∈ G ⁢ ⁢ T j where G is a set of all locations j in the group, T j is location j's total traffic per unit of time (i.e., day), and PR j is the predictability score of location j. For example, using the map in FIG. 5 , we can advertise an ad at both locations A and C to fulfill an ad campaign with less expected prediction error than if we only advertised at location A. Further, we do not need to target a campaign equally towards each location in the group. We can use various combinations of locations in order to meet both desired traffic volume and predictability requirements. According to features and principles of the present invention and as illustrated in FIG. 6 , an exemplary system 600 for predicting traffic may include a storage device 602 , a processor 604 , a network 606 , a computer 608 , and a computer 610 . Processor 604 may be coupled to storage device 602 and network 606 . Network 606 may be coupled to computers 608 and 610 . Storage device 602 may be implemented using hard drives, floppy disks, ROM, RAM, and/or any other mechanisms for saving data. Processor 604 may be implemented using computers, application-specific integrated circuits, CPUs, and/or any other device that is capable of following instructions and/or manipulating data. Network 606 may be implemented via the Internet, wide area networks, local area networks, telephone networks, and/or any other mechanism that can facilitate remote communications. Computers 608 and 610 may be personal computers, desktops, mainframes, and/or any other computing device. According to features and principles of the present invention, system 600 may be configured to implement exemplary method 700 , illustrated in FIG. 7 , for predicting traffic. Processor 604 may receive historical traffic data for a location (step 702 ). The historical traffic data may be stored on storage device 602 . Historical traffic data may include any information about previous traffic volume at the location. If the location is a website on network 606 , the historical traffic data may include a number of visitors to the website via computers 608 or 610 , a number of hits at the website, a number of impressions at the website, and/or any other data about the website for various times of the day. Particularly, the historical traffic data may include observations of the traffic volume x i,k at the website at each hour k of day i for any number of days. The observations may be made by processor 604 , counters at the website, or any other mechanism. Besides websites, the location may be any other place where traffic passes through or attendance can be measured and/or observed. For example, a location may be a highway, a street, a television channel, a radio station, or any other place where traffic information is obtainable. Consistent with features and principles of the present invention, processor 604 may identify one or more time-dependent parameters based on the historical traffic data (step 704 ). For example, processor 604 may estimate the parameters â k , {circumflex over (b)} k , {circumflex over (x)} k , {circumflex over (x)} i,k , {circumflex over (x)} i,k,z , {circumflex over (σ)} k , {circumflex over (σ)} k 2 , {circumflex over (Δ)} k , {circumflex over (d)} z , x k , e k , or other time-dependent parameters using historical traffic data. Processor 604 may estimate the time-dependent parameters using ordinary least squares or other methods, as previously described. Processor 604 may compute a traffic volume prediction (step 706 ), consistent with features and principles of the present invention. The prediction may be computed using any of the methods discussed herein and it may be the predicted traffic volume for the next hour, day, time niche, or other time period. Processor 604 may then compare the prediction against actual measured traffic volume data (step 708 ). The actual traffic volume data may reflect visits, hits, etc. by users at a location (e.g., website) via computers 608 or 610 . In one embodiment, processor 604 may make the comparison by calculating e i,k . Consistent with features and principles of the present invention, processor 604 may then compute a predictability score for the location (step 710 ). The predictability score may be a normalized L1 score, a mean error, a maximum error, a minimum error, or any other metric. When e i,k is calculated, the computed predictability score may also be based on e i,k . Additionally, processor 604 may perform steps 702 to 710 to compute a predictability score of another location. System 600 may execute an ad campaign based on the predictability scores of the two locations using an exemplary method 800 illustrated in FIG. 8 . For example, processor 604 may compare the predictability scores of the two locations (step 802 ) and generate a predictability map (step 804 ). From the predictability map and/or the predictability scores, processor 604 may select one of the two locations, a group comprising the two locations, and/or a larger plurality of locations for an advertising campaign (step 806 ). Processor 604 may conduct an advertising campaign at the selected location(s) by sending or placing advertisements at the locations (step 808 ). If the locations are websites, then processor 604 may display advertisements on the websites. According to features and principles of the present invention, during the life of the ad campaign, processor 604 may adjust an advertising schedule of the ad campaign (step 810 ) to compensate for differences or variances between predicted and actual traffic. The advertising schedule may include the planned times and locations where processor 604 intends to place ads, as determined in steps 802 to 806 . As an ad campaign progresses, processor 604 may predict the traffic volume at various locations for a window of W days (e.g., processor 604 may predict the traffic volume for multiple hours at a website, as previously discussed). Processor 604 may then use the predictions to adjust the advertisement delivery schedule within the time window. In the foregoing description, various features are grouped together in various embodiments for purposes of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed invention requires more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive aspects may lie in less than all features of a single foregoing disclosed embodiment. Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into this description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate embodiment of the invention. Furthermore, as used herein, the words “may” and “may be” are to be interpreted in an open-ended, non-restrictive manner.

Methods, systems, and articles of manufacture of the present invention may assist in planning, execution, and evaluation of advertising campaigns on the Internet. Particularly, methods, systems, and articles of manufacture of the present invention may help evaluate and/or predict traffic volume on the Internet. An exemplary method for predicting traffic may comprise receiving historical traffic data for a location, and computing a prediction of traffic volume for a particular time at the location using the historical traffic data and at least one prediction algorithm.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates to the method according to the preamble of claim 1 for doping and/or colouring glass, and especially to a method for doping glass, in which a two- or three-dimensional layer is formed of nanomaterial on the surface of the glass and allowed to diffuse and/or dissolve into the glass to change the transmission, absorption, reflection and/or scattering of electromagnetic radiation of the glass. In this context, colouring refers to doping glass in such a manner that the transmission or reflection spectrum of glass changes in the visible light region (approximately 400 to 700 nm) and/or ultraviolet region (200 to 400 nm) and/or near infrared region (700 to 2000 nm) and/or infrared region (2 mm to 50 mm). According to the invention, glass can be coloured in such a manner that a nano-sized material (size below 100 nm in two or three dimensions) is directed to the surface of glass, the temperature of which is at least 500° C., and the material consists of at least a glass-colouring compound, such as a transition metal oxide, and an element or compound that lowers the melting temperature of the oxide, such as an alkali metal oxide. The material dissolves and/or diffuses on the surface of glass and dopes it in such a manner that it turns into the colour characteristic of the colouring compound. [0002] So as to be able to colour glass efficiently, i.e. in a sufficiently short time, at a temperature of 500 to 800° C., the material used in the colouring must be in nanosize. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, the diffusion rate of particles in a medium depends essentially on the size of the particles, and typically, the diffusion rate of particles of 10 nm is three times faster than particles of 1 micrometer. Secondly, the surface area and surface energy required for colouring reactions is bigger when the material is in nanosize. [0003] For the sake of clarity, it should be noted that the size of less than 100 nm in three dimensions refers to particles with a diameter of less than 100 nm, and the size of less than 100 nm in two dimensions refers to thin films with a thickness of less than 100 nm. In the following, the text refers mainly to nano-sized particles, but the invention can also be applied using thin films. [0004] The method of the invention can be used to colour flat glass, packing glass, utility or household glass, and special glass, such as optical fibre blanks. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIOR ART [0005] Colouring glass refers on a wide scale to altering the interaction between glass and electromagnetic radiation directed to it in such a manner that the transmission of the radiation through the glass, reflection from the surface of the glass, absorption into the glass, or scatter from the components in the glass changes. The most important wavelength regions are the ultraviolet region (e.g. preventing ultraviolet radiation of sun through glass), the visible light region (altering the colour of glass visible to the human eye), the near infrared region (altering the transmission of sun infrared radiation, or glass material used in active optical fibres), and the actual infrared region (altering the transmission of heat radiation). [0006] Glass can be coloured in many different ways. Most typically, glass is coloured by adding into molten glass or its raw materials compounds of colour-producing metals, such as iron, copper, chromium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, vanadium, silver, gold, rare earth metals, or the like. Such a component will cause absorption or scattering of a certain wavelength region in the glass, thus producing a characteristic colour in the glass. However, adding a colouring substance in molten glass or raw materials makes changing the colour an extremely expensive and time-consuming procedure. Therefore, the manufacture of especially small batches of coloured glass is expensive. [0007] Nickel oxide is used in colouring glass grey. When glass is made with a float process, the molten glass web runs on a tin bath. To prevent the tin bath from oxidizing, there is a reducing gas atmosphere on the tin bath. However, this causes nickel to reduce on the surface of glass, whereby metal nickel is formed on the surface of glass and creates a gauze or veil on the surface, which weakens the quality of the glass. To eliminate this problem, nickel-free grey glass compositions have been developed, such as the one disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,339,541. The method is thus still based on colouring molten glass entirely. [0008] U.S. Pat. No. 4,748,054 discloses a method for colouring glass with pigment layers. In this method, glass is sandblasted and different enamel layers are pressed on it to be then attached to the surface by burning. However, the chemical or mechanical wear resistance of such a glass is poor. [0009] U.S. Pat. No. 3,973,069 discloses an improved method of colouring glass with diffusion. The improvement is provided with electric potential. The patent describes as a known method a method for colouring glass with colour metal ion diffusion in such a manner that glass is brought into contact with a medium that contains colouring ions, and the ions then diffuse from the medium to the glass. The glass colouring mechanism is then specifically based on the diffusion of ions and not on the diffusion of a nano-sized material with the glass. Similarly, the diffusing substance is not an oxide, but a metal ion. The patent only refers to colouring glass with silver. However, this colouring mechanism is not a pure diffusion, but an ion exchange reaction (silver/sodium ion). [0010] U.S. Pat. No. 5,837,025 discloses a method for colouring glass with nano-sized glass particles. According to the method, glass-like, coloured glass particles are made and directed to the surface of the glass being coloured and sintered into transparent glass at a temperature of less than 900° C. The method differs from the present invention in that in the present invention, the particles diffuse inside glass and do not form a separate coating on the surface of the glass. [0011] Finnish Patent FI98832, a method and device for spraying material, discloses a method that can be used in doping glass. In this method, the material being sprayed is directed in liquid form into a flame and transformed into droplets with the aid of a gas essentially close to the flame. This produces extremely small particles that are a nanometre in size quickly, inexpensively and in one step. The patent does not, however, describe the size of the produced liquid droplet. Neither does the patent describe the interaction between the produced particles and glass material. [0012] Finnish patent FI114548 describes a method for colouring glass with colloidal particles. The patented method uses a flame spraying method to transport colloidal particles to the material being coloured. In the method, it is also possible to add other components to the flame, such as a glass-forming liquid or gaseous material, which assist the formation of correct-sized colloidal particles in the material. The patent does not state any other functions for the glass-forming liquid or gaseous material. [0013] When using the method described in FI98832 for colouring glass, it has been found that a gauzy curtain may appear on the surface of the glass especially when colouring the glass in low temperatures of less than 700° C. The gauze is assumed to be due to crystalline areas remaining on the surface of the glass, whose proportion on the surface increases with the temperature difference between the melting point of the colouring component and glass surface. In cobalt oxide, whose melting point is 1795° C., the crystalline portion is larger than in iron oxide, whose melting point is 1369° C. or 1594° C. depending on the crystal form. In copper oxide, whose melting point is 1235° C. or 1326° C. depending on the crystal form, the crystalline portion is even smaller than in iron oxide. [0014] When colouring glass with the method of FI98832 or some other method, in which the colouring is based on the diffusion and dissolution into glass of nanoparticles (particle diameter less than 100 nm), the colouring should, for economic reasons, be done when the temperature of the glass is 500 to 650° C. The colouring can then be done in a float line between the tin bath and cooling oven (temperature 550 to 630° C.) or in a glass tempering line (temperature approximately 620° C.). Colouring must then not produce crystal-line and/or gauzy areas on the surface of the glass. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0015] It is thus an object of the present invention to provide a method for doping and/or colouring glass in such a manner that the above-mentioned prior-art drawbacks are eliminated. The object of the invention is achieved by a method according to the characterising part of claim 1 , which is characterised in that the layer of nanomaterial contains at least one component that provides the above-mentioned change, and at least one component that lowers the melting point of the component providing the above-mentioned change. [0016] With the method of the present invention, glass can be coloured when the temperature of the surface of the glass is higher than 500° C. [0017] The present invention is based on the idea that a nano-scale material is directed to the surface of the glass, the material consisting of at least two components: a metal compound providing a characteristic colour for the glass and a component lowering the melting point of the metal compound. [0018] The lowering of the melting point of the compound can also take place in such a manner that the nanomaterial has components that trans-form the metal compound providing a characteristic colour into an amorphous form in the nanoparticle. [0019] The lowering of the melting point of a compound can also take place in such a manner that the metal compound providing a characteristic colour and the component lowering the melting point of the compound are in different nanoparticles or films that are brought into contact with each other to produce essentially the same outcome as when these components are in the same nanoparticle or film. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0020] The invention will now be described in greater detail by means of preferred embodiments and with reference to the attached drawings, in which [0021] FIG. 1 is a flow chart showing an implementation method of the invention, and [0022] FIG. 2 shows equipment used in implementing the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0023] The present invention relates to a method for colouring glass in a wavelength region that extends from ultraviolet radiation to infrared radiation. The temperature of the glass being coloured is above 500° C. The invention is based on directing to the surface of the glass a material less than 100 nanometres in size and consisting of a metal compound that provides a characteristic colour for the glass and a component that lowers the melting point of the metal compound. [0024] Combinations of the colouring metal compound and the component lowering its melting point include CoO—V 2 O 5 , CoO—CaO, CoO—B 2 O 3 , Cu 2 O—PbO, Cu 2 O—SiO 2 , CoO—SiO 2 , CoO—TiO 2 , MnO—SiO 2 , MnO—Al 2 O 3 —SiO 2 , MnO—Al 2 O 3 —Y 2 O 3 —SiO 2 , Fe 2 O 3 —P 2 O 5 , and Mno—P 2 O 5 . It is apparent to a person skilled in the art that there are numerous compounds of this type and that the melting point of the compounds is lower than that of the colouring compound possibly only in some mixture ratios. The best result is obtained when the components form a eutectic mixture ratio, but the formation of such a eutectic mixture ratio is not necessary. [0025] The nano-sized material essential for the present invention can be produced in many ways, such as with a flame method, laser ablation, sol-gel method, chemical vapour phase deposition (CVD), physical vapour phase deposition (PVD), atom layer deposition (ALD) method, molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) method, or the like. The following presents the use of a hot aerosol layering method to produce the material of the invention. [0026] According to the flowchart of FIG. 1 , the method of the invention forms a flame in step 11 . In this context, the term ‘flame’ refers to any method of producing a high, local temperature. These include a fuel/oxygen flame, a plasma flame, an electric arc, or a high temperature provided with laser heating. [0027] In step 12 , a liquid raw material, for instance, is directed to the flame or close to it. The liquid raw material contains a metal compound that as a result of a chemical reaction or vaporisation/condensation in the flame produces nano-sized particles that contain a glass-colouring metal compound, typically metal oxide. The raw material fed into the flame in step 12 also contains a starting material that as a result of the chemical reaction and/or vaporisation/condensation in the flame produces nano-sized particles that contain a component that lowers the melting point of the compound of the glass-colouring metal compound. The nanoparticles created in step 12 can be particles that contain both the glass-colouring metal compound and the component that lowers the melting point of the metal compound. The nanoparticles created in step 12 can be crystalline or amorphous, as long as the melting temperature of the produced material is lower than that of the glass-colouring metal compound. [0028] In the next step 13 of the method, at least one liquid component is transformed into droplets in such a manner that the formed droplets contain the colouring component, or a reaction in which the colouring component has partaken, the second component created as a result, or a compound of these two. Said droplets can preferably be made to contain said colouring component, if the colouring component is already dissolved in the liquid being made into droplets when it is fed into the flame. [0029] It is essential for an efficient formation of nanoparticles created in the flame that the sprayed liquid material is brought into the flame in very small droplets. If the liquid material is brought into the flame in larger droplets, the process produces not only nanoparticles, but also larger particles that will not dissolve into the glass being coloured, and thus weaken the quality of the glass. The optically measured diameter of the droplets being created must therefore preferably be less than 10 micrometers, more preferably less than 6 micrometers, and most preferably less than 3 micrometers. The droplets can be produced by using generally known atomisation methods, such as gas-distributed atomisation, pressure atomisation, or ultrasound-based atomisation. [0030] In the next step 14 of the method, the droplets and the components contained therein are evaporated and condensated, whereby the condensated components form ultra-small particles either through chemical reactions, mainly oxidisation reaction, or through nucleation/condensation. Evaporation and condensation can preferably be done with the heat of the flame or with an exothermally reacting solvent. [0031] The composition, content, and size distribution of the created particles can be controlled by adjusting the operating parameters of the method, such as the temperature of the flame, flow rates of the gases, composition of the components fed to the flame, interrelations and absolute quantities of the components. Controlling the size distribution of the created particles is important, because the size of the particles plays a significant role in successful colouring of glass. It is especially essential that all particles be created through evaporation-nucleation, whereby no large residual particles are created in the process. The creation of residual particles can be avoided, if the droplet size of the liquid being sprayed is sufficiently small. [0032] The particles created in the last step 15 of the method are brought into contact with the material to be coloured. The particles collect on the surface of the glass to be coloured mainly due to diffusion and thermophoresis. Owing to the large specific area of the particles, they diffuse and dissolve into the glass and provide to the glass a colour that is characteristic of the metal or metals in the particles. Due to the components that lower the melting point of the metal compounds in the particles, no crystalline or gauzy areas are formed in the glass, which would weaken the quality of the glass. [0033] FIG. 2 shows equipment for colouring glass with the method of the invention. The shown equipment is a flame spraying apparatus based on a flame provided by burning gas, but it is clear to a person skilled in the art that instead of a gas flame, the heat source (thermal reactor) can also be a plasma flame, for instance. [0034] The equipment 20 comprises a nozzle 21 that forms a flame 29 for spraying the colouring component 27 . The nozzle is preferably made up of nested pipes 22 a, 22 b, 22 c, 22 d, through which the components used in the spraying can be conveniently brought to the flame 29 . [0035] To produce the flame 29 , a combustion gas, such as hydrogen, is brought to the nozzle 21 from container 23 b through pipe 22 b serving as a feed channel. Correspondingly, the oxygen required for producing the flame is brought from container 23 c to feed pipe 22 c. Feed pipe 22 c can be connected to feed pipe 22 b, if a premixed flame is to be used. The combustion gas and oxygen flowing through the nozzle S form the flame 29 . To control reactions in the flame or in its vicinity, it is also possible to feed a protective gas to the process from container 23 a through feed channel 22 a. [0036] For the sake of simplicity, FIG. 2 only shows a situation, in which the component essential for colouring and the component essential for the formation of the eutectic mixture or partially eutectic mixture are already mixed or dissolved into the liquid to be atomised in container 23 d. Possible modifications to the device, such as arranging more liquid feeds, vapour feeds, or gas feeds by increasing the number of nested or adjacent pipes, or by connecting more containers to the same inlet, or by bubbling the component with combustion gases or a protective gas, are apparent to a person skilled in the art. [0037] In the device of FIG. 2 , the liquid to be sprayed is fed from chamber 23 d to supply channel 22 d. Along the supply channel, the liquid is directed to the nozzle S that sprays it and is shaped in a manner known per se to achieve the desired flow properties. The liquid flowing through the nozzle S is made into droplets 28 preferably with a gas flowing from supply channel 22 b . To achieve an as efficient droplet-to-nanoparticle transformation as possible, the diameter of the droplets must be at most 10 micrometers. Under the thermal energy released from the flame 29 , the droplets 28 form particles 27 that are preferably directed to the glass being doped. Owing to the large specific area of the particles, they diffuse and dissolve into the glass and produce into the glass the colour characteristic of the metal or metals in the particles. Due to the components that lower the melting point of the metal compounds in the particles, no crystalline or gauzy areas are formed in the glass, which would weaken the quality of the glass. [0038] The equipment 20 also comprises a control system 26 for controlling the operating parameters of the equipment in such a manner that as the droplets 29 and their contents evaporate and react/nucleate, the properties, such as content and particle size distribution, of the created particles 27 can be controlled. EXAMPLES p In the following, the invention will be described in more detail with examples. Example 1 Colouring Glass Blue with Cobalt [0039] It is known that cobalt oxide and silicon oxide form a eutectic mixture whose melting point is approximately 1377° C., i.e. approximately 400° C. lower than that of cobalt oxide. Such a mixture contains approximately 75% cobalt oxide and 25% silicon oxide. [0040] The raw material of cobalt oxide was prepared by dissolving 25 g cobalt nitrate hexahydrate, Co(NO 3 ) 2 •6H 2 O, into 100 ml methanol. This solution was fed to middle channel 22 d of the flame spraying equipment shown in FIG. 2 at 10 ml/min. The flame spraying equipment was positioned in such a manner that forming droplets and particles took place in an oven having a temperature of 600° C. Droplets were formed from the liquid by feeding hydrogen gas into channel 22 b at a volume flow of 20 l/min, whereby the speed of the hydrogen gas at the nozzle S was approximately 150 m/s. The fast hydrogen gas flow formed droplets of less than 10 micrometers of the liquid flow. Nitrogen gas was fed from channel 22 c at a flow rate of 15 l/min. Some of the nitrogen gas, approximately 5% of the volume flow, was first directed from feed bottle 23 c through a bubbler. The bubbler contained silicon tetrachloride, SiCl 4 , that evaporated with the nitrogen gas flow. After this, the nitrogen flow containing evaporated silicon tetrachloride was combined with the rest of the nitrogen flow and directed to channel 22 c. The temperature of silicon tetrachloride was adjusted so that silicon tetrachloride produced, in comparison with the cobalt nitrate flow, such a mass flow that the ratio of cobalt oxide and silicon oxide created in the process was 3:1. Oxygen gas was fed to channel 22 a at a volume flow of 10 l/min. The raw materials reacted in the flame and formed CoO—SiO 2 nanoparticles having an average diameter of approximately 30 nm. The particles partially agglomerated into particle chains. The particles were directed to flat glass that moved at a speed of 0.2 m/min in the 600-degree oven. The distance of the flame spraying equipment nozzle S from the surface of the glass was 155 mm. After the coating, the tensions in the glass were removed by keeping the glass for 15 minutes at a temperature of 500° C., after which the glass was cooled to room temperature during three hours. After the cooling, it could be seen that the glass had turned blue, and there was no gauze or crystalline materials in it. Example 2 Colouring Glass Grey with Nickel [0041] It is known that nickel oxide, NiO, and vanadium pentoxide, V 2 O 5 , form a mixture whose melting point at every mixture ratio is lower than the melting point of nickel oxide. In the exemplary test, nanoparticles were prepared containing approximately 60% nickel oxide and 40% vanadium pentoxide. The melting point of such a material is approximately 900° C., i.e. approximately 1000° C. lower than that of nickel oxide. [0042] The raw material of nickel oxide was prepared by dissolving 25 g hexahydrate of nickel nitrate, Ni(NO 3 ) 2 •6H 2 O, into 100 ml ethanol. The raw material of vanadium pentoxide was prepared by dissolving 2.9 g vanadium chloride, VCl 2 , into 100 ml ethanol. The solutions were then mixed together. This solution was fed to middle channel 22 d of the flame spraying equipment shown in FIG. 2 at 10 ml/min. The flame spraying equipment was positioned in such a manner that forming droplets and particles took place in an oven having a temperature of 600° C. Droplets were formed from the liquid by feeding hydrogen gas to channel 22 b at a volume flow of 20 l/min, whereby the speed of the hydrogen gas at the nozzle S was approximately 150 m/s. The fast hydrogen gas flow formed droplets of less than 10 micrometers of the liquid flow. Oxygen gas was fed to channel 22 a at a volume flow of 10 l/min. The raw materials reacted in the flame and formed NiO—V2O5 nanoparticles having an average diameter of approximately 30 nm. The particles partially agglomerated into particle chains. The particles were directed to flat glass that moved at a speed of 0.2 m/min in the 600-degree oven. The distance of the flame spraying equipment nozzle S from the surface of the glass was 155 mm. After the coating, the tensions in the glass were removed by keeping the glass for 15 minutes at a temperature of 500° C., after which the glass was cooled to room temperature during three hours. After the cooling, it could be seen that the glass had turned grey, and there was no gauze or crystalline materials in it. [0043] It is apparent to a person skilled in the art that as technology advances, the basic idea of the invention can be implemented in many ways. The invention and its embodiments are thus not limited to the examples described above, but may vary within the scope of the claims.

The invention relates to a method for doping and/or colouring glass. In the method a two- or three-dimensional layer is formed on the surface of the glass, and the layer is further allowed to diffuse and/or dissolve into the glass to change the transmission, absorption, reflection and/or scattering of the electromagnetic radiation of the glass. The layer of nanomaterial includes at least one component that causes the above-mentioned change and at least one component that lowers the melting point of the above-mentioned component causing the change.

TECHNICAL FIELD [0001] The invention relates to a method of predicting response to thalidomide in a multiple myeloma patient. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION [0002] Multiple Myeloma (MM) is a disease characterized by a proliferation of malignant plasma cells and a subsequent overabundance of monoclonal para-protein. Although Multiple Myeloma remains an incurable blood cancer the development of novel therapies has dramatically increased response rates and survival in the last 3 years. Despite major advances in our understanding of this complex disease a standard remission-induction therapeutic approach is taken to patients in similar categories of age and performance status in the great majority of centres. High dose chemotherapy with autologus stem cell transplant remains the standard therapy for younger patients (<65 yrs). [0003] Thalidomide is an oral drug that has been shown to be highly active against myeloma with the respond rate of range from different trials. Serious side effects observed with use of thalidomide in myeloma include thrombo-embolic disease and peripheral neuropathy. Neuropathy is irreversible and may be disabling if not detected early and drug stopped. Significant Thalidomide-related neuropathy can preclude the subsequent use of other potentially neurotoxic agents such as Bortezomib. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0004] Briefly, the invention provides a method of predicting response to thalidomide, or thalidomide analogs, in an individual with cancer, especially cancers for which thalidomide has been implicated as a treatment, such as Multiple Myeloma (MM). The method employs one or more of a panel of biomarkers that have been shown to be differentially expressed in cancer patients that respond to thalidomide (hereafter “Responders”) relative to cancer patients that do not respond to thalidomide (hereafter “Non-responders). The method involves assaying a biological sample from the individual to determine the abundance of at least one biomarker selected from the group consisting of: Vitamin-D binding protein precursor (VDB) (Sequence ID 1); zinc-alpha-2-glycoprotein (ZAG) (Sequence ID 2); Serum amyloid A protein (SAA) (Sequence ID 3); beta-2-microglobulin (B2M) (Sequence ID 4); and Haptoglobin (Hp) precursor (fragment) (Sequence ID 5). Correlation of the abundance value for the at least one biomarker with a reference abundance value from a Responder or Non-responder enables predication of response to thalidomide for the patient. [0005] Preferably, the abundance value(s) from the individual are correlated with reference abundance value(s) from a Responder. [0006] The term “Responders” should be understood to include individuals that demonstrate both complete response (CR) and those that demonstrate very good partial response (VGPR). The individual may be a human or a higher mammal, and may be Caucasian, and of European, Celtic and/or US origin. [0007] Thus, for the biomarkers VDB, ZAG, TYR, SAA, a significant increase in abundance of the biomarker relative to the level of expression of the biomarker in a Responder indicates that the patient is a Non-responder. For VDB and the cohort of patients chosen, a significant increase in abundance preferably means a ratio of sample abundance to reference Responder abundance of 1.31 (2D-DIGE) or greater, or 1.28 (ELISA) or greater (See Table 1). For the biomarker Hp and the cohort of patients chosen, a significant decrease in abundance of Hp relative to the abundance of Hp in a Responder indicates that the patient is a Non-responder. For Hp, a significant decrease in abundance preferably means a ratio of sample abundance to reference Responder abundance of −3.01 (2D-DIGE) or greater or −1.73 (ELISA) or greater (See Table 1). For the biomarker ZAG and the cohort of patients chosen, a significant increase in abundance of ZAG relative to the abundance of ZAG in a Responder indicates that the patient is a Non-responder. For ZAG, a significant increase in abundance preferably means a ratio of sample abundance to reference Responder abundance of 1.48 (2D-DIGE) or greater or 1.27 (ELISA) or greater (See Table 1). For the biomarker B2M and the cohort of patients chosen, a significant increase in abundance of B2M relative to the abundance of B2M in a Responder indicates that the patient is a Non-responder. For B2M, a significant increase in abundance preferably means a ratio of sample abundance to reference Responder abundance of 1.96 (2D-DIGE) or greater or 2.00 (ELISA) or greater (See Table 1). For the biomarker SAA and the cohort of patients chosen, a significant increase in abundance of SAA relative to the abundance of SAA in a Responder indicates that the patient is a Non-responder. For SAA, a significant increase in abundance preferably means a ratio of sample abundance to reference Responder abundance of 3.01 (2D-DIGE) or greater or 3.80 (ELISA) or greater (See Table 1). [0008] It will be appreciated that the determination of a significant difference between sample and reference values for any biomarker may vary from population to population, due to genetic heterogenicity, and also due to differing methods of detection. However, the invention is not restricted to any specific reference values for a given biomarkers, but is based on the detection of clinically significant modulation of abundance of biomarkers between a sample and reference values, be they reference values from Responders or Non-responders. [0009] In a preferred embodiment, the abundance of at least two biomarkers is determined. Examples of combinations of two biomarkers include: SAA+Hp; SAA+VDB; Hp+VDB; SAA+B2M; Hp+B2M; VDB+B2M. [0010] In a more preferred embodiment, the abundance of at least three biomarkers is determined. Examples of combinations of three biomarkers include: SAA+Hp+VDB; SAA+VDB+B2M; Hp+VDB+B2M; and SAA+B2M+Hp. In one embodiment, the combination of three biomarkers comprises two of SAA, Hp and VDB, and one selected from ZAG, TYR, and B2M, for example SAA+Hp+ZAG, SAA+VDB+ZAG, etc. [0011] In a more preferred embodiment, the abundance of at least four biomarkers is determined. Examples of combinations of four biomarkers include: SAA+Hp+VDB+ZAG; SAA+Hp+VDB+B2M; Hp+VDB+B2M+ZAG; and SAA+B2M+Hp+ZAG. In one embodiment, the combination of four biomarkers comprises SAA, Hp and VDB, and one selected from ZAG, TYR, and B2M, for example SAA+Hp+VDB+ZAG, SAA+Hp+VDB+B2M, SAA+Hp+VDB+TYR, etc. [0012] In a more preferred embodiment, the abundance of at least five biomarkers is determined. Examples of combinations of five biomarkers include: SAA+Hp+VDB+ZAG+B2M; SAA+Hp+VDB+ZAG+TYR; SAA+Hp+VDB+B2M+TYR; Hp+VDB+B2M+ZAG+TYR; and SAA+B2M+Hp+ZAG+TYR. In one embodiment, the combination of four biomarkers comprises SAA, Hp, VDB and ZAG, and one selected from TYR, and B2M, for example SAA+Hp+VDB+ZAG+TYR, or SAA+Hp+VDB+ZAG+B2M. [0013] In another embodiment, the abundance of the six biomarkers SAA+Hp+VDB+ZAG+B2M+TYR is determined. [0014] In a particularly preferred embodiment of the invention, the invention involves determining modulated abundance of at least three biomarkers comprising SAA and VDB, and at least one of ZAG, Hp and B2M. [0015] In one embodiment, the at least three biomarkers comprise SAA, VDB and ZAG, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from B2M and Hp (for example SAA+VDB+ZAG+B2M or SAA+VDB+ZAG+Hp). [0016] In another embodiment, the at least three biomarkers comprise SAA, VDB and Hp, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from ZAG and B2M (for example SAA+VDB+Hp+B2M). [0017] In another embodiment, the at least three biomarkers comprise SAA, VDB and B2M, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from ZAG and Hp. [0018] The invention also provides a kit of parts comprising diagnostic reagents capable of quantitative detection of a panel of biomarkers comprising least two biomarkers selected form the group consisting of: VDB, ZAG, TYR, SAA, B2M, and Hp, and instructions for the use of the reagents in determining the response of an individual with cancer, especially multiple myeloma, to thalidomide. Suitably, the kit comprises or consist essentially of diagnostic reagents capable of quantitative detection of 3, 4, 5 or 6 biomarkers. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the panel of biomarkers comprises at least three biomarkers comprising SAA and VDB, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from ZAG, Hp and B2M. In one embodiment, the panel of biomarkers comprises or consists essentially of SAA, VDB and ZAG, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from B2M and Hp (for example SAA+VDB+ZAG+B2M or SAA+VDB+ZAG+Hp). In another embodiment, the panel of biomarkers comprises or consists essentially of SAA, VDB and Hp, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from ZAG and B2M (for example SAA+VDB+Hp+B2M). In another embodiment, the panel of biomarkers comprises or consist essentially of SAA, VDB and B2M, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from ZAG and Hp. The or each diagnostic reagent is typically an antibody, or antibody fragment, capable of specifically binding to the target biomarker. Suitably, the kit is an ELISA immunoassay. [0019] Thus, in one specific embodiment, the invention relates to an immunoassay kit comprising a support having affixed thereon an antibodies, or antibody fragments, capable of specifically binding to a panel of biomarkers comprising at least 3, 4, 5 or 6 biomarker proteins selected from the group consisting of VDB, ZAG, TYR, SAA, B2M, and Hp, and means for quantitatively detecting specific binding between the antibodies, or antibody fragments, and biomarkers proteins. Preferably, the immunoassay kit is adapted for the specific detection of a panel of biomarkers comprising SAA and VDB and one or more of ZAG, Hp and B2M. In one embodiment, the immunoassay kit is adapted for the specific detection of a panel of biomarkers comprising or consisting essentially of SAA, VDB and ZAG, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from B2M and Hp (for example SAA+VDB+ZAG+B2M or SAA+VDB+ZAG+Hp). In another embodiment, the immunoassay kit is adapted for the specific detection of a panel of biomarkers comprising or consisting essentially of SAA, VDB and Hp, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from ZAG and B2M (for example SAA+VDB+Hp+B2M). In another embodiment, the immunoassay kit is adapted for the specific detection of a panel of biomarkers comprising or consisting essentially of SAA, VDB and B2M, and optionally one or more biomarkers selected from ZAG and Hp. [0020] The invention also relates to a method of treating an individual with a cancer of the type that is responsive to thalidomide, comprising a step of predicting the individuals response to thalidomide using the method of the invention, and when the individual is predicted to be a Responder, treating the individual with thalidomide, or when the individual is predicted to be a Non-response, treating the individual with a non-thalidomide therapy. [0021] In the methods of the invention, differential abundance may be determined by performing the assay in tandem with a reference sample (or samples) from patients known to be Responders, or with a reference sample (or samples) from patients known to be Non-responders). Generally differential expression is detected by comparing a value for one or more of the biomarkers from the patient sample with the value determined from the reference sample. In an alternative embodiment, the method may be performed by detecting absolute expression levels of one or more of the biomarkers from the patient sample, for example by quantitative ELISA, and comparing the value obtained with known values from Responders (or Non-responders) to detect differential expression. Table 3 below provides mean values for the biomarkers SAA, ZAG, VDB, Hp and B2M (μg/ml) for Responders and Non-responders. It will be appreciated that for different populations, the reference values (or cut-off values) may vary due to various factors, including population genetic differences. Correlating the differential abundance for a combination of biomarkers, for example SAA, VDB and SAA, with response can be carried out using a number of different statistical techniques. An example of a suitable algorithm is provided below. [0022] Generally speaking, the biomarker is a protein. However, the method of the invention may also be performed by detecting differential expression by other means, for example, the enumeration of mRNA copy number. [0023] Generally speaking, the biological sample is a blood sample, especially blood serum or plasma. However, other biological samples may also be employed, for example, cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, urine, or cell or tissue extracts. [0024] Generally speaking, the individual is a human, although the method of the invention is applicable to other higher mammals. The invention is especially useful in predicting response to thalidomide in newly diagnosed individuals, but is also applicable to patients that have established primary disease, and those with relapsed or refractory cancer. [0025] In this specification, the term “cancer” should be understood to mean a cancer that is responsive to thalidomide treatment in at least part of the population. An example of such a cancer is a haematological malignancy such as multiple myeloma, prostate cancer, glioblastoma, and lymphoma. Other cancers potentially responsive to thalidomide include: fibrosarcoma; myxosarcoma; liposarcoma; chondrosarcom; osteogenic sarcoma; chordoma; angiosarcoma; endotheliosarcoma; lymphangiosarcoma; lymphangioendotheliosarcoma; synovioma; mesothelioma; Ewing's tumor; leiomyosarcoma; rhabdomyosarcoma; colon carcinoma; pancreatic cancer; breast cancer; ovarian cancer; squamous cell carcinoma; basal cell carcinoma; adenocarcinoma; sweat gland carcinoma; sebaceous gland carcinoma; papillary carcinoma; papillary adenocarcinomas; cystadenocarcinoma; medullary carcinoma; bronchogenic carcinoma; renal cell carcinoma; hepatoma; bile duct carcinoma; choriocarcinoma; seminoma; embryonal carcinoma; Wilms' tumor; cervical cancer; uterine cancer; testicular tumor; lung carcinoma; small cell lung carcinoma; bladder carcinoma; epithelial carcinoma; glioma; astrocytoma; medulloblastoma; craniopharyngioma; ependymoma; pinealoma; hemangioblastoma; acoustic neuroma; oligodendroglioma; meningioma; melanoma; retinoblastoma; and leukemias. [0026] In this specification, the term “thalidomide” should be understood to mean drugs or pharmaceutical formulations comprising or consisting of the active thalidomide compound 2-(2,6-dioxopiperidin-3-yl)-1H-isoindole-1,3(2H)-dione. The term “thalidomide analogs” should be understood to mean close structural variants of thalidomide that have a similar biological activity such as, for example, lenalidomide (REVLIMID) ACTIMID™ (Celgene Corporation), and the compounds disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,712,291, W002068414, and W02008154252 (the complete contents of which are incorporated herein by reference). [0027] In this specification, the term “antibody” should be understood to mean an intact immunoglobulin or to a monoclonal or polyclonal antigen-binding fragment with the Fc (crystallizable fragment) region or FcRn binding fragment of the Fc region, referred to herein as the “Fc fragment” or “Fc domain”, which has a binding affinity for the target biomarker. Antigen-binding fragments may be produced by recombinant DNA techniques or by enzymatic or chemical cleavage of intact antibodies. Antigen-binding fragments include, inter alia, Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)2, Fv, dAb, and complementarity determining region (CDR) fragments, single-chain antibodies (scFv), single domain antibodies, chimeric antibodies, diabodies and polypeptides that contain at least a portion of an immunoglobulin that is sufficient to confer specific antigen binding to the biomarker polypeptide. The Fc domain includes portions of two heavy chains contributing to two or three classes of the antibody. The Fc domain may be produced by recombinant DNA techniques or by enzymatic (e.g. papain cleavage) or via chemical cleavage of intact antibodies. [0028] An immunoglobulin is typically a tetrameric molecule. As used herein, the term “immunoglobulin” refers to one or more chains of the tetrameric molecule. In a naturally occurring immunoglobulin, each tetramer is composed of two identical pairs of polypeptide chains, each pair having one “light” (about 25 kDa) and one “heavy” chain (about 50-70 kDa). The amino-terminal portion of each chain includes a variable region of about 100 to 110 or more amino acids primarily responsible for antigen recognition. The carboxy-terminal portion of each chain defines a constant region primarily responsible for effector function. Human light chains are classified as kappa and lambda light chains. Heavy chains are classified as mu, delta, gamma, alpha, or epsilon, and define the antibody's isotype as IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE, respectively. Within light and heavy chains, the variable and constant regions are joined by a “J” region of about 12 or more amino acids, with the heavy chain also including a “D” region of about 10 more amino acids. In human, there are in addition four IgG (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4) and two IgA subtypes present. The variable regions of each light/heavy chain pair form the antibody binding site such that an intact natural immunoglobulin has two binding sites. [0029] In this specification, the term “antibody fragment” should be understood to mean a single chain (sc) Fv or Fab fragment domain antibody that bind a biomarker of the claimed invention. Antibody fragments are produced by means of amplification in a suitable producer cell, for example Escherichia coli. An scFv antibody fragment is such that wherein the light chain variable region and heavy chain variable region are connected in series in a single molecule, usually by means of a linker. In this specification, the term “immunodetection” should be understood to mean an antibody labeled to facilitate detection. That is, where another molecule is incorporated in the antibody, for example, incorporation of a radiolabeled amino acid. Various methods of labeling are known in the art and may be used, for example, radioisotopes or radionuclides (e.g., 3 H, 14 C, 15 N, 35 S), fluorescent labels (e.g., FITC, rhodamine, lanthanide phosphors), enzymatic labels (e.g., horseradish peroxidase, beta-galactosidase, luciferase, alkaline phosphatase), chemiluminescent markers, biotinyl groups, predetermined polypeptide epitopes recognized by a secondary reporter (e.g., leucine zipper pair sequences, binding sites for secondary antibodies, metal binding domains, epitope tags), magnetic agents, such as gadolinium chelates, and toxins such as pertussis toxin, ethidium bromide, etoposide, vincristine, colchicin, doxorubicin, daunorubicin, dihydroxy anthracin dione, mitoxantrone, mithramycin, actinomycin D, 1-dehydrotestosterone, and analogs or homologs thereof. Procedures to detect such the binding of a labelled antibody to a target protein are well known to those skilled in the art, for example, western blotting, Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), immunofluorescence microscopy, magnetic immunoassay, and radioimmnuassay, and the like. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0030] FIG. 1 [0031] Statistical analysis of Hp & B2M respectively, using DeCyder BVA software. A & B display that these proteins were found to be decreased and increased respectively, in the immunodepleted serum from non-responders compared to responders. C & D also show gel images and 3-D views for Hp & B2M respectively, showing a clear change in expression levels. B2M: beta-2-microglobulin, Hp: Haptoglobin. [0032] FIG. 2 [0033] Displayed are the concentrations for the five differentially expressed proteins, obtained in duplicate for each patient using ELISAs. The box plots show the data for responder and non-responder patients. The horizontal lines within the boxes represent the median. The upper and lower box edges are the 1st and 3rd quartiles. The whiskers reach the nearest value within 1.5 times the inter quartile range. The points outside the whiskers are considered outliers. A. B2M: beta-2-microglobulin, B. VDB: Vitamin D binding protein, C. ZAG: Zinc alpha 2-glycoprotein, D. Hp: Haptoglobin, E. SAA: Serum Amyloid A protein. [0034] FIG. 3 [0035] Logistic regression analysis used to develop a predictive model for each individual differentially expressed protein. The performance of the models was assessed using ROC curves (A), and the AUC for each individual protein are shown (B). The best predictive ability for logistic regression model for single proteins was for B2M and SAA, with AUC values of 0.87 and 0.82, respectively. ZAG: Zinc alpha 2-glycoprotein, VDB: Vitamin D binding protein, SAA: Serum Amyloid A protein, B2M: beta-2-microglobulin, Hp: Haptoglobin. [0036] FIG. 4 [0037] ROC curve analysis using a combination of Hp, SAA and VDB. The best possible AUC was found with combined Hp, SAA and VDB, which yielded an AUC of 0.96 indicating excellent discriminatory power. Hp: Haptoglobin, SAA: Serum Amyloid A protein, VDB: Vitamin D binding protein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0038] Patients & Sample Collection: [0039] Serum samples from 51 consecutive newly diagnosed MM patients who were having initial treatment with thalidomide-based regimens were analyzed. Samples were obtained at diagnosis and prior to commencement of therapy. The samples were collected according to standard phlebotomy procedures from consented patients. Ethical consent was granted from the Mater Misericordiae University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland ethics committee. 10 ml of blood sample was collected into additive free blood tubes and was allowed to clot for 30 minutes to 1 hour at room temperature. Samples were coded and transported on ice to the laboratory. The serum was denuded by pipette from the clot and place into a clean tube. The tubes were centrifuged at 400 relative centrifugal force (rcf) for 30 minutes at 4° C. Serum was aliquoted in the cryovial tubes, labeled and stored at −80° C. until time of analysis. The time from sample procurement to storage at −80° C. was less than 3 hours. Each serum sample underwent no more than 3 freeze/thaw cycles prior to analysis. [0040] Removal of High Abundance Proteins from Serum Samples: [0041] Samples were prepared as outlined previously (Dowling P, O'Driscoll L, Meleady P, et al. Electrophoresis. 2007; 28:4302-4310). Briefly, diluted samples (Buffer A) were centrifuged to remove lipids and particulates. The Human Multiple Affinity Removal System (MARS) column was employed to remove 14 of the most abundant proteins (albumin, IgG, antitrypsin, IgA, transferrin, haptoglobin, fibrinogen, alpha2-macroglobulin, alpha1-acid glycoprotein, IgM, apolipoprotein AI, apolipoprotein AII, complement C3 and transthyretin). For each sample, a low abundance fraction was collected and concentrated using 5 kDa molecular weight cut-off spin concentrators (Agilent Technologies). The concentrated depleted serum samples were collected and immediately transferred and stored at −80° C. until further analysis. The depletion protocol was found to be reproducible as demonstrated by Western Blot analysis using an anti-albumin antibody, which confirmed the absence of albumin from the immunodepleted fraction (results not shown). [0042] Preparation for 2-D Electrophoresis: [0043] Proteins from the immunodepleted serum samples were precipitated prior to labeling using a 2-D Cleanup Kit (Biorad). The protein pellets were resuspended in ice-cold DIGE lysis buffer [20 mM Tris, 7 M Urea, 2 M Thiourea, 4% CHAPS pH 8.5]. Protein quantification was performed using the Quick Start Bradford Protein Assay (Biorad) absorbance at 595 nm using bovine serum albumin as a protein standard (Dowling P, O'Driscoll L, Meleady P, et al. Electrophoresis. 2007; 28:4302-4310). [0044] 2D-Difference Gel Electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) Labeling & Running: [0045] Depleted serum samples were labeled with N-hydroxy succinimidyl ester-derivatives of the cyanine dyes Cy2, Cy3, and Cy5 following a standard protocol (Dowling P, O'Driscoll L, Meleady P, et al. Electrophoresis. 2007; 28:4302-4310). Immobilized 24 cm linear pH gradient (IPG) strips, pH 3-11NL, were rehydrated in rehydration buffer (7M Urea, 2M Thiourea, 4% CHAPS, 0.5% IPG Buffer, 50 mM DTT) overnight, according to the standard guidelines (Dowling P, O'Driscoll L, Meleady P, et al. Electrophoresis. 2007; 28:4302-4310; and Nagalla S R, Canick J A, Jacob T, et al. J Proteome Res. 2007; 6:1245-1257). Iso-Electric-Focusing (IEF) was performed using an IPGphor apparatus (GE Healthcare) for a total of 40 kV/h at 20° C. Equilibrated IPG strips were transferred onto 12.5% uniform polyacrylamide gels poured between low fluorescence glass plates. Strips were overlaid with 0.5% w/v low-melting-point agarose in running buffer containing bromphenol blue. Gels were run using the Ettan Dalt 12 apparatus (GE Healthcare) at 2.5 W/gel for 30 minutes then 100 W in total at 10° C. until the dye front had run off the bottom of the gels. [0046] DeCyder Analysis: [0047] All of the gels were scanned using the Typhoon 9400 Variable Mode Imager (GE Healthcare) to generate gel images at the appropriate excitation and emission wavelengths from the Cy2, Cy3 and Cy5 labeled samples. The resultant gel images were cropped using the Image Quant software tool and imported into Decyder 6.5 software. The biological variation analysis (BVA) module of Decyder 6.5 was used to compare the immunodepleted serum from responders versus non-responders to generate lists of differentially expressed proteins (Dowling P, O'Driscoll L, Meleady P, et al. Electrophoresis. 2007; 28:4302-4310; and Huang J T, Wang L, Prabakaran S, et al. Mol Psychiatry. 2008; 13:1118-1128). The differential in gel analysis module was used to assign spot boundaries and to calculate parameters such as normalized spot volume. The BVA mode of DeCyder 6.5 was then used to match all pair use image comparisons from difference in-gel analysis for a comparative cross gel statistical analysis. At this stage operator intervention was required for the more accurate matching. If the matching in an area required correction, the current matches were broken and remade with the appropriate spots (Dowling P, O'Driscoll L, Meleady P, et al. Electrophoresis. 2007; 28:4302-4310; and Nagalla S R, Canick J A, Jacob T, et al. J Proteome Res. 2007; 6:1245-1257). [0048] Spot Digestion and Identification by Mass Spectrometry Analysis: [0049] Proteins of interest were robotically picked from preparative gels containing 400 mg of protein stained with Colloidal Coomassie Blue (CBB) stain (Sigma) using the Ettan Spot Picker robot (GE Healthcare). Tryptic digestions were performed on the proteins of interest according to standard protocols (Dowling P, O'Driscoll L, Meleady P, et al. Electrophoresis. 2007; 28:4302-4310). Tryptic digested proteins were analyzed by one-dimensional LC-MS using the Ettan MDLC system (GE Healthcare) in high-throughput configuration directly connected to a Finnegan LTQ (Thermo Electron). Samples were concentrated and desalted on RPC trap columns (Zorbax 300S B C18, 0.3 mm×5 mm, Agilent Technologies) and the peptides were separated on a nano-RPC column (Zorbax 300S B C18, 0.075 mm×100 mm, Agilent Technologies) using a linear acetonitrile gradient from 0% to 65% ACN (Sigma) over 60 minutes. All buffers used for nano LC separation contained 0.1% formic acid (Fluka) as the ion pairing reagent (Dowling P, Wormald R, Meleady P, Henry M, Curran A, Clynes M. J Proteomics. 2008; 71:168-175) [0050] Protein identification was performed using the Turbo-SEQUEST algorithm in the BioWorks 3.1 software package (Thermo Electron) and the Swiss-Prot human database (Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Geneva, Switzerland). The identified peptides were further evaluated using charge state versus cross-correlation number (XCorr). The criteria for positive identification of peptides was XCorr>1.5 for singly charged ions, XCorr>2.0 for doubly charged ions, and XCorr>2.5 for triply charged ions, together with a minimum of 2 matched peptides for each protein. [0051] Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): [0052] ELISAs were used to confirm the differential expression of the six potential biomarkers discovered using 2D-DIGE analysis. ELISA-based validation was carried out using raw unfractionated serum samples from the original cohort of patients. Each sample was analyzed in duplicate using the following commercially available kits, for the measurement of human serum amyloid A (Invitrogen), serum haptoglobin (AssayMax), zinc-alpha-2-glycoprotein (Bio-Vendor), beta-2-microglobulin and vitamin D binding protein (Immunodiagnostic) kits were used. The ELISA assays were performed according to each manufacturer's protocol and guidelines. The optical density (OD) was measured using a micro-plate reader (Bio-Tek) and the concentration of each protein in the serum samples were determined by comparing the OD of the samples against the respective standard curve provided by the kit. [0053] Statistical Analysis: [0054] DIGE gels were exported for image analysis using the Biological Variation Analysis (BVA) module of Decyder 6.5 software (GE Healthcare) for quantitation of protein abundance levels. Following confirmation of appropriate spot detection, matching, normalization and spot statistics were reviewed. The normalized volume of a spot was compared in all the gels between each group. Spots that were found to be statistically significant (t-test≦0.01) were selected for further analysis. [0055] Logistic regression and ROC curve analysis were carried out in the freely available statistical software R (http://www.r-project.org/). The ROC curves were used to interpret the utility of logistic regression models for various combinations of the differentially expressed (DE) proteins. The probability of correct prediction for a given model was calculated from the ROC curve by determining the area under curve (AUC). Thus the proteins and combinations of proteins returning the largest AUC values are deemed the most effective for the discrimination of responders from non-responders (Fu A Z, Cantor S B, Kattan M W. Use of Nomograms for Personalized Decision-Analytic Recommendations. Med Decis Making. 2009). [0056] Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) was also used as a criterion to select the best combination of biomarkers. AIC is a commonly used measure to select between competing statistical models. The AIC is a tradeoff between goodness of fit and model complexity i.e. the number of parameters required (in this case proteins). [0057] Sensitivity and specificity values were calculated for the best combination of biomarkers. Sensitivity is defined as the percentage of all non-responders who were refractory to a thalidomide-based treatment regime correctly identified as having this phenotype based on the panel of protein biomarkers (the true positive rate). Specificity is defined as the percentage of all responders who were sensitive to a thalidomide-based treatment regime correctly identified as having this phenotype based on the panel of protein biomarkers (the true negative rate). [0058] As an additional measure of the predictive potential of these biomarkers to accurately predict response to thalidomide-based therapy, a commonly used internal validation technique known as LOOCV was performed. During the LOOCV procedure data from a single observation is removed from the dataset and the remaining samples are then utilized to construct a logistic regression model. The “test” sample is presented to the trained model and the performance assessed, LOOCV continues until each observation is designated as the “test”. The average performance over the 51 tests is reported as the LOOCV accuracy. [0059] Results: [0060] Sample Set: [0061] The mean age of the patient group was 68 SD+/−6.95 years (range 52-81 years); 27 were male and 24 female. Based on Day-100 re-staging investigations and using the International Myeloma Working Group (IMWG) uniform response criteria (Rajkumar S V, Buadi F. Multiple myeloma: new staging systems for diagnosis, prognosis and response evaluation. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. 2007; 20:665-680; Durie B G, Harousseau J L, Miguel J S, et al. International uniform response criteria for multiple myeloma. Leukemia. 2006;20:1467-1473) for MM, 29 responders and 22 non-responders to thalidomide-based therapy were identified. The mean age was 66 SD+/−6.80 years (range, 52-81 years) for responders and 70 SD+/−6.69 years (range, 57-79 years) for non-responders. Based on the ISS classification (Hotta T. [Classification, staging and prognostic indices for multiple myeloma]. Nippon Rinsho. 2007; 65:2161-2166), 6 responding patients had stage I, 15 had stage II and 8 had stage III disease. Two responders had stage I, 11 had stage II and 9 had stage III disease. In the responders group, 24 patients were treated with thalidomide and dexamethasone (TD), 3 with thalidomide, cyclophosphamide and dexamethasone (CTD) and 2 with melphalan, prednisone and thalidomide (MPT). In the non-responder group, 17 patients received TD, 4 received CTD and 1 patient received MPT. Median follow-up was 13 months (range, 6-21 months). In the responder group, 9 patients achieved complete response (CR) and 20 achieved very good partial response (VGPR). Five non-responders had Stable disease (SD) and the remaining 17 had Progressive disease (PD) (Table I). [0062] Proteomic Profiling: [0063] Proteins were precipitated from the low abundance immunodepleted fraction, resuspended in lysis buffer, fluorescently labeled, and analyzed by 2D-DIGE using an internal standard design. This analysis was performed on 39 newly diagnosed MM patients (22 responders; 17 non-responders). Spot maps were generated and maps were aligned with a master spot map; relative abundance values were generated for each of 886 protein spots that were common to more than 90 percent of gels. Based on 2D-DIGE analysis, protein spots with a fold change of ≧1.25 in abundance level and a t-test of ≦0.01 were selected. Using these criteria, five individual differentially expressed proteins spots were detected. Four proteins were increased in abundance level, and one was decreased in abundance level in thalidomide non-responders compared to responders. FIG. 1 shows DeCyder analysis for B2M & Hp, indicating that these proteins were increased and decreased in abundance levels respectively, between non-responders and responders to thalidomide based therapy. Gel images and 3-D protein spot views for Hp & B2M are also displayed, demonstrating a clear difference in the abundance levels ( FIG. 1 ). [0064] Protein Identification: [0065] Subsequently, these proteins of interest were identified by LC-MS/MS using an ion trap LTQ mass spectrometer and searched against the SWISS PROT database using SEQUEST. The serum Haptoglobin fragment (Hp), which was the only protein found to have a lower abundance level in non-responders compared to responders, was identified by LC-MS/MS resulting in 9 matched peptide corresponding to a sequence coverage of 11.58 percentage (%) (Table II). Proteins found to have higher abundance level between non-responders and responders to thalidomide based therapy were Zinc alpha 2-glycoprotein (ZAG), Vitamin D binding protein (VDB), Serum Amyloid A protein (SAA), and beta-2-microglobulin (B2M). These proteins were identified by LC-MS/MS resulting in 10, 20, 4, and 3 matched peptides respectively, corresponding to a 37.63, 53.59, 48.36 and 35.29 percentage (%) sequence coverage, respectively (Table II). [0066] DeCyder Ratios, ELISA Data and ROC Curve Analysis: [0067] In this study, ELISA-based assays were used to measure the levels of the five candidate marker proteins in serum from thalidomide responders and non-responders (Table III). The ELISA-based assays were performed on a larger cohort compared to the 2D-DIGE analysis, consisting of 51 consecutive MM patients (29 responders; 22 non-responders). The 5 differentially expressed protein concentrations were measured in duplicate for each patient. The box plots show the data for responders and non-responders ( FIG. 2 ). The horizontal line within the boxes represents the median. The upper and lower box edges are the 1st and 3rd quartiles. The whiskers reach the nearest value within 1.5 times the inter-quartile range. The points outside the whiskers are considered outliers; however, no outlier value was removed from our analysis. [0068] In clinical practice, it is rare that a chosen cut off point for a single analyte will achieve perfect discrimination between various groups of patients, and one has to select the best compromise between sensitivity and specificity by comparing the diagnostic performance of different tests or diagnostic criteria available. Accordingly, the suitability of a panel of proteins for potential clinical application was assessed using logistic regression ROC curves to report the AUC of each test. ROC curves allow systematic analysis of the diagnostic performance of a test, a comparison of the performance of different tests, and the AUC provides a summary measure of the utility of the model. The potential impact of the use of ZAG, SAA, VDB, B2M and Hp as single or combination biomarkers for distinguishing between responders and non-responders to thalidomide based therapy in MM patients were assessed. The ELISA values for each of these five proteins were used to develop LR models and the subsequent ROC curves generated ( FIG. 3 ) and the AUC determined. [0069] 2D-DIGE and ELISA analysis showed that ZAG had a 1.48 (p=0.0000022) and a 1.27 (p=0.00398) fold increase in abundance levels in non-responders compared to responders, respectively (Table II). The ROC curve generated from the ELISA data for ZAG showed an AUC of 0.76 as an individual protein ( FIG. 3 ). Results for SAA showed a 3.01 (p=0.006) fold increase in abundance levels for non-responders compared to responders using 2D-DIGE protein profiling analysis. This result correlated strongly with data from the ELISA analysis, indicating a 3.80 (p=0.00016) fold increase in SAA abundance levels in non-responders compared to responders (Table II). ROC curves calculated from this ELISA data showed an AUC of 0.82 ( FIG. 3 ), indicating excellent discriminatory power for this single protein. SAA is a sensitive marker of inflammation. In the 22 non-responder patients studied in this project, none had evidence of infection or fever at the time of sampling; out of 29 responder patients, 1 had an infection resulting in mild fever. Therefore, the SAA elevation in the non-responder patients appeared to be unrelated to infection or inflammation. [0070] Hp is normally removed by the immunodepletion column; however, using 2D-DIGE analysis followed by LC-MS/MS, a ˜10 kDa haptoglobin fragment was identified. The inventors suggest that this Hp fragment was not removed due to its size and non-interaction with the specific Hp antibody in the affinity column, and hence it was detected in the 2D-DIGE analysis. In the protein profiling analysis, the Hp fragment was found to be 3.01 (p=0.0015) fold decreased in serum from non-responders compared to responders. As intact Hp was removed from this analysis because of the immunodepletion column, it was decided to investigate this protein using an ELISA-based assay approach. Data from the ELISA analysis for intact Hp showed a 1.73 (p=0.03241) fold decrease in abundance levels in non-responders compared to responder. ROC curves were generated from the ELISA data which showed an AUC of 0.64 ( FIG. 3 ). The decrease in abundance of the Hp fragment seen in thalidomide-non-responders compared to responders using 2D-DIGE analysis displayed a similar trend to that of the intact Hp detected by ELISA analysis in the unfractionated serum samples (Table II). [0071] 2D-DIGE data and ELISA results showed a 1.96 (p=0.0015) and 2.00 (p=0.00118) fold increase, respectively, in the abundance level of B2M from non-responders compared to responders. The ROC curve generated from this data showed an AUC of 0.87, indicating excellent discriminatory power for this protein ( FIG. 3 ). The VDB protein level from 2D-DIGE analysis and ELISA data showed a 1.31 (p=0.00044) and 1.28 (p=0.02045) fold increase in abundance levels, respectively, from non-responders compared to responders (Table II). ROC curves were generated from the ELISA data and showed an AUC of 0.70 ( FIG. 3 ). [0072] Logistic Regression (LR): [0073] Initially, LR was used to develop predictive models for each individual differentially expressed protein ( FIG. 3 ). The best predictive single proteins from the LR model were B2M and SAA, with AUC values of 0.87 and 0.82, respectively. The remaining single protein model had AUC values less than 0.7, indicating poorer predictive ability ( FIG. 3 ). The predictive capability of models developed based upon combinations of proteins was also assessed. LR models were constructed and ROC analysis carried out on all possible permutations of the differentially expressed proteins. Successful combinations of biomarkers from this analysis for predicting response to thalidomide based therapy, were found to be Hp, SAA, VDB (AUC=0.96, LOOCV=84.31, AIC=35.26), ZAG, B2M, SAA, VDB (AUC=0.96, LOOCV=84.31, AIC=37.02) and B2M, SAA, VDB (AUC=0.94, LOOCV=84.31, AIC=36.59). The combination of Hp, SAA, VDB was found to be successful based on the values from the AUC, LOOCV and AIC analyses as shown ( FIG. 4 ). The sensitivity and specificity of this model was 81.81% and 86.20%, respectively. The combination of SAA, VDB and ZAG yielded an AUC of 0.96 indicating outstanding predictive capability. [0074] In this analysis, CRP level at diagnosis was also assessed but did not improve the predictive capability of this model. CRP was found to have a mean of 10.4+/−17.7 μg/ml in responders compared to 12.1+/−23.6 μg/ml in non-responders (p=0.770749339). CRP was found to have an AUC of 0.4, indicating no discriminatory power for predicting response to thalidomide based therapy. [0075] Calculation of Non-Response Probability: [0076] The equation below allows for the calculation of the probability (p) of a patient being a non-responder based on the serum concentrations of ZAG, Hp and VDB as determined using ELISAs. Each protein concentration in μg/ml is first multiplied by the regression coefficient (derived from the fitted model) as per the equation below. If the resulting value of p is below 0.5, response to thalidomide is predicted and if the value is above 0.5 non-response to thalidomide is predicted. [0000] p = 1 1 +  - ( ( - 0.001037 × Hp ) + ( 0.017653 × SAA ) + ( 0.013311 × VDB ) - 8.603880 ) [0000] TABLE I Day-100 Patients Patients Clinical ‘ISS’ IMWG Response to Follow Age Sex Stage re-staging thalidomide up-months Responders 73 F III VGPR R 17 66 M II CR R 16 58 F III CR R 16 67 M II VGPR R 12 59 M III VGPR R 18 67 M III CR R 16 72 M III CR R 13 60 M II CR R 19 71 F II VGPR R 13 69 M I VGPR R 12 61 F II CR R 19 74 F I VGPR R 13 70 F II VGPR R 14 61 F I VGPR R 12 77 M II VGPR R 14 63 M I CR R 14 58 F I VGPR R 15 59 F I VGPR R 14 64 M II CR R 12 63 F II VGPR R 21 65 M II VGPR R 8 70 M III VGPR R 7 66 F II CR R 8 80 M II VGPR R 7 66 F II VGPR R 10 81 F III VGPR R 6 52 M III VGPR R 11 64 M II VGPR R 6 68 F II VGPR R 6 Non-Responders 72 F II PD NR 16 74 M III PD NR 12 71 M III PD NR 19 65 M II PD NR 11 70 M III PD NR 17 63 F III PD NR 14 72 M III PD NR 16 63 M II SD NR 11 78 M II PD NR 10 79 F II PD NR 15 57 F III PD NR 10 77 M III PD NR 12 78 F II PD NR 15 64 F II PD NR 21 65 F I SD NR 20 73 F III PD NR 18 78 M II SD NR 11 61 F II SD NR 12 76 F III PD NR 9 77 M II PD NR 11 62 M I PD NR 8 69 M II SD NR 6 Table I: This table outlines the clinical details for the patients included in this study, including their age, sex, ISS (International Staging System), Day 100 restaging results based on IMWG uniform response criteria for MM. The last column shows duration of follow-up in months. Abbreviations; CR: complete response, VGPR: very good partial response, SD: stable disease, PD: Progressive disease, IMWG: International Myeloma Working Group, R: Responders to thalidomide-based therapy, NR: Non-responders to thalidomide-based therapy, M: male, F: female. [0000] TABLE II No. of Matched DeCyder ELISA Protein Name M.W. (Da) Peptides % Coverage DeCyder Ratio p-value ELISA Ratio p-value Vitamin D-binding protein (VDB) 52930 20 53.59 1.31 0.00044 1.28 0.02045 Haptoglobin fragment (Hp) 45177 9 11.58 −3.01 0.0017 1.73 0.03241 Zinc-alpha-2-glycoprotein (ZAG) 33851 10 37.63 1.48 0.0000022 1.27 0.00398 Beta-2-microglobulin (B2M) 13706 3 35.29 1.96 0.0015 2 0.00118 Serum Amyloid A Protein (SAA) 13524 4 48.36 3.01 0.006 3.8 0.00016 Table II: Listed are the protein identities obtained by LC-MS/MS analysis, molecular weight (M.W.), number of matched peptides related to the protein, % coverage of the protein sequence identified, DeCyder ratio with associated p-value (immunodepleted serum) and ELISA ratio (NR/R) with associated p-value (unfractionated serum). The DeCyder ratio for Hp is the ~10 kDa fragment identified in the 2D-DIGE analysis while the ELISA ratio is based on the intact form of this protein. LC-MS/MS: Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry [0000] TABLE III B2M VDB ZAG Hp SAA Samples μg/ml μg/ml μg/ml μg/ml μg/ml Responders 1 83.7 587 46.9 473 4 2 47.5 429.6 76.6 1294 47.8 3 54.2 564.8 38.4 482 22.5 4 609.4 449.1 38.3 81 12.1 5 52.4 782.4 64.8 2121 45.6 6 79.2 765.7 67.8 5550 14.9 7 279.4 718.5 49.2 2044 66 8 92.4 750.9 55.1 692 11.9 9 63.8 596.3 61.3 7219 138.6 10 51.1 587 44 3378 196.3 11 98.1 525 42.5 1355 26.2 12 91.9 456.5 52.9 1746 15.2 13 99.4 604.6 58.1 3621 33.9 14 190.6 517.6 52.1 7939 26.1 15 46.7 449.1 43.5 1662 71.8 16 109.8 670.4 49.4 2676 5 17 72 410.2 67.7 4381 478.9 18 56.7 576.9 74.8 3941 40.5 19 80 326 36 4085 16.5 20 29.8 565.1 41.1 1712 67.8 21 40.4 440.9 20.7 2687 55.7 22 70.8 597.9 51 3268 68.1 23 105.3 193.2 43.8 978 40.8 24 29.9 223.4 32.8 1289 22.6 25 52.1 338.4 21.1 1567 35.3 26 140.3 787 46.4 12126 125 27 105.3 374 90.2 1211 227.1 28 55.1 580.9 37.9 2090 47.8 29 83.7 232 41.6 1083 127.7 Mean 102.5 520.7 49.9 2853.5 72.1 S.E.M. 21.8 32.7 3 510.8 18.9 S.D. 109.9 165.3 15.8 2617.3 95.9 Non-Responders 30 50.7 469.4 88.3 1111 491.7 31 215.4 768.5 62.2 554 59.1 32 142.2 710.2 79.1 3556 114.6 33 102.1 676.9 57.3 614 30.5 34 128.7 749.1 49.2 3189 165.2 35 196.3 561.1 68.5 1200 433.9 36 321.9 875.9 43.4 2242 494 37 155.4 864.8 66.5 2249 31 38 235.9 630.6 55.6 3261 375.1 39 107 638.9 65.7 1974 411.3 40 305.4 532.4 53.6 2772 83.2 41 431.4 558.3 73.1 255 34.8 42 455.3 601.4 75.1 260 134.8 43 150.2 712.1 80.1 664 120.7 44 198.8 580.2 72.6 1140 448.8 45 248.2 628.8 60.3 2382 380 46 118.5 699.2 55.3 1436 124.4 47 202.5 1277.1 90.2 1567 66.2 48 128.5 1051.1 64.8 1156 453.4 49 237.8 668.3 62.3 573 377.8 50 188 187 17.8 458 585 51 189.1 179 54.2 3755 614.8 Mean 205 664.6 63.4 1653.1 274.1 S.E.M. 20.5 54.5 4.1 216.2 39 S.D. 101.2 237.9 15.8 1121.1 201.4 p 0.001 0.02 0.004 0.032 0.000163 Table III: Using ELISA, the five differentially expressed protein concentrations were measured in duplicate for each patient. This table also shows the mean, standard error of the mean (SEM), standard deviation (SD) and the p-value for each protein. B2M: beta-2-microglobulin, VDB: Vitamin D binding protein, ZAG: Zinc alpha 2-glycoprotein, Hp: Haptoglobin, SAA: Serum Amyloid A protein. [0000] TABLE IV Patients Patients Clinical Day-100 Clinical LOOCV Predicted Age Sex Stage ‘ISS’ re-staging Classification P(NR) Classification Responders 73 F III VGPR R 0.259 R 66 M II CR R 0.034 R 58 F III CR R 0.264 R 67 M II VGPR R 0.085 R 59 M III VGPR R 0.692 NR 67 M III CR R 0.021 R 72 M III CR R 0.552 NR 60 M II CR R 0.809 NR 71 F II VGPR R 0.003 R 69 M I VGPR R 0.345 R 61 F II CR R 0.076 R 74 F I VGPR R 0.017 R 70 F II VGPR R 0.025 R 61 F I VGPR R 0 R 77 M II VGPR R 0.046 R 63 M I CR R 0.092 R 58 F I VGPR R 0.952 NR 59 F I VGPR R 0.014 R 64 M II CR R 0 R 63 F II VGPR R 0.17 R 65 M II VGPR R 0.011 R 70 M III VGPR R 0.059 R 66 F II CR R 0.002 R 80 M II VGPR R 0.001 R 66 F II VGPR R 0.006 R 81 F III VGPR R 0 R 52 M III VGPR R 0.36 R 64 M II VGPR R 0.106 R 68 F II VGPR R 0.013 R Non-Responders 72 F II PD NR 0.994 NR 74 M III PD NR 0.878 NR 71 M III PD NR 0.161 R 65 M II PD NR 0.519 NR 70 M III PD NR 0.674 NR 63 F III PD NR 0.995 NR 72 M III PD NR 1 NR 63 M II SD NR 0.7 NR 78 M II PD NR 0.951 NR 79 F II PD NR 0.994 NR 57 F III PD NR 0.01 R 77 M III PD NR 0.19 R 78 F II PD NR 0.791 NR 64 F II PD NR 0.902 NR 65 F I SD NR 0.997 NR 73 F III PD NR 0.981 NR 78 M II SD NR 0.786 NR 61 F II SD NR 1 NR 76 F III PD NR 1 NR 77 M II PD NR 0.998 NR 62 M I PD NR 0.974 NR 69 M II SD NR 0.336 R Table IV: This table outlines the clinical details of the patients included in this study, including their age, sex, clinical stage based on ISS (International Staging System), Day-100 restaging based on IMWG (International Myeloma Working Group) uniform response criteria for multiple myeloma and clinical classification of response to thalidomide. The last two columns summarize the leave-one-out cross validation (LOOCV) analysis. If the resulting value of p is below 0.5, response to thalidomide is predicted and if the value is above 0.5 non-response to thalidomide is predicted. [0000] TABLE V Patients Patients Clinical Day-100 Clinical Induction 2nd Line Follow Age Sex Stage ‘ISS’ re-staging Classification Therapy Treatment up months Current status Responders 73 F III VGPR R MPT N/A 17 VGPR 58 F III CR R TD SCT 16 CR 67 M II VGPR R TD N/A 12 VGPR 59 M III VGPR R TD BORT & SCT 18 VGPR 67 M III CR R TD LEN 16 CR 72 M III CR R TD N/A 13 CR 60 M II CR R TD SCT 19 CR 71 F II VGPR R CTD N/A 13 VGPR 69 M I VGPR R TD N/A 12 VGPR 61 F II CR R TD SCT 19 CR 74 F I VGPR R TD BORT 13 VGPR 70 F II VGPR R TD BORT 14 CR 61 F I VGPR R TD SCT 12 VGPR 77 M II VGPR R MPT N/A 14 VGPR 63 M I CR R TD N/A 14 CR 59 F I VGPR R TD N/A 14 SCT 64 M II CR R CTD N/A 12 CR 63 F II VGPR R TD BORT & SCT 21 VGPR 65 M II VGPR R TD SCT 8 VGPR 70 M III VGPR R TD N/A 7 VGPR 66 F II CR R CTD N/A 8 VGPR 80 M II VGPR R TD N/A 7 VGPR 66 F II VGPR R TD BORT 10 VGPR 81 F III VGPR R TD N/A 6 VGPR 52 M III VGPR R TD SCT 11 CR 64 M II VGPR R TD Awaiting SCT 6 VGPR Non-Responders 72 F II PD NR TD BORT 16 VGPR 74 M III PD NR MPT BORT + LEN 12 VGPR 71 M III PD NR TD LEN 19 CR 65 M II PD NR TD BORT + SCT 11 CR 70 M III PD NR CTD LEN 17 VGPR 63 F III PD NR TD BORT + SCT 14 VGPR 72 M III PD NR CTD BORT 16 NR 63 M II SD NR TD LEN 11 VGPR 78 M II PD NR CTD LEN 10 NR 79 F II PD NR TD VEL 15 VGPR 57 F III PD NR TD VEL + SCT 10 VGPR 77 M III PD NR TD REFUSE 12 RIP 78 F II PD NR TD LEN 15 VGPR 64 F II PD NR TD VEL + SCT 21 VGPR 65 F I SD NR TD VEL 20 NR 73 F III PD NR CTD VEL + LEN 18 VGPR 78 M II SD NR TD VEL 11 NR 61 F II SD NR TD VEL & SCT 12 NR 76 F III PD NR TD VEL 9 NR 77 M II PD NR TD LEN 11 VGPR 62 M I PD NR TD VEL 8 VGPR 69 M II SD NR TD LEN 6 PD Table V: This table outlines the clinical details of the patients included in this study, including their age, sex, clinical stage based on ISS (International Staging System), Day-100 restaging based on IMWG (International Myeloma Working Group) uniform response criteria for multiple myeloma and clinical classification of response to thalidomide. Also included in this table are details for thalidomide-based induction regiment, second line treatment, duration of follow-up in months and the current clinical status. Abbreviations: CR: complete response, VGPR: very good partial response, SD: stable disease, PD: progressive disease, IMWG: International Myeloma Working Group, R: Responders to thalidomide, NR: Non-responders to thalidomide, BORT: Bortezomib, LEN: Lenalidomide, SCT: Stem Cell Transplant, M: male, F: female, N/A: Not applicable, RIP: Rest in Peace. TD: thalidomide and dexamethasone, CTD: cyclophosphamide, thalidomide, and dexamethasone, MPT: melphalan, prednisone and thalidomide [0077] The invention is not limited to the embodiments hereinbefore described which may be varied in construction and detail without departing from the spirit of the invention.

A method of predicting response to thalidomide, or thalidomide analogs, in an individual with cancer, especially cancers for which thalidomide has been implicated as a treatment, such as Multiple Myeloma (MM) employs one or more of a panel of biomarkers that have been shown to be differentially expressed in cancer patients that respond to thalidomide (hereafter “Responders”) relative to cancer patients that do not respond to thalidomide (hereafter “Non-responders). The method involves assaying a biological sample from the individual to determine the abundance of at least three biomarkers including Vitamin-D binding protein precursor (VDB) (Sequence ID 1) and Serum amyloid A protein (SAA) (Sequence ID 3), and at least one of beta-2-microglobulin (B2M) (Sequence ID 4), Haptoglobin (Hp) precursor (fragment) (Sequence ID 5), and zinc-alpha-2-glycoprotein (ZAG) (Sequence ID 2). Correlation of the abundance value for the at least three biomarkers with a reference abundance value from a Responder or Non-responder enables predication of response to thalidomide for the patient.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/669,411 filed Apr. 7, 2005, where this provisional application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] The present invention discloses compounds and methods to treat patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The administration of these compounds results in inhibition of amyloidosis and prevention of death of pancreatic β-cells. [0004] 2. Description of the Related Art [0005] Islet cell amyloidosis (IA) is a basic characteristic of the pathology T2DM that is associated with the death of pancreatic β-cells (Kahn et al. Diabetes 1999, 48:241-53; Hopener et al. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 2002, 197:205-212; O'Brien, Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2002, 197:213-219). As a consequence, β-cell mediated insulin secretion is reduced, aggravating the hyperglycemic diabetic state (Hopener et al. 2002, supra). Drugs currently available on the market do not prevent IA. A recent study in the UK analyzed the effects (11 year follow-up) of oral glycemic control agents on β-cell function and concluded that IA deposition is not diminished, and may possibly even be aggravated, and that patient β-cell function deteriorates irrespective of treatment (Turner, Diabetes Care 1998, 21:C35-C38). Thus there is a clear need for new anti-IA therapy. [0006] The deposition of islet amyloid IA within β-cells of the pancreas is one of the main characteristics of T2DM pathology with an incidence of up to 96% (Westermark, Int J Exp Clin Invest. 1994, 1:47-60). IA has been described in humans, non-human primates and cats but is not found in rat, mouse, rabbit, hamster, hare or dog (Hopener et al. 2002, supra). In 1987 the structure of the main component of IA was determined independently by Westermark and Cooper and designated Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP) or Amylin (Cooper et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1987, 84:8628-8632; Westermark et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1987, 84:3881-3885). It is believed that IAPP, along with insulin and glucagon, is an active islet hormone involved in the metabolic control of glucose metabolism. IAPP is co-secreted with insulin from β-cells of the pancreas. Transformation of IAPP monomers from the alpha-helix (α-helix) to beta-sheet (β-sheet) conformation results in the formation of toxic IAPP fibrils, death of β-cells and subsequent accumulation of IA (Hopener et al. 2002, supra). Thus the transformation of IAPP impairs insulin release and aggravates the pathology of diabetes. [0007] Reported results of studies support the relationship between IAPP, IA and β-cell death. First, in separate studies 13 of 15 (87%), 20 of 26 (77%) and 22 of 24 (92%) T2DM patients exhibited pancreatic IA compared to 0 of 10 (0%) and 1 of 14 (7%) in controls (Gebre-Medhin et al., Diabetologia 2000, 43:687-695; Clark et al. Lancet 1987, 2:231-234; Clark et al. Diabetologia 1990, 33:285-289). In human diabetics with cystic fibrosis (CF), IA incidence was reported to be 69%, compared to 17% and 0% in borderline T2DM patients and non-diabetic controls, respectively (Iannucci et al. Hum Pathol. 1984, 15:278-284). IA occupies up to 80% of islets in T2DM patients (Clark et al. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 1995, 28:S39-S47). The density of pancreatic β-cells is decreased by 24% (P<0.05) while α-cell density increased by 58% (P<0.001) in T2DM subjects compared to controls (Gebre-Medhin et al. 2000, supra). Modest differences have also been reported in the incidence of IA in T2DM (100%) compared to control (60%) subjects (Westermark et al. Diabetologia 1978, 15:417-421). However, the volume of islets completely free from amyloid in diabetic subjects was 0.41±0.03 cm 3 compared to 1.58±0.16 cm 3 in non-diabetics subjects (P<0.05). [0008] Second, in humans the presence of IAPP-induced IA is associated with the loss of 24% to 50% of pancreatic β-cells (Clark et al. Diabetes Res. 1988, 9:151-159; Couce et al. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996, 81:1267-1272). This conclusion was confirmed with respect to differentiation between obese and lean human subjects (Butler et al. Diabetes 2003, 52:2304-2314). Obese subjects with T2DM exhibited a 63% deficit in relative β-cell volume compared to non-diabetic obese subjects (P<0.01), whereas lean subjects with T2DM exhibited a 41% decrease in relative β-cell volume compared to non-diabetic lean controls (P<0.05). The observed decreased β-cell volume in patients with T2DM was due to a specific decrease in the number of β-cells rather than a generalized decrease of total cell volume. The frequency of apoptotic (cell-death) events (frequency of β-cell apoptosis/relative volume of β-cells) was 3 times higher in obese subjects with T2DM compared to obese controls (P<0.05) and 10 times higher in lean T2DM subjects compared to lean controls (P<0.05). IA has been observed in 81% of obese T2DM cases compared to 10% in obese controls (P<0.01) and in 88% of lean T2DM cases compared to 13% of lean controls (P<0.01). The frequency and extent of Congo red birefringence of islets (visual measure of IAPP fibril formation and IA deposition) was also significantly higher in obese and lean T2DM patients compared to appropriate controls. [0009] Finally, similar links between IAPP, IA and β-cell death have been demonstrated in various animal models of T2DM. In cats the presence of IA is associated with the loss of up to 50% of β-cells (O'Brien et al. J Comp Pathol. 1986, 96:357-359). Obese non-transgenic mice do not develop diabetes. They adapt to insulin resistance through a 9-fold increase (P<0.001) in β-cell mass that results from a 1.7-fold increase in islet neogenesis (P<0.05) and a 5-fold increase in β-cell replication per islet (P<0.001) compared to non-obese controls. Obese transgenic mice expressing the human IAPP (hIAPP) gene develop midlife diabetes with islet amyloid and an 80% (P<0.001) decrease in β-cell mass that is not compensated for. The mechanism subserving the failed expansion was a 10-fold increase in β-cell apoptosis compared to controls (P<0.001). The frequency of β-cell apoptosis correlates with the rate of increase of IAPP fibril formation and IA, but not to the extent of islet amyloid or the blood glucose concentration (Butler et al. 2003, supra). Additional studies with hIAPP transgenic mice have demonstrated that amyloid severity (amyloid area/islet area) inversely correlates with viable β-cell densities (r=−0.59, P<0.0001) (Wang et al. Diabetes 2001, 50:2514-2520). [0010] The development of IA correlates with the development of T2DM. [0011] Studies with Macaca nigra , a species of old world monkey that develops spontaneous IA and T2DM, have shown that initially IA reduces insulin secretion associated with mild impairments of glucose tolerance without changes in fasting glucose concentrations. Long term studies in the same species indicated continued IA associated with a further reduced insulin secretion profile and deterioration of glucose tolerance. The development of fasting hyperglycemia was a late occurring phenomenon and appeared in animals with substantial IA (Howard C F, Jr. Diabetologia 1986, 29:301-306). Macaca mulatta were followed during an entire life span and post-mortem pancreatic tissue from 26 monkeys were examined (de Koning et al. Diabetologia 1993, 36:378-384). Four groups of animals were studied: group I, young (<10 years), lean and normoglycemic; group II, older (>10 years), lean or obese, normoglycemic; group III, normoglycemic and hyperinsulinemic; and group IV, diabetic. Islet sizes were larger in animals from groups III (P<0.01) and IV (P<0.0001) compared to groups I and II. Amyloid was absent in group I (0%), but small deposits were present in 3 of 9 group II animals (33%) and in 4 of 6 group III animals (75%) and occupied between 0.03% and 45% of the islet area. Amyloid was present in 8 of 8 group IV animals (100%) and occupied between 37% and 81% of islet area. Every islet was affected in 7 of 8 diabetic monkeys (88%). It was concluded that islet amyloid appears to precede the development of overt diabetes in Macaca mulatta and is likely to be a factor in the destruction of islet cells and onset of hyperglycemia. IA has also been demonstrated in 79% of diabetic cats, 44% of cats with impaired glucose tolerance and 25% of normal cats (Johnson K H et al. Am. J. Pathol. 1989, 135:245-250). IAPP immunoreactivity was very low in 8 of 8 diabetic cats, was increased in 6 of 6 cats with impaired glucose tolerance and was highest in normal cats. The investigators concluded that the presence of IA and the disappearance of IAPP from α-cell loss predicted impaired glucose tolerance with a probability of 88%. [0012] Transformation of IAPP from the α-helix conformation into the β-sheet conformation results in the formation of toxic IAPP fibrils, IA and the death of pancreatic β-cells. At a concentration of 5 μM and higher, IAPP is stabilized in the fibril form and induces beta-cell death; whereas at 1 μM and lower, IAPP is not in a fibrillogenic form and does not induce beta-cell death. Researchers noted the following manifestations of cytotoxicity: plasma membrane blebbing, inappropriate chromatin condensation and DNA fragmentation (Lorenzo et al. Nature. 1994, 368: 756-760). Recent studies that employed better protein production and stabilization procedures have found the EC 50 for IAPP-mediated β-cell cytotoxicity to be approximately 100 nM and confirmed that the cytotoxic form was the fibrillar form of the peptide (Krampert et al. Chem Biol. 2000, 7:855-71). Application of fibrillogenic human IAPP to pure planar lipid bilayer membranes dramatically increases membrane conductance, whereas the application of not-fibrillogenic rat IAPP has no effect on conductance (Mirzabekov et al., J Biol Chem. 1996, 271:1988-1992). Increases in membrane conductance (e.g., influx of Ca +2 and Na + and efflux of K + ) inevitably leads to cytotoxicity. Independent studies have demonstrated that human IAPP induces apoptosis in rat RINm5F cells (Zhang et al., FEBS Lett. 1999, 455:315-320; Saafi et al. Cell Biol Int. 2001, 25:339-350). Membrane blebbing and microvilli loss were the earliest detectable apoptosis-related phenomena, evident as early as 1 hour after hIAPP exposure. Following 6 to 12 hours of human IAPP-treatment, chromatin margination became evident, consistent with detection of DNA laddering at the same time. Nuclear shrinkage, nuclear membrane convolution and prominent cytoplasmic vacuolization were clearly recognized at 22 hours post-treatment. [0013] Thus the development of anti-amyloidosis agents that are capable of preventing death of pancreatic α-cells remains an unmet medical need. Anti-amyloidosis agents for type 2 diabetes mellitus have been reported. α-Amino-γ-sulfonate and α-amino-δ-sulfonate derivatives are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,562,836, while alky sulfate and sulfonate derivatives are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,972,328 and 5,728,375. Bis- and tris-dihydroxyaryl compounds and their methylenedioxy analogs are disclosed in PCT Patent Application WO 03/101927 A1. Glucose pentasulfate is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,037,327. Derivatives of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisochinoline are disclosed in PCT Patent Application WO 00/71101 A2. It was shown that anti-amyloidosis agents such as Congo Red (Lorenzo et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1994, 91:12243-12247) and the peptide SNNFGA (Scrocchi et al. J Mol Biol. 2002, 318:697-706) completely or partially prevented β-cell death induced by a fibrillogenic form of IAPP. The main disadvantages with respect to the disclosed compounds are: a) potency was not reported (U.S. Pat. No. 6,562,836, PCT Patent Application No. WO 00/71101 A2) or was low, between 1 and 20 mM (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,972,328, 6,037,327); b) no report of the effect of compounds on α-cells; and c) the effectiveness of compounds in vivo has not been described for any of the previously disclosed compounds. [0014] Accordingly, there is a need for compounds and compositions to treat or prevent T2DM. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0015] As disclosed in certain embodiments of the present invention, compounds of formulas I-XXIII, including compounds I, III, and XXIII, inhibit amyloidosis, prevent death of pancreatic β-cells and thus may be useful for treating or preventing T2DM. In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions for use in the treatment or prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), pathological consequences of T2DM, or inhibition of IAPP-induced amyloidosis, or in the prevention of death of pancreatic β-cells comprise a pharmaceutical carrier, diluent or excipient and a compound of any of formulas I-XXIII. Compounds of formulas I-XXIII include the following: [0016] wherein X is C—H fragment or nitrogen; [0017] R 1 , R 2 , R 7 , R 8 are independently selected from hydrogen and C 1 -C 3 alkyl; [0018] R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl and propyl; [0019] R 9 , R 10 , R 11 , are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0020] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0021] wherein R 12 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 , R 16 , R 17 , R 18 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0022] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0023] wherein R 19 , R 20 , R 21 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0024] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0025] wherein R 22 and R 23 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0026] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0027] wherein R 24 , R 25 , R 26 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0028] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0029] wherein A is selected from oxygen, sulfur and NR 40 wherein R 40 is selected from hydrogen and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0030] R 27 and R 28 are independently selected from hydrogen and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0031] R 29 and R 30 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, chlorine, bromine and fluorine; [0032] with the proviso that, where R 40 is C 1 -C 6 alkyl, then either R 27 or R 28 is hydrogen; [0033] with the further proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0034] wherein R 31 , R 32 and R 33 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0035] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0036] wherein R 34 , R 35 , R 36 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0037] with the proviso that R 35 and R 36 may be optionally connected to form a bicyclic system wherein R 35 and R 36 together are represented by —CH═CR 40 —CH═CH—, —CH═CH—CR 40 ═CH—, —N═CR 40 —CH═CH—, —N═CH—CR 40 ═CH—, —CH═N—CR 40 ═CH—, —CH═CR 40 —N═CH—, —CH═CR 40 —CH═N—, —CH═CH—CR 40 ═N—, —X 1 —CR 40 ═CH—X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 40 —X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 40 —, —CR 40 ═CH—X 1 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, or —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 1 —; [0038] wherein X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from oxygen, sulfur and NR 38 ; [0039] R 40 is selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0040] Y is selected from carbon and S═O; [0041] R 37 is selected from C 1 -C 6 alkyl, NH(C 1 -C 6 alkyl) and phenyl wherein phenyl may be optionally substituted by bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) or N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0042] with the proviso that endocyclic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by nitrogen atoms; certain embodiments of such compounds are represented by formulas IX-XIII; [0043] wherein R 34 , R 35 , R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for the formula VIII; [0044] wherein R 34 , R 35 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0045] wherein R 34 , R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0046] wherein R 34 , R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0047] wherein R 34 , R 35 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0048] wherein X is selected from oxygen and sulfur; [0049] R 35 , R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0050] with the proviso that endocyclic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by nitrogen atoms; certain embodiments of such compounds are represented by formulas XV and XVI; [0051] wherein X is selected from oxygen and sulfur; [0052] R 35 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0053] wherein X is selected from oxygen and sulfur; [0054] R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0055] wherein Z is selected from oxygen, sulfur or CR 41 R 42 , wherein R 41 and R 42 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl or phenyl, wherein phenyl may be optionally substituted by bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) or N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0056] R 34 , R 35 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0057] with the proviso that endocyclic carbon atoms may be replaced by nitrogen; certain embodiments of such compounds are represented by the formulas XVIII and XIX; [0058] wherein R 34 , R 37 , Z and Y are assigned as for formula XVII; [0059] wherein R 35 , R 37 , Z and Y are assigned as for formula XVII; [0060] wherein Z, R 34 , R 36 , R 37 , and Y have the same assignations as in formula XVII; [0061] with the proviso that endocyclic carbon atoms may be replaced by the nitrogen; an embodiment of such compounds is represented by the formula XXI; [0062] wherein Z, R 34 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as in formula XVII; [0063] wherein Z, R 34 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as in formula XVII. [0064] wherein R 41 is selected from CF 3 , C 2 F 5 , and C 3 F 7 ; [0065] R 42 and R 43 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0066] K is selected from oxygen, sulfur, NR 44 and C═CR 46 R 47 wherein R 44 is selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; R 46 and R 47 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl and phenyl, wherein phenyl may be substituted by bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) or N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0067] with the proviso that R 43 and R 44 may be optionally connected to form a bicyclic system wherein R 43 and R 44 together are represented by —CH═CR 45 —CH═CH—, —CH═CH—CR 45 ═CH—, —N═CR 45 —CH═CH—, —N═CH—CR 45 ═CH—, —CH═N—CR 45 ═CH—, —CH═CR 45 —N═CH—, —CH═CR 45 —CH═N—, —CH═CH—CR 45 ═N—, —X 1 —CR 45 ═CH—X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 45 —X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 45 —, —CR 45 ═CH—X 1 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, or —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 2 —; [0068] wherein X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from oxygen, sulfur and NR 38 ; [0069] R 40 is selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0070] In certain embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions for use in the treatment or prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), pathological consequences of T2DM, or inhibition of IAPP-induced amyloidosis, or in the prevention of death of pancreatic β-cells comprise a pharmaceutical carrier, diluent or excipient and a compound of any of formulas Ia-VIIa, Ib, IIb, IXa, IXb, XIVa, XIVb, and XXIIIa: [0071] In certain embodiments, the present invention includes compounds I, III, and XXIII: [0072] wherein X is C—H fragment or nitrogen; [0073] R 1 , R 2 , R 7 , R 8 are independently selected from hydrogen and C 1 -C 3 alkyl; [0074] R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl and propyl; [0075] R 9 , R 10 , R 11 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; and [0076] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms; [0077] wherein R 19 , R 20 , R 21 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; and [0078] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms; [0079] wherein R 41 is selected from CF 3 , C 2 F 5 and C 3 F 7 ; [0080] R 42 and R 43 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0081] K is selected from oxygen, sulfur, NR 44 and C═CR 46 R 47 wherein R 44 is hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; R 46 and R 47 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl and phenyl, wherein phenyl may be substituted by bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) or N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0082] with the proviso that R 43 and R 44 may be optionally connected to form a bicyclic system wherein R 43 and R 44 together are represented by —CH═CR 45 —CH═CH—, —CH═CH—CR 45 ═CH—, —N═CR 45 —CH═CH—, —N═CH—CR 45 ═CH—, —CH═N—CR 45 ═CH—, —CH═CR 45 —N═CH—, —CH═CR 45 —CH═N—, —CH═CH—CR 45 ═N—, —X 1 —CR 45 ═CH—X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 45 —X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 45 —, —CR 45 ═CH—X 1 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, or —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 2 —; and [0083] wherein X 1 and X 2 are independently oxygen, sulfur and NR 38 ; R 40 is selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl. [0084] In certain embodiments, the present invention provides compounds I-XXIII, Ia-VIIa, Ib, IIb, IXa, IXb, XIVa, XIVb, and XXIIIa, presented above, or compositions comprising compounds I-XXIII, Ia-VIIa, Ib, IIb, IXa, IXb, XIVa, XIVb, or XXIIIa for use in a method for the treatment or prevention of T2DM, pathological consequences of T2DM, or IAPP-induced amyloidosis, or prevention of death of pancreatic α-cells. [0085] In certain other embodiments, the present invention provides compounds I-XXIII, Ia-VIIa, Ib, IIb, IXa, IXb, XIVa, XIVb, and XXIIIa, or compositions comprising compounds I-XXIII, Ia-VIIa, Ib, IIb, IXa, IXb, XIVa, XIVb, or XXIIIa for use in the preparation of a medicament for the treatment or prevention of T2DM, pathological consequences of T2DM, or IAPP-induced amyloidosis, or prevention of death of pancreatic β-cells. In certain embodiments, the compound or composition may further include a pharmaceutical carrier, diluent or excipient. [0086] In yet other embodiments, the present invention provides methods for the treatment or prevention of T2DM, pathological consequences of T2DM, or IAPP-induced amyloidosis, or prevention of death of pancreatic β-cells by administering to a warm-blooded animal, including humans, in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a compound selected from compounds I-XXIII, Ia-VIIa, Ib, IIb, IXa, IXb, XIVa, XIVb, and XXIIIa, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. [0087] Compounds of formulas I-XXIII, Ia-VIIa, Ib, IIb, IXa, IXb, XIVa, XIVb, and XXIIIa may be used in free or solvated form or as a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and include isolated enantiomeric, diastereomeric and geometric isomers thereof, metabolites, metabolic precursors or prodrugs in crystalline, or amorphous, or liquid or gel forms including all polymorphic modifications thereof. [0088] These and other aspects of the present invention will become apparent upon reference to the following detailed description. All references disclosed here are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety as if each were incorporated individually. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION [0089] As used herein, the following terms are defined as follows: [0090] “Alkyl” refers to a branched or unbranched hydrocarbon fragment containing the specified number of carbon atoms and having one point of attachment. Examples include n-propyl (a C 3 alkyl), isopropyl (also a C 3 alkyl) and t-butyl (a C 4 alkyl). [0091] “Alkoxyalkyl” refers to an alkylene group substituted with an alkoxy group. For example methyloxyethyl (CH 3 OCH 2 CH 3 —) and ethoxymethyl (CH 3 CH 2 OCH 2 —) are both C 3 alkoxyalkyl groups. [0092] “Alkanoyloxy” refers to an ester substituent wherein the ether oxygen is the point of attachment to the molecule. Examples include propanoyloxy (CH 3 CH 2 C(O)—O—), a C 3 alkanoyloxy and ethanoyloxy (CH 3 C(O)—O—), a C 2 alkanoyloxy. [0093] “Alkoxy” refers to an O-atom substituted by an alkyl group, for example methoxy (—OCH 3 ) a C 1 alkoxy. [0094] “Alkoxycarbonyl” refers to an ester substituent wherein the carbonyl group is the point of attachment to the molecule. Examples include ethoxycarbonyl (CH 3 CH 2 OC(O)—), a C 3 alkoxycarbonyl and methoxycarbonyl (CH 3 OC(O)—), a C 2 alkoxycarbonyl. [0095] “Aryl” refers to aromatic groups which have at least one ring having a conjugated pi electron system and includes carbocyclic aryl, heterocyclic aryl (also known as heteroaryl groups) and biaryl groups, all of which may be optionally substituted. [0096] “Thioalkyl” refers to a sulfur atom substituted by an alkyl group, for example thiomethyl (CH 3 S—), a C 1 thioalkyl. [0097] Certain compounds of the present invention or for use in the pharmaceutical compositions or methods of the present invention are represented by formulas I-XXIII: [0098] wherein X is C—H fragment or nitrogen; [0099] R 1 , R 2 , R 7 , R 8 are independently selected from hydrogen and C 1 -C 3 alkyl; [0100] R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, ethyl and propyl; [0101] R 9 , R 10 , R 11 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0102] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0103] wherein R 12 , R 13 , R 14 , R 15 , R 16 , R 17 , R 18 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0104] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0105] wherein R 19 , R 20 , R 21 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0106] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0107] wherein R 22 and R 23 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0108] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0109] wherein R 24 , R 25 , R 26 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0110] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0111] wherein A is selected from oxygen, sulfur and NR 40 wherein R 40 is selected from hydrogen or C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0112] R 27 and R 28 are independently selected from hydrogen and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0113] R 29 and R 30 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl, chlorine, bromine, and fluorine; [0114] with the proviso that, where R 40 is C 1 -C 6 alkyl, then either R 27 or R 28 is hydrogen; [0115] with the further proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0116] wherein R 31 , R 32 and R 33 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 alkyl; [0117] with the proviso that aromatic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by aromatic nitrogen atoms. [0118] wherein R 34 , R 35 , R 36 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0119] with the proviso that R 35 and R 36 may be optionally connected to form a bicyclic system wherein R 35 and R 36 together are represented by —CH═CR 40 —CH═CH—, —CH═CH—CR 40 ═CH—, —N═CR 40 —CH═CH—, —N═CH—CR 40 ═CH—, —CH═N—CR 40 ═CH—, —CH═CR 40 —N═CH—, —CH═CR 40 —CH═N—, —CH═CH—CR 40 ═N—, —X 1 —CR 40 ═CH—X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 40 —X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 40 —, —CR 40 ═CH—X 1 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, or —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 1 —; [0120] wherein X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from oxygen, sulfur and NR 38 ; [0121] R 40 is selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0122] Y is selected from carbon and S═O; [0123] R 37 is selected from C 1 -C 6 alkyl, NH(C 1 -C 6 alkyl) and phenyl wherein phenyl may be optionally substituted by bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) or N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0124] with the proviso that endocyclic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by nitrogen atoms; certain embodiments of such compounds are represented by formulas IX-XIII; [0125] wherein R 34 , R 35 , R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for the formula VIII; [0126] wherein R 34 , R 35 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0127] wherein R 34 , R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0128] wherein R 34 , R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0129] wherein R 34 , R 35 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0130] wherein X is selected from oxygen and sulfur; [0131] R 35 , R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0132] with the proviso that endocyclic carbon atoms may be optionally replaced by nitrogen atoms; certain embodiments of such compounds are represented by formulas XV and XVI; [0133] wherein X is selected from oxygen and sulfur; [0134] R 35 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0135] wherein X is selected from oxygen and sulfur; R 36 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0136] wherein Z is selected from oxygen, sulfur and CR 41 R 42 , wherein R 41 and R 42 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl or phenyl, wherein phenyl may be optionally substituted by bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) or N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0137] R 34 , R 35 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as for formula VIII; [0138] with the proviso that endocyclic carbon atoms may be replaced by nitrogen; certain embodiments of such compounds are represented by the formulas XVIII and XIX; [0139] wherein R 34 , R 37 , Z and Y are assigned as for formula XVII; [0140] wherein R 35 , R 37 , Z and Y are assigned as for formula XVII; [0141] wherein Z, R 34 , R 36 , R 37 , and Y have the same assignations as in formula XVII; [0142] with the proviso that endocyclic carbon atom my be replaced by the nitrogen; an embodiment of such a compound is represented by the formula XXI; [0143] wherein Z, R 34 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as in formula XVII; [0144] wherein Z, R 34 , R 37 and Y have the same assignations as in formula XVII. [0145] wherein R 41 is selected from CF 3 , C 2 F 5 , and C 3 F 7 ; [0146] R 42 and R 43 are independently selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0147] K is selected from oxygen, sulfur, NR 44 and C═CR 46 R 47 wherein R 44 is selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; R 46 and R 47 are independently selected from hydrogen, methyl or phenyl, wherein phenyl may be substituted by bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) or N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0148] with the proviso that R 43 and R 44 may be optionally connected to form a bicyclic system wherein R 43 and R 44 together are represented by —CH═CR 45 —CH═CH—, —CH═CH—CR 45 ═CH—, —N═CR 45 —CH═CH—, —N═CH—CR 45 ═CH—, —CH═N—CR 45 ═CH—, —CH═CR 45 —N═CH—, —CH═CR 45 —CH═N—, —CH═CH—CR 45 ═N—, —X 1 —CR 45 ═CH—X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 45 —X 2 —, —X 1 —CH═CR 45 —, —CR 45 ═CH—X 1 , —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 2 —, —CH 2 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —X 1 —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —CH 2 —X 1 —CH 2 —, or —CH 2 —CH 2 —X 2 —; [0149] wherein X 1 and X 2 are independently selected from oxygen, sulfur and NR 38 ; [0150] R 40 is selected from bromine, chlorine, fluorine, carboxy, hydrogen, hydroxyl, hydroxymethyl, methanesulfonamido, nitro, sulfamyl, trifluoromethyl, C 2 -C 7 alkanoyloxy, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 1 -C 6 alkoxy, C 2 -C 7 alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 6 thioalkyl, aryl, CON(R 38 R 39 ) and N(R 38 R 39 ) wherein R 38 and R 39 are independently selected from hydrogen, acetyl, methanesulfonyl and C 1 -C 6 -alkyl; [0151] Compounds of formulas I-XXIII may be used in free or solvate form or in pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and include isolated enantiomeric, diastereomeric and geometric isomers thereof, metabolites, metabolic precursors or prodrugs in crystalline, or amorphous, or liquid or gel forms including all polymorphic modifications thereof. [0152] One preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula Ia with the following structure: [0153] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula Ib with the following structure: [0154] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula IIa with the following structure: [0155] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula IIb with the following structure: [0156] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula IIIa with the following structure: [0157] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula IVa with the following structure: [0158] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula Va with the following structure: [0159] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula VIa with the following structure: [0160] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula VIIa with the following structure: [0161] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula IXa with the following structure: [0162] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula IXb with the following structure [0163] Another preferred compound of the present invention is a compound of formula XIVa with the following structure [0164] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula XIVb with the following structure [0165] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention is a compound of formula XXIIIa with the following structure [0166] As disclosed in certain embodiments of the present invention, compounds of formulas I-XXIII, including compounds I, III, and XXIII, may be useful for treating and/or preventing T2DM and pathological consequences of T2DM in warm-blooded animals, including humans. [0167] In certain embodiments the present invention provides compounds of formulas I-XXIII to inhibit IAPP-induced amyloidosis. [0168] In further embodiments the present invention provides compounds of formula I-XXIII to prevent death of pancreatic β-cell. [0169] In other embodiments the present invention provides a method for the treatment and/or prevention of T2DM and its pathological consequences, which comprises administering to a warm-blooded animal including human in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of compounds of formulas I-XXIII. [0170] In yet other embodiments the present invention provides a method for inhibition of amyloidosis and prevention of pancreatic β-cell death, which comprises administering to a warm-blooded animal including human in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of compounds of formulas I-XXIII. [0171] The magnitude of the therapeutic or prophylactic dose of the compounds of the present invention in the treatment or prevention of T2DM, pathological consequences of T2DM, inhibition of amyloidosis and prevention of pancreatic β-cell death depends upon severity and nature of the condition being treated and the route of administration. The dose and the frequency of the dosing will also vary according to age, body weight and response of the individual patient. In general the total daily dose range for a compound of the present invention is from approximately 0.1 to approximately 500 mg in single or repeated doses. [0172] Any suitable routes of administration may be employed to provide an effective dosage of the compounds of the present invention. Possible routes are not limited by oral, intravenous, topical and parenteral administrations, with oral administration representing a preferred route. [0173] Compounds of the present invention may be administered in association with one or more inert carriers, excipients and diluents forming a pharmaceutical composition. Certain preferred oral compositions contain between approximately 0.1% and approximately 75% of compounds of formulas I-XXIII. [0174] Solid compositions for oral administration may include binders, such as syrups, acacia, sorbitol, polyvinylpyrrolidone, carboxymethylcellulose, ethyl cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose or gelatin and mixtures thereof; excipients, such as starch, lactose or dextrins; disintegrating agents, such as alginic acid, sodium alginate, primogel and the like; lubricants, such as magnesium stearate, heavy molecular weight acids such as stearic acid, high molecular weight polymers such as polyethylene glycol; sweetening agents, such as sucrose or saccharine; flavoring agents, such as peppermint, methyl salicylate or orange flavoring; and coloring agents. [0175] The liquid pharmaceutical compositions of the invention, whether they are solutions, suspensions or other like form, may include sterile diluents such as water for injection, saline solution, preferably physiological saline, Ringer's solution, or isotonic sodium chloride, fixed oils such as synthetic mono or diglycerides which may serve as the solvent or suspending medium, polyethylene glycols, glycerin, propylene glycol or other solvents. [0176] Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts of compounds II-III include salts of basic elements such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium, with the preferred basic addition being a sodium salt. [0177] The following Examples are offered by way of illustration and not by way of limitation. EXAMPLES Example 1 Synthesis of 1H-indole-2-carboxamide (VIa) [0178] Indole-2-carboxylic acid (10.26 g, 63.7 mmol) is dissolved in dichloromethane (125 ml) and oxalyl chloride (39.8 mL of a 2.0 M solution in methylene chloride) is slowly added dropwise to the reaction at room temperature. Upon full addition, dimethylformamide (0.32 mL) is added and the reaction is stirred for two hours. After two hours, the reaction solution is transparent yellow in color. Ammonia gas is then bubbled into the reaction for 25 minutes and the reaction is stirred at room temperature for an additional 30 minutes. The reaction then is partitioned between water and ethylacetate. The organic phase is washed with saturated ammonium chloride then is dried and concentrated to provide crude amide (9.53 g). Example 2 Synthesis of 8-hydroxy-7-qiuinoline carboxamide (Va) [0179] 8-Hydroxy-7-quinolinecarboxylic acid methyl ester is prepared according to Eckstein Z et al. (Pol. J. Chem. 1979, 53(11):2373-7). The ester is reacted with excess ammonia in a steel bomb for 12-18 hr. The excess ammonia is allowed to evaporate and the residue is crystallized from a suitable solvent to yield the title compound. Example 3 Synthesis of quinoxaline-2-carboxamide (IVa) [0180] To a suspension of the quinoxaline-2-carboxylate (542 mg, 3.13 mmol) in methanol (20 ml) is added 28% aqueous ammonia (1.5 ml), and the mixture is refluxed for 3 hours. Water is added to the residue obtained by distilling off solvent under reduced pressure and the precipitate is collected by filtration. After air-drying, these are dissolved into ethyl acetate, which is dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate. Solvent is removed by distillation, and the residue is decanted with isopropyl ether and air-dried to give the title compound (369 mg; yield 76%). Example 4 Synthesis of 4H-quinolizin-4-one-3-carboxamide (VIIa) [0181] a) To a solution of 2-methylpyridine (7 ml) in tetrahydrofuran (140 ml) is added dropwise a solution of n-butyl lithium (49 ml of 1.59 mol solution in hexane) with ice-cooling. The resulting dark red solution is allowed to warm to ambient temperature and is stirred for an hour. After cooling to −78° C., a solution of diethyl ethoxymethylenemalonate (15.68 ml) in tetrahydrofuran (50 ml) is added over a period of 30 minutes. The reaction mixture is allowed to warm to −20° C. and stirred for 30 minutes at −20° C. Acetic acid (4.48 ml) is added. The solvent is distilled off, the residue is dissolved in ethyl acetate and washed with 10% aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate, water and saturated aqueous sodium chloride. After drying over magnesium sulfate, the ethyl acetate extract is filtered and evaporated to give an oil (27 g). The residue is chromatographed on silica gel (Merck 70-230 mesh, 270 g) eluting with chloroform to give ethyl 3-ethoxy-2-ethoxycarbonyl-4-(2-pyridyl)butyrate (19 g) as an oil. [0182] b) A mixture of ethyl 3-ethoxy-2-ethoxycarbonyl-4-(2-pyridyl)butyrate (18.9 g), diphenyl (48.85 g) and diphenyl ether (135.8 g) is heated to 250° C. for 40 minutes. The reaction mixture is cooled to ambient temperature and chromatographed on silica gel (Merck 70-230 mesh, 620 g) eluting with hexane and then a mixture of ethanol and chloroform (1:49) to give a crude oil, which is crystallized from a mixture of ether and hexane (1:1) to give 3-ethoxycarbonyl-4H-quinolizin-4-one (11.48 g) as a yellow crystal. [0183] c) To a solution of 3-ethoxycarbonyl-4H-quinolizin-4-one (2.17 g) in methanol (65.2 ml) is added dropwise 6 N aqueous sodium hydroxide (6.5 ml) at room temperature. After stirring for 20 minutes, water (10 ml) is added. After stirring for 20 minutes, water (30 ml) is also added. After stirring for an hour, the reaction mixture is acidified to pH 3 with 4N aqueous hydrochloric acid. The precipitate is filtered and washed with water to give 4H-quinolizin-4-one-3-carboxylic acid (1.75 g) as pale yellow crystal (m. p. 233° C.). [0184] d) To a suspension of 4H-quinolizin-4-one-3-carboxylic acid (1.69 g) in methanol (80 mL) is added 25% of ammonia and the mixture is refluxed for 4 hours. Water is added to the residue obtained by distilling off solvent under reduced pressure and the precipitate is collected by filtration. After air-drying, these are dissolved into ethyl acetate, which is dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate. Solvent is distilled off, the residue is decanted with isopropyl ether and air-dried to obtain 1.3 g of the 4H-quinolizin-4-one-3-carboxamide. Example 5 Synthesis of 3-(N-methylamido)-N-methyl phenyl propanamide (Ia) [0185] Step-1: [0186] 10 gm 3-Bromobenzaldehyde is taken in a 100 ml round bottomed flask. To this is added 20 ml trimethyl orthoformate and 100 mg p-toluene sulphonic acid. Reaction mixture is then refluxed for 2 hours. TLC shows formation of the product. Heating is stopped, and the reaction mixture is extracted with hexane (3×500 ml), washed with sodium bicarbonate solution (5%) to remove the traces of p-toluenesulphonic acid. Reaction mixture is then dried over sodium sulphate and concentrated to give 12 gm dimethyl acetal of 3-bromobenzaldhyde (AST-1A). Step-2: [0187] 5 gm AST-1A is taken in 10 ml THF in a 3-necked round-bottomed flask and kept under nitrogen atmosphere in a tub containing dry ice to maintain the temperature at about −60° C. It is then stirred for 40 minutes. 3 gm dry ice is taken in a beaker and the reaction mixture is poured on dry ice with stirring. After complete addition, cold water and dilute hydrochloric acid are added to reaction mixture to a pH of 4. Then it is extracted with ethyl acetate (2×500 ml), dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to give solid product (1.4 gm). Washing with hexane to remove impurities shown by PMR gives a final yield of 1.1 gm AST-1B. Step-3 [0188] Malonic acid (1gm) and pyridine (3 ml) is taken in a 100 ml RBF. It is kept in cold under stirring. To this is added 1 gm AST-1B (3-formyl benzoic acid). The reaction mixture is stirred overnight at room temperature. Then it is heated for 1 hour, cooled and quenched in water, and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×500 ml). The ethyl acetate layer is washed with dilute hydrochloric acid to pH 4. The ethyl acetate layer is then dried over sodium sulphate and concentrated to yield the product (1 gm). Step-4 [0189] 10% Palladium on charcoal (500 mg) is added to 50 ml methanol in a round-bottomed flask and connected to a hydrogen cylinder through a trap. To this round bottomed flask is added 4 gm AST-1C and hydrogen gas is bubbled overnight. Stirring and hydrogen bubbling is stopped. The reaction mixture is filtered through Celite. The filtrate is collected, and methanol is removed by distillation under vacuum to give solid product (4 gm) AST-1D. Reduction of the unsaturated compound is confirmed by NMR. Step-5 [0190] 1 gm AST-1D is placed in a 3-necked round-bottomed flask set with condenser and magnetic stirrer. To this is added 5 ml thionyl chloride, and the material is refluxed for 1 hour. Formation of acid chloride is confirmed by derivatizing it to ester and checking TLC. Excess thionyl chloride is then removed by distillation. 10 ml methylamine (liquefied) is placed in another round-bottomed flask maintained at −8° C. It is then stirred for half an hour and allowed to attain room temperature. The solid formed is filtered off, and the product obtained in the filtrate is concentrated and subjected to column chromatography using DCM and methanol to isolate 0.4 gm AST-1E≡Ia (final product). Example 6 Synthesis of Sodium Salt of Iminostilbene-2-sulfonate (IIIa) [0191] Iminostilbene (5.0 g, 24.5 mmol) (Acros Organics) in acetic anhydride (7.1 mL, 75.1 mmol) and acetic acid (25 mL) is refluxed for 20 h. After cooling to room temperature, the reaction mixture is diluted with water (200 mL). The resulting solids are filtered, washed with water and dried to give N-acetyl iminostilbene as a white solid (5.2 g, 79%). [0192] A flask containing 5 g (22.4 mmol) of N-acetyl iminostilbene in 200 mL of carbon tetrachloride is stirred and cooled to −7° to 0° C. while 2.66 g (25 mmol) of chlorosulfonic acid is added dropwise. As the chlorosulfonic acid is added, the product precipitates. The content must be stirred because the mixture is very thick. The supernatant solvent is decanted and to the residue is added 400 mL of water. Most of the solid dissolves and solution is filtered. A layer of carbon tetrachloride separates and is rejected. The solution is hydrolyzed with potassium hydroxide and the precipitate is filtered and dried to give 7.5 g of N-acetyl iminostilbene-2-sulfonate. [0193] 7.5 g (20 mmol) of N-acetyl iminostilbene-2-sulfonate in 100 ml of ethanol and 23.1 g (350 mmol) of potassium hydroxide is heated to a gentle reflux for 24 h at 90° C. under nitrogen. The batch is subsequently stirred into 1 liter of ice water and the mixture is extracted with dichloromethane. The organic phase is washed with water and dried over sodium sulphate. The solvent is removed by distillation in vacuo. The reaction product, sodium salt of iminostilbene-2-sulfonate (IIIa), remaining as a residue, is purified by column chromatography on silica gel using methanol/triethylamine, 95:5, as eluent. Example 7 Synthesis of 2-oxo-2,3-dihydrobenzooxazole-3-methylsulfonamide (XIVb) [0194] A solution of 2-nitrophenol (3.38 g, 20 mmol) in absolute THF (80 mL) containing 10% Pd—C-catalyst (100 mg) is hydrogenated at ambient temperature and pressure until the calculated amount of H 2 has been taken up. To the resultant colorless solution are added with stirring and external cooling and under exclusion of O 2 (N 2 atmosphere), triethylamine (in one portion; 4.04 g, 40 mmol) and then rapidly a solution of bis(trichloromethyl carbonate) (2.0 g, 6.7 mmol) in THF (20 mL). After 30 min Et 3 N.HCl and the catalyst are removed by suction, and THF is completely removed from the filtrate under reduced pressure. The pale brown crystalline residue is dissolved in boiling benzene (200 mL) and this solution is filtered while hot through a filter aid of 4 mm silica gel (0.063-0.200 mm). The filter pad is washed with hot benzene (150 mL). Cooling of the filtrate then affords 2-oxo-2,3-dihydroxybenzoxazole as colorless needles that are isolated by suction; yield: 2.5 g (75%); m. p. 154-155. [0195] The 2-oxo-2,3-dihydroxybenzoxazole is dissolved into methylene chloride (185 mL) and added to triethylamine (10 mL, 69 mmol) in a 500 mL 3-neck flask fitted with a thermometer under a nitrogen atmosphere. The mixture is then cooled to 0° C. and methanesulfonyl chloride (5.0 mL, 41 mmol) is added by syringe. The mixture is permitted to come to room temperature, and stirred overnight, under a nitrogen system. The reaction is quenched with excess water, and the organic layer is dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated under vacuum, yielding 5.03 g viscous oil. Purification is conducted using a Hewlett-Packard HPLC 2000, with two silica cartridges, and eluting with a 1:1 hexane:ethyl acetate solvent system, yielding the final title compound (3.5 g, 38%) as a white solid. Example 8 Synthesis of 4-carboxamido-4-oxazoline-2-one-3-methylsulfonamide (IXa) [0196] 3-[(p-nitrobenzenesulfonyl)oxy]-2-oxopropanoate is synthesized by the methodology of Hoffman R V et al. (J. Org. Chem. 1997, 62:2458-65). A mixture of 3-[(p-nitrobenzenesulfonyl)oxy]-2-oxopropanoate (0.30 g, 0.99 mmol), methyl carbamate (0.37 g, 5.0 mmol) and p-toluenesulfonic acid monohydrate (0.019 g, 0.1 mmol) in 20 ml of toluene is refluxed overnight. The reaction is monitored by TLC (EtOAc/CH 2 Cl 2 , 1:9). The reaction mixture is cooled to room temperature, 80 ml of EtOAc is added, and the mixture is washed with water (2×60 mL) and brine (60 mL), dried (MgSO 4 ) and concentrated in vacuo to provide a yellow solid. The crude product is chromatographed on a silica gel column eluting with hexanes/EtOAc (gradient of 4:1 then 2:1) and recrystallized from EtoAc/hehanes to provide 4-carbomethoxy-4-oxaxazolin-2-one as a white crystalline solid (0.15 g, 51%), m.p. 150-152° C. [0197] To a stirring solution of 4-carbomethoxy-4-oxaxazolin-2-one in dichloromethane (0.1 M) at 0° C. under nitrogen is added triethylamine (3.5 eq) and methanesulfonyl chloride (1.1 eq). The reaction is stirred at room temperature overnight. The reaction mixture is washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate (1 time), brine (1 time), dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, concentrated in vacuo and purified by flash chromatography using the ISCO system (0-15% gradient methanol/dichloromethane) to afford 4-carbomethoxy-4-oxaxazoline-2-one-3-methylsulfonamide. [0198] To a solution of 4-carbomethoxy-4-oxaxazolin-2-one-3-methylsulfonamide (1 g) in methylene chloride (10 mL) is added ammonia methanol solution (60 mL) that is prepared by bubbling the ammonia gas (14 g) into methanol (120 mL), and the mixture is stirred for hours at ambient temperature. After evaporating the solvent the residue is recrystallized from the methanol to give 4-carboxamido-4-oxaxazoline-2-one-3-methylsulfonamide (0.78 g). Example 9 Synthesis of N-methylsulfonylformamide (XVIIa) [0199] Maleimide is obtained from the Sigma Aldrich Chemical Co. N-methylsulfonylmaleimide is obtained by sulfonation, as in Example 7, as a white powder, 0.45 g. Example 10 Synthesis of N-methylsulfonyl-2,4,5-imidazolidinetrione (XXIIa) [0200] 2,4,5-imidazolidinetrione is obtained from Sigma Aldrich Chemical Co. N-methylsulfonyl-2,4,5-imidazolidinetrione is obtained by the sulfonation, as in Example 7, as white powder, 0.7 g. Example 11 Amyloid Binding Assay [0201] All test articles and control drugs are added (final concentrations 1-100 μM) to the wells of a 96-well plate (10 mM phenol red free Tris-HCl, pH 7.4) and incubated for 30 minutes at ca 37° C. in humidified 5% CO 2 atmosphere, followed by the addition of cytotoxic target (IAPP) (final concentration 25 μM) to the appropriate wells. Thioflavin T (final concentration 5 μM) is then added to the appropriate wells immediately following the addition of CTT. The plate is mixed gently on a gyratory shaker, incubated at ca 37° C. in a humidified 5% CO 2 atmosphere and read directly on a Tecan Safire reader in the fluorescence mode at excitation 450 nm and emission at 482 nm at 0, 1, 3, and 6 hours. Experiments are run in duplicate on each of two plates. Example 12 Cell Culture and Cytotoxicity Assays [0202] RINm5F cells are cultured in RPMI 1640 medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum, 290 μg/ml l-glutamine, 100 units/ml penicillin and 100 μg/ml streptomycin (Aitken et al. 2003). Cells are plated in 24-well plates at a density of 15×10 4 cells per well, incubated for 48 h, rinsed with PBS and placed in fresh medium (200 μl/well) in the presence or absence of compounds I-VIII (final concentrations 0.11, 10 and 100 μM). Following 30 minutes incubation, 12 μl of a freshly prepared aqueous solution of human IAPP (500 μM) is added to the cell culture medium to give final human IAPP concentration of 28 μM. Following 22 h, cell viability is determined by double staining with calcein-AM and EthD-1. Green fluorescence of live cells and red fluorescence marking nuclei of dead cells are simultaneously visualized using a Zeiss axiovert S100 microscope equipped with a Zeiss filter set#09. Photographs are taken at 400× magnification using a Zeiss AxioCam digital camera. The EC 50 for the inhibition of cytotoxicity of IAPP by compounds I-VIII ranges from 0.6 μM to 100 μM. [0203] From the foregoing it will be appreciated that, although specific embodiments of the invention have been described herein for purposes of illustration, various modifications may be made without deviating from the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, the invention is not limited except as by the appended claims.

The invention discloses aromatic amides and sulfonates to treat or prevent type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), the pathological consequences of T2DM, to inhibit amyloidosis or to prevent death of β-cells of the pancreas.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates to a method for treating a T cell disorder in a subject involving disrupting sex steroid signalling to the thymus and introducing into the subject bone marrow or haemopoietic stem cells (HSC). BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] The thymus is influenced to a great extent by its bidirectional communication with the neuroendocrine system (Kendall, 1988). Of particular importance is the interplay between the pituitary, adrenals and gonads on thymic function including both trophic (TSH and GH) and atrophic effects (LH, FSH and ACTH (Kendall, 1988; Homo-Delarche, 1991). Indeed one of the characteristic features of thymic physiology is the progressive decline in structure and function which is commensurate with the increase in circulating sex steroid production around puberty (Hirokawa and Makinodan; 1975; Tosi et al., 1982 and Hirokawa, et al., 1994). The precise target of the hormones and the mechanism by which they induce thymus atrophy is yet to be determined. Since the thymus is the primary site for the production and maintenance of the peripheral T cell pool, this atrophy has been widely postulated as the primary cause of an increased incidence of immune-based disorders in the elderly. In particular, deficiencies of the immune system illustrated by a decrease in T-cell dependent immune functions such as cytolytic T-cell activity and mitogenic responses, are reflected by an increased incidence of immunodeficiency, autoimmunity and tumour load in later life (Hirokawa, 1998). [0003] The impact of thymus atrophy is reflected in the periphery, with reduced thymic input to the T cell pool resulting in a less diverse T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire. Altered cytokine profile (Hobbs et al., 1993; Kurashima et al., 1995); changes in CD4 + and CD8 + subsets and a bias towards memory as opposed to naive T cells (Mackall et al., 1995) are also observed. Furthermore, the efficiency of thymopoiesis is impaired with age such that the ability of the immune system to regenerate normal T-cell numbers after T-cell depletion, is eventually lost (Mackall et al., 1995). However, recent work by Douek et al. (1998), has shown presumably thymic output to occur even in old age in humans. Excisional DNA products of TCR gene-rearrangement were used to demonstrate circulating, de novo produced naive T cells after HIV infection in older patients. The rate of this output and subsequent peripheral T cell pool regeneration needs to be further addressed since patients who have undergone chemotherapy show a greatly reduced rate of regeneration of the T cell pool, particularly CD4 + T cells, in post-pubertal patients compared to those who were pre-pubertal (Mackall et al, 1995). This is further exemplified in recent work by Timm and Thoman (1999), who have shown that although CD4 + T cells are regenerated in old mice post BMT, they appear to show a bias towards memory cells due to the aged peripheral microenvironment, coupled to poor thymic production of naive T cells. [0004] The thymus essentially consists of developing thymocytes interspersed within the diverse stromal cells (predominantly epithelial cell subsets) which constitute the microenvironment and provide the growth factors and cellular interactions necessary for the optimal development of the T cells. The symbiotic developmental relationship between thymocytes and the epithelial subsets that controls their differentiation and maturation (Boyd et al., 1993), means sex-steroid inhibition could occur at the level of either cell type which would then influence the status of the other. It is less likely that there is an inherent defect within the thymocytes themselves since previous studies, utilising radiation chimeras, have shown that BM stem cells are not affected by age (Hirokawa, 1998; Mackall and Gress, 1997) and have a similar degree of thymus repopulation potential as young BM cells. Furthermore, thymocytes in older aged animals retain their ability to differentiate to at least some degree (Mackall and Gress, 1997; George and Ritter, 1996; Hirokawa et al., 1994). However, recent work by Aspinall (1997), has shown a defect within the precursor CD3 − CD4 − CD8 − triple negative (TN) population occurring at the stage of TCR β chain gene-rearrangement [0005] In the particular case for AIDS, the primary defect in the immune system is the destruction of CD4+ cells and to a lesser extent the cells of the myleoid lineages of macrophages and dendritic cells (DC). Without these the immune system is paralysed and the patient is extremely susceptible to opportunistic infection with death a common consequence. The present treatment for AIDS is based on a multitude of anti-viral drugs to kill or deplete the HIV virus. Such therapies are now becoming more effective with viral loads being reduced dramatically to the point where the patient can be deemed as being in remission. The major problem of immune deficiency still exists however, because there are still very few functional T cells, and those which do recover, do so very slowly. The period of immune deficiency is thus still a very long time and in some cases immune defence mechanisms may never recover sufficiently. The reason for this is that in post-pubertal people the thymus is atrophied. [0006] To generate new T lymphocytes, the thymus requires precursor cells; these can be derived from within the organ itself for a short time, but we have shown that by 3-4 weeks, such cells are depleted and new HSC must be taken in (under normal circumstances this would be from the bone marrow via the blood). However, even in a normal functional young thymus, the intake of such cells is very low (sufficient to maintain T cell production at homeostatically regulated levels. Indeed the entry of cells into the thymus is extremely limited and effectively restricted to HSC (or at least prothymocytes which already have a preferential development along the T cell lineage). In the case of the thymus undergoing rejuvenation due a loss of sex steroid inhibition, we have demonstrated that this organ is now very receptive to new precursor cells circulating in the blood, such that the new T cells which develop from both intrathymic and external precursors. By increasing the level of the blood precursor cells, the T cells derived from them will progressively dominate the T cell pool. This means that any gene introduced into the precursors (HSC) will be passed onto all progeny T cells and eventually be present in virtually all of the T cell pool. The level of dominance of these cells over those derived from endogenous host HSC can be easily increased to very high levels by simply increasing the number of transferred exogenous HSC. SUMMARY OF INVENTION [0007] The present inventors have demonstrated that thymic atrophy (aged induced or as a consequence of conditions such as chemotherapy or radiotherapy) can be profoundly reversed by inhibition of sex steroid production, with virtually complete restoration of thymic structure and function. The present inventors have also found that the basis for this thymus regeneration is in part due to the initial expansion of precursor cells which are derived both intrathymically and via the blood stream. This finding suggests that is possible to seed the thymus with exogenous haemopoietic stem cells (HSC) which have been injected into the subject. [0008] The ability to seed the thymus with genetically modified or exogenous HSC by disrupting sex steroid signalling to the thymus, means that gene therapy in the HSC may be used more efficiently to treat T cell (and myeloid cells which develop in the thymus) disorders. HSC stem cell therapy has met with little or no success to date because the thymus is dormant and incapable of taking up many if any HSC, with T cell production less than 1% of normal levels. [0009] Accordingly, in a first aspect the present invention provides a method of treating a T-cell disorder in a subject, the method comprising disrupting sex steroid signalling to the thymus in the subject and transplanting into the subject bone marrow or HSC. [0010] In a preferred embodiment the T cell disorder is selected from the group consisting of viral infections, such as human immunodeficiency virus infection, a T cell proliferative disease or any disease which reduces T cells numerically or functionally, directly or indirectly. Preferably, the subject has AIDS and has had the viral load reduced by anti-viral treatment. [0011] In a further preferred embodiment, the subject is post-pubertal. [0012] Preferably, inhibition of sex-steroid production is achieved by either castration or administration of a sex steroid analogue(s). [0013] Preferred sex steroid analogues include, eulexin, goserelin, leuprolide, dioxalan derivatives such as triptorelin, meterelin, buserelin, histrelin, nafarelin, lutrelin, leuprorelin, and luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analogues. Currently, it is preferred that sex steroid analogue is an analogue of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone. More preferably, the luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analogue is deslorelin. [0014] In yet another preferred embodiment, the sex steroid analogue(s) is administered by a sustained peptide-release formulation. Examples of sustained peptide-release formulations are provided in WO 98/08533, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. [0015] In a preferred embodiment, the method comprises transplanting enriched HSC into the subject. The HSC may be autologous or heterologous, although it is preferred that the HSC are autologous. [0016] In cases where the subject is infected with HIV, it is preferred that the HSC are genetically modified such that they and their progeny, in particular T cells, macrophages and dendritic cells, are resistant to infection and/or destruction with the HIV virus. The genetic modification may involve introduction into HSC one or more nucleic acid molecules which prevent viral replication, assembly and/or infection. The nucleic acid molecule may be a gene which enclodes an antiviral protein, an antisense construct, a ribozyme, a dsRNA and a catalytic nucleic acid molecule [0017] In cases where the subject has defective T cells, it is preferred that the HSC are genetically modified to normalise the defect. For diseases such as T cell leukaemias, the modification may include the introduction of nucleic acid constructs or genes which normalise the HSC and inhibit or reduce its likelihood of becoming a cancer cell. [0018] It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the present method may be useful in treating any T cell cell disorder which has a defined genetic basis. The preferred method involves reactivating thymic function through inhibition of sex steroids to increase the uptake of blood-borne haemopoietic stem cells (HSC). In general, after the onset of puberty, the thymus undergoes severe atrophy under the influence of sex steroids, with its cellular production reduced to less than 1% of the pre-pubertal thymus. The present invention is based on the finding that the inhibition of production of sex steroids releases the thymic inhibition and allows a full regeneration of its function, including increased uptake of blood-derived HSC. The origin of the HSC can be directly from injection or from the bone marrow following prior injection. It is envisaged that blood cells derived from modified HSC will pass the genetic modification onto their progeny cells, including HSC derived from self-renewal, and that the development of these HSC along the T cell and dendritic cell lineages in the thymus is greatly enhanced if not fully facilitated by reactiving thymic function through inhibition of sex steroids. [0019] The method of the present invention is particularly for treatment of AIDS, where the treatment preferably involves reduction of viral load, reactivation of thymic function through inhibition of sex steroids and transfer into the patients of HSC (autologous or from a second party donor) which have been genetically modified such that all progeny (especially T cells, DC) are resistant to further HIV infection. This means that not only will the patient be depleted of HIV virus and no longer susceptible to general infections because the T cells have returned to normal levels, but the new T cells being resistant to HIV will be able to remove any remnant viral infected cells. In principle a similar strategy could be applied to gene therapy in HSC for any T cell defect or any viral infection which targets T cells. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ACCOMPANYING FIGURES [0020] FIG. 1 : Aged (2-year old) mice were surgically castrated and analysed for (a) thymus weight in relation to body weight and (b) total cells per thymus at 2-4 weeks post-castration. A significant decrease in thymus weight and cellularity was seen with age compared to young adult (2-month) mice. This was restored by castration. At 3-weeks post-castration thymic hypertrophy was observed and was returned to young adult levels by 4-weeks post-castration. Results are expressed as mean±1SD of 4-8 mice per group. **=p≦0.01; ***=p≦0.001 compared to young adult and post-castration mice. [0021] FIG. 2 : Aged (2-year old) mice were surgically castrated and analysed at 2 and 4 weeks post-castration for peripheral lymphocyte populations. (a) Total lymphocyte numbers in the spleen. No change in total spleen cell numbers was observed with age or post-castration, due to peripheral homeostasis. (b) The ratio of B cells to T cells did not change with age or post-castration, however (c) A significant decrease in the CD4+:CD8+ T cell ratio was seen with age. This was restored by 4-weeks post-castration. Data is expressed as mean±1SD of 4-8 mice per group. ***=p≦0.001 compared to young adult (2-month) and 4-week post-castrate mice. [0022] FIG. 3 : Aged (2-year old) mice were castrated and the thymocyte subsets analysed based on the markers CD4 and CD8. Representative FACS profiles of CD4/CD8 dot plots are shown for CD4−CD8−DN, CD4+CD8+DP, CD4+CD8− and CD4−CD8+ SP thymocytes. No difference was seen in the proportions of any CD4/CD8 defined subset with age or post-castration. [0023] FIG. 4 . 1 : Aged (2-year old) mice were castrated and injected with a pulse of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) to determine levels of proliferation. Representative histogram profiles of the proportion of BrdU+ cells within the thymus with age and post-castration are shown. No difference in the proportion of proliferating cells within the total thymus was observed with age or post-castration. [0024] FIG. 4 . 2 : Aged (2-year old) mice were castrated and injected with a pulse of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) to determine levels of proliferation. Analysis of proliferation within the different subsets of thymocytes based on CD4 and CD8 expression within the thymus was performed. (a) The proportion of each thymocyte subset within the BrdU+ population did not change with age or post-castration. (b) However, a significant decrease in the proportion of DN (CD4−CD8−) thymocytes proliferating was seen with age. Post-castration, this was restored and a significant increase in proliferation within the CD4−CD8+ SP thymocytes was observed. (c) No change in the total proportion of BrdU+ cells within the TN subset was seen with age or post-castration. However (d) a significant decrease in proliferation within the TN1 (CD44+CD25−) and significant increase in proliferation within TN2 (CD44+CD25+) subsets was seen with age. This was restored post-castration. Results are expressed as mean±1SD of 4-8 mice per group. *=p≦0.05; ***=p≦0.0001 compared to young adult (2-month) mice. [0025] FIG. 5 : Aged (2-year old) mice were castrated and were injected intrathymically with FITC to determine thymic export rates. The number of FITC+ cells in the periphery were calculated 24 hours later. (a) A significant decrease in recent thymic emigrant (RTE) cell numbers was observed with age. Following castration, these values had significantly increased by 2 weeks post-cx. (b) The rate of emigration (export/total thymus cellularity) remained constant with age but was significantly reduced at 2 weeks post-cx. (c) With age, a significant increase in the ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ RTE was seen and this was normalised by 1-week post-cx. Results are expressed as mean±1SD of 4-8 mice per group. **=p≦0.01; ***=p≦0.001 compared to young adult mice. ˆ=p≦0.001 compared to castrated mice. [0026] FIG. 6 : Young (3-month old) mice were depleted of lymphocytes using cyclophosphamide. Mice were either sham-castrated or castrated on the same day as cyclophosphamide treatment. (a) A significant increase in thymus cell number was observed in castrated mice compared to sham-castrated mice. (b) Castrated mice also showed a significant increase in spleen cell number at 1-week post-cyclophosphamide treatment. (c) A significant increase in lymph node cellularity was also observed with castrated mice at 1-week post-treatment. Results are expressed as mean±1SD of 4-8 mice per group. ***=p≦0.001 compared to castrated mice. [0027] FIG. 7 : Young (3-month old) mice were depleted of lymphocytes using sublethal (625 Rads) irradiation. Mice were either sham-castrated or castrated on the same day as irradiation. Castrated mice showed a significantly faster rate of thymus regeneration compared to sham-castrated counterparts (a). No difference in spleen (b) or lymph node (c) cell numbers was seen with castrated mice. Lymph node cell numbers were still chronically low at 2-weeks post-treatment compared to control mice. Results are expressed as mean±1SD of 4-8 mice per group. *=p≦0.05 compared to control mice; ***=p≦0.001 compared to control and castrated mice. [0028] FIG. 8 : Young (3-month old) mice were depleted of lymphocytes using sublethal (625 Rads) irradiation. Mice were either sham-castrated or castrated 1-week prior to irradiation. A significant increase in thymus regeneration was observed with castration (a). No difference in spleen (b) or lymph node (c) cell numbers was seen with castrated mice. Lymph node cell numbers were still chronically low at 2-weeks post-treatment compared to control mice. Results are expressed as mean±1SD of 4-8 mice per group. *=p≦0.05; **=p≦0.01 compared to control mice; ***p≦0.001 compared to control and castrated mice. [0029] FIG. 9 : Changes in thymus, spleen and lymph node cell numbers following treatment with cyclophosphamide, a chemotherapy agent, and surgical or chemical castration performed on the same day. Note the rapid expansion of the thymus in castrated animals when compared to the non-castrate (cyclophosphamide alone) group at 1 and 2 weeks post-treatment. In addition, spleen and lymph node numbers of the castrate group were well increased compared to the cyclophosphamide alone group. (n=3-4 per treatment group and time point). Chemical castration is comparable to surgical castration in regeneration of the immune system post-cyclophosphamide treatment. [0030] FIG. 10 : Aged mice (2-years) were castrated and analysed for response to Herpes Simplex Virus-1. (a) Aged mice showed a significant reduction in total lymph node cellularity post-infection when compared to both the young and post-castrate mice. (b) Representative FACS profiles of activated (CD8+CD25+) cells in the LN of HSV-1 infected mice. No difference was seen in proportions of activated CTL with age or post-castration. (c) The decreased cellularity within the lymph nodes of aged mice was reflected by a significant decrease in activated CTL numbers. Castration of the aged mice restored the immune response to HSV-1 with activated cell numbers equivalent to young mice. Results are expressed as mean±1SD of 8-12 mice. **=p≦0.01 compared to both young (2-month) and castrated mice. [0031] FIG. 11 : Popliteal lymph nodes were removed from mice immunised with HSV-1 and cultured for 3-days. CTL assays were performed with non-immunised mice as control for background levels of lysis (as determined by 51Cr-release. Results are expressed as mean of 8 mice, in triplicate+1SD. Aged mice showed a significant reduction in CTL activity at an E:T ratio of both 10:1 and 3:1 indicating a reduction in the percentage of specific CTL present within the lymph nodes. Castration of aged mice restored the CTL response to young adult levels. *=≦p0.01 compared to young adult and post-castrate aged mice. [0032] FIG. 12 : Analysis of CD4+ T cell help and VP TCR response to HSV-1 infection. Popliteal lymph nodes were removed on D5 post-HSV-1 infection and analysed ex-vivo for the expression of (a) CD25, CD8 and specific TCRVβmarkers and (b) CD4/CD8 T cells. (a) The percentage of activated (CD25+) CD8+ T cells expressing either Vβ10 or Vβ8.1 is shown as mean±1SD for 8 mice per group. No difference was observed with age or post-castration. (b) A decrease in CD4/CD8 ratio in the resting LN population was seen with age. This was restored post-castration. Results are expressed as mean±1SD of 8 mice per group. ***=p≦0.001 compared to young and castrate mice. [0033] FIG. 13 : Vβ10 expression on CTL in activated LN following HSV-1 inoculation. Despite the normal Vβ10 responsiveness in aged mice overall, in some mice a complete loss of Vβ10 expression was observed. Representative histogram profiles are shown. Note the diminution of a clonal response in aged mice and the reinstatement of the expected response post-castration. [0034] FIG. 14 : Changes in thymus, spleen; lymph node and bone marrow cell numbers following bone marrow transplantation of Ly5 congenic mice. Note the rapid expansion of the thymus in castrated animals when compared to the non-castrate group at all time points post-treatment. In addition, spleen and lymph node numbers of the castrate group were well increased compared to the cyclophosphamide alone group. (n=3-4 per treatment group and time point). Castrated mice had significantly increased congenic (Ly5.2) cells compared to non-castrated animals (data not shown). [0035] FIG. 15 : Changes in thymus cell number in castrated and non-castrated mice after fetal liver reconstitution. (n=3-4 for each test group.) (a) At two weeks, thymus cell number of castrated mice was at normal levels and significantly higher than that of non-castrated mice (*p<0.05). Hypertrophy was observed in thymuses of castrated mice after four weeks. Non-castrated cell numbers remain below control levels. (b) CD45.2+ cells-CD45.2+ is a marker showing donor derivation. Two weeks after reconstitution donor-derived cells were present in both castrated and non-castrated mice. Four weeks after treatment approximately 85% of cells in the castrated thymus were donor-derived. There were no donor-derived cells in the non-castrated thymus. [0036] FIG. 16 : FACS profiles of CD4 versus CD8 donor derived thymocyte populations after lethal irradiation and fetal liver reconstitution, followed by surgical castration. Percentages for each quadrant are given to the right of each plot. The age matched control profile is of an eight-month old Ly5.1 congenic mouse thymus. Those of castrated and non-castrated mice are gated on CD45:2+ cells, showing only donor derived cells. Two weeks after reconstitution subpopulations of thymocytes do not differ between castrated and non-castrated mice. [0037] FIG. 17 : Myeloid and lymphoid dendritic cell (DC) number after lethal irradiation, fetal liver reconstitution and castration. (n=3-4 mice for each test group.) Control (white) bars on the following graphs are based on the normal number of dendritic cells found in untreated age matched mice. (a) Donor-derived myeloid dendritic cells—Two weeks after reconstitution DC were present at normal levels in non-castrated mice. There was significantly more DC in castrated mice at the same time point. (*p<0.05). At four weeks DC number remained above control levels in castrated mice. (b) Donor-derived lymphoid dendritic cells—Two weeks after reconstitution, DC numbers in castrated mice were double those of non-castrated mice. Four weeks after treatment DC numbers remained above control levels. [0038] FIG. 18 : Changes in total and CD45.2+ bone marrow cell numbers in castrated and non-castrated mice after fetal liver reconstitution. n=3-4 mice for each test group. (a) Total cell number—Two weeks after reconstitution bone-marrow cell numbers had normalised and there was no significant difference in cell number between castrated and non-castrated mice. Four weeks after reconstitution there was a significant difference in cell number between castrated and non-castrated mice (*p<0.05). (B) CD45.2+ cell number. There was no significant difference between castrated and non-castrated mice with respect to CD45.2+ cell number in the bone marrow two weeks after reconstitution; CD45.2+ cell number remained high in castrated mice at four weeks. There were no donor-derived cells in the non-castrated mice at the same time point. [0039] FIG. 19 : Changes in T cells and myeloid and lymphoid derived dendritic cells, (DC) in bone marrow of castrated and non-castrated mice after fetal liver reconstitution. (n=3-4 mice for each test group.) Controls (white) bars on the following graphs are based on the normal number of T cells and dendritic cells found in untreated age matched mice. (a) T cell number—Numbers were reduced two and four weeks after reconstitution in both castrated and non-castrated mice. (b) Donor derived myeloid dendritic cells—Two weeks after reconstitution DC cell numbers were normal in both castrated and non-castrated mice. At this time point there was no significant difference between numbers in castrated and non-castrated mice. (c) Donor-derived lymphoid dendritic cells—Numbers were at normal levels two and four weeks after reconstitution. At two weeks there was no significant difference between numbers in castrated and non-castrated mice. [0040] FIG. 20 : Change in total and donor (CD45.2+) spleen cell numbers in castrated and non-castrated mice after fetal liver reconstitution. (n=3-4 mice for each test group.) (a) Total cell number—Two weeks after reconstitution cell numbers were decreased and there was no significant difference in cell number between castrated and non-castrated mice. Four weeks after reconstitution cell numbers were approaching normal levels in castrated mice. (b) CD45.2+ cell number—There was no significant difference between castrated and non-castrated mice with respect to CD45.2+ cell number in the spleen, two weeks after reconstitution. CD45.2+ cell number remained high in castrated mice at four weeks. There were no donor-derived cells in the non-castrated mice at the same time point. [0041] FIG. 21 : Splenic T cells and myeloid and lymphoid derived dendritic cells (DC) after fetal liver reconstitution. (n=3-4 mice for each test group.) Control (white) bars on the following graphs are based on the normal number of T cells and dendritic cells found in untreated age matched mice. (a) T cell number—Numbers were reduced two and four weeks after reconstitution in both castrated and non-castrated mice. (b) Donor derived (CD45.2+) myeloid dendritic cells—two and four weeks after reconstitution DC numbers were normal in both castrated and non-castrated mice. At two weeks there was no significant difference between numbers in castrated and non-castrated mice. (c) Donor-derived (CD45.2+) lymphoid dendritic cells-numbers were at normal levels two and four weeks after reconstitution. At two weeks there was no significant difference between numbers in castrated and non-castrated mice. [0042] FIG. 22 : Changes in total and donor (CD45.2+) lymph node cell numbers in castrated and non-castrated mice after fetal liver reconstitution. (n=3-4 for each test group.) (a) Total cell numbers—Two weeks after reconstitution cell numbers were at normal levels and there was no significant difference between castrated and non-castrated mice. Four weeks after reconstitution cell numbers in castrated mice were at normal levels. (b) CD45.2+ cell number—There was no significant difference between castrated and non-castrated mice with respect to donor CD45.2+ cell number in the lymph node two weeks after reconstitution. CD45.2 cell number remained high in castrated mice at four weeks. There were no donor-derived cells in the non-castrated mice at the same point. [0043] FIG. 23 : Changes in T cells and myeloid and lymphoid derived dendritic cells (DC) in the mesenteric lymph nodes of castrated and non-castrated mice after fetal liver reconstitution. (n=3-4 mice for each test group.) Control (white) bars are the numbers of T cells and dendritic cells found in untreated age matched mice. (a) T cell numbers were reduced two and four weeks after reconstitution in both castrated and non-castrated mice. (b) Donor derived myeloid dendritic cells were normal in both castrated and non-castrated mice. At four weeks they were decreased. At two weeks there was no significant difference between numbers in castrated and non-castrated mice. (c) Donor-derived lymphoid dendritic cells-Numbers were at normal levels two and four weeks after reconstitution. At two weeks there was no significant difference between numbers in castrated and non-castrated mice. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0000] Definitions [0044] The phrase “modifying the T-cell population makeup” refers to altering the nature and/or ratio of T cell subsets defined functionally and by expression of characteristic molecules. Examples of these characteristic molecules include, but are not limited to, the T cell receptor, CD4, CD8, CD3, CD25, CD28, CD44, CD62L and CD69. [0045] The phrase “increasing the number of T-cells” refers to an absolute increase in the number of T cells in a subject in the thymus and/or in circulation and/or in the spleen and/or in the bone marrow and/or in peripheral tissues such as lymph nodes, gastrointestinal, urogenital and respiratory tracts. This phrase also refers to a relative increase in T cells, for instance when compared to B cells. [0046] A “subject having a depressed or abnormal T-cell population or function” includes an individual infected with the human immunodeficiency virus, especially one who has AIDS, or any other virus or infection which attacks T cells or any T cell disease for which a defective gene has been identified. [0047] Furthermore, this phrase includes any post-pubertal individual, especially an aged person who has decreased immune responsiveness and increased incidence of disease as a consequence of post-pubertal thymic atrophy. [0048] Throughout this specification the word “comprise”, or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising”, will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps, but not the exclusion of any other element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps. [0000] Disruption of Sex Steroid Signalling [0049] As will be readily understood, sex steroid signalling to the thymus can be disrupted in a range of ways, for example, inhibition of sex steroid production or blocking a sex steroid receptor(s) within the thymus. Inhibition of sex steroid production can be achieved, for example, by castration, administration of a sex steroid analogue(s), and other well known techniques. In some clinical cases permanent removal of the gonads via physical castration may be appropriate. In a preferred embodiment, the sex steroid signalling to the thymus is disrupted by administration of a sex steroid analogue, preferably an analogue of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone. It is currently preferred that the analogue is deslorelin (described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,218,439). [0000] Sex Steroid Analogues [0050] Sex steroid analogues and their use in therapies and “chemical castration” are well known. Examples of such analogues include Eulexin (described in FR7923545, WO 86/01105 and PT100899), Goserelin (described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,100,274, U.S. Pat. No. 4,128,638, GB9112859 and GB9112825), Leuprolide (described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,490,291, U.S. Pat. No. 3,972,859, U.S. Pat. No. 4,008,209, U.S. Pat. No. 4,005,063, DE2509783 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,992,421), dioxalan derivatives such as are described in EP 413209, Triptorelin (described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,010,125, U.S. Pat. No. 4,018,726, U.S. Pat. No. 4,024,121, EP 364819 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,258,492), Meterelin (described in EP 23904), Buserelin (described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,003,884, U.S. Pat. No. 4,118,483 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,275,001), Histrelin (described in EP217659), Nafarelin (described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,234,571, WO93/15722 and EP52510), Lutrelin (described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,089,946), Leuprorelin (described in Plosker et al.) and LBRH analogues such as are described in EP181236, U.S. Pat. No. 4,608,251, U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,247, U.S. Pat. No. 4,642,332, U.S. Pat. No. 4,010,149, U.S. Pat. No. 3,992,365 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,010,149. The disclosures of each the references referred to above are incorporated herein by cross reference. [0051] As will be understood by persons skilled in the art at least some of the means for disrupting sex steroid signalling to the thymus will only be effective as long as the appropriate compound is administered. As a result, an advantage of certain embodiments of the present invention is that once the desired immunological affects of the present invention have been achieved, (2-3 months) the treatment can be stopped and the subjects reproductive system will return to normal. [0000] Genetic Modification of Haemopoietic Stem Cells (HSC) [0052] Methods for isolating and transducing stems cells and progenitor cells would be well known to those skilled in the art. Examples of these types of processes are described, for example, in WO 95/08105, U.S. Pat. No. 5,559,703, U.S. Pat. No. 5,399,493, U.S. Pat. No. 5,061,620, WO 96/33281, WO 96/33282, U.S. Pat. No. 5,681,559 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,199,942. [0000] Antisense Polynucleotides [0053] The term “antisense”, as used herein, refers to polynucleotide sequences which are complementary to a polynucleotide of the present invention. Antisense molecules may be produced by any method, including synthesis by ligating the gene(s) of interest in a reverse orientation to a viral promoter which permits the synthesis of a complementary strand. Once introduced into a cell, this transcribed strand combines with natural sequences produced by the cell to form duplexes. These duplexes then block either the further transcription or translation. In this manner, mutant phenotypes may be generated. [0000] Catalytic Nucleic Acids [0054] The term catalytic nucleic acid refers to a DNA molecule or DNA-containing molecule (also known in the art as a ‘deoxyribozyme’ or “DNAzyme”) or an RNA or RNA-containing molecule (also known as a “ribozyme”) which specifically recognizes a distinct substrate and catalyzes the chemical modification of this substrate. The nucleic acid bases in the catalytic nucleic acid can be bases A, C, G, T and U, as well as derivatives thereof. Derivatives of these bases are well known in the art. [0055] Typically, the catalytic nucleic acid contains an antisense sequence for specific recognition of a target nucleic acid, and a nucleic acid cleaving enzymatic activity. The catalytic strand cleaves a specific site in a target nucleic acid. The types of ribozymes that are particularly useful in this invention are the hammerhead ribozyme (Haseloff and Gerlach 1988, Perriman et al., 1992) and the hairpin ribozyme (Shippy et al., 1999). [0000] dsRNA [0056] dsRNA is particularly useful for specifically inhibiting the production of a particular protein. Although not wishing to be limited by theory, Dougherty and Parks (1995) have provided a model for the mechanism by which dsRNA can be used to reduce protein production. This model has recently been modified and expanded by Waterhouse et al. (1998). This technology relies on the presence of dsRNA molecules that contain a sequence that is essentially identical to the mRNA of the gene of interest, in this case an mRNA encoding a polypeptide according to the first aspect of the invention. Conveniently, the dsRNA can be produced in a single open reading frame in a recombinant vector or host cell, where the sense and anti-sense sequences are flanked by an unrelated sequence which enables the sense and anti-sense sequences to hybridize to form the dsRNA molecule with the unrelated sequence forming a loop structure. The design and production of suitable dsRNA molecules for the present invention is well within the capacity of a person skilled in the art, particularly considering Dougherty and Parks (1995), Waterhouse et al. (1998), WO 99/32619, WO 99/53050, WO 99/49029, and WO 01/34815. [0000] Anti-HIV Constructs [0057] Those skilled in the art would be able to develop suitable anti-HIV constructs for use in the present invention. Indeed, a number of anti-HIV antisense constructs and ribozymes have already been developed and are described, for example; in U.S. Pat. No. 5,811,275, U.S. Pat. No. 5,741,706, WO 94/26877, AU 56394/94 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,144,019. EXAMPLE 1 Reversal of Aged-Induced Thymic Atrophy [0000] Materials and Methods [0000] Animals [0058] CBA/CAH and C57Bl6/J male mice were obtained from Central Animal Services, Monash University and were housed under conventional conditions. Ages ranged from 4-6 weeks to 26 months of age and are indicated where relevant. [0000] Castration [0059] Animals were anaesthetised by intraperitoneal injection of 0.3 ml of 0.3 mg xylazine (Rompun; Bayer Australia Ltd., Botany NSW, Australia) and 1.5 mg ketamine hydrochloride (Ketalar; Parke-Davis, Caringbah, NSW, Australia) in saline. Surgical castration was performed by a scrotal incision, revealing the testes, which were tied with suture and then removed along with surrounding fatty tissue. [0000] Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) Incorporation [0060] Mice received two intraperitoneal injections of BrdU (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, Mo.) (100 mg/kg body weight in 100 μl of PBS) at a 4 hour interval. Control mice received vehicle alone injections. One hour after the second injection, thymuses were dissected and either a cell suspension made for FACS analysis, or immediately embedded in Tissue Tek (O.C.T. compound, Miles INC, Indiana), snap frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at −70° C. until use. [0000] Flow Cytometric Analysis [0061] Mice were killed by CO 2 asphyxiation and thymus, spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes were removed. Organs were pushed gently through a 200 μm sieve in cold PBS/1% FCS/0.02% Azide, centrifuged (650 g, 5 min, 4° C.), and resuspended in either PBS/FCS/Az. Spleen cells were incubated in red cell lysis buffer (8.9 g/litre ammonium chloride) for 10 min at 4° C., washed and resuspended in PBS/FCS/A. Cell concentration and viability were determined in duplicate using a haemocytometer and ethidium bromide/acridine orange and viewed under a fluorescence microscope (Axioskop; Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany). [0062] For 3-colour immunofluorescence thymocytes were routinely labelled with anti-αβ TCR-FITC or anti-γδ TCR-FITC, anti-CD4-PE and anti-CD8-APC (all obtained from Pharmingen, San Diego, Calif.) followed by flow cytometry analysis. Spleen and lymph node suspensions were labelled with either αβTCR-FITC/CD4-PE/CD8-APC or B220-B (Sigma) with CD4-PE and CD8-APC. B220-B was revealed with streptavidin-Tri-color conjugate purchased from Caltag Laboratories, Inc., Burlingame, Calif. [0063] For BrdU detection, cells were surface labelled with CD4-PE and CD8-APC, followed by fixation and permeabilisation as previously described (Carayon and Bord, 1989). Briefly, stained cells were fixed O/N at 4° C. in 1% PFA/0.01% Tween-20. Washed cells were incubated in 500 μl DNase (100 Kunitz units, Boehringer Mannheim, W. Germany) for 30 mins at 37° C. in order to denature the DNA. Finally, cells were incubated with anti-BrdU-FTIC (Becton-Dickinson). [0064] For 4-colour Immunofluorescence thymocytes were labelled for CD3, CD4, CD8, B220 and Mac-1, collectively detected by anti-rat Ig-Cy5 (Amersham, U.K.), and the negative cells (TN) gated for analysis. They were further stained for CD25-PE (Pharmingen) and CD44-B (Pharmingen) followed by Streptavidin-Tri-colour (Caltag, Calif.) as previously described (Godfrey and Zlotnik, 1993). BrdU detection was then performed as described above. [0065] Samples were analysed on a FacsCalibur (Becton-Dickinson). Viable lymphocytes were gated according to 0° and 90° light scatter profiles and data was analysed using Cell quest software (Becton-Dickinson). [0000] Immunohistology [0066] Frozen thymus sections (4 μm) were cut using a cryostat (Leica) and immediately fixed in 100% acetone. [0067] For two-colour immunofluorescence, sections were double-labelled with a panel of monoclonal antibodies: MTS6, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 24, 32, 33, 35 and 44 (Godfrey et al., 1990; Table 1) produced in this laboratory and the co-expression of epithelial cell determinants was assessed with a polyvalent rabbit anti-cytokeratin Ab (Dako, Carpinteria, Calif.). Bound mAb was revealed with ITC-conjugated sheep anti-rat Ig (Silenus Laboratories) and anti-cytokeratin was revealed with TRITC-conjugated goat anti-rabbit Ig (Silenus Laboratories). [0068] For bromodeoxyuridine detection sections were stained with either anti-cytokeratin followed by anti-rabbit-TRITC or a specific mAb, which was then revealed with anti-rat Ig-Cy3 (Amersham). BrdU detection was then performed as previously described (Penit et al., 1996). Briefly, sections were fixed in 70% Ethanol for 30 mins. Semi-dried sections were incubated in 4M HCl, neutralised by washing in Borate Buffer (Sigma), followed by two washes in PBS. BrdU was detected using anti-BrdU-FTIC (Becton-Dickinson). [0069] For three-colour immunofluorescence, sections were labelled for a specific MTS mAb together with anti-cytokeratin. BrdU detection was then performed as described above. [0070] Sections were analysed using a Leica fluorescent and Nikon confocal microscopes. [0000] Migration Studies [0071] Animals were anaesthetised by intraperitoneal injection of 0.3 ml of 0.3 mg xylazine (Rompun; Bayer Australia Ltd., Botany NSW, Australia) and 1.5 mg ketamine hydrochloride (Ketalar; Parke-Davis, Caringbah, NSW, Australia) in saline. [0072] Details of the FITC labelling of thymocytes technique are similar to those described elsewhere (Scollay et al., 1980; Berzins et al., 1998). Briefly, thymic lobes were exposed and each lobe was injected with approximately 10 μm of 350 μg/ml FTIC (in PBS). The wound was closed with a surgical staple, and the mouse was warmed until fully recovered from anaesthesia. Mice were killed by CO 2 asphyxiation approximately 24 h after injection and lymphoid organs were removed for analysis. [0073] After cell counts, samples were stained with anti-CD4-PE and anti-CD8-APC, then analysed by flow cytometry. Migrant cells were identified as live-gated FITC + cells expressing either CD4 or CD8 (to omit autofluorescing cells and doublets). The percentages of FITC + CD4 and CD8 cells were added to provide the total migrant percentage for lymph nodes and spleen, respectively. Calculation of daily export rates was performed as described by Berzins et al. (1998). [0074] Data was analysed using the unpaired student ‘t’ test or nonparametrical Mann-Whitney test was used to determine the statistical significance between control and test results for experiments performed at least in triplicate. Experimental values significantly differing from control values are indicated as follows: *p≦0.05, **p≦0.01 and ***p≦0.001. [0000] Results [0000] The Effect of Age on Thymocyte Populations. [0000] (i) Thymic Weight and Thymocyte Number [0075] With increasing age there is a highly significant (p≦0.0001) decrease in both thymic weight ( FIG. 1A ) and total thymocyte number ( FIG. 1B ). Relative thymic weight (mg thymus/g body) in the young adult has a mean value of 3.34 which decreases to 0.66 at 18-24 months of age (adipose deposition limits accurate calculation). The decrease in thymic weight can be attributed to a decrease in total thymocyte numbers: the 1-2 month thymus contains ˜6.7×10 7 thymocytes, decreasing to ˜4.5×10 6 cells by 24 months. By removing the effects of sex steroids on the thymus by castration, regeneration occurs and by 4 weeks post-castration, the thymus is equivalent to that of the young adult in both weight and cellularity ( FIGS. 1A and 1B ). Interestingly, there is a significant (p≦0.001) increase in thymocyte numbers at 2 weeks post-castration (˜1.2×10 8 ), which is restored to normal young levels by 4 weeks post-castration ( FIG. 1B ). [0076] The decrease in T cell numbers produced by the thymus is not reflected in the periphery, with spleen cell numbers remaining constant with age ( FIG. 2A ). Homeostatic mechanisms in the periphery were evident since the B cell to T cell ratio in spleen and lymph nodes was not affected with age and the subsequent decrease in T cell numbers reaching the periphery ( FIG. 2B ). However, the ratio of CD4 + to CD8 + T cell significantly decreased (p≦0.001) with age from 2:1 at 2 months of age, to a ratio of 1:1 at 2 years of age ( FIG. 2C ). Following castration and the subsequent rise in T cell numbers reaching the periphery, no change in peripheral T cell numbers was observed: splenic T cell numbers and the ratio of B:T cells in both spleen and lymph nodes was not altered following castration ( FIGS. 2A and B). The decreased CD4:CD8 ratio in the periphery with age was still evident at 2 weeks post-castration but was completely reversed by 4 weeks post-castration ( FIG. 2C ). [0000] (ii) αβTCR, γδTCR, CD4 and CD8 Expression [0077] To determine if the decrease in thymocyte numbers seen with age was the result of the depletion of specific cell populations, thymocytes were labelled with defining markers in order to analyse the separate subpopulations. In addition, this allowed analysis of the kinetics of thymus repopulation post-castration. The proportion of the main thymocyte subpopulations was compared with those of the normal young thymus ( FIG. 3 ) and found to remain uniform with age. In addition, further subdivision of thymocytes by the expression of αβTCR and γδTCR revealed no change in the proportions of these populations with age (data not shown). At 2 and 4 weeks post-castration, thymocyte subpopulations remained in the same proportions and, since thymocyte numbers increase by up to 100-fold post-castration, this indicates a synchronous expansion of all thymocyte subsets rather than a developmental progression of expansion. [0078] The decrease in cell numbers seen in the thymus of aged animals thus appears to be the result of a balanced reduction in all cell phenotypes, with no significant changes in T cell populations being detected. Thymus regeneration occurs in a synchronous fashion, replenishing all T cell subpopulations simultaneously rather than sequentially. [0000] Proliferation of Thymocytes [0079] As shown in FIG. 4 . 1 , 15-20% of thymocytes are proliferating at 4-6 weeks of age. The majority (˜80%) of these are DP with the TN subset making up the second largest population at ˜6% ( FIG. 4 . 2 A). Accordingly, most division is seen in the subcapsule and cortex by immunohistology (data not shown). Some division is seen in, the medullary regions with FACS analysis revealing a proportion of SP cells (9% of CD4 T cells and 25% of CD8 T cells) dividing ( FIG. 4 . 2 B). [0080] Although cell numbers are significantly decreased in the aged thymus, proliferation of thymocytes remains constant, decreasing to 12-15% at 2 years ( FIG. 4 . 1 ), with the phenotype of the proliferating population resembling the 2 month thymus ( FIG. 4 . 2 A). Immunohistology revealed the division at 1 year of age to reflect that seen in the young adult, however, at 2 years, proliferation is mainly seen in the outer cortex and surrounding the vasculature (data not shown). At 2 weeks post-castration, although thymocyte numbers significantly increase, there is no change in the proportion of thymocytes that are proliferating, again indicating a synchronous expansion of cells ( FIG. 4 . 1 ). Immunohistology revealed the localisation of thymocyte proliferation and the extent of dividing cells to resemble the situation in the 2-month-old thymus by 2 weeks post-castration (data not shown). When analysing the proportion of each subpopulation which represent the proliferating population, there was a significant (p<0.001) increase in the percentage of CD8 T cells which are within the proliferating population (1% at 2 months and 2 years of age, increasing to ˜6% at 2 weeks post-castration) ( FIG. 4 . 2 A). [0081] FIG. 4 . 2 B illustrates the extent of proliferation within each subset in young, old and castrated mice. There is a significant (p≦0.001) decay in proliferation within the DN subset (35% at 2 months to 4% by 2 years). Proliferation of CD8 + T cells was also significantly (p≦0.001) decreased, reflecting the findings by immunohistology (data not shown) where no division is evident in the medulla of the aged thymus. The decrease in DN proliferation is not returned to normal young levels by 4 weeks post-castration. However, proliferation within the CD8 + T cell subset is significantly (p≦0.001) increased at 2 weeks post-castration and is returning to normal young levels at 4 weeks post-castration. [0082] The decrease in proliferation within the DN subset was analysed further using the markers CD44 and CD25. The DN subpopulation, in addition to the thymocyte precursors, contains αβTCR + CD4 − CD8 − thyrocytes, which are thought to have downregulated both co-receptors at the transition to SP cells (Godfrey & Zlotnik, 1993). By gating on these mature cells, it was possible to analyse the true TN compartment (CD3 − CD4 − CD8 − ) and these showed no difference in their proliferation rates with age or following castration ( FIG. 4 . 2 C). However, analysis of the subpopulations expressing CD44 and CD25, showed a significant (p<0.001) decrease in proliferation of the TN1 subset (CD44 + CD25 − ), from 20% in the normal young to around 6% at 18 months of age ( FIG. 4 . 2 D) which was restored by 4 weeks post-castration. The decrease in the proliferation of the TN1 subset, was compensated for by a significant (p≦0.001) increase in proliferation of the TN2 subpopulation (CD44 + CD25 + ) which returned to normal young levels by 2 weeks post-castration ( FIG. 4 . 2 D). [0000] The Effect of Age on the Thymic Microenvironment [0083] The changes in the thymic microenvironment with age were examined by immunofluorescence using an extensive panel of mAbs from the MTS series, double-labelled with a polyclonal anti-cytokeratin Ab. [0084] The antigens recognised by these mAbs can be subdivided into three groups: thymic epithelial subsets, vascular-associated antigens and those present on both stromal cells and thymocytes. [0000] (i) Epithelial Cell Antigens. [0085] Anti-keratin staining (pan-epithelium) of 2 year old mouse thymus, revealed a loss of general thymus architecture with a severe epithelial cell disorganisation and absence of a distinct cortico-medullary junction. Further analysis using the mAbs, MTS 10 (medulla) and MTS44 (cortex), showed a distinct reduction in cortex size with age, with a less substantial decrease in medullary epithelium (data not shown). Epithelial cell free regions, or keratin negative areas (KNA's, van Ewijk et al., 1980; Godfrey et al., 1990; Bruijntjes et al., 1993).) were more apparent and increased in size in the aged thymus, as evident with anti-cytokeratin labelling. There is also the appearance of thymic epithelial “cyst-like” structures in the aged thymus particularly noticeable in medullary regions (data not shown). Adipose deposition, severe decrease in thymic size and the decline in integrity of the cortico-medullary junction are shown conclusively with the anti-cytokeratin staining (data not shown). The thymus is beginning to regenerate by 2 weeks post-castration. This is evident in the size of the thymic lobes (a), the increase in cortical epithelium as revealed by MTS 44 (b) and the localisation of medullary epithelium (c). The medullary epithelium is detected by MTS 10 and at 2 weeks, there are still subpockets of epithelium stained by MTS 10 scattered throughout the cortex. By 4 weeks post-castration, there is a distinct medulla and cortex and discernible cortico-medullary junction. [0086] The markers MTS 20 and 24 are presumed to detect primordial epithelial cells (Godfrey, et al.; 1990) and further illustrate the degeneration of the aged thymus. These are present in abundance at E14, detect isolated medullary epithelial cell clusters at 4-6 weeks but are again increased in intensity in the aged thymus (data not shown). Following castration, all these antigens are expressed at a level equivalent to that of the young adult thymus (data not shown) with MTS 20 and MTS 24 reverting to discrete subpockets of epithelium located at the cortico-medullary junction. [0000] (ii) Vascular-Associated Antigens. [0087] The blood-thymus barrier is thought to be responsible for the immigration of T cell precursors to the thymus and the emigration of mature T cells from the thymus to the periphery. [0088] The mAb MTS 15 is specific for the endothelium of thymic blood vessels, demonstrating a granular, diffuse staining pattern (Godfrey, et al, 1990). In the aged thymus, MTS 15 expression is greatly increased, and reflects the increased frequency and size of blood vessels and perivascular spaces (data not shown). [0089] The thymic extracellular matrix, containing important structural and cellular adhesion molecules such as collagen, laminin and fibrinogen, is detected by the mAb MTS 16. Scattered throughout the normal young thymus, the nature of MTS 16 expression becomes more widespread and interconnected in the aged thymus. Expression of MTS 16 is increased further at 2 weeks post-castration while 4 weeks post-castration, this expression is representative of the situation in the 2 month thymus (data not shown). [0000] (iii) Shared Antigens [0090] MHC II expression in the normal young thymus, detected by the mAb MTS 6, is strongly positive (granular) on the cortical epithelium (Godfrey et al., 1990) with weaker staining of the medullary epithelium. The aged thymus shows a decrease in MHCII expression with expression substantially increased at 2 weeks post-castration. By 4 weeks post-castration, expression is again reduced and appears similar to the 2 month old thymus (data not shown). [0000] Thymocyte Emigration [0091] Approximately 1% of T cells emigrate from the thymus daily in the young mouse (Scollay et al., 1980). We found emigration was occurring at a proportional rate equivalent to the normal young mouse at 14 months and even 2 years of age ( FIGS. 5 a and 5 b )) although significantly (p≦0.0001) reduced in number. By 2-weeks post-castration, a significant increase in RTE was observed (p≦0.01) compared to the aged mice. Despite the changes in cell numbers emigrating, the rate of emigration (RTE/total thymocytes) remained constant with age ( FIG. 5 b ). However, at 2-weeks post-castration this had significantly decreased (p≦0.05), reflecting the increase in total thymocyte nubmers ast this time. Interestingly, there was an increase in the CD4:CD8 ratio of the RTE from ˜3:1 at 2 months to ˜7:1 at 26 months ( FIG. 5 c ). By 1 week post-castration, this ratio had normalised ( FIG. 5 c ). EXAMPLE 2 Reversal of Chemotherapy- or Radiation-Induced Thymic Atrophy [0092] Castrated mice (either one-week prior to treatment, or on the same day as treatment), showed substantial increases in thymus regeneration rate following irradiation or cyclophosphamide treatment. [0093] In the thymus, irradiated mice show severe disruption of thymic architecture, concurrent with depletion of rapidly dividing cells. Cortical collapse, reminiscent of the aged/hydrocortisone treated thymus, reveals loss of DN and DP thymocytes. There is a downregulation of αβ-TCR expression on CD4+ and CD8+ SP thymocytes—evidence of apoptosing cells. In comparison, cyclophosphamide-treated animals show a less severe disruption of thymic architecture, and show a faster regeneration rate of DN and DP thymocytes. [0094] By 1 week post-treatment castrated mice showed significant thymic regeneration even at this early stage ( FIGS. 6, 7 and 8 ). In comparison, non-castrated animals, showed severe loss of DN and DP thymocytes (rapidly-dividing cells) and subsequent increase in proportion of CD4 and CD8 cells (radio-resistant). This is best illustrated by the differences in thymocyte numbers with castrated animals showing at least a 4-fold increase in thymus size even at 1 week post-treatment. By 2 weeks, the non-castrated animals showed relative thymocyte normality with regeneration of both DN and DP thymocytes. However, proportions of thymocytes are not yet equivalent to the young adult control thymus. Indeed, at 2 weeks, the vast difference in regulation rates between castrated and non-castrated mice was maximal (by 4 weeks thymocyte numbers were equivalent between treatment groups). [0095] Interestingly, thymus size appears to ‘overshoot’ the baseline of the control thymus. Indicative of rapid expansion within the thymus, with the migration of these newly derived thymocytes not yet occurring (it takes ˜3-4 weeks for thymocytes to migrate through and out into the periphery). Therefore, although proportions within each subpopulation are equal, numbers of thymocytes are building before being released into the periphery. [0096] FIG. 9 illustrates the use of chemical castration compared to surgical castration in enhancement of T cell regeneration. The kinetics of chemical castration are much slower than surgical, that is, mice take about 3 weeks longer to decrease their circulating sex steroid levels. However, chemical castration is still effective in regenerating the thymic as illustrated in FIG. 9 . EXAMPLE 3 Thymic Regeneration Following Inhibition of Sex Steroids Results in Restoration of Deficient Peripheral T Cell Function [0097] To determine whether castration can enhance the immune response, Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) immunisation was examined as it allows the study of disease progression and role of CTL (cytotoxic) T cells. Castrated mice have a qualitatively and quantitatively improved responsiveness to the virus. Mice were immunised in the footpad and the popliteal (draining) lymph node analysed at D5 post-immunisation. In addition, the footpad is removed and homogenised to determine the virus titre at particular time-points throughout the experiment. [0098] At D5 post-immunisation, the castrated mice have a significantly larger lymph node cellularity than the aged mice ( FIG. 10 a ). Although no difference in the proportion of activated (CD8 + CD25 + ) cells was seen with age or post-castration, activated cell numbers within the lymph nodes are significantly increased with castration when compared to the aged controls ( FIG. 10 c .) Further, activated cell numbers correlate with that found for the young adult indicating that CTLs are being activated to a greater extent in the castrated mice, but the young adult may have an enlarged lymph node due to B cell activation. This was confirmed with a CTL assay detecting the proportion of specific lysis occuring with age and post-castration ( FIG. 11 ). Aged mice showed a significantly reduced target cell lysis at effector:target ratios of 10:1 and 3:1 compared to young adult (2-month) mice ( FIG. 11 ). Castration restored the ability of mice to generate specific CITY responses post-HSV infection ( FIG. 11 ). [0099] There is a 40% bias post-immunisation for Vβ10 usage for the CTLs in response to HSV. When aged and castrated mice were analysed for their Vβ expression, it was found that this was predominant ( FIG. 12 a ). However, in a sample of aged mice, no such bias was observed ( FIG. 13 ). Furthermore, a decrease in CD4 + T cells in the draining lymph nodes was seen with age compared to both young adult and castrated mice ( FIG. 12 b ). This illustrates the vital need for increased production of T cells from the thymus throughout life, in order to get maximal immune responsiveness. EXAMPLE 4 Inhibition of Sex Steroids Enhances Uptake of New Haemopoietic Precursor Cells into the Thymus Which Enables Chimeric Mixtures of Host and Donor Lymphoid Cells (T, B, and Dendritic Cells) [0100] Previous experiments have shown that microchimera formation plays an important role in organ transplant acceptance. Dendritic cells have also been shown to play an integral role in tolerance to graft antigens. Therefore, the effects of castration on thymic chimera formation and dendritic cell number was studied. [0101] For the syngeneic experiments, 4 three month old mice were used per treatment group. All controls were age matched and untreated. For congenic experiments, 3-4 eight month old mice were used per treatment group. All controls were age matched and untreated. [0000] Thymic Changes Following Lethal Irradiation, Foetal Liver Reconstitution and Castration of Syngeneic Mice [0102] The total thymus cell numbers of castrated and noncastrated reconstituted mice were compared to untreated age matched controls and are summarised in FIG. 14 . At both 2- and 4 -weeks post-treatment total lymphocyte numbers were significantly increased in castrated compared to noncastrated mice (p≦0.05). At 6 weeks, cell number remained below control levels, however, those of castrated mice was three fold higher than the noncastrated mice (p≦0.05) ( FIG. 14A ). [0000] Splenic Changes Following Lethal Irradiation, Syngeneic Foetal Liver Reconstitution and Castration. [0103] Total cell numbers in the spleen were greatly decreased 4 and 6 weeks after irradiation and reconstitution, in both castrated and noncastrated mice. Again, castrated mice showed increased lymphocyte numbers at these time-points copared to non-castrated-mice (p≦0.05) although no difference in total spleen cell number between castrated and noncastrated treatment groups was seen at 2-weeks ( FIG. 14B ). [0000] Mesenteric Lymph Nodes Following Lethal Irradiation, Syngeneic Foetal Liver Reconstitution and Castration [0104] Mesenteric lymph node cell numbers were decreased 2-weeks after irradiation and reconstitution, in both castrated and noncastrated mice. However, by the 4 week time point cell numbers had reached control levels. There was no statistically significant difference in lymph node cell number between castrated and noncastrated treatment groups ( FIG. 14C ). [0000] Thymic Changes Following Lethal Irradiation, Fetal Liver Reconstitution and Castration of Congenic Mice [0105] In noncastrated mice, there was a profound decrease in thymocyte number over the 4 week time period, with little or no evidence of regeneration ( FIG. 15A ). In the castrated group, however, by two weeks there was already extensive thymopoiesis which by four weeks had returned to control levels, being 10 fold higher than in noncastrated mice. Flow cytometeric analysis of the thymii with respect to CD45.2 (donor-derived antigen) demonstrated that no donor derived cells were detectable in the noncastrated group at 4 weeks, but remarkably, virtually all the thymocytes in the castrated mice were donor—derived at this time point ( FIG. 15B ). Given this extensive enhancement of thymopoiesis from donor-derived haemopoietic precursors, it was important to determine whether T cell differentiation had proceeded normally. CD4, CD8 and TCR defined subsets were analysed by flow cytometry. There were no proportional differences in thymocytes subset proportions 2 weeks after reconstitution ( FIG. 16 ). This observation was not possible at 4 weeks, because the noncastrated mice were not reconstituted with donor derived cells. However, at this tine point the thymocyte proportions in castrated mice appear normal. [0106] Two weeks after foetal liver reconstitution there were significantly more donor-derived, myeloid dendritic cells (defined as CD45.2+Mac1+CD11C+) in castrated mice than noncastrated mice, the difference was 4-fold (p<0.05). Four weeks after treatment the number of donor-derived myeloid dendritic-cells remained above the control in castrated mice ( FIG. 17A ). 2 weeks after foetal liver reconstitution the number of donor derived lymphoid dendritic cells (defined as CD45.2+Mac1-CD11C+) in the thymus of castrated mice was double that found in noncastrated mice. Four weeks after treatment the number of donor-derived lymphoid dendritic cells remained above the control in castrated mice ( FIG. 17B ). [0107] Immunofluorescent staining for CD11C, epithelium (antikeratin) and CD45.2 (donor-derived marker) localised dendritic cells to the corticomedullary junction and medullary areas of thymii 4 weeks after reconstitution and castration. Using colocalisation software donor-derivation of these cells was confirmed (data not shown). This was supported by flow cytometry data suggesting that 4 weeks after reconstitution approximately 85% of cells in the thymus are donor derived. [0000] Changes in the Bone Marrow Following Lethal Irradiation, Foetal Liver Reconstitution and Castration [0108] Cell numbers in the bone marrow of castrated and noncastrated reconstituted mice were compared to those of untreated age matched controls and are summarised in FIG. 18A . Bone marrow cell numbers were normal two and four weeks after reconstitution in castrated mice. Those of noncastrated mice were normal at two weeks but dramatically decreased at four weeks (p<0.05). Although, at this time point the noncastrated mice did not reconstitute with donor-derived cells. [0109] Flow cytometeric analysis of the bone marrow with respect to CD45.2 (donor-derived antigen) established that no donor derived cells were detectable in the bone marrow of noncastrated mice 4 weeks after reconstitution, however, almost all the cells in the castrated mice were donor-derived at this time point ( FIG. 18B ). [0110] Two weeks after reconstitution the donor-derived T cell numbers of both castrated and noncastrated mice were markedly lower than those seen in the control mice (p<0.05). At 4 weeks there were no donor-derived T cells in the bone marrow of noncastrated mice and T cell number remained below control levels in castrated mice ( FIG. 19A ). [0111] Donor-derived, myeloid and lymphoid dendritic cells were found at control levels in the bone marrow of noncastrated and castrated mice 2 weeks after reconstitution. Four weeks after treatment numbers decreased further in castrated mice and no donor-derived cells were seen in the noncastrated group ( FIG. 19B ). [0000] Splenic Changes Following Lethal Irradiation, Foetal Liver Reconstitution and Castration [0112] Spleen cell numbers of castrated and noncastrated reconstituted mice were compared to untreated age matched controls and the results are summarised in FIG. 20A . Two weeks after treatment, spleen cell numbers of both castrated and noncastrated mice were approximately 50% that of the control. By four weeks, numbers in castrated mice were approaching normal levels, however, those of noncastrated mice remained decreased. Analysis of CD45.2 (donor-derived) flow cytometry data demonstrated that there was no significant difference in the number of donor derived cells of castrated and noncastrated mice, 2 weeks after reconstitution ( FIG. 20B ). No donor derived cells were detectable in the spleens of noncastrated mice at 4 weeks, however, almost all the spleen cells in the castrated mice were donor derived. [0113] Two and four weeks after reconstitution there was a marked decrease in T cell number in both castrated and noncastrated mice (p<0.05) ( FIG. 21A ). Two weeks after foetal liver reconstitution donor-derived myeloid and lymphoid-dendritic cells ( FIGS. 21A and B respectively) were found at control levels in noncastrated and castrated mice. At 4 weeks no donor derived dendritic cells were detectable in the spleens of noncastrated mice and numbers remained decreased in castrated mice. [0000] The Effects of Lethal Irradiation, Foetal Liver Reconstitution and Castration on Mesenteric Lymph Node Numbers. [0114] Lymph node cell numbers of castrated and noncastrated, reconstituted mice were compared to those of untreated age matched controls and are summarised in FIG. 22A . Two weeks after reconstitution cell numbers were at control levels in both castrated and noncastrated mice. Four weeks after reconstitution, cell numbers in castrated mice remained at control levels but those of noncastrated mice decreased significantly ( FIG. 22B ). Flow cytometry analysis with respect to CD45.2 suggested that there was no significant difference in the number of donor-derived cells, in castrated and noncastrated mice, 2 weeks after reconstitution ( FIG. 22B ). No donor derived cells were detectable in noncastrated mice 4 weeks after reconstitution. However, virtually all lymph node cells in the castrated mice were donor-derived at the same time point. [0115] Two and four weeks after reconstitution donor-derived T cell numbers in both castrated and noncastrated mice were lower than control levels. At 4 weeks the numbers remained low in castrated mice and there were no donor-derived T cells in the lymph nodes of noncastrated mice ( FIG. 23 ). Two weeks after foetal liver reconstitution donor-derived, myeloid and lymphoid dendritic cells were found at control levels in noncastrated and castrated mice ( FIGS. 23A & B respectively). Four weeks after treatment the number of donor-derived myeloid dendritic cells fell below the control, however, lymphoid dendritic cell number remained unchanged. [0000] General Discussion of the Examples [0116] We have shown that aged thymus, although severely atrophic, maintains its functional capacity with age, with T cell-proliferation, differentiation and migration occurring at levels equivalent to the young adult mouse. Although thymic function is regulated by several complex interactions between the neuro-endocrine-immune axes, the atrophy induced by sex steroid production exerts the most significant and prolonged effects illustrated by the extent of thymus regeneration post-castration both of lymphoid and epithelial cell subsets. [0117] Thymus weight is significantly reduced with age as shown previously (Hirokawa and Makinodan, 1975, Aspinall, 1997) and correlates with a significant decrease in thymocyte numbers. The stress induced by the castration technique, which may result in further thymus atrophy due to the actions of corticosteroids, is overridden by the removal of sex steroid influences with the 2-week castrate thymus increasing in cellularity by 20-30 fold from the pre-castrate thymus. By 3 weeks post-castration, the aged thymus shows a significant increase in both thymic size and cell number, surpassing that of the young adult thymus presumably due to the actions of sex steroids already exerting themselves in the 2 month old mouse. [0118] Our data confirms previous findings that emphasise the continued ability of thymocytes to differentiate and maintain constant subset proportions with age (Aspinall, 1997). In addition, we have shown thymocyte differentiation to occur simultaneously post-castration indicative of a synchronous expansion in thymocyte subsets. Since thymocyte numbers are decreased significantly with age, proliferation of thymocytes was analysed to determine if this was a contributing factor in thymus atrophy. [0119] Proliferation of thymocytes was not affected by age-induced thymic atrophy or by removal of sex-steroid influences post-castration with ˜14% of all thymocytes proliferating. However, the localisation of this division differed with age: the 2 month mouse thymus shows abundant division throughout the subcapsular and cortical areas (TN and DP T cells) with some division also occurring in the medulla. Due to thymic epithelial disorganisation with age, localisation of proliferation was difficult to distinguish but appeared to be less uniform in pattern than the young and relegated to the outer cortex. By 2 weeks post-castration, dividing thymocytes were detected throughout the cortex and were evident in the medulla with similar distribution to the 2 month thymus. [0120] The phenotype of the proliferating population as determined by CD4 and CD8 analysis, was not altered with age or following castration. However, analysis of proliferation within thymocyte subpopulations, revealed a significant decrease in proliferation of both the TN and CD8 + cells with age. Further analysis within the TN subset on the basis of the markers CD44 and CD25, revealed a significant decrease in proliferation of the TN1 (CD44 + CD25 − ) population which was compensated for by an increase in the TN2 (CD44 − CD25 + ) population. These abnormalities within the TN population, reflect the findings by Aspinall (1997). Surprisingly, the TN subset was proliferating at normal levels by 2 weeks post-castration indicative of the immediate response of this population to the inhibition of sex-steroid action. Additionally, at both 2 weeks and 4 weeks post-castration, the proportion of CD8 + T cells that were proliferating was markedly increased from the control thymus, possibly indicating a role in the re-establishment of the peripheral T cell pool. [0121] Thymocyte migration was shown to occur at a constant proportion of thymocytes with age conflicting with previous data by Scollay et al (1980) who showed a ten-fold reduction in the rate of thymocyte migration to the periphery. The difference in these results may be due to the difficulties in intrathymic FITC labelling of 2 year old thymuses or the effects of adipose deposition on FITC uptake. However, the absolute numbers of T cells migrating was decreased significantly as found by Scollay resulting in a significant reduction in ratio of RTEs to the peripheral T cell pool. This will result in changes in the periphery predominantly affecting the T cell repertoire (Mackall et al., 1995). Previous papers (Mackall et al, 1995) have shown a skewing of the T cell repertoire to a memory rather than naive T cell phenotype with age. The diminished T cell repertoire however, may not cope if the individual encounters new pathogens, possibly accounting for the rise in immunodeficiency in the aged. Obviously, there is a need to re-establish the T cell pool in immunocompromised individuals. Castration allows the thymus to repopulate the periphery through significantly increasing the production of naive T cells. [0122] In the periphery, T cell numbers remained at a constant level as evidenced in the B:T cell ratios of spleen and lymph nodes, presumably due to peripheral homeostasis (Mackall et al., 1995; Berzins et al., 1998). However, disruption of cellular composition in the periphery was evident with the aged thymus showing a significant decrease in CD4:CD8 ratios from 2:1 in the young adult to 1:1 in the 2 year mouse, possibly indicative of the more susceptible nature of CD4 + T cells to age or an increase in production of CD8 + T cells from extrathymic sources. By 2 weeks post-castration, this ratio has been normalised, again reflecting the immediate response of the immune system to surgical castration. [0123] The above findings have shown firstly that the aged thymus is capable of functioning in a nature equivalent to the pre-pubertal thymus. In this respect, T cell numbers are significantly decreased but the ability of thymocytes to differentiate is not disturbed. Their overall ability to proliferate and eventually migrate to the periphery is again not influenced by the age-associated atrophy of the thymus. However, two important findings were noted. Firstly, there appears to be an adverse affect on the TN cells in their ability to proliferate, correlating with findings by Aspinall (1997). This defect could be attributed to an inherent defect in the thymocytes themselves. Yet our data, and previous work has shown thymocyte differentiation, although diminished, still occurs and stem cell entry from the BM is also not affected with age (Hirokawa, 1998; Mackall and Gress, 1997). This implicates the thymic stroma as the target for sex steroid action and consequently abnormal regulation of this precursor subset of T cells. Secondly, the CD8 + T cells were significantly diminished in their proliferative capacity with age and, following castration, a significantly increased proportion of CD8 + T cells proliferated as compared to the 2 month mouse. The proliferation of mature T cells is thought to be a final step before migration (Suda and Zlotnik, 1992), such that a significant decrease in CD8 + proliferation would indicate a decrease in their migrational potential. This hypothesis is supported by our finding that the ratio of CD4:CD8 T cells in RTEs increased with age, indicative of a decrease in CD8 T cells migrating. Alternatively, if the thymic epithelium is providing the key factor for the CD8 T cell maintenance, whether a lymphostromal molecule or cytokine influence, this factor may be disturbed with increased sex-steroid production. By removing the influence of sex-steroids, the CD8 T cell population can again proliferate optimally. Thus, it was necessary to determine, in detail, the status of thymic epithelial cells pre- and post-castration. [0124] The cortex appears to ‘collapse’ with age due to lack of thymocytes available to expand the network of epithelium. The most dramatic change in thymic epithelium post-castration was the increased network of cortical epithelium detected by MTS 44, illustrating the significant rise in thymocyte numbers. At 2 weeks post-castration, KNAs are abundant and appear to accommodate proliferating thymocytes indicating that thymocyte development is occurring at a rate higher than the epithelium can cope with. The increase in cortical epithelium appears to be due to stretching of the thymic architecture rather than proliferation of this subtype since no proliferation of the epithelium was noted with BrdU staining by immunofluorescence. [0125] Medullary epithelium is not as susceptible to age influences most likely due to the lesser number of T cells accumulating in this area (>95% of thymocytes are lost at the DP stage due to selection events). However, the aged thymus shows severe epithelial cell disruption distinguished by a lack of distinction of the cortico-medullary junction with the medullary epithelium incorporating into the cortical epithelium. By 2 weeks post-castration, the medullary epithelium, as detected by MTS 10 staining is re-organised to some extent, however, subpockets are still present within the cortical epithelium. By 4 weeks post-castration, the cortical and medullary epithelium is completely reorganised with a distinct cortico-medullary junction similar to the young adult thymus. [0126] Subtle changes were also observed following castration, most evident in the decreased expression of MHC class II and blood-thymus barrier antigens when compared to the pre-castrate thymus. MHCII (detected by MTS6) is increased in expression in the aged thymus possibly relating to a decrease in control by the developing thymocytes due to their diminished numbers. Alternatively, it may simply be due to lack of masking by the thymocytes, illustrated also in the post-irradiation thymus (Randle and Boyd, 1992) which is depleted of the DP thymocytes. Once thymocyte numbers are increased following castration, the antigen binding sites are again blocked by the accumulation of thymocytes thus decreasing detection by immunofluorescence. The antigens detecting the blood-thymus barrier (MTS12, 15 and 16) are again increased in the aged thymus and also revert to the expression in the young adult thymus post-castration. Lack of masking by thymocytes and the close proximity of the antigens due to thymic atrophy may explain this increase in expression. Alternatively, the developing thymocytes may provide the necessary control mechanisms over the expression of these antigens thus when these are depleted, expression is not controlled. The primordial epithelial antigens detected by MTS 20 and MTS 24 are increased in expression in the aged thymus but revert to subpockets of epithelium at the cortico-medullary junction post-castration. This indicates a lack of signals for this epithelial precursor subtype to differentiate in the aged mouse. Removing the block placed by the sex-steroids, these antigens can differentiate to express cortical epithelial antigens. [0127] The above findings indicate a defect in the thymic epithelium rendering it incapable of providing the developing thymocytes with the necessary stimulus for development. However, the symbiotic nature of the thymic epithelium and thymocytes makes it difficult to ascertain the exact pathway of destruction by the sex steroid influences. The medullary epithelium requires cortical T cells for its proper development and maintenance. Thus, if this population is diminished, the medullary thymocytes may not receive adequate signals for development. This particularly seems to affect the CD8 + population. IRF −/− mice show a decreased number of CD8 + T cells. It would therefore, be interesting to determine the proliferative capacity of these cells. [0128] The defect in proliferation of the TN1 subset which was observed indicates that loss of cortical epithelium affects thymocyte development at the crucial stage of TCR gene rearrangement whereby the cortical epithelium provides factors such as IL-7 and SCF necessary for thymopoiesis (Godfrey and Zlotnik, 1990; Aspinall, 1997). Indeed, IL-7 −/− and IL-7R −/− mice show similar thymic morphology to that seen in aged mice (Wiles et al., 1992; Zlotnik and Moore, 1995; von Freeden-Jeffry, 1995). Further work is necessary to determine the changes in IL-7 and IL-7R with age. [0129] In conclusion, the aged thymus still maintains its functional capacity, however, the thymocytes that develop in the aged mouse are not under the stringent control by thymic epithelial cells as seen in the normal young mouse due to the lack of structural integrity of the thymic microenvironment. Thus the proliferation, differentiation and migration of these cells will not be under optimal regulation and may result in the increased release of autoreactive/immunodysfunctional T cells in the periphery. The defects within both the TN and particularly, CD8 + populations, may result in the changes seen within the peripheral T cell pool with age. In addition, we have described in detail, the effects of castration on thymic epithelial cell development and reorganisation. The mechanisms underlying thymic atrophy utilising steroid receptor binding assays and the role of thymic epithelial subsets in thymus regeneration post-castration are currently under study. Restoration of thymus function by castration will provide an essential means for regenerating the peripheral T cell pool and thus in re-establishing immunity in immunosuppressed individuals. [0130] The impact of castration on thymic structure and T cell production was investigated in animal models of immunodepletion. Specifically, Example 2 examined the effect of castration on the recovery of the immune system after sublethal irradiation and cyclophosphamide treatment. These forms of immunodepletion act to inhibit DNA synthesis and therefore target rapidly dividing cells. In the thymus these cells are predominantly immature cortical thymocytes, however all subsets are effected (Fredrickson and Basch 1994). In normal healthy aged mice, the qualitative and quantitative deviations in peripheral T cells seldom lead to pathological states. However, major problems arise following severe depletion of T cells because of the reduced capacity of the thymus for T cell regeneration. Such insults occur in HIV/AIDS, and particularly following chemotherapy and radiotherapy in cancer treatment (Mackall et al. 1995). [0131] In both sublethally irradiated and cyclophosphamide treated mice, castration markedly enhanced thymic regeneration. Castration was carried out on the same day as and seven days prior to immunodepletion in order to appraise the effect of the predominantly corticosteroid induced, stress response to surgical castration on thymic regeneration. Although increases in thymus cellularity and architecture were seen as early as one week after immunodepletion, the major differences were observed two weeks after castration. This was the case whether castration was performed on the same day or one week prior to immunodepletion. [0132] Immunohistology demonstrated that in all instances, two weeks after castration the thymic architecture appeared phenotypically normal, while that of noncastrated mice was disorganised. Pan epithelial markers demonstrated that immunodepletion caused a collapse in cortical epithelium and a general disruption of thymic architecture in the thymii of noncastrated mice. Medullary markers supported this finding. Interestingly, one of the first features of castration-induced thymic regeneration was a marked upregulation in the extracellular matrix, identified by MTS 16. [0133] Flow cytometry analysis data illustrated a significant increase in the number of cells in all thymocyte subsets in castrated mice, corresponding with the immunofluorescence. At each time point, there ways a synchronous increase in all CD4, CD8 and αβ-TCR—defined subsets following immunodepletion and castration. This is an unusual but consistent result, since T cell development is a progressive process it was expected that there would be an initial increase in precursor cells (contained within the CD4 − CD8 − gate) and this may have occurred before the first-time point. Moreover, since precursors represent a very small proportion of total thymocytes, a shift in their number may not have been-detectable. The effects of castration on other cells, including macrophages and granulocytes were also analysed. In general there was little alteration in macrophage and granulocyte numbers within the thymus. [0134] In both irradiation and cyclophosphamide models of immunodepletion thymocyte numbers peaked at every two weeks and decreased four weeks after treatment. Almost immediately after irradiation or chemotherapy, thymus weight and cellularity decreased dramatically and approximately 5 days later the first phase of thymic regeneration begun. The first wave of reconstitution (days 5-14) was brought about by the proliferation of radioresistant thymocytes (predominantly double negatives) which gave rise to all thymocyte subsets (Penit and Ezine 1989). The second decrease, observed between days 16 and 22 was due to the limited proliferative ability of the radioresistant cells coupled with a decreased production of thymic precursors by the bone marrow (also effected by irradiation). The second regenerative phase was due to the replenishment of the thymus with bone marrow derived precursors (Huiskamp et al. 1983). [0135] It is important to note that in adult mice the development from a HSC to a mature T cell takes approximately 28 days (Shortman et al. 1990). Therefore, it is not surprising that little change was seen in peripheral T cells up to four weeks after treatment. The periphery would be supported by some thymic export, but the majority of the T cells found in the periphery up to four weeks after treatment would be expected to be proliferating cyclophosphamide or irradiation resistant clones expanding in the absence of depleted cells. Several long term changes in the periphery would be expected post-castration including, most importantly, a diversification of the TCR repertoire due to an increase in thymic export. Castration did not effect the peripheral recovery of other leukocytes, including B cells, macrophages and granulocytes. [0136] Example 4 shows the influence of castration on sygeneic and congenic bone marrow transplantation. Starzl et al. (1992) reported that microchimeras evident in lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissue were a good prognostic indicator for allograft transplantation. That is it was postulated that they were necessary for the induction of tolerance to the graft (Starzl et al. 1992). Donor-derived dendritic cells were present in these chimeras and were thought to play an integral role in the avoidance of graft rejection (Thomson and Lu 1999). Dendritic cells are known to be key players in the negative selection processes of thymus and if donor-derived dendritic cells were present in the recipient thymus, graft reactive T cells may be deleted. [0137] In order to determine if castration would enable increased chimera formation, a study was performed using syngeneic foetal liver transplantation. The results showed an enhanced regeneration of thymii of castrated mice. These trends were again seen when the experiments were repeated using congenic (Lys5) mice. Due to the presence of congenic markers, it was possible to assess the chimeric status of the mice. As early as two weeks after foetal liver reconstitution there were donor-derived dendritic cells detectable in the thymus, the number in castrated mice being four-fold higher than that in noncastrated mice. Four weeks after reconstitution the noncastrated mice did not appear to be reconstituted with donor derived cells, suggesting that castration may in fact increase the probability of chimera formation. Given that castration not only increases thymic regeneration after lethal irradiation and foetal liver reconstitution and that it also increases the number of donor-derived dendritic cells in the thymus, along-side stem cell transplantation this approach increases the probability of graft acceptance. [0138] All publications mentioned in the above specification are herein incorporated by reference. Various modifications and variations of the described methods and system of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Although the invention has been described in connection with specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention which are apparent to those skilled in molecular biology or related fields are intended to be within the scope of the following claims. REFERENCES [0000] Aspinall, R. 1997. Age-associated thymic atrophy in the mouse is due to a deficiency affecting rearrangement of the TCR during intrathymic T cell development J. Immunol. 158:3037. Berzins, S. P., Boyd, R. L. and Miller, J. F. A. P. 1998. The role of the thymus and recent thymic migrants in the maintenance of the adult peripheral lymphocyte pool. J Exp. Med. 187:1839. Boyd, R. L., Tucek C. L., Godfrey, D. I., Wilson, T. J, Davidson, N. J., Bean, A. G. D., Ladyman, H. M., Ritter, M. A. and Hugo, P. 1993. The thymic microenvironment. Immunology Today 14:445. Bruijntjes; J. P., Kuper, C. J., Robinson, J. E. and Schutirman, H. J. 1993. Epithelium-free area in the thymic cortex of rats. Dev. Immunol. 3:113. Carayon, P., and Bord, A. 1992. Identification of DNA replicating lymphocyte subsets using a new method to label the bromo-deoxyuridine incorporated into the DNA. J. Imm. Methods 147:225. Douek, D. C., McFarland, R. D., Keiser, P. H., Gage, E. A., Massey, J. M., Hayes, B. F., Polis, M. A., Haase, A. T., Feinberg, M. B., Sullivan, J. L., Jamieson, B. D., Zack, J. A., Picker, L. J. and Koup, R. A. 1998. Changes in thymic function with age and during the treatment of HIV infection. Nature 396:690. Fredrickson, G. G. and Basch, R. S. 1994. Early thymic regeneration after irradiation. Development and Comparative Immunology 18:251. George, A. J. and Ritter, M. A. 1996. Thymic involution with ageing: obsolescence or good housekeeping? Immunol. Today 17:267. Godfrey, D. I, Izon, D. J., Tucek C. L., Wilson, T. J. and Boyd, R. L. 1990. The phenotypic heterogeneity of mouse thymic stromal cells. Immunol. 70:66. Godfrey, D. I, and Zlotnik, A. 1993. Control points in early T-cell development. Immunol. Today 14:547. Hirokawa, K. 1998. Immunity and Ageing. In Principles and Practice of Geriatric Medicine . M Pathy, ed. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Hirokawa, K. and Makinodan, T. 1975. Thymic involution: the effect on T cell differentiation. J. Immunol. 114:1659. Hirokawa, K., Utsuyama M., Kasai, M., Kurashima, C., Ishijima, S. and Zeng, Y.-X. 1994. Understanding the mechanism of the age-change of thymic function to promote T cell differentiation. Immunology Letters 40:269. Hobbs, M. V. Weigle, W. O., Noonan, D. J., Torbett B. E., McEvilly, R. J., Koch, R. J., Cardenas, G. J. and Ernst, D. N. 1993. Patterns of cytokine gene expression by CD4+ T cells from young and old mice. J. Immunol. 150:3602. Homo-Delarche, R. and Dardenne, M. 1991. The neuroendocrine-immune axis. Seminars in Immunopathology. Huiskamp, R., Davids, J. A. G. and Vos, O. 1983. Short- and long-term effects of whole body irradiation with fission neutrons or x-rays on the thymus in CBA mice. Radiation Research 95:370. Kendall; M. D. 1988. Anatomical and physiological factors influencing the thymic microenvironment. In Thymus Update I, Vol. 1. M. D. Kendall, and M. A. Ritter, eds. Harwood Academic Publishers, p. 27. Kurashima, C, Utsuyama, M., Kasai, M., Ishijimi, S. A. Konno, A. and Hirokawa, A. 1995. The role of thymus in the aging of Th cell subpopulations and age-associated alteration of cytokine production by these cells. Int. Immunol. 7:97. Mackall, C. L. et al. 1995. Age, thymopoiesis and CD4+ T-lymphocyte regeneration after intensive chemotherapy. New England J. Med. 332:143. Mackall, C. L. and Gress, R. E. 1997. Thymic aging and T-cell regeneration. Immunol. Rev. 160:91. Penit, C. and Ezine, S. 1989. Cell proliferation and thymocyte subset reconstitution in sublethally irradiated mice: compared kinetics of endogenous and intrathymically transferred progenitors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, U.S.A 86:5547. Penit, C., Lucas, B., Vasseur, F., Rieker, T. and Boyd, R. L. 1996. Thymic medulla epithelial cells acquire specific markers by post-mitotic maturation. Dev. Immunol. 5:25. Plosker, G. L. and Brogden, R. N. 1994. Leuprorelin. A review of its pharmacology and therapeutic use in prostatic cancer, endometriosis and other sex hormone-related disorders. Drugs 48:930. Randle-Barrett, E. S. and Boyd, R. L. 1994. Thymic microenvironment and lymphoid responses to sublethal irradiation. Dev. Immunol. 4:1. Scollay, R. G., Butcher, E. C. and Weissman, I. L. 1980. Thymus cell migration. Quantitative aspects of cellular traffic from the thymus to the periphery in mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 10:210. Shortman, K., Egerton, M., Spangrude, G. J. and Scollay, R. 1990. The generation and fate of thymocytes. Seminars in Immuno. 2:3. Starzl, T. E., Demetris, A. J., Murase, N., Ricardi, C. and Truce, M. 1892. Cell migration, chimerism, and graft acceptance. Lancet 339:1579. Suda, T., and Zlotnik, A 1991. IL-7 maintains the T cell precursor potential of CD3 − CD4 − CD8 − thymocytes. J. Immunol. 146:3068. Timm, J. A. and Thoman, M. L. 1999. Maturation of CD4+ lymphocytes in the aged microenviroment results in a memory-enriched population. J. Immunol. 162:711. Thomson, A. W. and Lu, L. 1999. Are dendritic cells the key to liver transplant? Immunology Today 20:20. Tosi, R., Kraft R., Luzi, P., Cintorino, M., Fankhause, G., Hess, M. W. and Cottier, H. 1982. Involution pattern of the human thymus. 1. Size of the cortical area as a function of age. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 47:497. van Ewijk, W., Rouse, R. V. and Weissman, I. L. 1980. Distribution of H-2 microenvironments in the mouse thymus. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 28:1089. von Freeden-Jeffry, U., Vieira, P., Lucian, L. A, McNeil, T., Burdach, E. G. and Murray, R. 1995. Lymphopenia in interleukin (IL)-7 gene-deleted mice identifies IL-7 as a nonredundant cytokine. J. Exp. Med. 181:1519. Wiles, M, V., Ruiz, P. and Imhof, B. A. 1992. Interleukin-7 expression during mouse thymus development. Eur. J. Immunol. 22:1037. Zlotnik, A. and Moore, T. A. 1995. Cytokine production and requirements during T-cell development. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 7:206.

The present invention relates to a method for treating a T cell disorder in a subject involving disrupting sex steroid signaling to the thymus and introducing into the subject bone marrow or haemopoietic stem cells (HSC).

[0001] This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/153,139, entitled “Delivery of Compounds for the Treatment of Parkinsons Through an Inhalation Route,” filed May 20, 2002, Rabinowitz and Zaffaroni; which claims priority to U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/294,203 entitled “Thermal Vapor Delivery of Drugs,” filed May 24, 2001, Rabinowitz and Zaffaroni, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. This application further claims priority to U.S. provisional application Ser. No. 60/317,479 entitled “Aerosol Drug Delivery,” filed Sep. 5, 2001, Rabinowitz and Zaffaroni, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to the delivery of compounds for the treatment of Parkinsons through an inhalation route. Specifically, it relates to aerosols containing antiparkinsons drugs that are used in inhalation therapy. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] There are a number of compositions currently marketed for the treatment of Parkinsons. The compositions contain at least one active ingredient that provides for observed therapeutic effects. Among the active ingredients given in such antiparkinsons compositions are benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine and deprenyl. [0004] It is desirable to provide a new route of administration for antiparkinsons drugs that rapidly produces peak plasma concentrations of the compounds. The provision of such a route is an object of the present invention. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] The present invention relates to the delivery of compounds for the treatment of Parkinsons through an inhalation route. Specifically, it relates to aerosols containing antiparkinsons drugs that are used in inhalation therapy. [0006] In a composition aspect of the present invention, the aerosol comprises particles comprising at least 5 percent by weight of an antiparkinsons drug. Preferably, the particles comprise at least 10 percent by weight of an antiparkinsons drug. More preferably, the particles comprise at least 20 percent, 30 percent, 40 percent, 50 percent, 60 percent, 70 percent, 80 percent, 90 percent, 95 percent, 97 percent, 99 percent, 99.5 percent or 99.97 percent by weight of an antiparkinson drug. [0007] Typically, the aerosol has a mass of at least 10 μg. Preferably, the aerosol has a mass of at least 100 μg. More preferably, the aerosol has a mass of at least 0.200 μg. [0008] Typically, the particles comprise less than 10 percent by weight of antiparkinson drug degradation products. Preferably, the particles comprise less than 5 percent by weight of antiparkinson drug degradation products. More preferably, the particles comprise less than 2.5, 1, 0.5, 0.1 or 0.03 percent by weight of antiparkinson drug degradation products. [0009] Typically, the particles comprise less than 90 percent by weight of water. Preferably, the particles comprise less than 80 percent by weight of water. More preferably, the particles comprise less than 70 percent, 60 percent, 50 percent, 40 percent, 30 percent, 20 percent, 10 percent, or 5 percent by weight of water. [0010] Typically, at least 50 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form, wherein crystalline forms make up less than 50 percent by weight of the total aerosol weight, regardless of the nature of individual particles. Preferably, at least 75 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form. More preferably, at least 90 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form. [0011] Typically, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol particle density greater than 10 6 particles/mL. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol particle density greater than 10 7 particles/mL or 10 8 particles/mL. [0012] Typically, the aerosol particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 5 microns. Preferably, the particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 3 microns. More preferably, the particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 2 or 1 micron(s). [0013] Typically, the geometric standard deviation around the mass median aerodynamic diameter of the aerosol particles is less than 3.0. Preferably, the geometric standard deviation is less than 2.5. More preferably, the geometric standard deviation is less than 2.3. [0014] Typically, the aerosol is formed by heating a composition containing an antiparkinson drug to form a vapor and subsequently allowing the vapor to condense into an aerosol. [0015] In another composition aspect of the present invention, the aerosol comprises particles comprising at least 5 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl. Preferably, the particles comprise at least 10 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl. More preferably, the particles comprise at least 20 percent, 30 percent, 40 percent, 50 percent, 60 percent, 70 percent, 80 percent, 90 percent, 95 percent, 97 percent, 99 percent, 99.5 percent or 99.97 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl. [0016] Typically, the aerosol has a mass of at least 10 μg. Preferably, the aerosol has a mass of at least 100 μg. More preferably, the aerosol has a mass of at least 200 μg. [0017] Typically, the particles comprise less than 10 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl degradation products. Preferably, the particles comprise less than 5 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl degradation products. More preferably, the particles comprise less than 2.5, 1, 0.5, 0.1 or 0.03 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl degradation products. [0018] Typically, the particles comprise less than 90 percent by weight of water. Preferably, the particles comprise less than 80 percent by weight of water. More preferably, the particles comprise less than 70 percent, 60 percent, 50 percent, 40 percent, 30 percent, 20 percent, 10 percent, or 5 percent by weight of water. [0019] Typically, at least 50 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form, wherein crystalline forms make up less than 50 percent by weight of the total aerosol weight, regardless of the nature of individual particles. Preferably, at least 75 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form. More preferably, at least 90 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form. [0020] Typically, where the aerosol comprises benzotropine, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.1 mg/L and 4 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.2 mg/L and 3 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.3 mg/L and 2 mg/L. [0021] Typically, where the aerosol comprises pergolide, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.01 mg/L and 2.5 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.02 mg/L and 1 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.05 mg/L and 0.5 mg/L. [0022] Typically, where the aerosol comprises ropinerole, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.02 mg/L and 4 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.04 mg/L and 2 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.10 mg/L and 1.0 mg/L. [0023] Typically, where the aerosol comprises amantadine, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 5 mg/L and 500 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 10 mg/L and 200 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 20 mg/L and 150 mg/L. [0024] Typically, where the aerosol comprises deprenyl, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.5 mg/L and 12.5 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 1 mg/L and 10 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 2 mg/L and 7.5 mg/L. [0025] Typically, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol particle density greater than 106 particles/mL. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol particle density greater than 107 particles/mL or 108 particles/mL. [0026] Typically, the aerosol particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 5 microns. Preferably, the particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 3 microns. More preferably, the particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 2 or 1 micron(s). [0027] Typically, the geometric standard deviation around the mass median aerodynamic diameter of the aerosol particles is less than 3.0. Preferably, the geometric standard deviation is less than 2.5. More preferably, the geometric standard deviation is less than 2.3. [0028] Typically, the aerosol is formed by heating a composition containing benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl to form a vapor and subsequently allowing the vapor to condense into an aerosol. [0029] In a method aspect of the present invention, an antiparkinson drug is delivered to a mammal through an inhalation route. The method comprises: a) heating a composition, wherein the composition comprises at least 5 percent by weight of an antiparkinson drug, to form a vapor; and, b) allowing the vapor to cool, thereby forming a condensation aerosol comprising particles, which is inhaled by the mammal. Preferably, the composition that is heated comprises at least 10 percent by weight of an antiparkinson drug. More preferably, the composition comprises at least 20 percent, 30 percent, 40 percent, 50 percent, 60 percent, 70 percent, 80 percent, 90 percent, 95 percent, 97 percent, 99 percent, 99.5 percent, 99.9 percent or 99.97 percent by weight of an antiparkinson drug. [0030] Typically, the particles comprise at least 5 percent by weight of an antiparkinson drug. Preferably, the particles comprise at least 10 percent by weight of an antiparkinson drug. More preferably, the particles comprise at least 20 percent, 30 percent, 40 percent, 50 percent, 60 percent, 70 percent, 80 percent, 90 percent, 95 percent, 97 percent, 99 percent, 99.5 percent, 99.9 percent or 99.97 percent by weight of an antiparkinson drug. [0031] Typically, the condensation aerosol has a mass of at least 10 μg. Preferably, the aerosol has a mass of at least 100 μg. More preferably, the aerosol has a mass of at least 200 μ. [0032] Typically, the particles comprise less than 10 percent by weight of antiparkinson drug degradation products. Preferably, the particles comprise less than 5 percent by weight of antiparkinson drug degradation products. More preferably, the particles comprise 2.5, 1, 0.5, 0.1 or 0.03 percent by weight of antiparkinson drug degradation products. [0033] Typically, the particles comprise less than 90 percent by weight of water. Preferably, the particles comprise less than 80 percent by weight of water. More preferably, the particles comprise less than 70 percent, 60 percent, 50 percent, 40 percent, 30 percent, 20 percent, 10 percent, or 5 percent by weight of water. [0034] Typically, at least 50 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form, wherein crystalline forms make up less than 50 percent by weight of the total aerosol weight, regardless of the nature of individual particles. Preferably, at least 75 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form. More preferably, at least 90 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form. [0035] Typically, the particles of the delivered condensation aerosol have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 5 microns. Preferably, the particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 3 microns. More preferably, the particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 2 or 1 micron(s). [0036] Typically, the geometric standard deviation around the mass median aerodynamic diameter of the aerosol particles is less than 3.0. Preferably, the geometric standard deviation is less than 2.5. More preferably, the geometric standard deviation is less than 2.3. [0037] Typically, the delivered aerosol has an inhalable aerosol particle density greater than 10 6 particles/mL. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol particle density greater than 10 7 particles/mL or 10 8 particles/mL. [0038] Typically, the rate of inhalable aerosol particle formation of the delivered condensation aerosol is greater than 10 8 particles per second. Preferably, the aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 10 9 inhalable particles per second. More preferably, the aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 10 10 inhalable particles per second. [0039] Typically, the delivered condensation aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 0.5 mg/second. Preferably, the aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 0.75 mg/second. More preferably, the aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 1 mg/second, 1.5 mg/second or 2 mg/second. [0040] Typically, the delivered condensation aerosol results in a peak plasma concentration of an antiparkinson drug in the mammal in less than 1 h. Preferably, the peak plasma concentration is reached in less than 0.5 h. More preferably, the peak plasma concentration is reached in less than 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, 0.02, 0.01, or 0.005 h (arterial measurement). [0041] In another method aspect of the present invention, one of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl is delivered to a mammal through an inhalation route. The method comprises: a) heating a composition, wherein the composition comprises at least 5 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl, to form a vapor; and, b) allowing the vapor to cool, thereby forming a condensation aerosol comprising particles, which is inhaled by the mammal. Preferably, the composition that is heated comprises at least 10 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl. More preferably, the composition comprises at least 20 percent, 30 percent, 40 percent, 50 percent, 60 percent, 70 percent, 80 percent, 90 percent, 95 percent, 97 percent, 99 percent, 99.5 percent, 99.9 percent or 99.97 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl. [0042] Typically the particles comprise at least 5 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl. Preferably, the particles comprise at least 10 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl. More preferably, the particles comprise at least 20 percent, 30 percent, 40 percent, 50 percent, 60 percent, 70 percent, 80 percent, 90 percent, 95 percent, 97 percent, 99 percent, 99.5 percent, 99.9 percent or 99.97 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl. [0043] Typically, the condensation aerosol has a mass of at least 10 μg. Preferably, the aerosol has a mass of at least 100 μg. More preferably, the aerosol has a mass of at least 200 μg. [0044] Typically, the particles comprise less than 10 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl degradation products. Preferably, the particles comprise less than 5 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl degradation products. More preferably, the particles comprise 2.5, 1, 0.5, 0.1 or 0.03 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl degradation products. [0045] Typically, the particles comprise less than 90 percent by weight of water. Preferably, the particles comprise less than 80 percent by weight of water. More preferably, the particles comprise less than 70 percent, 60 percent, 50 percent, 40 percent, 30 percent, 20 percent, 10 percent, or 5 percent by weight of water. [0046] Typically, at least 50 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form, wherein crystalline forms make up less than 50 percent by weight of the total aerosol weight, regardless of the nature of individual particles. Preferably, at least 75 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form. More preferably, at least 90 percent by weight of the aerosol is amorphous in form. [0047] Typically, the particles of the delivered condensation aerosol have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 5 microns. Preferably, the particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 3 microns. More preferably, the particles have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of less than 2 or 1 micron(s). [0048] Typically, the geometric standard deviation around the mass median aerodynamic diameter of the aerosol particles is less than 3.0. Preferably, the geometric standard deviation is less than 2.5. More preferably, the geometric standard deviation is less than 2.3. [0049] Typically, where the aerosol comprises benzotropine, the delivered aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.1 mg/L and 4 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.2 mg/L and 3 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.3 mg/L and 2 mg/L. [0050] Typically, where the aerosol comprises pergolide, the delivered aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.01 mg/L and 2.5 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.02 mg/L and 1 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.05 mg/L and 0.5 mg/L. [0051] Typically, where the aerosol comprises ropinerole, the delivered aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.02 mg/L and 4 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.04 mg/L and 2 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.10 mg/L and 1.0 mg/L. [0052] Typically, where the aerosol comprises amantadine, the delivered aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 5 mg/L and 500 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 10 mg/L and 200 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 20 mg/L and 150 mg/L. [0053] Typically, where the aerosol comprises deprenyl, the delivered aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 0.5 mg/L and 12.5 mg/L. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 1 mg/L and 10 mg/L. More preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol drug mass density of between 2 mg/L and 7.5 mg/L. [0054] Typically, the delivered aerosol has an inhalable aerosol particle density greater than 10 6 particles/mL. Preferably, the aerosol has an inhalable aerosol particle density greater than 10 7 particles/mL or 10 8 particles/mL. [0055] Typically, the rate of inhalable aerosol particle formation of the delivered condensation aerosol is greater than 10 8 particles per second. Preferably, the aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 10 9 inhalable particles per second. More preferably, the aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 10 10 inhalable particles per second. [0056] Typically, the delivered condensation aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 0.5 mg/second. Preferably, the aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 0.75 mg/second. More preferably, the aerosol is formed at a rate greater than 1 mg/second, 1.5 mg/second or 2 mg/second. [0057] Typically, where the condensation aerosol comprises benzotropine, between 0.1 mg and 4 mg of benzotropine are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. Preferably, between 0.2 mg and 3 mg of benzotropine are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. More preferably, between 0.3 mg and 2 mg of benzotropine are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. [0058] Typically, where the condensation aerosol comprises pergolide, between 0.01 mg and 2.5 mg of pergolide are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. Preferably, between 0.02 mg and 1 mg of pergolide are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. More preferably, between 0.05 mg and 0.5 mg of pergolide are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. [0059] Typically, where the condensation aerosol comprises ropinerole, between 0.02 mg and 4 mg of ropinerole are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. Preferably, between 0.04 mg and 2 mg of ropinerole are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. More preferably, between 0.1 mg and 1.0 mg of ropinerole are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. [0060] Typically, where the condensation aerosol comprises amantadine, between 5 mg and 500 mg of amantadine are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. Preferably, between 10 mg and 200 mg of amantadine are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. More preferably, between 20 mg and 150 mg of amantadine are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. [0061] Typically, where the condensation aerosol comprises deprenyl, between 0.5 mg and 12.5 mg of deprenyl are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. Preferably, between 1 mg and 10 mg of deprenyl are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. More preferably, between 2 mg and 7.5 mg of deprenyl are delivered to the mammal in a single inspiration. [0062] Typically, the delivered condensation aerosol results in a peak plasma concentration of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl in the mammal in less than 1 h. Preferably, the peak plasma concentration is reached in less than 0.5 h. More preferably, the peak plasma concentration is reached in less than 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, 0.02, 0.01, or 0.005 h (arterial measurement). [0063] In a kit aspect of the present invention, a kit for delivering an antiparkinson through an inhalation route to a mammal is provided which comprises: a) a composition comprising at least 5 percent by weight of an antiparkinson drug; and, b) a device that forms an antiparkinson drug aerosol from the composition, for inhalation by the mammal. Preferably, the composition comprises at least 20 percent, 30 percent, 40 percent, 50 percent, 60 percent, 70 percent, 80 percent, 90 percent, 95 percent, 97 percent, 99 percent, 99.5 percent, 99.9 percent or 99.97 percent by weight of an antiparkinson drug. [0064] Typically, the device contained in the kit comprises: a) an element for heating the antiparkinson drug composition to form a vapor; b) an element allowing the vapor to cool to form an aerosol; and, c) an element permitting the mammal to inhale the aerosol. [0065] In another kit aspect of the present invention, a kit for delivering benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl through an inhalation route to a mammal is provided which comprises: a) a composition comprising at least 5 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl; and, b) a device that forms a benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl aerosol from the composition, for inhalation by the mammal. Preferably, the composition comprises at least 20 percent, 30 percent, 40 percent, 50 percent, 60 percent, 70 percent, 80 percent, 90 percent, 95 percent, 97 percent, 99 percent, 99.5 percent, 99.9 percent or 99.97 percent by weight of benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl. [0066] Typically, the device contained in the kit comprises: a) an element for heating the benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl composition to form a vapor; b) an element allowing the vapor to cool to form an aerosol; and, c) an element permitting the mammal to inhale the aerosol. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURE [0067] [0067]FIG. 1 shows a cross-sectional view of a device used to deliver antiparkinson drug aerosols to a mammal through an inhalation route. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0068] Definitions [0069] “Aerodynamic diameter” of a given particle refers to the diameter of a spherical droplet with a density of 1 g/mL (the density of water) that has the same settling velocity as the given particle. [0070] “Aerosol” refers to a suspension of solid or liquid particles in a gas. [0071] “Aerosol drug mass density” refers to the mass of an antiparkinson drug per unit volume of aerosol. [0072] “Aerosol mass density” refers to the mass of particulate matter per unit volume of aerosol. [0073] “Aerosol particle density” refers to the number of particles per unit volume of aerosol. [0074] “Amantadine” refers to tricylo[3.3.1.1 3,7 ]decan- 1 -amine. [0075] “Amantadine degradation product” refers to a compound resulting from a chemical modification of amantadine. The modification, for example, can be the result of a thermally or photochemically induced reaction. Such reactions include, without limitation, oxidation and hydrolysis. An example of a degradation product is nitroso-adamantane. [0076] “Amorphous particle” refers to a particle that does not contain more than 50 percent by weight of a crystalline form. Preferably, the particle does not contain more than 25 percent by weight of a crystalline form. More preferably, the particle does not contain more than 10 percent by weight of a crystalline form. [0077] “Antiparkinson drug degradation product” refers to a compound resulting from a chemical modification of an antiparkinson drug. The modification, for example, can be the result of a thermally or photochemically induced reaction. Such reactions include, without limitation, oxidation and hydrolysis. [0078] “Benzotropine” refers to 3-(diphenylmethoxy)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]-octane. [0079] “Benzotropine degradation product” refers to a compound resulting from a chemical modification of benzotropine. The modification, for example, can be the result of a thermally or photochemically induced reaction. Such reactions include, without limitation, oxidation and hydrolysis. [0080] “Condensation aerosol” refers to an aerosol formed by vaporization of a substance followed by condensation of the substance into an aerosol. [0081] “Deprenyl” refers to ®-(−)-N,2-dimethyl-N-2-propynylphenethylamine. [0082] “Deprenyl degradation product” refers to a compound resulting from a chemical modification of deprenyl. The modification, for example, can be the result of a thermally or photochemically induced reaction. Such reactions include, without limitation, oxidation and hydrolysis. [0083] “Inhalable aerosol drug mass density” refers to the aerosol drug mass density produced by an inhalation device and delivered into a typical patient tidal volume. [0084] “Inhalable aerosol mass density” refers to the aerosol mass density produced by an inhalation device and delivered into a typical patient tidal volume. [0085] “Inhalable aerosol particle density” refers to the aerosol particle density of particles of size between 100 nm and 5 microns produced by an inhalation device and delivered into a typical patient tidal volume. [0086] “Mass median aerodynamic diameter” or “MMAD” of an aerosol refers to the aerodynamic diameter for which half the particulate mass of the aerosol is contributed by particles with an aerodynamic diameter larger than the MMAD and half by particles with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than the MMAD. [0087] “Pergolide” refers to 8-[(methylthio)methyl]-6-propylergoline. [0088] “Pergolide degradation product” refers to a compound resulting from a chemical modification of pergolide. The modification, for example, can be the result of a thermally or photochemically induced reaction. Such reactions include, without limitation, oxidation and hydrolysis. An example of a degradation product is 3-nitrophthalic acid. [0089] “Rate of aerosol formation” refers to the mass of aerosolized particulate matter produced by an inhalation device per unit time. [0090] “Rate of inhalable aerosol particle formation” refers to the number of particles of size between 100 nm and 5 microns produced by an inhalation device per unit time. [0091] “Rate of drug aerosol formation” refers to the mass of aerosolized antiparkinson drug produced by an inhalation device per unit time. [0092] “Ropinerole” refers to 4-[2-(dipropylamino)-ethyl]-1,3-dihydro-2H-indol-2-one. [0093] “Ropinerole degradation product” refers to a compound resulting from a chemical modification of ropinerole. The modification, for example, can be the result of a thermally or photochemically induced reaction. Such reactions include, without limitation, oxidation and hydrolysis. [0094] “Settling velocity” refers to the terminal velocity of an aerosol particle undergoing gravitational settling in air. [0095] “Typical patient tidal volume” refers to 1 L for an adult patient and 15 mL/kg for a pediatric patient. [0096] “Vapor” refers to a gas, and “vapor phase” refers to a gas phase. The term “thermal vapor” refers to a vapor phase, aerosol, or mixture of aerosol-vapor phases, formed preferably by heating. Formation of Antiparkinson Drug Containing Aerosols [0097] Any suitable method is used to form the aerosols of the present invention. A preferred method, however, involves heating a composition comprising an antiparkinson drug to form a vapor, followed by cooling of the vapor such that it condenses to provide an antiparkinson drug comprising aerosol (condensation aerosol). The composition is heated in one of four forms: as pure active compound (e.g., pure benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl); as a mixture of active compound and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient; as a salt form of the pure active compound; and, as a mixture of active compound salt form and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. [0098] Salt forms of antiparkinson drugs (e.g., benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine or deprenyl) are either commercially available or are obtained from the corresponding free base using well known methods in the art. A variety of pharmaceutically acceptable salts are suitable for aerosolization. Such salts include, without limitation, the following: hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, acetic acid, maleic acid, formic acid, and fumaric acid salts. [0099] Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients may be volatile or nonvolatile. Volatile excipients, when heated, are concurrently volatilized, aerosolized and inhaled with the antiparkinson drug. Classes of such excipients are known in the art and include, without limitation, gaseous, supercritical fluid, liquid and solid solvents. The following is a list of exemplary carriers within the classes: water; terpenes, such as menthol; alcohols, such as ethanol, propylene glycol, glycerol and other similar alcohols; dimethylformamide; dimethylacetamide; wax; supercritical carbon dioxide; dry ice; and mixtures thereof. [0100] Solid supports on which the composition is heated are of a variety of shapes. Examples of such shapes include, without limitation, cylinders of less than 1.0 mm in diameter, boxes of less than 1.0 mm thickness and virtually any shape permeated by small (e.g., less than 1.0 mm-sized) pores. Preferably, solid supports provide a large surface to volume ratio (e.g., greater than 100 per meter) and a large surface to mass ratio (e.g., greater than 1 cm 2 per gram). [0101] A solid support of one shape can also be transformed into another shape with different properties. For example, a flat sheet of 0.25 mm thickness has a surface to volume ratio of approximately 8,000 per meter. Rolling the sheet into a hollow cylinder of 1 cm diameter produces a support that retains the high surface to mass ratio of the original sheet but has a lower surface to volume ratio (about 400 per meter). [0102] A number of different materials are used to construct the solid supports. Classes of such materials include, without limitation, metals, inorganic materials, carbonaceous materials and polymers. The following are examples of the material classes: aluminum, silver, gold, stainless steel, copper and tungsten; silica, glass, silicon and alumina; graphite, porous carbons, carbon yams and carbon felts; polytetrafluoroethylene and polyethylene glycol. Combinations of materials and coated variants of materials are used as well. [0103] Where aluminum is used as a solid support, aluminum foil is a suitable material. Examples of silica, alumina and silicon based materials include amphorous silica S-5631 (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.), BCR171 (an alumina of defined surface area greater than 2 m 2 /g from Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) and a silicon wafer as used in the semiconductor industry. Carbon yams and felts are available from American Kynol, Inc., New York, N.Y. Chromatography resins such as octadecycl silane chemically bonded to porous silica are exemplary coated variants of silica. [0104] The heating of the antiparkinson drug compositions is performed using any suitable method. Examples of methods by which heat can be generated include the following: passage of current through an electrical resistance element; absorption of electromagnetic radiation, such as microwave or laser light; and, exothermic chemical reactions, such as exothermic solvation, hydration of pyrophoric materials and oxidation of combustible materials. Delivery of Antiparkinson Drug Containing Aerosols [0105] Antiparkinson drug containing aerosols of the present invention are delivered to a mammal using an inhalation device. Where the aerosol is a condensation aerosol, the device has at least three elements: an element for heating an antiparkinson drug containing composition to form a vapor; an element allowing the vapor to cool, thereby providing a condensation aerosol; and, an element permitting the mammal to inhale the aerosol. Various suitable heating methods are described above. The element that allows cooling is, in it simplest form, an inert passageway linking the heating means to the inhalation means. The element permitting inhalation is an aerosol exit portal that forms a connection between the cooling element and the mammal's respiratory system. [0106] One device used to deliver the antiparkinson drug containing aerosol is described in reference to FIG. 1. Delivery device 100 has a proximal end 102 and a distal end 104 , a heating module 106 , a power source 108 , and a mouthpiece 110 . An antiparkinson drug composition is deposited on a surface 112 of heating module 106 . Upon activation of a user activated switch 114 , power source 108 initiates heating of heating module 106 (e.g, through ignition of combustible fuel or passage of current through a resistive heating element). The antiparkinson drug composition volatilizes due to the heating of heating module 106 and condenses to form a condensation aerosol prior to reaching the mouthpiece 110 at the proximal end of the device 102 . Air flow traveling from the device distal end 104 to the mouthpiece 110 carries the condensation aerosol to the mouthpiece 110 , where it is inhaled by the mammal. [0107] Devices, if desired, contain a variety of components to facilitate the delivery of antiparkinson containing aerosols. For instance, the device may include any component known in the art to control the timing of drug aerosolization relative to inhalation (e.g., breath-actuation), to provide feedback to patients on the rate and/or volume of inhalation, to prevent excessive use (i.e., “lock-out” feature), to prevent use by unauthorized individuals, and/or to record dosing histories. Dosage of Antiparkinson Drug Containing Aerosols [0108] The dosage amount of antiparkinson drugs in aerosol form is generally no greater than twice the standard dose of the drug given orally. For instance, benzotropine, pergolide, ropinerole, amantadine and deprenyl are given orally at strengths of 0 . 5 mg to 2 mg, 0.05 mg to 1.0 mg, 0.25 mg to 4 mg, 50 mg to 100 mg, and 5 mg respectively for the treatment of Parkinsons. As aerosols, 0.1 mg to 4 mg of benztropine, 0.01 mg to 2.5 mg of pergolide, 0.02 mg to 4 mg of ropinerole, 5 mg to 250 mg of amantadine, and 0.5 mg to 12.5 mg of deprenyl are generally provided per inspiration for the same indication. A typical dosage of an antiparkinson drug aerosol is either administered as a single inhalation or as a series of inhalations taken within an hour or less (dosage equals sum of inhaled amounts). Where the drug is administered as a series of inhalations, a different amount may be delivered in each inhalation. [0109] One can determine the appropriate dose of antiparkinson drug containing aerosols to treat a particular condition using methods such as animal experiments and a dose-finding (Phase I/II) clinical trial. One animal experiment involves measuring plasma concentrations of drug in an animal after its exposure to the aerosol. Mammals such as dogs or primates are typically used in such studies, since their respiratory systems are similar to that of a human. Initial dose levels for testing in humans is generally less than or equal to the dose in the mammal model that resulted in plasma drug levels associated with a therapeutic effect in humans. Dose escalation in humans is then performed, until either an optimal therapeutic response is obtained or a dose-limiting toxicity is encountered. Analysis of Antiparkinson Drug Containing Aerosols [0110] Purity of an antiparkinson drug containing aerosol is determined using a number of methods, examples of which are described in Sekine et al., Journal of Forensic Science 32:1271-1280 (1987) and Martin et al., Journal of Analytic Toxicology 13:158-162 (1989). One method involves forming the aerosol in a device through which a gas flow (e.g., air flow) is maintained, generally at a rate between 0.4 and 60 L/min. The gas flow carries the aerosol into one or more traps. After isolation from the trap, the aerosol is subjected to an analytical technique, such as gas or liquid chromatography, that permits a determination of composition purity. [0111] A variety of different traps are used for aerosol collection. The following list contains examples of such traps: filters; glass wool; impingers; solvent traps, such as dry ice-cooled ethanol, methanol, acetone and dichloromethane traps at various pH values; syringes that sample the aerosol; empty, low-pressure (e.g., vacuum) containers into which the aerosol is drawn; and, empty containers that fully surround and enclose the aerosol generating device. Where a solid such as glass wool is used, it is typically extracted with a solvent such as ethanol. The solvent extract is subjected to analysis rather than the solid (i.e., glass wool) itself. Where a syringe or container is used, the container is similarly extracted with a solvent. [0112] The gas or liquid chromatograph discussed above contains a detection system (i.e., detector). Such detection systems are well known in the art and include, for example, flame ionization, photon absorption and mass spectrometry detectors. An advantage of a mass spectrometry detector is that it can be used to determine the structure of antiparkinson drug degradation products. [0113] Particle size distribution of an antiparkinson drug containing aerosol is determined using any suitable method in the art (e.g., cascade impaction). An Andersen Eight Stage Non-viable Cascade Impactor (Andersen Instruments, Smyrna, GA) linked to a furnace tube by a mock throat (USP throat, Andersen Instruments, Smyrna, Ga.) is one system used for cascade impaction studies. [0114] Inhalable aerosol mass density is determined, for example, by delivering a drug-containing aerosol into a confined chamber via an inhalation device and measuring the mass collected in the chamber. Typically, the aerosol is drawn into the chamber by having a pressure gradient between the device and the chamber, wherein the chamber is at lower pressure than the device. The volume of the chamber should approximate the tidal volume of an inhaling patient. [0115] Inhalable aerosol drug mass density is determined, for example, by delivering a drug-containing aerosol into a confined chamber via an inhalation device and measuring the amount of active drug compound collected in the chamber. Typically, the aerosol is drawn into the chamber by having a pressure gradient between the device and the chamber, wherein the chamber is at lower pressure than the device. The volume of the chamber should approximate the tidal volume of an inhaling patient. The amount of active drug compound collected in the chamber is determined by extracting the chamber, conducting chromatographic analysis of the extract and comparing the results of the chromatographic analysis to those of a standard containing known amounts of drug. [0116] Inhalable aerosol particle density is determined, for example, by delivering aerosol phase drug into a confined chamber via an inhalation device and measuring the number of particles of given size collected in the chamber. The number of particles of a given size may be directly measured based on the light-scattering properties of the particles. Alternatively, the number of particles of a given size is determined by measuring the mass of particles within the given size range and calculating the number of particles based on the mass as follows: Total number of particles=Sum (from size range 1 to size range N) of number of particles in each size range. Number of particles in a given size range=Mass in the size range/Mass of a typical particle in the size range. Mass of a typical particle in a given size range=π*D 3 *φ/6, where D is a typical particle diameter in the size range (generally, the mean boundary MMADs defining the size range) in microns, φis the particle density (in g/mL) and mass is given in units of picograms (g −12). [0117] Rate of inhalable aerosol particle formation is determined, for example, by delivering aerosol phase drug into a confined chamber via an inhalation device. The delivery is for a set period of time (e.g., 3 s), and the number of particles of a given size collected in the chamber is determined as outlined above. The rate of particle formation is equal to the number of 100 nm to 5 micron particles collected divided by the duration of the collection time. [0118] Rate of aerosol formation is determined, for example, by delivering aerosol phase drug into a confined chamber via an inhalation device. The delivery is for a set period of time (e.g., 3 s), and the mass of particulate matter collected is determined by weighing the confined chamber before and after the delivery of the particulate matter. The rate of aerosol formation is equal to the increase in mass in the chamber divided by the duration of the collection time. Alternatively, where a change in mass of the delivery device or component thereof can only occur through release of the aerosol phase particulate matter, the mass of particulate matter may be equated with the mass lost from the device or component during the delivery of the aerosol. In this case, the rate of aerosol formation is equal to the decrease in mass of the device or component during the delivery event divided by the duration of the delivery event. [0119] Rate of drug aerosol formation is determined, for example, by delivering an antiparkinson drug containing aerosol into a confined chamber via an inhalation device over a set period of time (e.g., 3 s). Where the aerosol is pure antiparkinson drug, the amount of drug collected in the chamber is measured as described above. The rate of drug aerosol formation is equal to the amount of antiparkinson drug collected in the chamber divided by the duration of the collection time. Where the antiparkinson drug containing aerosol comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, multiplying the rate of aerosol formation by the percentage of antiparkinson drug in the aerosol provides the rate of drug aerosol formation. Utility of Antiparkinson Drug Containing Aerosols [0120] The antiparkinson drug containing aerosols of the present invention are typically used for the treatment of Parkinsons. [0121] The following examples are meant to illustrate, rather than limit, the present invention. [0122] Benztropine mesylate, pergolide mesylate and amantadine were purchased from Sigma (www.sigma-aldrich.com). Deprenyl hydrochloride was purchased from Sigma RBI (www.sigma-aldrich.com). Ropinerole hydrochloride was purchased as REQUIP® tablets from a pharmacy. Other antiparkinson drugs can be similarly obtained. EXAMPLE 1 General Procedure for Obtaining Free Base for a Compound Salt [0123] Approximately 1 g of salt (e.g., mono hydrochloride) is dissolved in deionized water (˜30 mL). Three equivalents of sodium hydroxide (1 N NaOH aq ) is added dropwise to the solution, and the pH is checked to ensure it is basic. The aqueous solution is extracted four times with dichloromethane (˜50 mL), and the extracts are combined, dried (Na 2 SO 4 ) and filtered. The filtered organic solution is concentrated using a rotary evaporator to provide the desired free base. If necessary, purification of the free base is performed using standard methods such as chromatography or recrystallization. EXAMPLE 2 General Procedure for Volatilzing Compounds from Halogen Bulb [0124] A solution of drug in approximately 120 μL dichloromethane is coated on a 3.5 cm×7.5 cm piece of aluminum foil (precleaned with acetone). The dichloromethane is allowed to evaporate. The coated foil is wrapped around a 300 watt halogen tube (Feit Electric Company, Pico Rivera, Calif.), which is inserted into a glass tube sealed at one end with a rubber stopper. Running 90 V of alternating current (driven by line power controlled by a variac) through the bulb for 3.5 s (drug coating of 0.01 mg to 8 mg) or for 5 s (drug coating >8 mg) affords thermal vapor (including aerosol), which is collected on the glass tube walls. Reverse-phase HPLC analysis with detection by absorption of 225 nm light is used to determine the purity of the aerosol. (When desired, the system is flushed through with argon prior to volatilization.) To obtain higher purity aerosols, one can coat a lesser amount of drug, yielding a thinner film to heat. A linear decrease in film thickness is associated with a linear decrease in impurities. [0125] Table 1, which follows, provides data from drugs volatilized using the above-recited general procedure. TABLE 1 Compound Aerosol Purity Argon Used Benztropine 98.3%  No 99.5%  Yes Pergolide  98% No  98% Yes Ropinerole >90% Yes Amantadine 100% No 100% Yes Deprenyl 100% No  97% Yes EXAMPLE 3 Particle Size, Particle Density, and Rate of Inhalable Particle Formation of Pergolide Aerosol [0126] A solution of 1.3 mg pergolide in 100 μL dichloromethane was spread out in a thin layer on the central portion of a 3.5 cm×7 cm sheet of aluminum foil. The dichloromethane was allowed to evaporate. The aluminum foil was wrapped around a 300 watt halogen tube, which was inserted into a T-shaped glass tube. Both of the openings of the tube were left open and the third opening was connected to a 1 liter, 3-neck glass flask. The glass flask was further connected to a large piston capable of drawing 1.1 liters of air through the flask. Alternating current was run through the halogen bulb by application of 90 V using a variac connected to 110 V line power. Within 1 s, an aerosol appeared and was drawn into the 1 L flask by use of the piston, with collection of the aerosol terminated after 6 s. The aerosol was analyzed by connecting the 1 L flask to an eight-stage Andersen non-viable cascade impactor. Results are shown in table 1. MMAD of the collected aerosol was 1.8 microns with a geometric standard deviation of 2.2. Also shown in table 1 is the number of particles collected on the various stages of the cascade impactor, given by the mass collected on the stage divided by the mass of a typical particle trapped on that stage. The mass of a single particle of diameter D is given by the volume of the particle, πD 3 /6, multiplied by the density of the drug (taken to be 1 g/cm 3 ). The inhalable aerosol particle density is the sum of the numbers of particles collected on impactor stages 3 to 8 divided by the collection volume of 1 L, giving an inhalable aerosol particle density of 6.7×10 6 particles/mL. The rate of inhalable aerosol particle formation is the sum of the numbers of particles collected on impactor stages 3 through 8 divided by the formation time of 6 s, giving a rate of inhalable aerosol particle formation of 1.1×10 9 particles/second. TABLE 1 Determination of the characteristics of a pergolide condensation aerosol by cascade impaction using an Andersen 8-stage non-viable cascade impactor run at 1 cubic foot per minute air flow. Mass Particle size Average particle collected Number of Stage range (microns) size (microns) (mg) particles 0  9.0-10.0 9.5 0.01 1.3 × 10 4 1 5.8-9.0 7.4 0.02 7.5 × 10 4 2 4.7-5.8 5.25 0.03 3.6 × 10 5 3 3.3-4.7 4.0 0.06 1.9 × 10 6 4 2.1-3.3 2.7 0.10 9.8 × 10 6 5 1.1-2.1 1.6 0.19 8.8 × 10 7 6 0.7-1.1 0.9 0.09 2.5 × 10 8 7 0.4-0.7 0.55 0.04 4.0 × 10 8 8   0-0.4 0.2 0.03 6.0 × 10 9 EXAMPLE 4 Drug Mass Density and Rate of Drug Aerosol Formation of Pergolide Aerosol [0127] A solution of 1.0 mg pergolide in 100 μL dichloromethane was spread out in a thin layer on the central portion of a 3.5 cm×7 cm sheet of aluminum foil. The dichloromethane was allowed to evaporate. The aluminum foil was wrapped around a 300 watt halogen tube, which was inserted into a T-shaped glass tube. Both of the openings of the tube were left open and the third opening was connected to a 1 liter, 3-neck glass flask. The glass flask was further connected to a large piston capable of drawing 1.1 liters of air through the flask. Alternating current was run through the halogen bulb by application of 90 V using a variac connected to 110 V line power. Within seconds, an aerosol appeared and was drawn into the 1 L flask by use of the piston, with formation of the aerosol terminated after 6 s. The aerosol was allowed to sediment onto the walls of the 1 L flask for approximately 30 minutes. The flask was then extracted with acetonitrile and the extract analyzed by HPLC with detection by light absorption at 225 nm. Comparison with standards containing known amounts of pergolide revealed that 0.3 mg of >99% pure pergolide had been collected in the flask, resulting in an aerosol drug mass density of 0.3 mg/L. The aluminum foil upon which the pergolide had previously been coated was weighed following the experiment. Of the 1.0 mg originally coated on the aluminum, 1.0 mg of the material was found to have aerosolized in the 6 s time period, implying a rate of drug aerosol formation of 0.2 mg/s.

The present invention relates to the delivery of antiparkinsons drugs through an inhalation route. In a method aspect of the present invention, an antiparkinsons drug is administered to a patient through an inhalation route. The method comprises: a) heating a thin layer of an antiparkinsons drug on a solid support to form a vapor; and, b) passing air through the heated vapor to produce aerosol particles having less than 5% drug degradation products. In a kit aspect of the present invention, a kit for delivering an antiparkinsons drug through an inhalation route is provided which comprises: a) a thin coating of a an antiparkinsons drug composition; and, b) a device for dispending said thin coating as a condensation aerosol.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an arrangement and method whereby, in a communications system, resources are allocated to a number of competing resource consumers having preferably different assignment priorities. This is done without requiring a deterministic operating system, such as a real-time operating system, or a defined communications protocol in the form of a handshake protocol. In particular, services of a switching device are assigned via a CTI interface to service features or applications in a decentralized device of the communications system. 2. Description of the Prior Art Various interfaces between switching devices and external control computers are known. By way of example, the CSTA, TAPI or JTAPI protocol can be used on a CTI connection (Computer Telephony Integration). This involves CTI protocols from different manufacturers. The specific meanings of the abbreviations are as follows: CSTA: Computer Supported Telephony Application. A protocol specified by the ECMA (European Computer Manufacturers Association). TSAPI: Telephony Services Application Programming Interface, an adaptation of CSTA by Novell. TAPI: Telephony Application Programming Interface, an interface from Microsoft. JTAPI: Java Telephony Application Programming Interface. A protocol specified by the ECTF (Enterprise Computer Telephony Forum). At present, in the case of CTI applications, actions are triggered by event messages on the part of the switching device. The event messages are multiplexed and made available to the relevant applications. These applications either react with services to the event messages or else behave passively. A conflict occurs if a number of mutually competing applications wish to react differently to an event message. In the case of a number of applications running in parallel, with different response times governed by the operating system, principally the following two problems arise: 1. It is not certain that the first application which receives the event message x is also the first application which responds thereto. 2. It cannot be determined in advance when all of the applications have concluded their actions in respect of the event message x, since no acknowledgement mechanism is provided as standard via the CTI interface. These problems have not been avoided hitherto with the currently known protocols CSTA, TAPI or JTAPI. As a rule, the assignment of resources and resource consumers has been effected deterministically. There are essentially three solution variants that are considered for such deterministic assignment. First, by using a real-time operating system, it can be ensured that event messages sent first are actually answered first. Prioritizable processing by the resource requesters can be ensured here by the event messages first being delivered to higher-priority resource requestors. In this case, a resource requestor having the lowest priority is the last to receive a corresponding event message. Prioritizable assignment likewise can be ensured by a handshaking mechanism. In this case, it is assumed that each received event message must be acknowledged by a corresponding potential resource requester. This acknowledgement can be effected either by outputting a resource request or by outputting a simple confirmation of reception. In a solution of this type, a central assignment device collects the acknowledgements. By access to a priority list which is present for the potential resource requestors, a respective resource is then made available to that resource requestor which has the highest priority. Likewise, it is possible to agree to a fixed time period in which all potential resource requestors have to respond to an event message. After this time period has elapsed, a central resource assignment device can then assume that all resource requests from the individual resource requestors must have arrived. Using a priority list, the resource is then assigned to that resource requestor which has the highest priority. Resource requestors of this type may be, for example, applications or service features. The above-described alternatives have various disadvantages, however. Temporal sequential processing of event messages and resource requests across process boundaries is not ensured by a standard operating system, for which reason a proprietary solution would have to be chosen. A proprietary solution would likewise have to be used if the intention were for a handshaking mechanism to ensure the prioritization, because no CTI specification contains the requirement that received event messages have to be acknowledged. Adherence to a defined time period as waiting time produces unnecessarily long delays and, moreover, is prone to errors. The present invention is therefore directed to a method and a arrangement which enable prioritizable assignment of resources requested by competing resource requesters and which do not have the disadvantages described above. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the method of to the present invention advantageously affords the security of a handshake method without exhibiting the disadvantages of the numerous messages of a handshake protocol, because after a resource request it is only necessary to interrogate those potential resource requestors which have a higher priority than that resource requestor which has currently output its request. As such, depending on the number of allocated priorities and the number of potential resource requests, a corresponding number of acknowledgement messages are saved. In another embodiment of the method, a resource request is sent directly to an assignment device because the latter can undertake the comparison of the priorities, (the sending of the interrogations to be acknowledged and the evaluation of the responses). The CTI connection to the switching device is being burdened by the control command for the resource assignment which has been determined by the assignment device as a consequence of its evaluation. In a further embodiment of the method the message traffic with respect to the individual potential resource requests is controlled by the assignment device and event messages which arrive via the CTI connection from the switching device are duplicated and sent to the individual potential resource requestors. In this way, a defined and resource-sparing message traffic is ensured, without this necessitating additional devices. In an advantageous manner, the potential resource requesters process the event messages one after the other, for example in a manner effected by a message queue, because this ensures in the system interconnection that, in connection with a response to be acknowledged, a resource request of a higher priority potential resource requestor is output to the assignment device prior to the acknowledgement of the inquiry to be acknowledged. In another embodiment of the method the resources of a switching system are assigned to service features via a CTI connection because a service-feature server for customary switching devices can be provided in a simple manner, which server permits prioritized processing of service features. A system having the ability to carry out the method according to the present invention is particularly advantageous because a switching device with a service-feature server is provided in this way, which server permits fast, optimal processing of resource requests without necessitating a real-time operating system or a complete handshake mechanism for its control. In an embodiment of the system described, a decentralized device is connected to a switching device via a CTI connection, service-feature processes which require resources of the switching device running in the decentralized device. A development of this type enables prioritized service-feature control in a switching device without resulting in an increased message volume via the CTI connection. In a further embodiment of the system described, individual resource requestors have memories for storing event messages which allow successive processing of these messages by the corresponding processes. This ensures that potential resource requesters, after receiving an inquiry to be acknowledged from the assignment device, output a resource request before they acknowledge the corresponding message. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiments and the Drawings. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a message sequence as is shown in the prior art; FIGS. 2 through 4 show message sequences according to the method of the present invention, in which resources are requested by resource requestors having a different assignment rank level; and FIG. 5 shows an example of the system of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 shows, in a schematic illustration, a switching device PBX, an assignment device LM and individual potential resource requestors PRA 1 to PRA 3 . The assignment device LM contains, for example, one or 5 more priority lists which specify assignment ranks, i.e. priorities of the individual potential resource requesters, in order for messages to be sent first to higher-priority potential resource requestors. By way of example, the switching device PBX and the assignment device LM are connected to one another via a CTI interface and a corresponding connecting line. A message sequence according to the handshaking method is shown in this example. Such a concept corresponds to the prior art but is not possible with currently available CTI protocols. As can be discerned, the switching device PBX initially outputs an event message Event x to the resource assignment device LM. The latter sends this message in accordance with the allocated priorities for the potential resource requestors first to PRA 1 , then to PRA 2 and last to PRA 3 , because PRA 3 has the lowest priority. As a reaction to receiving this event message, PRA 3 outputs an assignment request Service 3 Request to the resource assignment device LM. Afterward, PRA 1 acknowledges reception of the event message by Event x received. The reception of this acknowledgement message is interpreted in the resource assignment device LM to the effect that PRA 1 does not require any resources at the moment. After the acknowledgement message just described, a resource request Service 2 Request is issued by the device PRA 2 . Since PRA 1 having the highest priority does not request any resources and PRA 2 having the second-highest priority does require resources, the resource request from PRA 2 and not that from PRA 3 is forwarded by the resource assignment device to the switching device, whereupon the switching device PBX confirms the assignment by Service 2 Ack to the assignment device, which forwards this message to the potential resource requestor PRA 2 . Consequently, the request from PRA 3 is turned down with Service 3 Ack (negative). FIG. 2 shows an example of resource assignment in accordance with the present invention, and of the associated message traffic. The designations of the messages and of the individual devices should understood to be analogous to FIG. 1 . As a reaction to the event message Event x, PRA 3 requests resources of the switching device PBX with Service 3 Request via the assignment device LM. Subsequently, in evaluation of a priority list which is accessible to the assignment device LM and contains the rank order of PRA 1 to PRA 3 with regard to the assignment of resources of the switching device, an inquiry to be acknowledged, Forced Reply Request, is issued first to PRA 1 having the highest assignment priority. The potential resource requester PRA 1 acknowledges Event x with a resource request Service 1 Request and the inquiry Forced Reply Request with the acknowledgement Forced Reply Ack. The message pair Forced Reply Request and Forced Reply Ack is used by the resource assignment device LM to ascertain whether PRA 1 has sent a resource request Service 1 Request in respect of the Event x. This is not the only possible reaction. Since PRA 1 processes all messages one after the other, the message Service 1 Request must necessarily arrive before the message Forced Reply Ack. LM can thus derive the following conclusions. If a Service 1 Request arrives before Forced Reply Ack, then PRA 1 is interested in resource allocation. If no Service 1 Request arrives before Forced Reply Ack, then PRA 1 is not interested in resource allocation. The resource can, thus, be assigned as required to PRA 2 or PRA 3 . The resource assignment device LM forwards the resource assignment Service 1 Request to the switching device, which confirms reception of this message with Service 1 Ack to the resource assignment device LM, whereupon the latter once again outputs a message Service 1 Ack to PRA 1 . Since PRA 1 has a higher assignment priority of resources than PRA 3 , in a further step the resource assignment device LM outputs a message Service 3 Ack (negative) to PRA 3 . It can be discerned in this message sequence that, in connection with message traffic of this type, message queues within the potential resource requesters PRA 1 to PRA 3 are advantageous. The following is ensured by the inquiry to be acknowledged (inquiry: Forced Reply Request, acknowledgement: Forced Reply Ack): If a Service 1 Request arrives before Forced Reply Ack, then PRA 1 is interested in resource allocation. If no Service 1 Request arrives before Forced Reply Ack, then PRA 1 is not interested in resource allocation. The resource can, thus, be assigned as required to PRA 2 or PRA 3 . FIG. 3 shows, in an analogous manner to FIG. 2, the message traffic in a method according to the present invention in the case where the potential resource requester PRA 1 does not require any resources, the potential resource requester PRA 2 likewise not requiring any resources in this case. The higher-priority potential resource requesters PRA 1 and PRA 2 in this case output the acknowledgement messages to the resource assignment device LM. No resource request is made. In this example, the resource request of the low-priority resource requestor PRA 3 can be satisfied by the assignment of resources of the switching device. In general, it should be noted that the response to a message Event x will be ServiceX Request if there is interest in resource assignment. The acknowledgement Forced Reply Ack is always issued in respect of the inquiry Forced Reply Request. FIG. 4 shows a message traffic in which the potential resource requester PRA 2 responds with a resource assignment inquiry Service 2 Request as a reaction to the event message Event x from the resource assignment device LM. For this reason, a resource request made first by PRA 3 is likewise turned down negatively. In this case, a message traffic is shown in which PRA 3 , the potential resource requestor having the lowest priority, is the first to register its requirement at LM with Service 3 Request. However, LM sent the event message to PRA 1 and PRA 2 as well. The latter have not yet answered; for example, for propagation time reasons. LM therefore sends Forced Reply Request first to PRA 1 having the highest priority, and receives only the acknowledgement Forced Reply Ack from PRA 1 as a response. From this LM infers that PRA 1 has not requested a service as a reaction to Event x. LM therefore sends Forced Reply Request to PRA 2 having the second-highest priority and receives Service 2 Request from PRA 2 as a reaction to Event x as a response. LM receives the acknowledgement Forced Reply Ack from PRA 2 . From this LM infers that PRA 2 requested a resource as a reaction to Event x. LM forwards the resource request Service 2 Request from PRA 2 to PBX. LM receives a positive acknowledgement from the switching device PBX and passes this on to PRA 2 LM then acknowledges the resource request Service 3 Request from PRA 3 negatively with Service Ack (negative), since the resource has been allocated to PRA 2 . In principle, it does not matter what inquiries to be acknowledged are sent from the resource assignment device LM to the potential resource requestors in the case where a resource request is present. What is important with regard to these messages is that a standard-conforming inquiry and response pair is selected for them. In the case of a CSTA application, such an inquiry/response pair would be, for example, “System Status”. Message checks and message sending and also access to assignment rank lists are advantageously provided in customary fashion in switching devices, or in service-feature servers or in combinations thereof. As shown in FIG. 5, a system with prioritizable resource assignment includes a switching device PBX. The latter is connected to a resource assignment device LM via a CTI interface CTI. Potential resource requestors PRA 1 , PRA 2 and PRA 3 communicate with this resource assignment device LM via lines 10 , 20 and 30 . Although it is shown here that the potential resource requesters are arranged separately as individual computers and connected to LM via a network, in other configurations they may be situated in the same computer as LM and be processed there as different processes. PRA 1 to PRA 3 must ensure that the messages are processed one after the other, for example in a manner effected by message queues for which queue memories M 1 , M 2 and M 3 are present in the potential resource requesters PRA 1 , PRA 2 and PRA 3 . The message exchange explained above takes place in the arrangement shown. Although the present invention has been described with reference to specific embodiments, those of skill in the art will recognize that changes may be made thereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the hereafter appended claims.

A system and method with which competing resource requests can be processed in accordance with a predefined priority list of the different requesting processes, without necessitating a real-time operating system or a complete handshake protocol mechanism for processing the messages between an assignment device and requesting devices or processes. The methods and systems can be used in service-feature servers of switching devices which are preferably connected via a CTI interface to the switching device.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to two commonly-assigned patent applications filed in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office on the same day as this application, the first such application being entitled "Improved Surgical Suture Package with Peekable Foil Heat Seal" Ser. No. 08/623,874 filed Mar. 29, 1996, and the second such application being entitled "Method for Making Sterile Suture Packages" Ser No. 08/624,971 filed Mar. 29, 1996, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,623,810, the disclosures of each of such applications being incorporated herein by reference. CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to two commonly-assigned patent applications filed in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office on the same day as this application, the first such application being entitled "Improved Surgical Suture Package with Peekable Foil Heat Seal" Ser. No. 08/623,874 filed Mar. 29, 1996, and the second such application being entitled "Method for Making Sterile Suture Packages" Ser No. 08/624,971 filed Mar. 29, 1996, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 5,623,810, the disclosures of each of such applications being incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the manufacture of sealed sterile packages and more particularly to method and apparatus for making sealed sterile packages for surgical sutures. The foil stock for making sterile packages or containers for surgical sutures is provided on large rolls which are unwound during the feeding of the foil into the leading edge of the package making equipment. This foil stock becomes the bottom foil of the container. After cavities are formed in the bottom foil and the suture products placed therein, sheets of top foil are placed atop the bottom foil and the foils are subsequently sealed around the cavities. The facing surfaces of the foils are each coated with a thin polymeric film known as a seal coating, which facilitates sealing between the bottom foil and top foil. In the sealing operation, the seal coating melts to provide a seal between adjacent sheets of foil which are pressed together in selected areas by high temperature sealing dies. As the foil stock or "web" comes off the source roll and is fed into the leading edge of a packaging machine, the traveling web has a tendency to "walk" in either transverse direction from the center of its longitudinal flow path through the machine. It is critical, however, that the web of foil be accurately aligned as it passes through the packaging equipment because lateral movement of the web relative to the centerline of the machine will reduce the seal margins resulting in suture packages with defective seals. This, in turn, results in significant "down time" as the process is halted to reposition the web. There is, accordingly, a need for an apparatus for maintaining alignment of the web of foil at the leading end of the packaging machine to ensure that the web is accurately positioned with respect to the centerline of the machine to increase the yield of usable foil, reduce downtime and increase product quality. Discontinuities or voids in the polymeric seal coating on the foil occasionally occur due to imperfections in the foil manufacturing process. The presence of a discontinuity in the seal coating prevents effective sealing of the suture package, which results in product rejection. Since it is impractical to inspect the foil stock while it is on the roll, imperfectly sealed packages must be visually detected and removed following the manufacturing process, or the process must be halted whenever an imperfectly sealed package is detected so that such defective packages can be removed from the production line. This interferes with processing time and results in unnecessary processing of defective packages that must eventually be scrapped. There is, therefore, a need for an apparatus for continuously detecting seal coating imperfections in the foil stock during processing such that defective sections of the foil will not be used in the final product. Production of sealed sterile packages for surgical sutures also requires rigorous inspection and quality control throughout the packaging process. Because of the possibility of various defects in the packaging process, and the significant cost of processing unfinished, defective products that will eventually have to be scrapped, detection of defects throughout the process is desirable to automatically identify defective products as the defects occur, and to diagnose and correct process conditions to minimize future defects. While the most significant of these inspections have heretofore been done by people, use of human operators to perform these tasks is costly and unreliable because such operators are highly susceptible to boredom and fatigue. Accordingly, there is a need for an optical inspection system which will detect defects as they occur in process and which will automatically alert the equipment operator upon detection of a particular defect so that remedial action can be taken. The packaging equipment pulls the web of foil stock off the source roll and feeds it through a series of stations using what is known as a web advancement system. Heretofore, the web advancement system has been cam driven. The cam driven web advancement system advances the web of foil at a speed that is limited by the slow return stroke of the cam mechanism. The web advancement system moves the web from station to station and must repeatedly start and stop the web as it moves down line. Attempts to increase the speed of the cam mechanism, with resulting increased acceleration of the web, have caused web registration problems, which can result in sealing defects. Accordingly, there is a need for a web advancement system in which the overall process flow speed can be increased under controlled acceleration so that web registration problems can be minimized or eliminated. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, a web alignment system is provided for ensuring that the web of foil is accurately positioned with resect to the centerline of its travel through the packaging machine. The roll of foil stock is mounted on a moveable carriage which is capable of transverse movement in relation to the centerline of the machine. A stepper motor, connected to a screw shaft, engages the mechanical carriage to move the roll of foil to the right or left of the centerline of the machine. A pair of optical sensors are located at the left and right edges of the web of foil as it enters the leading edge of the packaging machine. If the web "walks" too far to the right, the optical sensor on the right hand side sends a signal to a programmable logic controller which causes the stepper motor to move the carriage to the left. The optical sensor on the left hand side sends a signal to controller when the web has moved too far to the left, causing the stepper motor to move the carriage to the right. The controller controls the voltage sent to the stepper motor to cause the motor to rotate clockwise or counter-clockwise depending on whether a right or left misalignment condition is detected. In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention, a skip detector is provided at the leading end of the packaging machine to automatically identify discontinuities in the polymeric seal coating to prevent a defective section of the foil from being used in the final product. The skip detector includes a plurality of spaced metal fingers which brush the surface of the web of foil as it is fed through the packaging machine. Adjacent fingers are connected to voltages of opposite polarity through a sensing circuit such that conduction of current through any two adjacent fingers occurs when adjacent fingers make contact with a metal foil surface where the seal coating is absent. When a coating discontinuity is detected, a sensing circuit sends a signal to the operator or to a frame unload station located downstream of the skip detector causing the defective section of product to be rejected and later separated from the flow of good products. In accordance with a third aspect of the invention, an automated optical inspection system or "vision system" is provided for detecting defects in the product at certain points in the packaging process. Video cameras are directed at selected areas of the product to be inspected at various locations in the process. At each inspection point, a camera generates a real time image of the area to be inspected which is compared with the parameters of an expected image of a defect free product. An optical processor under the control of a programmable logic controller detects a fault condition whenever the real time image differs from a standard to a predetermined degree indicating that a defect has been detected. The programmable logic controller also sends a signal downstream to the frame unload station at the trailing end of the machine to cause the defective product to be separated from the flow of good products. In accordance with a fourth aspect of the invention, a servo drive advancement system is provided for increased speed and lower acceleration of product as it is advanced resulting in reduction of registration problems and fewer sealing defects. A moveable carriage capable of reciprocal movement in the direction of travel of the web between the upstream end of the advancement system and the downstream end thereof is slidably supported on a pair of guide rails. The carriage includes a clamp for releasably gripping the web in response to action of pneumatically actuated cylinders. The carriage engages a screw shaft connected to a servomotor such that rotation of the screw shaft and servomotor in one direction causes the carriage to advance downstream in the direction of travel of the web and rotation of the shaft and servomotor in the opposite direction causes the carriage to return upstream to complete a cycle of movement. A programmable logic controller causes the servomotor to be selectively energized and controls the pneumatically actuated cylinders to precisely control the timing, speed and direction of travel of the carriage and the release and engagement of the web by the clamp. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a plan view in accordance with the present invention of a frame of eight packages containing surgical suture packets with a top foil partially broken away to expose one such packet; FIG. 1B is a plan view of a prior art frame of ten packages containing surgical suture packets with a top foil broken away to expose one such packet; FIG. 2 is a side schematic view of a prior art packaging machine used in the production of sterile packages for surgical sutures; FIG. 3 is a plan schematic view of a prior art packaging machine used in the production of sterile packages for surgical sutures; FIG. 4 is a side schematic view of a modified packaging machine incorporating the features of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a plan schematic view of a modified packaging machine incorporating the features of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a perspective view of the web alignment system of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of the drive mechanism of the web alignment system shown in FIG. 6; FIG. 8 is a perspective view of the optical sensors employed in the web alignment system shown in FIG. 7 illustrating the interaction of the sensors and the web; FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram of the control circuit of the web alignment system illustrated in FIG. 6; FIG. 10 is a perspective view of the skip detection system of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram of the circuitry of the skip detection system shown in FIG. 10 and illustrating the manner in which a discontinuity in the foil coating is detected; FIG. 12 is a perspective view of a first stage of the vision system of the present invention; FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a second stage of the vision system of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a block diagram of the control system associated with the vision system of the present invention; FIG. 15 is a perspective view of the vision system monitor at the operator's station; FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the operator interface of the packaging machine of the present invention; FIG. 17 is a schematic side view of the servo drive web advancement system of the present invention; and FIG. 18 is a schematic end view of the servo drive web advancement system of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring to FIG. 1A, eight sealed sterile packages, two of which are designated by reference letter A, are provided in two rows of four per row in a common frame, which is indicated generally by the reference letter B. The frame B is shown at a stage in the manufacturing process following sterilization and sealing. The subsequent steps including a blanking operation, in which the individual packages (indicated in dashed outline) are separated from the frame, followed by final package inspection and boxing in cartons for shipment to the customer. The procedure described hereafter relates to the initial frame-forming steps which precede sterilization. In the initial framing procedure, each package position receives an unsterilized surgical suture packet C, which is dropped into one of eight cavities D formed in a bottom foil E. The bottom foil E includes a vinyl or polymer-type coating on its top surface, which is heat sealed to a polymer coating on the bottom surface of a top foil F. The sealing method is described more completely in the aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 5,623,810 filed Mar. 29, 1996, entitled "Method for Making Sterile Suture Packages" now U.S. Pat. No. 5,623,810. Each surgical suture packet C comprises a plastic oval-shaped tray G for retaining a needle-suture assembly therein. The needle-suture assembly consists of a surgical needle H and a suture I, which is retained in a coiled-arrangement in the tray G. The blunt end of needle H is attached to the suture I in a well known manner, such as by insertion of the end of the suture into an opening or channel in the end of the needle and then crimping or swaging the end of the needle to tightly secure the suture thereto. Bottom foil E is dimensioned to be slightly wider than top foil F so as to form an outer flange J along each of the sides thereof in which a series of ribs K may be formed as hereafter described to facilitate opening of the package during surgery. A pair of locating holes P is also provided in the scrap area between adjacent packages A to facilitate registration of the frame at operational stations in the packaging equipment. The locating holes P are aligned in the center of the frame B along the axis of travel through the packaging machine. The apparatus and procedures of the present invention are adapted to making a variety of sterile packages including a preferred package described more fully in the aforementioned co-pending application Ser. No. 08/623,874 filed Mar. 29, 1996, entitled "Improved Surgical Suture Package with Peekable Foil Heat Seal." During the initial framing procedure described hereafter, a primary seal M is formed in a U-shape part way around each package A. Following sterilization, a secondary seal N is formed in a U-shape part way around each package A and overlapping the primary seal M to assure that the needle-suture assembly contained in each package remains in a sterile condition for use in surgery. The locations of the generally U-shaped primary and secondary seals are shown a cross-hatched areas surrounding the upper left cavity in FIG. 1A, the area of double cross-hatching labeled 0 indicating where the seals overlap. A bar code Q may also be provided in the scrap area of the frame B for product and lot identification. Referring to FIG. 1B, a frame B' of prior art packages or containers A' is illustrated in top plan view. A suture packet C' is seen in the portion partially broken away lying in one of ten similar cavities D' formed in a bottom foil E'. A top foil F' covers the bottom foil E' and is sealed thereto around each cavity using identical polymeric heat seal coatings on the facing surfaces of the two foils. Flanges J' are provided as portions of the bottom foil E' extending beyond the edges of the top foil F' at the longitudinal ends of the frame B'. These flanges J' result from the gap between adjacent top foil sheets which facilitates placing top foil sheets on the bottom foil stock or "web" without interference between adjacent top foil sheets. The flanges J' are cut off as part of the foil scrap during the blanking operation which follows sterilization and separates the individual foil containers A' from the frame B'. Locating holes P' facilitate registration of the frame B' at successive stations as it moves through the packaging equipment. A bar code Q' may also be provided in the scrap area of the frame B' for product and lot identification. A primary heat seal is formed prior to sterilization between and partially around the individual cavities but leaving the left edge L' and right edge R' unsealed. A secondary sealing operation following sterilization seals the left and right edges L' and R' of each frame B'. The frame B' has no unsealed side portions unlike the frame B of FIG. 1A. In use in surgery, the prior art packages A' are torn open whereas the packages A made in accordance with the present invention are peeled open by pulling apart unsealed flaps. This feature is explained more fully in the aforementioned co-pending application entitled "Improved Surgical Suture Package with Peelable Foil Heat Seal." FIGS. 2-3 illustrate in schematic side and plan views, respectively, a prior art packaging machine 1 formerly used in the initial steps of making prior art frames of the type shown in FIG. 1B. The manufacturer of the principal components of the machine is Harro Hofliger Verpackungsmaschinen GmbH of Allmersbach im Tal, Germany (hereinafter "Hofliger"). The machine 1 feeds foil stock through a series of stations, including a foil feeding station 10, a cavity forming station 20, a microvoid detection station 30, slave web index station 40, packet loading station 50, top foil loading station 60, sealing station 70, hole punch and chilling station 80, vision system station 90, master web index station 100, cutting station 110 and a frame unload station 120. Advancement of the web and operation of the above stations are controlled by a programmable logic controller ("PLC") 140 mounted in a main control cabinet 150. In foil feeding station 10, foil stock 11 is provided on large rolls 12 which are unwound during the feeding of the foil stock into the leading end of packaging machine 1. The foil stock 11 is commonly referred to as the "web" after it has been unrolled from roll 12. Foil stock 11 consists of aluminum foil coated with a polymer coating, which is used to form a heat seal as described below. Foil stock 11 forms the bottom foil E' of the frame B'. Foil stock or web 11 passes over rollers into the leading edge of machine 1 onto a splicing table 14. Splicing table 14 is used to splice together consecutive rolls of foil stock to maintain the continuity of the web fed into the machine so that the process does not have to be interrupted for an extended duration each time a roll of foil stock is depleted and new roll is provided. A roll unwind station 15 is provided for feeding the web of foil off of the roll. The roll unwind station 15 employs a tensioning system containing a series of tension rollers which interact with foil feeding station 10 to ensure that the web, as it is advanced through the machine, is not pulled directly off roll 12. A splice detector 17 optically detects the presence of a splice formed between consecutive rolls of stock. When a "splice" is detected, a signal is sent to the PLC 140 indicative that a "splice" is present at a particular location of the advancing web. The location is stored in the PLC 140, which subsequently causes the frame containing the splice to be "rejected" from the product flow downstream at the frame unload station 120. At the next step of the process, the web of foil 11 is advanced to cavity forming station 20, where the web is clamped, then subjected to compressed air and impact from a forming die 22 to form cavities in the web, which later becomes the bottom foil E' containing cavities such as cavity D'. The web next advances to microvoid detection station 30 which contains a pinhole detector to detect the presence of "pinholes" in the preformed cavities. The pinhole detector (not shown) includes an infrared light source and an infrared light detector on opposite sides of the web. If a pinhole is detected, a signal is sent to the PLC 140 which stores the location of the defect in the web so that the frame containing the pinhole can be subsequently separated from the good product flow at the frame unload station 120. In the prior art Hofliger machine shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, a slave web index system 40 was included, but with poor results. It was intended to facilitate the indexing or advancement of web material in response to and under the control of the master web index system 100 located downstream thereof. However, the slave web index system was not perfected and was not employed beyond an experimental stage, because it was found to add too much inertia to the system. When the web reaches packet loading station 50, individual suture packets C' (FIG. 1B) are loaded into the cavities D' by a pick and place mechanism, schematically illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 3 and designated by reference number 52. Vacuum pickup heads (not shown) pick up ten suture packets C' and place them into the preformed cavities in a 2×5 array in frame B' as shown in FIG. 1B. The packets are conveyed in pairs perpendicular to the web flow on cogged conveyor belts 53a and 53b and loaded into magazines at a feeder station 54 where they are then conveyed in groups to the pick and place mechanism 52. The web next advances to packet detector 56 which checks for the presence of a packet in each cavity D'. A top foil load station 60 overlays a sheet of top foil F' on a section of bottom foil containing ten cavities. This step is repeated during each pause in the advancement of the web down line. The top foil F' has preprinted printed label indicia on its top surface. Small spots at corners of the top foil F' are heated to locally fuse the seal coatings on the facing surfaces of the two foils. This "tacking" operation keeps the top foil F' in proper position relative to the underlying web as they move together down line. An operator interface 62 is provided adjacent to the top foil load station 60 to allow the operator to communicate with the PLC 140, which controls the timing and operation of each of the stations. The operator interface 62 allows the operator to start and stop the machine as well as to enter other functions. Label check station 68 employs a photoelectric system to check for the presence of a distinctive color on the product indicative of the presence of a top foil. If no "label" is detected, check station 68 sends a signal to the PLC 140 to stop the machine, since the continuation of operations under such conditions would result in significant waste of product. At sealing station 70, the top foil F' is selectively heat sealed to a section of the web (which later becomes the bottom foil E') by sealing dies (not shown) along the leading edge, inside edge and trailing edge of each package position. This causes the heat seal coatings on the two foils to fuse together to form a "primary" seal surrounding each cavity D' on three sides. The side of each cavity at the left and right edges L' and R' (FIG. 1B) remains unsealed until after a subsequent sterilization procedure when a "secondary" seal is formed to entirely seal each cavity. The web is then advanced to hole punch and chilling station 80, where locating holes P' (FIG. 1 B) are provided in the sealed foils in the center scrap area for subsequent registration of the secondary sealing, blanking and cartoning operations, which follow sterilization. Chilled water runs through a metal manifold (not shown) over which the web is advanced to remove some of the heat retained from the heat sealing process performed in the preceding step. At station 90, a vision system employing three video cameras performs inspections of the bottom surface of the web and determines whether the registration holes P' are properly located, whether any cavities have been crushed, and checks for seal integrity. In the prior art Hofliger machine 1, master web index system 100 employs a cam driven mechanism (not shown) that moves a reciprocating mechanism 102 to advance the web. At the beginning of a cycle, the mechanism 102 clamps the web at the upstream end of the station 100. The mechanism 102 is then advanced along a pair of guide rails 104 and 106 to the downstream end of the station 100, where the web is released and the mechanism 102 is returned to the upstream end of the station to begin the next cycle. At cutting station 110, the web is cut into frames containing two rows of five packets A' via a scissors cutter mechanism (not shown). The frame unload station 120 sorts the good and rejected frames in accordance with signals stored and sent from the PLC 140. A guide rail 122, moveable under the control of the PLC 140, pushes acceptable product to one side where a vacuum pickup 124 picks up the good frames and places them onto a loading station 130. Carriers (not shown) are moved into the loading station 130 on a feed line 132. Once loaded, the carriers are stacked on a vehicle (not shown) for transportation to a sterilization area within the manufacturing facility. Rejected frames are dropped off the end of the conveyor onto a reject chute 134 and then into a reject bin (not shown). Referring now to FIGS. 4 and 5, a schematic representation of a modified Hofliger machine 2 is shown incorporating the improvements of the present invention, like numerals designating the same or similar parts previously described. The cavity forming station 20 is similar to the corresponding station in the prior art Hofliger machine except that the forming die 22 is modified to produce a larger cavity D as well as the stiffness-adding ribs K in the side flanges J of frame B (FIG. 1A). The preferred shape of the cavity and the orientation and number of ribs are described in the aforementioned co-pending application entitled "Improved Surgical Suture Package with Peelable Foil Heat Seal." Suture packet conveyors 53a and 53b as well as packet magazine station 54 and the loading station 52 comprise a feeder system similar to that used in the prior art machine previously described. A second such feeder system 55 (shown partially in phantom) may also be used to supply a different packet to the main foil line to facilitate the conversion of the line from packaging one type of packet to another. A web alignment system 200 is positioned between the roll 12 of foil stock and the splicing station 14. As described in greater detail below, web alignment system 200 is designed to maintain accurate alignment of the foil stock as it is introduced into packaging machine 2. A skip detection system 300 is provided between the roll unwind station 15 and splice detector 17. The skip detection system, as hereafter described, detects imperfections in the foil stock during processing so that the process can be halted and the defective sections of the web of foil removed or the entire roll 12 of foil stock replaced. A vision system 400 is provided for automatically inspecting the packaging process and product for certain likely defects. Vision system 400 includes a first set of cameras at station 410, which replaces packet detector 56 (FIGS. 2-3), and a second set of cameras at station 450 immediately downstream of the hole punch and chilling station 80. Due to the added complexity of the dual-station vision system 400 of the modified Hofliger machine 2 of FIGS. 4 and 5 compared to the prior art machine, a more sophisticated computer control system 150 with associated optical processor and PLC elements is employed, as will be appreciated from the detailed description provided below. In the modified Hofliger machine, the cam-driven web advancement system 100 of the prior art machine has been removed and replaced by a servo drive system at station 500 as hereafter described in connection with FIGS. 17 and 18. As the web of foil travels through modified packaging machine 2, servo drive system 500 controls the advancement of the web through the machine in a way that enables faster product flow. Web Alignment System FIGS. 6-9 illustrate the web alignment system 200 of the present invention which comprises a pair of U-shaped optical sensors 210L (left) and 210R (right) electrically connected to controller 220 in a control circuit 230, which, in turn, controls the application of voltage to a stepper motor 240. As shown in FIG. 6, a roll 12 of foil stock is rotatably mounted on a slidable shaft 250, which is supported by and capable of limited axial movement within a journaled housing 256. A corresponding housing (not shown) is provided on the opposite side of roll 12 for supporting shaft 250. Housing 256 is mounted to and supported by a chassis 260, which is movable in the axial direction to provide precise transverse adjustment of the web relative to its direction of travel down line. As best seen in FIG. 7, shaft 245 of stepper motor 240 is connected to a screw shaft 270, which, in turn, passes through and threadedly engages the underside of moveable chassis 260. The chassis 260 is slidably supported on each side by a pair of guide rods 265 extending through the bottom of the chassis on opposite sides of screw shaft 270. Chassis 260 moves to the right or to the left relative to the centerline of the machine depending on whether the stepper motor 240 is powered in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. The motor 240 may be any suitable stepper motor, such as the type S-57-102 manufactured by Compumotor of Robert Park, Calif. As the foil stock comes off the roll and is fed into the machine, the web of foil is fed between two rotating feeder rollers 272 and 274 (FIG. 6). As best seen in FIG. 8, the web 11 is threaded between the flanges of two U-shape optical sensors mounted adjacent the left and right hand sides of the web (only optical sensor 210R being visible in FIG. 8). In the preferred embodiment, U-shaped sensors 210L and 210R are infra red photoelectric switches such as type E35-GS384 manufactured by Omron Corporation of Schaumburg, Ill. Sensors 210L and 210R are mounted on a moveable platform 215 which facilitates precise positioning of the sensors relative to the edges of the web 11 by calibrated adjustment screws such as screw 217. Each optical sensor employs a through beam infra red photo sensor comprising an infra red source 219 and a photoelectric cell 221 (FIG. 8). If the web "walks" sufficiently far to the left or to the right to block the beam, the photoelectric cell 221 will not see the light source and will no longer generate a current. FIG. 9 schematically illustrates the control circuit 230 of the web alignment system. When the controller 220 detects a "no current" condition from either sensor 210L or 210R, it will switch a voltage of appropriate polarity to stepper motor 240, causing chassis 260 to be advanced so that the edge of the web will move inwardly toward the centerline of the machine. When the web is in perfect alignment, the sources 219 will each be seen by the respective cells 221. If the web should move out of alignment to the right, for example, the right edge of the web will block the beam in right sensor 210R, and the stepper motor will be powered to move the chassis 260 to the left until the right edge of the web no longer blocks the source in sensor 210R, and vice versa. Controller 220 can also be programmed to detect a "fault" condition which occurs when both sensors 210L and 210R detect a "blocked field of view" condition causing a signal to be sent to the operator interface 62 indicative of a sensor failure. Controller 220 may be any solid state controller, such as, for example, part SX6 manufactured by Compumotor. The foregoing web alignment system enables precise positioning of the web relative to the leading edge of the machine, resulting in a higher percentage of products placed properly in the cavities formed in the web and properly positioned top foils, eliminating waste and improving process yield. Skip Detection System Referring now to FIG. 10, a skip detection system 300 is shown positioned between the roll unwind station 15 and the splice detector 17 in the modified Hofliger machine 2. Skip detection system 300 includes a spine member 302 connected to a series of parallel channel members 304 for retaining a plurality of flexible metal fingers 306. Channel members 304 are oriented relative to the web 11 such that the metal fingers 306 extending therefrom brush the surface of the web as the web advances from the roll unwind station 15 to the splice detector 17. Fingers 306 are biased to make mechanical contact with the web at all times and to make electrical contact with the metal foil whenever voids occur in the polymer coating. Metal fingers 306 are preferably formed of a flexible metal material, such as spring steel. In the preferred embodiment, 50 fingers, approximately 0.25 inch wide and spaced apart approximately 0.0625 inch provide the ability to detect discontinuities or voids in the seal coating on the web down to a size of about 0.50 inch in diameter. The resolution of the skip detector can be increased by appropriately adjusting the placement, thickness and number of fingers 306 to detect voids of smaller diameters. FIG. 11 illustrates the circuitry of the skip detection system 300 and the manner in which fingers 306 detect discontinuities in the web seal coating. A circuit 310 is provided for detecting the presence of a void and for generating a signal indicating that a discontinuity or void has been detected. Adjacent fingers 306 are alternately connected to cables 312 and 314, respectively. Cables 312 and 314 are contained within a sleeve 316 (FIG. 10) leading from spine member 302 to circuit 310. Circuit 310 contains a power source 320, connected to cable 312 and a current detector 324 connected to cable 314. A cable or line 326 electrically connects the power source 320 and current detector 324 as shown. A suitable current detector for this application is a current limiting and safety device such as type number MLT3000 manufactured by Measurement Technology, Inc. When adjacent fingers 306 brush against and make contact with the metal foil at a discontinuity X in the web seal coating, a closed loop is completed in circuit 310 and a current produced by power source 320 is detected by current detector 324. Upon detection of a current, detector 324 sends a signal indicating that a discontinuity has been detected to the PLC 140, which is programmed to stop the machine so that the damaged segment of foil can be removed. Alternatively, the signal sent to the PLC 140 can be processed and stored to reject product formed from that segment as it comes off the end of the machine at frame unload station 120 (FIGS. 4 and 5). In this case, PLC 140 will send a reject signal to frame unload station 120 at the appropriate time. Vision System The vision system 400 in the modified Hofliger machine 2 is used to automatically monitor the packaging process and to inspect the packages for a variety of defects at two locations on the Hofliger machine. Depending on the defect, the vision system will either signal the PLC 140 for package rejection or machine realignment. The system performs a number of checks, including inspections for (1) presence of tray G; (2) presence of a paper lid on the tray; (3) the presence of foreign matter in the secondary seal area; (4) the presence of foreign matter in the primary seal area; (5) proper positioning of locating holes P; (6) cavity crush; (7) presence of printing or labelling on the top foil; (8) printing of the bar code Q in the scrap area; (9) bent corners on the top foils; and (10) travel of the web perpendicular to the centerline of the machine. Referring to FIGS. 4, 5, and 12-16, the vision system 400 is deployed at two stations 410 and 450. The prior art packet detector 56 (FIG. 2) is removed from the Hofliger machine and replaced by the first station 410 of the vision system. The second station of the vision system of the present invention is at the same location on the modified Hofliger machine as on the prior art machine (i.e., station 90 in FIG. 2), but is more sophisticated and checks for more potential defects. The second station 450 is positioned between chilling station 80 and servo web mechanism 500. Each station comprises a set of video cameras for real time inspection of the product passing therethrough. A suitable video camera is the Sony Model No. XC-77RR camera. The stations preferably have a total of eight such video cameras 430-437, each of which is connected to an optical processor 440 (FIG. 14), which, in turn, communicates with the PLC 140 through a converter module 441. The processor 440 receives video signals from each camera and interprets them to generate signals for communication to the PLC 140. The inspections occur in the first station 410 of the system on the fly, while the web is advancing after the packet has been placed in the cavity but before top foil loading. At station 410 the vision inspection system detects: (1) the presence of tray G; (2) the presence of a paper lid on tray G; (3) the presence of foreign matter in the secondary seal area; and (4) the presence of foreign matter in the primary seal area. As best seen in FIG. 12, the first station 410 of the system contains a pair of video cameras 430 and 431 (only camera 430 being visible in FIG. 12), which are mounted vertically above and looking down on the advancing web 11 (shown schematically). The video cameras are positioned on opposite sides of the centerline of the machine, such that one camera will image advancing cavities in the near lane and the other camera will image advancing cavities in the far lane. A rheostat controlled light source 442, such as a Fostec 8370 or other suitable light source, illuminates the web. A fiber optic sensor 444 (FIG. 14), such as Keyence FS2-60 switch, manufactured by Keyence Corporation, signals cameras 430 and 431 to record an image of the cavity when a pair of advancing cavities D in the web triggers the sensor. Images from cameras 430 and 431 are processed by optical processor 440, as hereafter described, to determine if any of the above defects have been detected. If a tray, paper lid, needle, suture or any other matter in the secondary or primary seal areas is detected, a fault signal is sent to the PLC 140. If any such foreign matter is detected, a SUTURE IN THE SEAL fault signal is generated indicating the specific lane (near side, far side) in which the fault is detected. Similarly, if a packet tray is not detected or a properly positioned paper lid is not detected, a TRAY NOT PRESENT fault signal or PAPER COVER MISSING fault signal, respectively, is generated for the specific lane in which the defect occurs. If, for some reason, an inspection cannot be performed, a TRIGGER NAK (trigger not acknowledged) signal will be generated. PLC 140 may be programmed to send a message to the operator interface 62 indicating that a problem has been detected in the process. The second station 450 of the vision system has six cameras 432-437 (three top-down looking cameras and three bottom-up looking cameras), which are employed to check for various defects in the product or manufacturing process after primary seal formation. The three bottom-up cameras 432-434 check for (1) the presence of suture product in the seal area around the primary seal after sealing; (2) locating hole registration; and (3) cavity crush caused by improper registration between the sealing and forming stations. These three product inspections are essentially the same as those performed by the vision system of the prior art Hofliger machine 1 at station 90 (FIGS. 2 and 3). Two of the three top-down cameras 435 and 436 (FIG. 5) are positioned in parallel but offset from the centerline of the machine 2 over the near and far lanes to determine if the corners of the top foil sheets are folded back. Each camera 435, 436 simultaneously images the trailing edge corner of a passing top foil and the leading edge corner of the next advancing top foil to determine if the corners of the foil sheets are folded back. The third top-down camera 437 at station 450 is positioned over the centerline of the machine to check if the bar code Q (printed on the top foil) is in the center of the foil sheet (i.e. in the scrap area), and if the top foil itself is present, which is confirmed if a bar code Q can be detected. FIG. 13 illustrates the second station 450 of the vision system. Bottom-up cameras 432-434 (only camera 432 being visible) are positioned in the center and on opposite sides of the centerline of the machine in a staggered relationship. A controlled light source 448 is also provided to illuminate the bottom side of the web for each of the cameras. The light is reflected off the bottom surface of the web and is "seen" by the camera as shades of gray, the flat surfaces in the plane of travel appearing near white and the contours of the cavities appearing dark gray. Thus, an irregularity in a flat surface such as the seal area will appear darker than expected and can thus be detected. For example, a needle trapped in a seal will appear as a dark line (due to the shadow effect) in what should appear as a uniformly light area. As the cavity D breaks the fiber optic beam sensor 444 (FIG. 14), a trigger from the PLC 140 causes camera 432 to record the image of the foil cavity. If foreign matter is detected in the area around the primary seal, a MASTER FAULT signal will be sent to the PLC 140. If the vision system does not have time to perform the inspection, a TRIGGER NAK signal will be sent to PLC 140. In either case, the PLC will cause the corresponding package to be rejected downstream by sending a "reject" signal to the frame unload station at the appropriate time. A second bottom-up looking camera 433 (not shown) performs a similar inspection of the seal area on the other side of the centerline. These seal integrity inspections are done on the fly as the web is being advanced. The third bottom-up camera 434 (not shown) checks for cavity crush and inspects for hole registration during the dwell between advancement cycles. PLC 140 generates a trigger during dwell that causes camera 434 to capture an image of the locating holes P in the frame. Theoretically, the center of the locating holes should coincide with the centerline of the space between the cavities. If the hole location is more than ±0.040 inches from the nominal, the package will be rejected. Each cavity is formed with a nominal width of 1.719 inches. Cavity crush occurs if there is a negative variation in cavity width of more than 0.040 inches. Cavity crush occurs when the forming dies 22 in foil forming station 20 are not in proper registration with the sealing dies 72 in sealing station 70. Cavity crush is detected if the distance between two cavities increases. When this occurs, a CAVITY CRUSH fault signal is generated. If the cavity crush measurement is more than ±0.040 inches, the package will be rejected. Referring again to FIG. 13, three top-down video cameras 435-437 (only camera 437 being visible) are provided for performing top foil inspection, bent corner inspection and web alignment inspection. Top foil inspection is handled by camera 437 (FIG. 5) which is positioned over the centerline of the web following the sealing operation. Inspection occurs during the dwell between web advancement cycles and is triggered by PLC 140. The inspection generates two fault signals: PRINT MISSING, if the bar code print is missing, and BAR CODE OUTSIDE OF SCRAP AREA, if the bar code Q is not properly located in the scrap area. A TRIGGER NAK fault is also generated when the inspection is not performed. If either the PRINT MISSING or BAR CODE OUTSIDE OF SCRAP AREA signal is generated, the corresponding frame of packages will be rejected. Camera 435 and camera 436 conduct the bent corner inspection. This inspection checks all four corners of the top foil for a bent corner. The inspection is also done during the dwell and is triggered by the PLC 140. A bent corner will generate either a BENTPK1 or BENTPK2 signal and the PLC 140 will cause the corresponding frame to be rejected. A BENTPK1 fault signal indicates that the top foil is too far downstream, while BENTPK2 fault signal indicates that the top foil is too far upstream. FIG. 14 is a functional block diagram of vision system which depicts one video camera of the set of video cameras 430-437, connected to optical processor 440, which is preferably an Allen Bradley Model 5370 CVIM optical processor. The optical processor 440 communicates with the PLC 140 through an OPTO-22 converter module 441, which adjusts signal voltage levels in a well known manner. Fiber optic sensors 444, each of which comprises a fiber optic light source and photoelectric cell, communicate signals indicative of product position to the PLC 140. A sensor 444 also communicates timing signals to the optical processor 440 via OPTO-22 converter module 445. A sensor 444 is activated whenever the beam between the light source and the photoelectric cell is interrupted. When a sensor 444 detects the location of a cavity D in the web, a signal is sent to PLC 140 which in turn sends a signal to trigger operation of a corresponding one of the cameras 430-437. When the cavity D breaks the fiber optic beam, a signal is sent to PLC 140, as described above, which sends a trigger pulse to optical processor 440, which activates the appropriate camera. The image is then received by optical processor 440 where it is compared with stored data representing the parameters of the expected image, such parameters being indicative of a "no fault" condition. Optical processor 440 compares the real time image data and stored parameters by comparing the data on a pixel-by-pixel basis. When the real time pixel data fails to match the expected parameters within an acceptable range of variation, a fault condition is detected by the optical processor 440 and the results sent to the PLC 140. PLC 140 then acts in accordance with its programmed instructions to electronically "tag" product for downstream rejection, display a warning signal to the operator, halt the process, or display an image to the operator on vision system monitor 460 (FIG. 15) and wait to receive information input from the operator to adjust process conditions. FIG. 15 illustrates the vision system monitor 460 located at the operator interface 62. Monitor 460 contains a CRT screen 462 with conventional controls 464 that permit the operator to view certain images seen by the cameras or stored by optical processor 440. For example, the vision system monitor may display images of a package with reference lines indicative of the proper position for hole registration or images showing the spacing between adjacent cavities. By viewing these images on the screen, the operator can make appropriate time, temperature and speed adjustments to the processes by entering information to the PLC 140 using controls at the operator interface 62. FIG. 16 illustrates the operator interface 62 for PLC 140. The interface 62 for PLC 140 comprises an LED display 65, a keypad 66 and a set of function keys 67 for entering information into PLC 140. The operator interface 62 allows the operator to monitor process conditions in response to fault signals received from vision system 400. The operator can also use the interface 62 to adjust parameters, such as times and temperatures, as conditions require. Servomotor Drive System As the web of foil stock travels through the packaging machine, an improved servo drive system controls advancement of the web. This new system, illustrated in detail in FIGS. 17 and 18, replaces the cam-driven web advancement system described above in connection with FIGS. 2 and 3 with a servo drive system 500, which includes a reciprocating carriage 510 for clamping the web 11 and pulling it down line. The carriage 510 is slidably mounted on a frame 533, which also supports a servo motor assembly 540 and associated servomotor 542. The servo drive system 500 permits more precise control of speed and acceleration in both the advancing and return strokes of the carriage 510, resulting in reduced acceleration of product as it is advanced, which, in turn, minimizes the amount of product shift during advancement and thus minimizes possible sealing defects associated therewith. At the same time, the system permits the speed of the return stroke to be increased, reducing overall cycle time and increasing machine processing speed. FIGS. 17 and 18 illustrate the servo drive system 500 employed in the modified Hofliger machine 2. The web 11 is fed to servo drive system 500 at station 502 where the web is clamped by the reciprocating carriage 510, which advances the web forward to station 504 (FIG. 17). When the carriage reaches position 504 at the end of the advancing stroke, it releases the web and returns to position 502 under the control of the servomotor assembly 540. Servomotor 542 may be a suitable servomotor, such as AREG Posi D Digital Servo Drive BG 63-100 manufactured by Carlo Gavazzi GmbH. The carriage 510 includes a table 512 below the web 11 and a clamping bar 520 above the web 11. The bar 520 is suspended from above by pneumatically actuated cylinders 528L and 528R. The cylinders are mounted on the underside of a canopy 514, which in turn is secured to the transverse edges of the table 512 as schematically depicted in FIG. 18. Clamping bar 520 has downwardly extending feet 522L and 522R, which are positioned so as to clamp the web at two points, preferably overlapping the leading and trailing edges of adjacent top foils, which at this stage have already been secured to the web by the primary sealing operation. Contact by the feet is preferably made in the primary seal areas formed between the top foils and the underlying web. Clamping bar 520 is forced downwardly against the top foils during the advancement stroke by pneumatically actuated cylinders 528L and 528R under the control of PLC 140 so as to clamp the web (with attached top foils) to the table 512. The clamping action occurs with the carriage 510 at position 502 (FIG. 17). The carriage then pulls the web forward to position 504 in response to the action of the servomotor assembly 540. As shown in FIG. 18, the carriage 510 rides on a pair of sliders 530L and 530R mounted on the underside of the table 512. The sliders 530L and 530R reciprocally slide on a pair of guide rails 532L and 532R that are mounted on the machine frame 533 by means of supports 537L and 537R. Guide rails 532L and 532R permit reciprocating movement of carriage 510 in the advancing and retracting directions while accurately maintaining the transverse alignment of the web. A socket 534 engages the underside of the table 512 and is adapted to receive and engage the grooves of a ball lead screw 536 to permit reciprocation of the entire carriage 510 from point 502 to point 504 and back as ball lead screw is rotated first in one direction then the other. Ball lead screw 536 is actuated by the servomotor assembly 540, which is mounted on the machine frame 533. The assembly 540 includes the servomotor 542, a pair of pulleys 546 and 548 and a timing belt 550. The servomotor 542 has a shaft 544 connected to pulley 546. One end of ball lead screw 536 is mechanically connected to pulley 548 which is rotatably mounted adjacent location 504. Servomotor 542 is energized under the control of the PLC 140, which causes rotational movement of ball lead screw 536 in a direction causing carriage 510 to advance from point 502 to point 504. When carriage 510 pulls the web to location 504, the air cylinders 528L and 528R are retracted, the polarity of the voltage is reversed and the servomotor, under the direction of the PLC 140, causes the carriage 510 to return back to position 502 where the cycle is completed. When the web 11 is not being advanced by the carriage 510, it preferably is held in place to prevent dislocation of the web when the machine 2 is idle for any reason. The web 11 is also preferably held in place between advancement cycles to maintain optimum transverse alignment and longitudinal registration. The web is preferably held in place during idle time and between advancement cycles by a clamping assembly 560, shown partially in phantom in FIGS. 17 and 18. The clamping assembly 560 has a pneumatically operated cylinder 562, which selectively extends and retracts a foot 564 to alternatively clamp and release the web 11 between the foot 564 and a base 566. The clamping assembly 560 and base 566 are secured to the frame 533 in a suitable manner, such as by side frame extensions 568L and 568R (FIG. 18). Under the control of servomotor 542, the speed and rotation of the ball lead screw 536 can be precisely controlled, minimizing acceleration of the web as it is advanced from point 502 to point 504, while simultaneously increasing the speed of the return cycle. This not only speeds up the processing cycle, but eliminates undesirable acceleration of the product, thus minimizing displacement of the packets within the cavities. For example, the prior art cam-driven web advancement system can optimally operate at about 17 cycles per minute and experience rejection rates as high as 25 percent. In the modified Hofliger machine 2 incorporating the present invention, processing speed can be increased to 22 cycles per minute with a reduction in rejection rates to a much lower average level in which the peak rejection rate experienced is about 15 percent. It will be understood that various modifications can be made to the embodiments of the present invention herein disclosed without departing from the spirit and scope thereof. Therefore, the above description should not be construed as limiting the invention, but merely as examples of preferred embodiments thereof. Those skilled in the art will envision other modifications within the scope and spirit of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.

Automated packaging of surgical needle-suture assemblies includes a framing operation in which adjacent sheets of polymer coated aluminum foils are conveyed through a sequence of steps in an apparatus which produces frames containing plastic packets of needle-suture assemblies. The apparatus pulls a web of foil off a large diameter feed roll and maintains web alignment as it travels down line through the apparatus by a system that optically detects transverse movement of the web as it is fed into the apparatus and adjusts the position of the feed roll relative to the centerline of travel using a hi-directional stepper motor. Discontinuities in the polymer coating on the top surface of the web of foil are automatically detected so that remedial steps can be taken to avoid processing defective sections of the web. A vision system having video cameras connected to a specially adapted computer enables monitoring the product travelling through the apparatus to detect various defects in the product formation. Upon detection of a defect, the computer system can either identify and separate rejected product from good product or shut down the apparatus. A servo drive system enables rapid and controllable advancement of the web down line in the apparatus.

The present application claims priority from U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/473,674 filed on May 17, 2012, which claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/587,199 filed on Oct. 2, 2009, which claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/811,264 filed on Jun. 8, 2007, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/812,541 filed on Jun. 9, 2006. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to photopolymerizable & photocleavable resin monomers and resin composite compositions, which feature by its unique balanced overall performance including very low polymerization shrinkage and very low shrinkage stress as well. The photoreactive moiety incorporated into such new resin's main frame enable to make the resin and/or the cured resin networks that are based upon such resin photocleavable. Thus the polymerization rate of free radical reaction for (meth)acrylate-based resin systems should be substantially reduced since it alter the network formation process and consequently allow the shrinkage stress getting relief significantly. In addition, it is expected that radically polymerizable resin systems containing such P&P resin would find wide range application in microelectronic, special coating and restorative dentistry where the dimensional stability and contraction stress within cured materials are critical to the total performance. The invention also relates to relates to compositions that have exceptionally low curing stress, which are comparable to conventional low stress composite, and have substantial flowability, which is comparable to conventional flowable composite. The dental materials from such compositions with such unique property is for use in the dental arts in the treatment of teeth. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Highly cross-linked polymers have been studied widely as matrices for composites, foamed structures, structural adhesives, insulators for electronic packaging, etc. The densely cross-linked structures are the basis of superior mechanical properties such as high modulus, high fracture strength, and solvent resistance. However, these materials are irreversibly damaged by high stresses due to the formation and propagation of cracks. Polymerization stress is originated from polymerization shrinkage in combination with the limited chain mobility. Which eventually leads to contraction stress concentration and gradually such a trapped stress would released and caused microscopically the damage in certain weak zone like interfacial areas. Macroscopically it was reflected as debonding, cracking, et al. Similarly, The origin of contraction stress in current adhesive restorations is also attributed to the restrained shrinkage while a resin composite is curing, which is also highly dependent on the configuration of the restoration. Furthermore, non-homogeneous deformations during functional loading can damage the interface as well as the coherence of the material. Various approaches have been exploring by limiting the overall stress generation either from the restorative materials, or by minimizing a direct stress concentration at the restored interface. It included, for example, new resin, new resin chemistry, new filler, new curing process, new bonding agent, and even new procedure. There have been tremendous attention paid on new resin matrix development that could offer low polymerization shrinkage and shrinkage stress. For example, various structure and geometry derivatives of (meth)acrylate-based resin systems; non-(meth)acrylates resin systems, non-radical-based resin system. In addition, for light curable, low shrink dental composites, not only new resin systems and new photoinitiators, new filler and filter's surface modification have also been extensively explored, such as filler with various particle size and size distribution, from nanometer to micrometer, different shape, irregular as milled or spherical as-made. It can also be different in composition like inorganic, organic, hybrid. Although an incremental improvement has been achieved with each approach and/or their mutual contribution, polymerization stress is still the biggest challenge in cured network systems. According to one aspect of the invention, a new kind of resin composition is provided. However, unlike conventional resin system, a new concept is involved in designing such a new resin composition, which would render the polymerization stress in post-gel stage to a subsequent, selective network cleavage in order to have the stress partially released. As mentioned above, all of previous arts towards low shrink and low stress are based on the limitation on the shrink and stress formation in general. However, the shrinkage and stress development in cured network system should have two different stages: a pre-gel phase and a post-gel phase. Actually, most efforts of current arts are focussed on the pre-gel stage and some of them were proved to be effective. Unfortunately, these approaches become ineffective in terms to control the stress development in post-gel stage, where the shrinkage is not as much as in the pre-gel stage but the stress turns to much more sensitive to any polymerization extend. It is the immobility nature of the increasing cross-link density within the curing system that leads to the increasing stress concentration within the curing system, period. Even worse, the problem does not stop here and the trapped stress would eventually get relief from slow relaxation, which can create additional damage on a restored system. Therefore, our approach is based on such a concept that in the post-gel stage if some of “closed net” of any cross-linked system can be selectively broken to promote an extended stress relief period, the total stress concentration would be substantially reduced. To fulfil such a task, a photopolymerizable and photocleavable resin is proposed and a general molecular constitution is designed. It was expected that such a resin monomer can be polymerized like any other resin monomer but its mainframe is able to be triggered to break upon additional light source such as near UV is blended. This is a typical photocleavable process, but it is its capability to be photopolymerized and embedded into a cross-linked system make it unique. In addition, it also makes possible to avoid regenerating any leachable species through such secondary breakage. Photocleavage is nothing new in solid synthesis of peptides, from which new peptides was directed on certain template in designed sequence, then it was cleaved from its template via a subsequent light exposure. There is no chemical contamination with such a process. On the other hand, photoacid and photobase could be viewed as extended applications for photocleavage. Acidic or basic component is temporally latent to avoid any unwanted interaction with others in the system and they can be released on demand such as light exposure to trigger the regeneration of the acid or base, which then act as normal acidic or basic catalyst for next step reactions. Recently, thermally removable or photo-chemically reversible materials are developed in order to make polymer or polymeric network depolymerizable or degradable for applications such as easily removing of fill-in polymer in MEMS, thermally labile adhesives, thermaspray coatings and removable encapsulation et al. Most recently, photocleavable dentrimers are explored in order to improve the efficiency for drug delivery. Based on our knowledge, there is no prior art involved photocleavable segment in cured network for contract stress control. However, all of those related arts could be used as a practical base to justify this investigation. Dental composite is formulated by using organic or hybrid resin matrix, inorganic or hybrid fillers, and some other ingredients such as initiator, stabilizer, pigments et al so as to provide with the necessary esthetic, physical and mechanical property for tooth restoration. It is well known that polymerization shrinkage from cured dental composite is one of dental clinicians' main concerns when placing direct, posterior, resin-based composite restorations. Although there are evolving improvements associated with resin-based composite materials, dental adhesives, filling techniques and light curing have improved their predictability, the shrinkage problems remain. In fact, it is the stress associated to polymerization shrinkage that threaten marginal integrity and lead to marginal gap formation and microleakage, which may contribute to marginal staining, post-operative sensitivity, secondary caries, and pulpal pathology. A common approach to redue the polymerization shrinkage of dental composite is to increase the filler loading, especially for posterior restoration. However, the higher viscosity of these highly filled composites may not adapt as well to cavity preparations. 1-2 It has been demonstrated that to initially place a flowable composites which, with less filler content, have greater flexibility, could reduce microleakage than direct application of microhybrid and packable composite restorations, 3-4 but this benefit may be offset by the increasing polymerization shrinkage for the flowable composite itself. 5 Therefore, it is also highly desirable to develop low shrinkage, especially low curing stress flowable composite, in order to really reduce microleakage as mentioned above. The challenge in developing any dental composite is to balance the overall performance, including esthetic appearance, handling character as well, in addition to low curing stress and necessary mechanical strength. Unfortunately, superior mechanical strength usually is a result of increasing cross-linking density, from which an unwanted polymerization shrinkage and shrinkage stress always accompanied. There is increasing effort to develop new resin systems in the attempt to minimize such a shrinkage and stress accordingly. For example, reducing the polymerizable proups in the resin matrix by designing resin monomer with different size and shape indeed work well to some extent in this regard. However, it is usually resulted in decreasing mechanical strength and losing certain handling characteristic because of the limited molecular chain mobility and the limited polymerization conversion. In addition the shrinkage can also be reduced by using special filters which allow an increase in filler loading without compromising too much in handling property. Even so, the curing stress from most of flowable composites remains substantially high. Obviously, it is highly desirable to develop flowable dental composition with low curing stress. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Theoretically speaking, if any kind of environmentally sensitive moiety, such as a thermally cleavable or photo-labile linkage were incorporated into polymerizable resin monomers, such resin or its resulting polymeric material would become command-responsive, more specifically such a resin would be responsive to being thermo-cleavable or photo-cleavable upon exposure to thermal energy or light energy. The chemistry of some classical photo-initiators could be adopted as the base for designing such photopolymerizable and photocleavable resin monomers. However, none of them were really incorporated into polymer chain or polymeric network to make the polymeric chain or network breakable one way or another. It is the another objective of this investigation to develop a new resin system for next generation low shrink and low stress restorative materials by incorporating a photocleavable or thermally liable moiety as part of a photopolymerizable resin monomer. It was expected that such an unusual approach would enable a polymerized network to be selectively cleaved, thus dispersing the stress from postpolymerization and furthermore to result in a self stress-relief, ultimately to minimize the overall stress concentration. In order to make a polymerized network cleavable-on-command by light or photocleavable, a light responsive moiety should be stable towards standard light exposure process such as visible light curing until additional exposure to specific light with distinguished energy level. In particular, such energy source can be anything other than the standard visible blue light. Near UV light would be one of typical examples among the many possible choices. Furthermore, it was expected that compounds derivated from ortho-nitrobenzyl segment or from .alpha.-hydroxyalkylphenone should be ideal candidates for this new class resin monomers that be photopolymerized by visible light and be triggered to be breakable by extra UV light if needed. Its feasibility of this approach allows a rapid exploration on its versatility for a new class of resin. Accordingly, a variety of such polymerizable and photocleavable resin monomers were successfully prepared with wide range of viscosity as illustrated in Scheme II. Furthermore, such new resin monomer was formulated with other conventional resin monomers like BisGMA, TEGDMA, UDMA or experimental resin monomer like macrocyclic resin in a variety ratio in order to have overall performance got balanced for the resulting composites. As showed in the following examples, remarkable low shrinkage, low stress and excellent mechanical property plus the good handling characteristics were demonstrated by those composites based on such new class P&P resin monomers. TABLE I Polymerization Shrinkage and Stress for Various Activated Resin Mix Shrinkage (%) by Helium Stress (MPa) Pycnometer by Tensometer Denfortex Resin 10.2 4.1 TPH Resin/999446 6.8 4.5 TPH Resin/999447 7.3 4.3 Harpoon Resin/xj5-12 5.5 3.1 Harpoon Resin/xj5-26 5.8 3.2 LB5-158-1 5.2 1.4 LB5-158-2 5.7 2.0 LB5-167-2 6.5 1.9 LB5-167-3 6.2 1.5 LB5-167-4 6.9 1.5 TABLE II Polymerization Shrinkage, Stress and Microstrain for Vaarious Composites Shrinkage (%) by Helium Microstrain (ue) Stress (MPa) Pycnometer by Strain Gage by Tensometer TPH/A2 3.10 1600 2.9 EsthetX/A2 2.92 1995 2.5 SureFil/A 2.09 1840 2.7 Supreme/A2B 2.65 1720 N/A Supreme/YT 2.39 2005 N/A Harpoon/A2 1.34 1000 1.7 Harpoon/A3.5 1.70 N/A 1.8 Harpoon/B1 1.31 N/A 1.5 Harpoon/B2 1.61 N/A 1.9 Harpoon/CE 1.70 N/A 1.9 LB5-156 0.87 N/A 1.5 LB5-153 0.93 N/A 1.4 LB5-160 0.36 N/A 1.4 According to the present invention there is provided a composition of matter that can be polymerized via an energy source, containing portions within the new composition of matter that are reactive to a second energy source. The invention also provides a composition of matter that can be polymerized via an energy source, containing portions within the new composition of matter that are reactive to a second energy source and that upon activation of the second source of energy, de-polymerize and/or degrade. A composition of matter is also provided that can be polymerized via a first energy source, containing portions within the new composition of matter that are reactive to a second energy source and that upon activation of the second source of energy, de-polymerize and/or degrade without substantially effecting the structural properties of the material polymerized by the first energy source. A further composition of matter is provided that can be polymerized via a first energy source, containing portions within the new composition of matter that are reactive to a second energy source and that upon activation of the second source of energy, de-polymerize and/or degrade to elevate stress created during the polymerization of the composition of matter created via the first energy source without substantially effecting the structural properties of the material polymerized by the first energy source. According to another aspect of the invention, a composition of matter is provided that comprises monomers, prepolymers and/or polymers that can be polymerized via an energy source (thermal, photochemical, chemical, ultrasonic, microwave, etc.), containing portions within the new composition of matter that are reactive to a second energy source (thermal, photochemical, chemical, ultrasonic, microwave, etc.). Thus, certain limitations of the heretofore known art have been overcome. Polymer networks with cross-linking are desired for strength properties, but lead to higher degree of shrinkage and stress. This invention allows formation of cross-linking, while at the same time, providing a mechanism (the second form of energy application) that relieves the stress created while maintaining the structural integrity of the polymer network created. Relief of stress during polymerization has been desired and typically approached through attempt to relieve the stress during the “pre-gel” state of polymerization, prior to the “post-gel” state, wherein the polymer network has now been established, cross-linked set up and, due to the more rigid state, stress is created. The invention substantially eliminates the stress during this “post-gel” state. There are prior known systems for materials that are reversible—that is, once polymerized, some form of post-polymerization energy is applied to fully decompose or degrade the polymer network to a state that renders the material unusable. In the present invention, there is provided only partially, in a controllable manner, degrading or decomposing a portion of the polymer network and maintaining the integrity of the polymer network. As discussed above, according to one embodiment of the present invention, a photopolymerizable and photocleavable resin monomer (hereinafter referred to as the “P&P” resin) offers unique combination of low curing stress and good mechanical strength. The inventive P&P resin features by incorporating a photoresponsive moiety within the resin monomer and is a (meth)acrylate based resin and capable of being polymerized as any other conventional (meth)acrylate monomers. However, the presence of such a photoresponsive moiety enables P&P resin to polymerize in a way different from those conventional (meth)acrylate monomers. More specifically P&P resin polymerize with a unique curing kinetic, which allow stress relief through the relatively slow curing process without compromising the overall mechanical strength. Consequently substantially low polymerization shrinkage stress results from P&P resin and P&P resin based composite, as compared to those conventional resin like BisGMA/TEGDMA or EBPADMA, and other conventional composites. Typical posterior composites based on the inventive P&P resin and loaded 80-82% (wt/wt) of inorganic fillers offer shrinkage stress of 1.3-1.7 Mpa. They can also demonstrate good mechanical strength. The present invention is extended application of P&P resin. It was unexpectedly discovered that an exceptionally low curing stress remained even with lowering filler loading, which paved a way to low stress flowable composite. The filler level varies from 1% to 70%, wt/wt, preferably, 10-60%, wt/wt, and more preferable 50-60%, wt/wt. The conventional resin monomers can also be incorporated by up to 40-50%, wt/wt with P&P resin, depending upon the nature of such conventional resin monomer and the end use. The filler composition can be adjusted as well. As shown in Table I through II, an exceptionally low shrinkage stress was revealed from these new flowable compositions. Similar flowable pastes were also formulated by using TPH resin (999446 and available from DENTSPLY International) with the same filler loading and composition as a control. As expected a much higher shrinkage stress resulted, 3.6 MPa vs. 0.9-1.3 MPa. A comparison between the typical experimental flowable composites (LB6-109, 110, 111 and XJ5-196) and some of commercially available flowable materials, such as Dyractflow (DENTSPLY International), AdmiraFlow (VOCO, Germany), Flow It (Jeneric/Pentron, Inc.), EsthetXflow (DENTSPLY International), Revolution (KERR CORPORATION), and Tetric Flow (IVOCLAR VIVADENT, INC.) was performed. There is up to 60-80% (percent) stress reduction achieved by the experimental flowable composite as compared with EstheXflow and Dyractflow. In addition, the new flowable material still offers moderate mechanical strength, which is comparable to most flowable products. It is expected that the mechanical strength can be further improved by refining the filler compositions. The low stress nature demonstrated by P&P resin and its composites is attributed to the unique curing kinetic as discussed above. PDC study further confirmed this unique, moderately slow polymerization rate as compared to TPH resin or its composite. TetricFlow also demonstrated a slow polymerization rate (under same curing condition) due to the presence of a stable radical compound. TetricFlow has a relatively lower stress than other commercially available flowable materials (3.3-4.6 MPa), but it still generates a much higher shrinkage stress (2.4-3.2 MPa) than the experimental flowable composites based on P&P resin (1.0-1.4 MPa). The present invention provides flowable composites with an exceptionally low polymerization stress of 0.9-1.3 MPa, which is about 60-70% less than that of typical EsthetXflow (3.4 MPa) or Dyractflow (4.6 MPa). More importantly, the new flowable material can still offer moderate mechanical property. This unique property combination regarding low curing stress and handling character enable to be used as dental restoratives like liners, sealants, et al and other application field where curing stress and flowability is critically concerned. TABLE I General Physical Property for Activated Neat P&P Resin Systems 100% P&P Resin 100% P&P Resin 100% TPH Resin (LB6-71) (EBR6983) 100% TPH Resin (999452) (w/TEGDMA) (w/TEGDMA) (999446) 0.15% CQ 0.15% CQ 0.15% CQ 0.165% CQ 0.20% EDAB 0.20% EDAB 0.20% EDAB 0.30% EDAB 0.02% BHT 0.02% BHT 0.02% BHT 0.025% BHT Lot # LB5-187-1 LB6-106-1 LB6-114 030804 Viscosity at 20° C., 150 500 1020 150 poise Uncured density, 1.1206 1.1129 1.1162 1.1210 g/cm 3 Cured density, 1.2077 1.1888 1.1867 1.2099 g/cm 3 Shrinkage @ 7.2 6.4 5.9 7.4 24 hrs., % Stress @ 60 min., 4.5 1.8 1.4 4.7 MPa ΔH 1 in N2 @ 110 mode 1 t o , seconds 15 t max , seconds 31 ΔH 1 in N2 @ 138 120 107 133 mode 2 t o , seconds 13 17 17 10 t max , seconds 31 35 36 29 TABLE II Properties of New P&P Resin-Based Flowable Composites Pastes LB6-110 XJ5-196 LB6-116 XJ5-190 Resin Composition LB6-106-1 LB6-106-1 LB6-114 TPH Resin (40%) (40%) (40%) (40%) Filler Composition LB6-91-3 LB6-91-3 LB6-91-3 LB6-91-3 (60%) (60%) (60%) (60%) Viscosity at 20° C., 8000 4300 9300 2000 poise PZN Enthalpy ΔH (Vis/UV) (Vis/UV) (Vis/UV) (Vis/UV) (J/g) by PDC in N2 46/ 48/ 45/51 54/ Induction Time Δt ini 17/ 14/ 14/13 11/ (seconds) by PDC N2 Peak Time Δt max 34/ 32/ 31/29 22/ (seconds) by PDC in N2 Uncured density 1.7201 1.7179 1.7228 1.7294 (g/cm3) Cured density 1.7875 1.7829 1.7860 1.8049 (g/cm3) Shrinkage (%) by 3.8 3.6 3.5 4.2 pycnometer @ 20 hrs later Shrinkage Stress 1.1 0.9 0.9 3.6 (MPa) by tensometer Flexural Strength 101 +/− 5  109 +/− 6  109 +/− 5  111 +/− 9  (MPa) Modulus (MPa) 4000 +/− 130 4700 +/− 190 4600 +/− 110 5250 +/− 200 Compressive Strength 286 +/− 8  277 +/− 13 283 +/− 3  383 +/− 11 (MPa) Modulus (MPa) 5000 +/− 150 4900 +/− 450 5260 +/− 330 4500 +/− 250 Thus, it should be evident that the invention as disclosed herein carries out one or more of the objects of the present invention set forth above and otherwise constitutes an advantageous contribution to the art. As will be apparent to persons skilled in the art, modifications can be made to the preferred embodiments disclosed herein without departing from the spirit of the invention, the scope of the invention herein being limited solely by the scope of the attached claims.

A photopolymerizable and photocleavable (P&P) resin monomer is derived from a reactive photoresponsible moiety via various linkages to form photopolymerizable monomers and/or oligomers.

TECHNICAL FIELD [0001] This invention relates to the new use of Phencynonate Hydrochloride in the manufacture of medicament for treating or alleviating Parkinson's disease or Parkinson's syndrome. BACKGROUND ART [0002] The structure of Phencynonate Hydrochloride, 2-phenyl-2-cyclopentyl-2-hydroxyacetic acid-3-methyl-3-azabicyclo(3, 3, 1) nonane-9 a-ester hydrochloride as the systematic name, is as follows: [0003] Chinese Patent applications No. 97125424.9 and No. 9311949491.1 disclosed the preparation method and its use as anti-motion sickness (such as car sickness, seasickness and airsickness, etc.). [0004] Parkinson's disease is most commonly seen among elders, and the pathogenesis of this disease is still not clear. But evidences showed that degeneration of dopamine neuron in the patients' substantia nigra and striatum may result in hypofunction of dopamine system of the brain, as well as hyperfunction of cholinergic systern. Parkinson's disease is characterized by a series of symptoms of disturbance of extrapyramidal system, such as tremor, rigidity, akinesia, loss of postural reflex and the like. Once one catches the disease, he or she will suffer from its lifelong. Anticholinergic agents have been used for treating Parkinson's disease for 100 years. It was the only drug for Parkinson's disease treatment before 1970s. Presently, Benzhexol, Benzyltropine, Kemadrin, etc are commonly used anticholinergic agents in clinical practice in treating Parkinson's disease. They can effectively control the mild to moderate level symptoms during the early stage of Parkinson's disease. Though they are not stronger in potency than dopamine-agonists developed later, they do posses the advantages of less side effects in long term administration and good tolerance by patients. In recent years, more and more neurologists take central anticholinergics as their first choice on Parkinson's disease treatment during the early period, thus they can put off the prescription of dopamines, reduce the dosage of dopamines, consequently the intolerable side-effects of long term administration of dopamines are greatly alleviated and postponed. Parkinson's syndrome is resulted from hypofuntion of dopamine system and hyperfunction of cholinergic system in the brain, which are frequently caused by pharmaceutical, environmental factors or other nervous system diseases. It is also characterized by a series of signs of disturbance of extrapyramidal system as Parkinson's disease. If the cause is eliminated, then the disease can be cured. Tranquilizers administered by schizophrenia patients such as Phenothiazines (eg. Chlorpromazine), Thioxanthenes (eg. Chlorpyrifos) or Butyrophenones (eg. Haloperidol) which posses anti-dopamine action are the most important drugs among them. [0005] Through competitive binding to DA-receptors in the striatum, these drugs can exert their therapeutic effects on patients with schizophrenia. However, at the same time, these drugs inevitably result in hyperfunction of cholinergic system and finally lead to a series of symptoms of disturbance of extrapyramidal system. It is much alike the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. In order to preserve these drugs' therapeutic effects and control their side effects at the same time, the only choice is to further administer CNS anticholinergic agents. These drugs are equal to those treating Parkinson's disease, such as Benzhexol, Benzyltropine and Kemadrin. When side effects of disturbance of extrapyramidal system due to administration of tranquilizers occur, combination with these drugs can control said side effects. OBJECT OF INVENTION [0006] One object of this invention is to provide a medicament for treating or alleviating Parkinson's disease. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION [0007] The inventors found that Phencynonate Hydrochloride can effectively alleviate the signs of Parkinson's disease or Parkinson's syndrome. It has lower ED 50 than known drugs that have been used in treating Parkinson's disease. [0008] Therefore, this invention relates to the new use of Phencynonate Hydrochloride in the manufacture of medicament for treating or alleviating Parkinson's disease or Parkinson's syndrome. [0009] This invention is also directed to a method of treating or alleviating Parkinson's disease or Parkinson's syndrome comprising administering effective amount of Phencynonate Hydrochloride to patient in need. [0010] This invention also involves a pharmaceutical composition for treating or alleviating Parkinson's disease or Parkinson's syndrome comprising Phencynonate Hydrochloride and pharmaceutical vehicle and excipient. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0011] The following examples were intended to illustrate the invention in detail without limiting the scope of the present invention in any way. EXAMPLE 1 Antagonistic Action of Phencynonate Hydrochloride on Mice Rigor Model Induced by Haloperidol. [0012] Haloperidol is a drug useful for schizophrenia treatment by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain, meanwhile, it can also cause disturbance of extrapyramidal system. This model is one of the accepted animal moedels for studies of Parkinson's disease and Parkinson's syndrome in the art. [0013] Two hundred male mice, weighed 20-26 g, were used One hundred and twenty minutes after i.p. injection of haloperidol (5 mg/ml, diluted to 3.0 mg/kg/10 ml with 0.9% NaCl, available from HAI PU Pharmaceutical company, Shanghai), the forelimbs of a mouse was put on a stick of 0.9 cm in diameter, 100 cm in length and 3 cm in height. The researcher begin to time when the mouse lied in rigidity on the stick, and when both of the forelimbs of the mouse left the stick or the hindlimbs moved onto the stick, it was considered disappearance of rigidity and stopped timing. Thus the duration was considered as time of rigidity. Mice in the treatment group were administered Phencynonate Hydrochloride (5 dose levels: 1.0, 5.0, 10.0, 15.0 and 20.0 mg/kg/10 ml) intragastrically or positive control drug immediately after the administration of haloperidol. [0014] Benzhexol (3 dose levels: 10.0, 20.0 and 30.0 mg/kg/10 ml) was administered intragastrically. As stated above, the forelimbs of the mouse were put on sticks, the time of rigidity is determined. Taking the average rigidity time of haloperidol model group as 100%, calculated the percentages of rigidity time of the two drugs at different dosage levels, as well as the dosage of the two drugs were calculated when rigidity time was shortened by 50%, i.e. ED 50 values (See Table 1). [0015] From table 1, it can be seen that Phencynonate Hydrochloride has significant antagonistic action on this model, its ED 50 value is much lower than that of Benzhexol. Statistical analysis showed that the difference was significant (P<0.01). TABLE 1 Phencynonate Hydrochloride's Antagonistic Action on Rigidity Model of Mouse Induced By Haloperidol Dose Number Rigidity ED 50 + L 95 (mg/kg, oral) of Animal Incidence(%) (mg/kg, oral) Model of Control 20 100 Haloperidol Phencynonate 1.0 21 100 11.29 ± 1.75* Hydrochloride 5.0 10 65.06 10.0 19 54.16 15.0 8 30.97 20.0 18 28.29 Benzhexol 10.0 19 94.03 19.56 ± 1.44  20.0 22 47.96 30.0 22 16.05 Example 2 Antagonistic Action of Phencynonate Hydrochloride on Tremor Model of Mice Induced by Agonist of Cholinergic M-Receptor: Arecaline. [0016] Tremor, as one of the main signs of Parkinson's disease and Parkinson's syndrome, may be induced by agonists of cholinergic M-receptor. It is also a recognized model of Parkinson's disease/Parkinson's syndrome in the art. 190 male mice, weighed 18-26 g, were injected with arecaline subcutaneously in dorsal area (Sigma, 8.0 mg/kg/10 ml). Count the number of mice developing tremor within 10 minutes after injection. Mice in the treatment group were given Phencynonate Hydrochloride (1.0, 1.8, 2.4, 3.0 mg/kg/10 ml) intragastrically or benzhexol (Sigma, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0, 12.5 mg/kg/10 ml) intragastrically as positive control 45 minutes before administration of arecaline. Similarly, the number of mice developing tremor were counted Within 10 minutes after administration of arecaline, and the dose that decreased the incidence of tremor by 50%, i.e. ED 50 value was calcalated (See Table 2). TABLE 2 Antagonistic Action of Phencynonate Hydrochloride on Quiver Model of Mouse Induced by Arecaline Non-quiver Dose number/Total ED 50 + L 95 (mg/kg, oral) number (mg/kg, oral) Arecaline Control 0/10 Phencynonate 1.0 3/20 2.05 ± 0.31* Hydrochloride 1.8 6/20 2.4 13/20  3.0 16/20  Benzhexol 2.5 0/20 8.82 ± 0.83  5.0 1/20 7.5 4/20 10.0 13/20  12.5 14/20  [0017] From table 2, it can be seen that Phencynonate Hydrochloride bad significant antagonistic action on this tremor model of mouse, its ED 50 value is much lower than that of benzhexol, statistical analysis showed significant difference, P<0.01. [0018] The above two mice models proved that this invention had obvious effects of anti-Parkinson's disease and Parkinson's syndrome.

This invention relates to the new use of Phencynonate Hydrochloride in pharmaceutical field, especially its use for treating or alleviating Parkinson's disease or Parkinson's syndrome.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The invention relates to the cooling of multiple, separated components of an electronic device. More particularly, the invention provides an integrated thermal system capable of cooling multiple, separated components simultaneously. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] The problem of cooling multiple, separated components on a motherboard of an electronic device (e.g. a desktop workstation server—a tower system) has heretofore been solved using multiple, separated cooling components, e.g. heat sinks, fan sinks, etc. Dedicated air moving devices and/or multiple heat sinks are typically used to cool multiple, separated heat generating components of the motherboard, such as voltage regulation components, memory controller hubs, and the central processing unit (CPU). Thus, a combination of thermal solutions are employed to provide cooling to multiple components, each of the components having at least one dedicated cooling component (e.g. heat sink and/or fan) providing at least one thermal solution (e.g. conductive cooling, airflow). Thus, the cooling of multiple, separated components currently involves a high cost, as each heat generating component requires a dedicated cooling solution. [0003] Accordingly, a need has arisen to provide for cooling of multiple, separated components in a more efficient and cost effective manner. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0004] At least one presently preferred embodiment of the invention broadly contemplates an integrated thermal system that is capable of simultaneously cooling multiple, separated heat generating components of an electronic device. According to at least one embodiment, the integrated thermal system takes the form of a CPU heat sink designed to intelligently maximize available airflow, utilizing multidirectional airflow to simultaneously cool a plurality of heat generating components on the motherboard. The heat sink is designed such that it captures additional airflow provided by a single fan and directs the additional airflow to nearby/adjacent components, thus cooling these components. The additional airflow may be taken from a lower portion of the fan because use of this airflow is not maximized in conventional heat sink arrangements. The invention thus provides an integrated cooling solution and removes the need for multiple cooling systems/solutions (e.g. no need for multiple fans). [0005] In summary, an aspect of the present invention provides an apparatus comprising: at least one central processing unit; and an integrated thermal device operatively coupled to the at least one central processing unit and configured to channel airflow from an airflow source to a plurality of separate heat generating components. [0006] Another aspect of the present invention provides an apparatus comprising: a heat sink base disposed on a heat generating component; at least one deflector; and a heat sink component; wherein the heat sink component, the heat sink base and the at least one deflector form at least one airflow channel configured to channel airflow to at least one other heat generating component. [0007] A further aspect of the present invention provides an apparatus comprising: at least one processor; and a heat sink base of a first heat generating component, the heat sink base having at least one airflow channel therein; and a fan arrangement operatively couple to said at least one processor and configured to provide airflow to the at least one airflow channel; wherein the at least one airflow channel is configured to provide airflow for at least one other heat generating component. [0008] For a better understanding of the present invention, together with other and further features and advantages thereof, reference is made to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, and the scope of the invention will be pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0009] FIG. 1 shows a block diagram of a computer system. [0010] FIG. 2 illustrates an integrated thermal system according to an embodiment of the invention. [0011] FIG. 3 illustrates an integrated thermal system according to an embodiment of the invention with certain components removed to better view an exemplary airflow. [0012] FIG. 4 illustrates a side view of an integrated thermal system according to one embodiment of the invention with certain components removed to better view an exemplary airflow. [0013] FIG. 5 illustrates an integrated thermal system according to one embodiment of the invention with select components included to better view exemplary airflow. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0014] It will be readily understood that the components of the present invention, as generally described and illustrated in the figures herein, may be arranged and designed in a wide variety of different configurations in addition to the described presently preferred embodiments. Thus, the following more detailed description of the embodiments of the present invention, as represented in the figures, is not intended to limit the scope of the invention, as claimed, but is merely representative of selected presently preferred embodiments of the invention. [0015] Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” (or the like) means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” or the like in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. [0016] Furthermore, the described features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. In the following description, numerous specific details are provided to give a thorough understanding of embodiments of the invention. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize, however, that the invention can be practiced without one or more of the specific details, or with other methods, components, materials, etc. In other instances, well-known structures, materials, or operations are not shown or described in detail to avoid obscuring aspects of the invention. [0017] The illustrated embodiments of the invention will be best understood by reference to the drawings. The following description is intended only by way of example, and simply illustrates certain selected presently preferred embodiments that are consistent with the invention as claimed herein. [0018] The following description begins with a general overview of the instant invention. The description will then turn to a more detailed description of preferred embodiments of the invention with reference to the accompanying drawings. [0019] According to one embodiment of the present invention, an integrated thermal system, which comprises a dedicated heat sink arrangement for cooling the CPU, maximizes the use of extra or additional airflow by using it to cool multiple components. The integrated thermal system enables this extra airflow to be collected and channeled/dispersed to nearby components that require cooling. Airflow is captured from the inefficient portion of the conventional fan/heat sink arrangement (i.e. where the heat pipes are bent and the fins cannot be effectively attached). This airflow is normally wasted because, at best, it provides only minimal cooling to the CPU (i.e. minimal cooling to a heat generating component). Often heat sink arrangements are configured to have thick bases (e.g. aluminum blocks), and the airflow from the bottom of the fan (e.g. bottom 20% of the fan) is blocked off. Thus, only the top 80% or so of the fan is utilized for cooling airflow to the CPU heat sink fins. Alternatively, the fan is positioned higher up and wholly directed through the fins (servicing only one component—e.g. the CPU). The integrated thermal system makes a more beneficial use of airflow for cooling multiple components simultaneously. [0020] Accordingly, the integrated thermal system's heat sink arrangement is designed to redirect or channel the airflow not only through the CPU heat sink fins, but also to cool multiple, separate components on the motherboard, using a single fan. The heat sink base of the integrated thermal system is provided with deflectors. The features used to direct airflow (deflectors) are also heat exchanger features, because they can be coupled to the base to add as surface area of the main heat sink. These deflectors are positioned such that a portion of the airflow form the fan, normally directed to an area of the heat sink where it is difficult to provide fins, is channeled/deflected to the left, the right, and/or the back (opposite the fan) of the heat sink arrangement. The airflow is thus channeled appropriately to cool separate heat generating components, i.e. those located to the left, right, and back side of the motherboard relative to the location of the CPU. [0021] Referring now to the figures, at least one presently preferred embodiment of the present invention will be described. [0022] Referring now to FIG. 1 , there is depicted a block diagram of an illustrative embodiment of a computer system 100 . The illustrative embodiment depicted in FIG. 1 may be a notebook computer system, such as one of the ThinkPad® series of personal computers sold by Lenovo (US) Inc. of Morrisville, N.C. or a workstation computer, such as the Thinkstation®, which is also sold by Lenovo (US) Inc. of Morrisville, N.C. As is apparent from the description, however, the present invention is applicable any data processing system or other electronic device, as described herein. [0023] As shown in FIG. 1 , computer system 100 includes at least one system processor 42 , which is coupled to a Read-Only Memory (ROM) 40 and a system memory 46 by a processor bus 44 . System processor 42 , which may comprise one of the processors produced by Intel Corporation, is a general-purpose processor that executes boot code 41 stored within ROM 40 at power-on and thereafter processes data under the control of operating system and application software stored in system memory 46 . System processor 42 is coupled via processor bus 44 and host bridge 48 to Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) local bus 50 . [0024] PCI local bus 50 supports the attachment of a number of devices, including adapters and bridges. Among these devices is network adapter 66 , which interfaces computer system 100 to LAN 10 , and graphics adapter 68 , which interfaces computer system 100 to display 69 . Communication on PCI local bus 50 is governed by local PCI controller 52 , which is in turn coupled to non-volatile random access memory (NVRAM) 56 via memory bus 54 . Local PCI controller 52 can be coupled to additional buses and devices via a second host bridge 60 . [0025] Computer system 100 further includes Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus 62 , which is coupled to PCI local bus 50 by ISA bridge 64 . Coupled to ISA bus 62 is an input/output (I/O) controller 70 , which controls communication between computer system 100 and attached peripheral devices such as a keyboard, mouse, and a disk drive. In addition, I/O controller 70 supports external communication by computer system 100 via serial and parallel ports (e.g. to a keyboard as herein described, the keyboard being operatively coupled to the components of the system to enable a user to execute the functionality of the system). The USB Bus and USB Controller (not shown) are part of the Local PCI controller ( 52 ). [0026] FIG. 2 shows the integrated thermal system ( 200 ). The integrated thermal system ( 200 ) comprises a heat sink base ( 201 ), a fan ( 202 ) arranged to direct airflow ( 205 ) in the direction of fins ( 203 ) of the heat sink, extending up from the base ( 201 ) to provide cooling for the CPU (not shown) (the CPU being disposed on the motherboard and underneath the integrated thermal system). It should be noted that the arrangement shown in FIG. 1 is a parallel airflow system (airflow ( 205 ) emanating from the fan is parallel to the motherboard) as opposed to an impingement airflow system. A parallel airflow system is presently preferred because typically there is more surface area for cooling, the heat exchanger can be a bit larger and the pressure drop through the fins is a bit less, because the airflow is not impinging right into the motherboard, increasing the static pressure. [0027] The integrated thermal system ( 200 ) is connected to the motherboard via suitable attachments, as by screw(s) ( 204 a , 204 b , 204 c ) as shown in FIG. 2 . The integrated thermal system ( 200 ) airflow ( 205 ) is captured from the inefficient portion. Generally, this is near the heat sink base ( 201 ) in a parallel airflow arrangement (where the heat pipes are bent and fins cannot be effectively attached). In other words, airflow is captured and channeled from a portion of the fan that is not providing maximum cooling to the heat sink arrangement (e.g. the “lower” 20% of the fan as depicted in FIG. 1 ). The heat sink base ( 201 ) can be reduced in thickness, creating additional room for airflow channels (described below). The airflow is thus channeled to areas for more beneficial use, as further described below. [0028] FIG. 3 illustrates a first example of redirected airflow from fan ( 202 ) through the integrated thermal system ( 300 ). In FIG. 2 , the upper portion of the integrated thermal system ( 300 ) has been removed (including the fan ( 202 ), the fins ( 203 ) and the heat pipes), such that an unobstructed view of the airflow through the components of the remaining integrated thermal system ( 300 ) can be had. Illustrated in FIG. 3 is one of the features that is used to redirect some of the additional airflow ( 305 a ) from the lower portion of the fan ( 202 ), redirecting the airflow ( 305 a ) ultimately out to the left side of the heat sink base ( 301 ). This redirected airflow thus becomes a leftward-directed airflow ( 305 b ), channeled to a component (not shown) that rests on motherboard to the left side of the CPU (which is located below the heat sink base ( 301 )). [0029] Thus, a left airflow channel ( 307 ) is formed by a first deflector ( 306 ), bounded at the bottom by the heat sink base ( 301 ) and bounded at the top by a component (e.g. an plate as shown and described below). The first deflector ( 306 ) is suitably shaped to capture airflow ( 305 a ) from a portion of the fan ( 202 ) and direct it to the left of the heat sink base ( 301 ) to a component on the motherboard to the left of the CPU. The first deflector ( 306 ) has two major shape features, a first element ( 308 ) that initially conducts airflow ( 305 a ) slightly to the left of the heat sink base ( 301 ), and a second element ( 309 ) that conducts the airflow more directly out to the left of the heat sink base ( 301 ). The first element ( 308 ) is positioned near the center of the heat sink base ( 301 ) and conducts airflow ( 305 a ) towards the back-left of the heat sink base ( 301 ). The second element ( 309 ), positioned to terminate at the back of the heat sink base ( 301 ) (near screw ( 304 b )), more abruptly redirects airflow ( 305 a ) to produce a leftward airflow ( 305 b ). The first deflector ( 306 ) can be suitably arranged to produce airflow ( 305 b ), however, the first deflector ( 306 ) shown in FIG. 3 , as a non-limiting example, is a single metal piece (comprising both the first and second elements) shaped (e.g. stamped) to conduct the airflow as described. [0030] Thus, the airflow ( 305 a ) becomes leftward-directed airflow ( 305 b ), i.e. an airflow ( 305 b ) provided to a separate component located on the motherboard to the left of the CPU. As can be appreciated, normally the airflow ( 305 a ) would proceed underneath the heat fins ( 203 ) (i.e. out the back of the heat sink) and effect the cooling of the CPU only very minimally. Alternatively, if the heat sink base ( 301 ) were thicker, airflow from the lower portion of the fan may be blocked off entirely. The integrated thermal system thus captures this airflow and makes a more beneficial use of it, i.e. to cool additional heat generating components. [0031] Airflow ( 305 b ) out the left side of the heat sink is used for, but not limited to, cooling the I/O Hub, which requires dedicated airflow in order to meet thermal requirements. Using existing airflow, instead of attaching an additional air-moving device, saves cost and acoustic propagation (i.e. reduces noise). [0032] FIG. 4 is a left-side view of the remaining integrated thermal system ( 400 ), as shown in FIG. 3 ( 300 ), with the first deflector ( 406 ) remaining but with the top components again removed, so that a view of additional airflow ( 405 b ) through the integrated thermal system ( 400 ) may be had. FIG. 4 shows that airflow ( 405 a ) that is not captured by the first deflector ( 406 ) (e.g. airflow from fan ( 202 ) that is to the right side of first element ( 308 )) is deflected down by a second deflector ( 409 ), positioned at the back side of the heat sink ( 401 ). Airflow ( 405 b ) is thus created, directed downward towards the motherboard at the back of the heat sink base ( 401 ), to cool other, separate components. Thus, a back-most airflow channel ( 407 ) is formed from a component (e.g. a plate as shown and described below), the heat sink base ( 401 ), the first ( 406 ) and the second deflectors ( 409 ). Airflow ( 405 b ) out the right side of the heat sink ( 401 ) is used for, but not limited to, cooling of the CPU voltage regulation. [0033] FIG. 5 illustrates the remaining integrated thermal system ( 500 ), as shown in FIG. 3 ( 300 ), with additional components and again with the upper most components removed for an unobstructed view. As described, airflow ( 505 a ) from the fan ( 202 ) that is not captured by the first deflector ( 306 ), may proceed to the back of the heat sink base ( 501 ), i.e. through the back-most airflow channel ( 407 ). A portion of this airflow ( 505 a ) will proceed naturally to the right side of the heat sink base ( 501 ), until encountered by a third deflector ( 510 ), formed from a heat sink component ( 511 ), such as a plate as shown in FIG. 4 . The third deflector ( 510 ) extends downward from the heat sink component ( 511 ) and is positioned to the right side of the heat sink base ( 501 ). Accordingly, airflow ( 505 a ) that is not channeled through the left airflow channel ( 307 ) or the back-most airflow channel ( 407 ) will be deflected by the third deflector ( 510 ) towards the right side of the heat sink base ( 501 ). This airflow ( 505 b ) spills air down to the right side of the heat sink base ( 501 ) for cooling an additional, separate heat-generating component (not shown) on the motherboard. [0034] Thus, the third deflector ( 510 ), the heat sink base ( 501 ) and a portion of the heat sink component ( 511 ) form a right airflow channel ( 507 ), such that airflow is spilled off the right side of the heat sink base ( 501 ) to an additional component. This airflow ( 505 b ) is pushed down towards the motherboard by the third deflector ( 510 ), cooling component(s) positioned on the right side of the heat sink base ( 501 ). [0035] A heat sink component ( 511 ) (e.g. a aluminum plate as depicted in FIG. 5 ) forms the top bound of the airflow channels ( 307 , 407 , 507 ), as heretofore described. The dedicated heat sink component ( 511 ), such as that shown in FIG. 5 , can be used, or alternatively other component(s) could be used, so long as the desired airflow channel(s) result. As described, the heat sink component ( 511 ) provides additional downward direction to airflow ( 505 b ) by providing the third deflector ( 510 ) that forces airflow ( 505 b ) down towards the motherboard as it exits heat sink base ( 501 ). Also shown in heat sink component ( 511 ) are holes ( 513 ) that allow the heat pipes (not shown) to pass through, extending from holes ( 512 ) in heat sink base ( 501 ). Airflow ( 505 b ) out the right side of the heat sink base ( 501 ) is used for, but not limited to, cooling of the CPU voltage regulation arrangement. [0036] In brief recapitulation, an integrated thermal system for an electronic device has been shown and described that provides multidirectional airflow cooling for heat generating components (e.g. I/O components) of electronic devices utilizing a single fan and multiple airflow channels. The integrated thermal system provides additional airflow, taken from the bottom portion of the fan, to various sides (e.g. a left, right and/or back side) of a heat sink (e.g. a main CPU heat sink). The integrated thermal system directs airflow by way of an appropriate amount of deflectors and/or components, strategically placed to capture additional airflow from a cooling fan. The additional airflow, thus captured and channeled, although conventionally wasted (in essence) as it provides only minimal cooling to the CPU (heat generating component) by virtue of its location, is put to maximum use. Accordingly, the integrated thermal system provides a more efficient use of airflow, providing cooling to multiple, separated heat generating components on the motherboard without requiring additional dedicated cooling components/systems. [0037] This disclosure has been presented for purposes of illustration and description but is not intended to be exhaustive or limiting. Many modifications and variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. The embodiments were chosen and described in order to explain principles and practical application, and to enable others of ordinary skill in the art to understand the disclosure for various embodiments with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. [0038] In the drawings and specification there has been set forth a preferred embodiment of the invention and, although specific terms are used, the description thus given uses terminology in a generic and descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation. [0039] If not otherwise stated herein, it is to be assumed that all patents, patent applications, patent publications and other publications (including web-based publications) mentioned and cited herein are hereby fully incorporated by reference herein as if set forth in their entirety.

The invention broadly contemplates an integrated thermal system that is capable of simultaneously cooling multiple, separate heat generating components of an electronic device. The integrated thermal system according to one embodiment of the invention takes the form of a CPU heat sink designed to intelligently maximize available airflow, utilizing multidirectional airflow cooling of a plurality of heat generating components on the motherboard. The heat sink is designed such that airflow provided by a single fan is captured and directed to nearby/adjacent components, thus cooling these components. The invention thus provides an integrated cooling solution and removes the need for multiple cooling systems/solutions.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to personal escaping equipment. More particularly, the invention relates to a personal escaping device for allowing persons to escape skyscrapers in emergency cases. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION As population grows all over the world, land has become more and more expensive, especially when it comes to a land under the jurisdiction of major cities. In order to allow relatively large population to occupy a given area, while maintaining reasonable costs, building tall buildings in general and sky scrappers in particular has become a necessity, and therefore, a common practice. Accordingly, tall buildings, including sky scrapers, are most typical to modern cities all over the world. However, tall buildings pose a special problem, which is related to their being high; i.e., escaping high buildings in; e.g., a case of fire, is problematic. The problem is related to several facts: (1) most aerial ladder trucks have standard collapsible fire ladders, or tower ladders, that are incapable of coping with the loftiness of high buildings. That is, a standard collapsible fire ladder may reach only limited number of floors of a tall building; (2) Even in cities where the fire brigade has very long ladders, it is most likely that the ladder truck would get stuck in a traffic jam, which is most common phenomena in modern cities. Any delay in reaching a building where a long ladder is required, might jeopardize the lives of the building residents; (3) Even if a sufficiently long ladder is brought to the site on time, the ladder could support, at a given time, only a few people because the longer the ladder, the more it tends to swing, thereby risking the lives of the people that it supports; (4) Due to the physical strength that is required when descending a long ladder, it is usually very difficult for fat or sick people to utilize such tall ladders, if at all; (5) The environmental circumstances may be so, that there might be a chance that even though long ladders are available, it would be very difficult, if at all, to handle the turntable mounting of the aerial ladder truck and put the ladder in the right place and/or on time. Currently, there are several solutions for coping with the problem of people being required, or compelled, to timely evacuate tall buildings. U.S. Pat. No. 6,550,576 discloses a rescue system for rescuing occupants from high floors in tall buildings. However, the rescue system of U.S. Pat. No. 6,550,576 has the drawback that each one of the rescued persons would have to use a personal cable cartridge. The problem is that the weight of a replaceable cable cartridge depends on the cable housing and also on the overall length of the cable, which, in some cases, must match the maximum height of the building. Therefore, a heavy replaceable cable cartridge would be rather difficult to handle by; e.g., old, sick and, in general, weak people. U.S. Pat. No. 6,467,575 discloses a rescue system that is based on a spiral-tube. However, the spiral-tube has to be lowered from the roof of a building using crane equipment that is mounted on top of the roof of the building. U.S. Pat. No. 6,467,575 discloses a controlled descent device that is based on rotatable drum that is coupled to a centrifugal brake mechanism. All of the above-mentioned solutions have not provided a satisfactory solution to the problem of ensuring that residents of a tall building are able to timely and conveniently escape the tall building. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide an escape kit for ensuring that residents of a tall building would be able to escape the building timely and independently of external rescue services. It is another object of the present invention to provide an inexpensive escape kit that is very easy to operate by unskilled, or inexperienced, persons. Other objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent as the description proceeds. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a personal escaping device for allowing persons escaping high buildings in emergency cases. The escape device of the present invention comprises a sliding box that is worn by the escaping person and which is combined with an escape cable. The sliding box comprises: a) a supporting structure; b) a driven wheel, supported in said structure, for rotation, the driven wheel being adapted to be in engagement with the escape cable and to be driven thereby into rotation with a rotary speed corresponding to the speed of the motion of the sliding box relative to the escape cable, and therefore corresponding to the speed of descent of the escaping person; c) means for measuring said rotary speed of said driven wheel and, therefore, said speed of descent of the escaping person; and d) Brake means for slowing the rotation of said driven wheel, and therefore the speed of descent of the escaping person, whenever required to maintain said speed of descent within predetermined limits. The sliding box preferably comprises engaging means for maintaining the engagement of the driven wheel with the escape cable. The engaging means are preferably one or more wheels. A harness permitting a person to carry said sliding box is also a part of the escape device of the invention. At least one escape cable is attached to the building from which escape is provided, at or above the level from which the escape of persons may occur. Preferably, a number of escape cables are provided, to permit the concurrent escape of several persons, and each cable is kept in a wound-up condition, preferably in a container fixed to the building, from which condition it may be unwound when desired by an escaping person. For example, each cable may be wound on a wheel, from which it may be unwound by exerting a moderate pull on its free end. The driven wheel is preferably a toothed wheel and the escape cable is preferably formed by elements shaped so as to engage the teeth of said wheel and pivoted to one another or strung on a central cable. The sliding box is preferably provided with a control which receives the measurement of the speed of descent of the escaping person, compares it with a predetermined desired speed, and if it is greater than said desired speed, actuates the aforesaid brake means to reduce it to said desired speed. While said speed of descent is automatically controlled by said control device, emergency brake means are preferably provided, to be actuate by the escaping person, if required. The engaging means are preferably one or more wheels. According to an aspect of the invention, the engaging means is an option. Preferably, the elements of the escape cable are made of fire proof and heat-resisting materials, such as ceramic materials, or metal (e.g., light weight aluminum alloy), or a combination thereof, with or without plastic components. According to an aspect of the invention, some of the elements of the escape cable are anchor elements, each of which is rigidly affixed to the escape cable for preventing excess load on the lower elements, and the spacing between each two anchor elements is predetermined according to preferred distance or preferred number of elements. The most preferred structures of the escape device, and particularly of the sliding box, will now be described. According to a first preferred embodiment of the present invention, the control is implemented by a hydraulic system. According to a first aspect of the first preferred embodiment, the relative motion is controlled by utilizing a counteracting force that is generated for limiting the rotational speed of an oil pump that is mechanically coupled to the driven wheel. Preferably, the hydraulic system comprises: 1) Oil pump—the rotation axis of which is mechanically coupled to the rotation axis of the driven wheel, for transferring rotational motion, caused by the relative motion, from the driven wheel to the oil pump, and for providing a counteracting force, which is generated by the oil pump in response to the rotational motion, to the driven wheel, for regulating the relative motion. The oil pump includes oil inlet and oil outlet. If the oil outlet is blocked, for some reason, the axis of the oil pump immediately slows down to a speed that depends on the mechanical gap(s), which normally exists between the rotating elements inside the oil pump and the housing of these elements, through which there exists some minimum flow of oil; and 2) Hydraulic control unit—the control unit includes: oil inlet that is connected to the oil outlet of the oil pump and to an oil passage inside the control unit; regulating valve, for closing/opening the oil inlet of the hydraulic control unit, for regulating the flow rate of the oil passing through the oil inlet of the control unit, and thereby, the pressure in the oil passage. The regulating valve comprises a piston that is connected to a rod movable through a sealed opening. The piston is movable inside a cylindrical housing, and its position inside the cylindrical housing is determined according to the pressure exerted by a spring on one of its sides, and a pressure exerted on its other side by oil that is contained within the cylinder, through which the piston is movable, and has a free access to the oil passage; valve, for determining the amount and rate of oil that enters the cylindrical housing of the regulating valve; accumulator, which comprises a piston that is connected to a rod movable through a sealed opening. The piston is movable inside a cylindrical oil reservoir, which is connected to the oil passage, and its position in the cylinder is determined according to the pressure exerted by a spring on one of its sides, and a pressure exerted on its other side by the oil contained within the oil reservoir. The rods of the accumulator and regulating valve are mechanically coupled to one another in a way that whenever the rod of the regulating valve moves to close the oil inlet of the control unit, the rod (and therefore the piston) of the accumulator is moved in a way that oil from the cylindrical oil reservoir is pushed, via the oil passage, to fill the additional volume that is created by the movement of the rod of the regulating valve. The oil reservoir allows changes in the oil passage while a relative motion is being regulated; oil outlet that is connected to the oil inlet of the oil pump; and adjustable valve, for allowing changing the flow rate threshold of oil that returns to the oil pump through the oil outlet of the control unit. According to a second aspect of the first preferred embodiment, the relative motion is controlled by utilizing a brake force that is employed directly on the driven wheel by a hydraulic braking piston, and the oil pressure release (i.e., which causes the brake force to decrease) is implemented by utilization of hydraulic needle valve. Preferably, the hydraulic system comprises, according to the second aspect: 1) Oil pump—the rotation axis of which is mechanically coupled to the rotation axis of the driven wheel, for transferring rotational motion caused by the relative motion from the driven wheel to the oil pump. The oil pump includes oil inlet and oil outlet; 2) Hydraulic control unit—the control unit includes: oil inlet that is connected to the oil outlet of the oil pump and to an oil passage inside the hydraulic control unit; and Oil outlet that is connected to the oil inlet of the oil pump and to an oil reservoir inside the hydraulic unit; hydraulic needle valve, for closing/opening the oil passage inside the hydraulic control unit, for regulating the flow rate of the oil passing between the oil inlet and the oil outlet of the control unit, and thereby, the pressure in the oil passage. The hydraulic needle valve comprises a piston that is connected to a needle-like rod that is movable through a sealed opening. The piston is movable inside a cylindrical housing of the hydraulic needle valve, and its position inside the cylindrical housing is determined according to the pressure exerted by a spring on one of its sides, and a pressure exerted on its other side by oil that is contained within the cylinder, through which the piston is movable, and has a free access to the oil passage; Braking cylinder, which comprises a piston that is connected to a rod movable through a sealed opening. The position of the piston is determined according to a first force exerted on one side of the piston by a spring, and a second force that counteracts the first force and is exerted on the other side of the piston by the oil pressure existing in the oil passage. One end of the movable rod is connected to the piston, and the other end of the rod is connected to a rubbing strip. The piston of the braking cylinder is pushed outwards (i.e., with respect to the hydraulic control unit) whenever the pressure in the oil passage increases as a result of an increase in the relative motion, thereby pushing said rubbing strip against the driven wheel, for providing counteracting, or braking, force that will limit the increase in the relative motion. The pressure increase in the oil passage pushes outwards also the piston of the hydraulic needle valve, thereby causing the oil passage between the oil inlet and oil outlet to open, for allowing reducing the relatively high pressure in the oil passage, after which the braking force, which is employed on the driven wheel by the rubbing strip, is reduced, or weakened; and Accumulator, which comprises a piston that is connected to a rod movable through a sealed opening. The piston is movable inside a cylindrical oil reservoir, which is connected to the oil outlet end of the hydraulic control unit, and its position in the cylinder is determined according to the pressure exerted by a spring on one of its sides, and a pressure exerted on its other side by the oil contained within the oil reservoir. According to a second preferred embodiment of the present invention, the control is implemented by an electrical system, in which the relative motion is regulated by a counteracting force that is generated by use of electrical motor. Preferably, the electrical system comprises: 1) Speed sensor, for monitoring the rotational speed of the driven wheel, and thereby, the descend speed. The speed sensor is capable of generating an electrical signal that represents the rotational speed (i.e., rpm) of the driven wheel; 2) Electric motor, on the rotation axis of which is coupled the driven wheel, and in which a first magnetic field is induced by the rotation of the driven wheel. The aforesaid rotation and induced current represent the descend speed; 3) Electronic control unit, for accepting the electrical signals and outputting a corresponding electrical signal to the electric motor in a way that the latter corresponding signal generates in the electric motor a second magnetic field that essentially counteracts the first magnetic field, thereby providing the required counteracting force; and 4) Battery pack, for powering the speed sensor, electric control unit, and for providing the electrical signal required for generation of the second magnetic field. According to a third preferred embodiment of the present invention, the counteracting force generating system is an electromechanical system, in which the relative motion is controlled by utilizing a brake force that is employed directly on the driven wheel by a hydraulic braking piston, and the oil pressure release (i.e., which causes the brake force to decrease), is implemented by utilization of electro-mechanical needle valve. Preferably, the electromechanical brake system comprises: 1) Speed sensor, for monitoring the rotational speed of the driven wheel, and thereby, the descend speed. The speed sensor is capable of generating a electrical signal that represents the rotational speed (i.e., rpm) of the driven wheel; 2) Oil pump—the rotation axis of which is mechanically coupled to the rotation axis of the driven wheel, for transferring rotational motion caused by the relative motion from the driven wheel to the oil pump. The oil pump includes oil inlet and oil outlet; 3) Hydraulic control unit—the hydraulic control unit includes: oil inlet that is connected to the oil outlet of the oil pump and to an oil passage inside the hydraulic control unit; Oil outlet that is connected to the oil inlet of the oil pump and to an oil reservoir inside the hydraulic unit; Electro-mechanical needle valve, for closing/opening the oil passage inside the hydraulic control unit, for regulating the flow rate of the oil passing between the oil inlet and the oil outlet of the hydraulic control unit, and thereby, the pressure in the oil passage. The electromechanical needle valve comprises an electrical portion capable of translating electric signals into physical positioning of a needle-like rod that is movable through a sealed opening; Braking cylinder, which comprises a piston that is connected to a rod movable through a sealed opening. The position of the piston is determined according to a first force exerted on one side of the piston by a spring, and a second force that (opposes the first force and) is exerted on the other side of the piston by the oil pressure existing in the oil passage. One end of the movable rod is connected to the piston, and the other end of the rod is connected to a rubbing strip. The piston of the braking cylinder is pushed outwards (i.e., with respect to the hydraulic control unit) whenever the pressure in the oil passage increases as a result of an increase in the relative motion, for providing counteracting force that will limit the increase in the relative motion. Whenever required, the passage between the oil inlet and oil outlet is opened, by retracting the electromechanical needle valve, for allowing reducing relatively high pressure in the oil passage, after which the braking force, which is employed on the driven wheel by the rubbing strip, will ease, or cease; Accumulator, which comprises a piston that is connected to a rod movable through a sealed opening. The piston is movable inside a cylindrical oil reservoir, which is connected to the oil outlet end of the hydraulic control unit, and its position in the cylinder is determined according to the pressure exerted by a spring on one of its sides, and a pressure exerted on its other side by the oil contained within the oil reservoir. The oil reservoir allows changes in the oil passage while a relative motion is being regulated; 4) Electronic control unit, for accepting the electrical signals and outputting a corresponding signal to the electromechanical needle valve, for regulating the braking force employed on the driven wheel; and 5) Battery pack, for powering the speed sensor, electronic control unit and the electromechanical needle valve. According to an aspect of the present invention, the rubbing strip is further connected to a mechanical emergency braking arrangement, which comprises a screw-like rod, handle, nut, bearing, lever, pivot and mechanical arrangement that keeps the screw-like rod in a fixed longitudinal position with respect to the sliding box. Screw-like rod is screwable through the nut, to which a bearing is mechanically affixed. The screw-like rod is intended to be rotated by a person utilizing the sliding box for descending, by operating the handle. When the screw-like rod is rotated in the corresponding direction, nut, and therefore bearing that is affixed thereto, advance, along the screw-like rod, such that the bearing slides on the lever. Since the right end of the lever (i.e., according to this example) is rotatable around the fixed pivot, the movement of the bearing to the left-hand side direction causes the rubbing strip, which is affixed to the distal end of the lever, to push one side of the driven wheel, and, thereby, to provide a brake force for slowing the driven wheel, or, if so required, for slowing the driven wheel until the driven wheel, and therefore, the sliding box, is completely stopped. Optionally, moving bearing to the extreme left-hand side of lever results in sustaining some predetermined minimal down-motion of the sliding box with respect to the escape cable. According to another preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is provided means for connecting a descending person to an escape cable, and the sliding boxes is rigidly affixed to strategic place, for example, to an outer side of a wall of a building, and the escape cable is allowed to slide down along the wall of the building. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other characteristics and advantages of the invention will be better understood through the following illustrative and non-limitative detailed description of preferred embodiments thereof, with reference to the appended drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a person wearing a flexible harness, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 2 a to 2 c schematically illustrate the basic steps of escaping a building, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 shows the transmission section of the sliding box, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 4 a and 4 b show sketches of the cable and its dimensions, according to an aspect of the present invention; FIGS. 5 a and 5 b show the sliding box in its “open” and “close” state, respectively, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 c shows an external view of the sliding box, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 6 a and 6 b show in separate the control unit of the sliding box and a side view thereof, respectively, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 6 c schematically illustrates the inner components of the control unit, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 7 a and 7 b show mechanical emergency brake system, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 8 a and 8 b show in more details the internal structure of the mechanical speed control unit 71 shown in FIGS. 7 a and 7 b; FIGS. 9 a and 9 b show a manually-operable mechanical emergency braking arrangement, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 10 a to 10 c show a sliding box, according to another preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 11 a to 11 c show an electromechanical sliding box, according to another preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 12 a and 12 b show in more details the internal structure of the electromechanical speed control unit shown in FIG. 11 ; and FIG. 13 shows the proportion between a person's hand palm and an exemplary sliding box and escape cable, according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a person wearing an escape kit that comprises a flexible harness and a sliding box, according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. The escape kit comprises harness 11 , which person 10 is wearing, and sliding box 12 , which is firmly affixed to harness 11 . Optionally, the escape kit may comprise helmet 13 , which may, or may not, carry a spotlight/flashlight. Harness 11 , which is constructed from several belts is capable of supporting at least 250 Kgs. Sliding box 12 includes, on its external face, several rounded wheels 12 / 1 to 12 / 4 , for allowing sliding box 12 to slide down along a wall (e.g., of a building). FIGS. 2 a to 2 c schematically illustrate the basic steps of escaping a building, according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. Escape cable 21 is normally (i.e., when not in use) winded over winch drum ( 22 ), ready to be used in cases of emergencies. A first end of escape cable 21 is firmly affixed to winch 22 , and the second end of winch 22 is a throwing end that is intended to be thrown by a person outside an escaping window or hatch. Winch ( 22 ), together with the escape cable 21 winded there upon, could be hidden inside some sort of a closet (generally indicated by reference numeral 22 / 1 ), for aesthetic purpose, and its location could be predetermined according to preferred strategy. For example, the location of winch 22 could be chosen in a way that escape cable 21 would pass as close to as many windows of the building as possible (that is, on its way down). Of course, any aesthetic arrangement of winch 22 must allow easy access to, and convenient operation of, escape cable ( 21 ). Several winches, such as winch 22 , and several escape cables such as cable 21 might be located in several strategic locations with respect to a building, for ensuring, in cases of emergencies, safe and fast rescue of the building residents. Referring to FIG. 2 a , after the escaping person 10 wears its escape kit, which comprise at least harness 11 and sliding box 12 , escaping person 10 approaches closet 22 / 1 , opens the closet, grabs the throwing end of escape cable 21 , and starts unwinding escape cable 21 from winch 22 . Then, person 10 approaches the escape window, or hatch, and continues to unwind escape cable 21 through the escape window/hatch, until escape cable 21 is completely unwounded. Next (see FIG. 2 b ), person 10 opens sliding box 12 , inserts escape cable 21 into sliding box 12 , locks and secures sliding box 12 with the escape cable inside, and moves his body beyond the threshold of the escape window/hatch. Then, person 10 turns around so that his face is against the escape window and starts sliding down (see FIG. 2 c ). Of course, additional persons might utilize escape cable 21 for escaping. For example, woman 10 / 1 could fetch her escape kit from closet 14 , and perform the required escaping procedure, except that in the cases of other escaping persons, there would be no need to uncoil escape cable 21 , as this cable was previously uncoiled by the first escaping person. One or more closets, such as closet 14 , could be deployed in every floor of a building. Escape cable 21 could be coiled again, if desired, by operating winch 22 , provided, of course, that the emergency case no longer exists and the conditions (i.e., of the building, escape cable, winch, etc.) allow it. FIG. 3 depicts one cross section of the sliding box, according to one preferred embodiment of the invention. Sliding box 12 comprises, in general, two sections. One section, which is shown in FIG. 3 , includes engaging means for keeping escape cable 21 in a velocity-controlling route within sliding box 12 , for allowing sensing the relative velocity of sliding box 12 with respect to escape cable 21 (i.e., sensing the descending rate of sliding box 12 ). The function of guiding elements 34 / 1 and 34 / 2 is to allow safe/smooth entry and exit of cable 21 into/from sliding box 12 , respectively. The function of main pulley 31 , which is, according to this example, the driven wheel, is sensing the relative velocity between sliding box 12 and cable 21 , for allowing a second section of sliding box 12 (not shown) to generate a counter pressure, or momentum, in response to the sensed velocity difference, for controlling the velocity of sliding box 12 while descending along cable 21 . Pulley 31 is a toothed wheel that includes a plurality of ‘teeth’ that form a contour line that essentially counter matches the unique shape/design of the elements of escape cable 21 shown in FIGS. 4 a and 4 b . The dimensions of the teeth and the spacing therebetween provide adequate coupling between pulley 31 and escape cable 21 even in cases where the distance between adjacent connecting elements 40 might slightly change for any reason, for example when a heavy person slides down along escape cable 21 exerting considerable force on the connecting elements. The function of pulleys 32 and 33 is to assure engagement of escape cable 21 to main pulley 31 . Preferably, there are two secondary pulleys ( 32 and 33 ). However, any suitable number of secondary pulleys, or some other engaging arrangement (i.e., between escape cable 21 and the driven wheel, in this case main pulley 31 ), might be utilized instead. According to an aspect of the present invention, the secondary pulleys are optional. Referring to FIG. 4 a , cable 21 (only a portion of it is shown) comprises a plurality of elements, such as element 40 , and flexible cable 44 . Each one of the elements has a central cylindrical bore hole through which flexible cable 44 passes. Each one of the elements includes a first cylinder 42 and a second cylinder 41 which has essentially the shape of a disc. First and second cylinders 41 and 42 have a common longitudinal axis 44 / 1 . Cylinder 41 has a diameter larger than that of the cylinder 42 , and is located essentially in the central portion of the perimeter of cylinder 42 . One end of cylinder 42 has essentially the shape of a convex 45 , and the opposite end of cylinder 42 has essentially the shape of a concave 43 . The convex of each one of a elements is brought in contact with the concave of the next element, and so on, and the concave and convex portions of the elements allow utilizing the flexibility of escape cable 21 , which might be helpful also in cases where an escaping person whishes to bypass obstacles while descending from a high building The function of cylinders 41 is to prevent any sliding between the sliding box 12 and the escape cable 21 , and relay the descending velocity to toothed wheel 31 and wheels 32 and 33 (see FIG. 3 ), thereby allowing sliding box 12 to control its descend rate along escape cable 21 . Whenever escape cable 21 is essentially in vertical position (i.e., as it would be normally the case when utilized for escaping from tall places), each one of elements 40 exerts pressure on the elements below it. The resulting pressure on specific element 40 will be, therefore, a function of the accumulative mass of the elements 40 above that specific element, and of the weight of the sliding box and sliding person. Consequently, the lowermost elements of the escape cable will be under high pressure, which might result in rupturing the escape cable. In order to avoid exerting too much pressure on the lowermost elements of escape cable 21 , an element 46 (herein “anchor element”) will be firmly affixed to the flexible cable 44 ( FIG. 4 a ) each predefined distance or number of elements. For example, one element could be firmly affixed to the cable each five meters, or each 30 elements. This way, the maximum pressure that would be exerted on an element just above an anchor element will be limited to the pressure exerted by the remaining elements existing between the corresponding anchor elements, plus the weight of the sliding box and person. Referring to the example shown in FIG. 4 c , an anchor element 46 is affixed to flexible cable 44 each three ‘ordinary’ elements 40 . The elements 40 allow rolling the escape cable on a roller, or cylindrical drum, the diameter of which could be, e.g., 0.6 meter, for allowing convenient and aesthetic storage of the escape cable inside a closet whenever the escape cable is not in use, and fast deployment, or unwinding, of the escape cable in cases of emergencies. The closet could be conveniently installed at a desirable location on the preferred floor. Referring to FIGS. 4 b and 13 , an exemplary dimensions of the connecting elements are 1=18 millimeters (‘l’—length of individual element), and d=15 millimeters (‘d’—the diameter of the larger cylinder 41 ). These dimensions can change from one type of a sliding box to another. FIGS. 5 a and 5 b schematically illustrate sliding box 12 in “open” and “closed” positions, respectively. In FIG. 5 a , sliding box 12 is opened in a way that main pulley 31 (i.e., the driven wheel) is separated from secondary pulleys 32 and 33 (pulley 33 not shown) for making room for cable 21 , which is arranged therebetween as shown in FIG. 3 . After placing cable 21 between the pulleys 31 and 32 / 33 , sliding box 12 is then closed, thereby securing the passage of cable 21 therein; i.e., by pressing cable 21 against main pulley 31 by secondary pulleys 32 and 33 ( FIG. 5 b ). Reference numeral 56 denotes a pivot axis around which sliding box 12 is opened/closed. Reference numeral 57 denotes the supporting structure to which the driven wheel (i.e., according to this example main pulley 31 ), the engaging means (i.e., according to this example secondary pulleys 32 and 33 ), and the means for measuring the rotary speed of the driven wheel and providing the required brake force for slowing the rotation of the driven wheel (i.e., according to this example oil pump 52 and hydraulic control unit 54 ) are rigidly affixed. Referring to FIGS. 5 b and 5 c , whenever sliding box 12 descends along cable 21 , pulleys 31 to 33 rotate at an angular velocity corresponding to the descending rate. Pulley 31 is mechanically coupled to oil pump 52 (i.e., by means of driveshaft 51 ) that is part of the hydraulic system that is contained within sliding box 12 . Therefore, the rotational movement of pulley 31 is transferred to the axis of a “toothed wheel” type oil pump 52 . The rate of the angular velocity of the oil pump, and therefore, the angular velocity of main pulley 31 (and also the descend rate), is controlled by (“weight/velocity”) hydraulic control unit 54 , which regulates the oil circulation in the hydraulic system. Hydraulic control unit 54 includes oil inlet 55 / 4 , which is connected by means of pipe 53 / 1 to the oil outlet of oil pump 52 , and oil outlet 55 / 5 , which is connected by means of pipe 53 / 2 to the oil inlet of oil pump 52 . The rate of oil flow, which enters control unit 54 through oil inlet 55 / 4 , is adjusted by a regulating valve that is implemented by an oil piston arrangement, in a way that is described herein below in connection with FIG. 6 c . Likewise, the oil flow rate that returns to oil pump 52 (i.e., from outlet 55 / 5 ) is controlled by an adjustable needle valve 55 / 2 . Reference numeral 55 / 1 denotes an oil accumulator, the task of which is to compensate for variations in the oil pressure within the (closed) hydraulic system; the pressure variations being caused by changes in the angular momentum that is exerted on the axis of oil pump 52 as a result of the descending sliding box 12 . Control unit 54 includes additional needle valve 55 / 3 for regulating the extent of the aforesaid compensation (i.e., of oil pressure). FIG. 6 a shows a general and isolated view of the control unit shown in FIG. 5 b , and FIG. 6 b shows a side view of control unit 54 . FIG. 6 c is an A-A cross-section of FIG. 6 b . Oil accumulator 55 / 1 comprises piston 66 to which piston rod 64 is connected, member 64 / 1 , through which piston rode 64 is freely slidable, spring 65 and oil reservoir 67 . The position of piston 66 (i.e., within the cylinder in which it is moveable), at any given time, depends on the mechanical characteristics of spring 65 , on the area of piston 66 and on the instantaneous oil pressure residing within the oil reservoir ( 67 ). Put otherwise, the final position of piston 66 will be such that equilibrium will exist between the force exerted by spring 65 on one side of piston 66 and the force exerted by the oil pressure on the other side of piston 66 . Likewise, regulating valve 61 comprises piston 63 to which piston rod 68 is connected, member 68 / 1 , through which piston rod 68 is freely moveable, spring 65 / 2 and oil reservoir 67 / 2 . The position of piston 63 (i.e., within the cylinder in which it is moveable), at any given time, depends on the mechanical characteristics of spring 65 / 2 , on the area of piston 63 and on the instantaneous oil pressure residing within the oil reservoir ( 67 / 2 ). Put otherwise, the final position of piston 63 will be such that an equilibrium will exist between the force exerted by spring 65 / 2 on one side of piston 63 and the force exerted by the oil pressure on the other side of piston 63 . The task of springs 65 and 65 / 2 is to keep pistons 66 and 63 , respectively, at some initial position whenever there is no pressure in oil passage 62 (i.e., oil pump 52 is inactive). The way of controlling the descending rate will be described immediately below. While sliding box 12 is at rest (i.e., no rotational moment is applied to pulley 31 ), there is no oil circulation in the system (i.e., oil pump 52 is at rest) and no oil pressure is built in oil passage 62 inside control unit 54 . However, as a person wearing a sliding box such as sliding box 12 starts descending along cable 21 , pulley 31 starts rotating and the rotational moment is transferred to oil pump 52 ( FIG. 5 b or 5 c ), which, in turn, starts pushing oil into control unit 54 through inlet 55 / 4 of control unit 54 . Needle valve 55 / 2 is adjusted such that a the oil flow rate through inlet valve 55 / 4 is higher than the oil flow rate through outlet valve 55 / 5 . Consequently, the pressure in oil passage 62 increases, causing piston 63 to move towards inlet 55 / 4 , for reducing the oil flow rate through inlet 55 / 4 . Since the hydraulic system is a closed system (i.e., there is a fixed amount of oil in the hydraulic system), enlarging volume 67 / 2 is allowed because the additional oil in volume 67 / 2 comes from volume 67 . The latter feature is possible, because rods 64 and 68 are mechanically coupled to one another in a way that each “up” movement of piston 63 is followed by a counter “down” movement of piston 66 , and vice versa. This way, every increase in volume 67 / 2 is followed by a corresponding decrease in the volume 67 , and vice versa, meaning that oil is exchanged between volume 67 to volume 67 / 2 . At the same time the increased oil pressure in passage 62 causes piston 63 to move towards inlet 55 / 4 for reducing the flow rate of oil coming from oil pump 52 , oil pump 52 continues sucking oil through outlet 55 / 5 , and, therefore, the pressure in oil passage 62 decreases, thereby causing piston 63 to open inlet 55 / 4 (i.e., by use of spring 65 / 2 ) and oil pump 52 to inject oil there through at an increased flow rate, which results in an increase in the pressure in oil passage 62 . As long as force is exerted on oil pump 52 by pulley 31 , piston 63 will repetitively close and open inlet 55 / 4 , in a cyclic manner, wherein each cycle includes one “open” (or “closed”) state (i.e., of inlet 55 / 4 ) that is followed by one “close” (or “open”) state. The heavier the descending person, the more frequent inlet 55 / 4 will open and close, because the force exerted on oil pump 52 will be greater, causing a rapid increase in the oil pressure in oil passage 62 , which will cause, in turn, inlet 55 / 4 to rapidly close. The moment inlet 55 / 4 closes, there will be a rapid decrease in the oil pressure in oil passage 62 , which will cause inlet 55 / 4 to rapidly open, and so on. The changes in the increase and decrease rates in the pressure in oil passage 62 (i.e., in response to changes in the descending person) allow, therefore, maintaining essentially the same descending velocity, regardless of the weight of the descending person. Put otherwise, load changes on pulley 31 will be translated into corresponding changes in the frequency of the “open” and “close” states of inlet 55 / 4 . Of course, the descending velocity may be set as desired (e.g., 2 meter/second), by adjusting needle valves 55 / 2 and 55 / 3 , as well as by using springs 65 and 65 / 2 with different mechanical characteristics, and/or by changing the absolute diameter of pistons 63 and 66 or the ratio therebetween. Valves 55 / 2 and 55 / 3 are utilized only for testing and calibration purposes, after which they are permanently set. Of course, for some cases sliding box 12 could be fixed to a point of a building, or elsewhere, and the cable sliding therein, though the above described embodiment would be preferable. FIGS. 7 a and 7 b schematically illustrate a sliding box with automatic hydraulic brake system, according to one preferred embodiment of the present invention. Whenever pulley 31 rotates, oil pump 52 pushes oil to oil inlet 55 / 4 of speed control unit 71 (i.e., via pipe 71 / 1 ). Oil returns from outlet 55 / 5 of speed control unit 71 to oil pump 52 (i.e., via pipe 71 / 2 ). FIGS. 8 a and 8 b show in more details the internal structure of the mechanical speed control unit 71 shown in FIGS. 7 a and 7 b . Oil is pushed by oil pump 52 ( FIG. 7 a , for example) through inlet 55 / 4 . Needle valve 81 closes oil outlet 55 / 5 , in which case a pressure is formed, by the oil that is pushed through inlet 55 / 4 , which causes piston 84 to move upwards, thereby moving also a rod, the end 83 of which exerts braking force on pulley 31 (i.e., by applying friction to pulley 31 ) for slowing down the rotational speed of pulley 31 . With the increasing pressure inside oil passage 82 , and after piston 85 applies friction to pulley 31 , there is a pressure threshold above which the oil pressure inside oil passage 82 overcomes the force exerted on piston 86 / 2 by spring 86 / 1 . Therefore, piston 86 / 2 starts moving downwards, thereby opening outlet 55 / 5 and releasing some of the oil pressure locked inside oil passage 82 . As a result of the decreasing pressure in oil passage 82 , friction end 83 retracts, and the braking friction applied on pulley 31 is removed. The oil pressure decreases in the oil passage 82 until it gets lower than the force exerted on piston 86 / 2 by spring 86 / 1 , in which case springs 86 / 1 overcomes the aforesaid oil pressure and moves, once again, piston 86 / 2 upwards, so that needle valve 81 closes again oil outlet 55 / 5 , after which the oil pressure in oil passage 82 increases again, thereby causing friction end 83 to apply, again, a friction against pulley 31 , and so on. In other words, pressure is built up in oil passage 82 as a result of an increase in the rotational speed (RPM) of the oil pump, caused by increased relative motion between the escape cable ( 21 ) and the sliding box ( 12 ), and the built up oil pressure generates a braking moment that is exerted on the main pulley ( 31 ) for reducing the aforesaid relative motion, after which the oil pressure in oil passage 82 decreases. The decrease in the oil pressure in oil passage 82 causes releasing of at least some of the aforesaid braking moment, causing, thereby, to the relative motion to increase again, and so on. Oil accumulator 87 provides oil for the oil passage 88 in order to prevent oil passage 88 from being in a state of vacuum. FIGS. 9 a and 9 b schematically illustrate a sliding box with manually-operable mechanical emergency brakes, according to an aspect of the present invention. Under normal operating conditions (i.e., a person descends at a regulated velocity), the regulated velocity is automatically maintained by pushing friction strip 96 towards one face of pulley 31 , and causing friction strip 96 to retreat from pulley 31 , at intervals. Friction strip 96 is pushed and retreated by utilizing a mechanical arrangement such as the one shown in FIG. 8 a (i.e., rod 83 ). However, an external intervening means is provided in the sliding box, which allows to manually bypass the automatic mode of operation of the sliding box in emergency cases, or whenever a descending person wishes to slow down his descend. The intervening means operates in the following way: screw-like rod 92 is screwable through nut 93 , to which bearing 94 is mechanically affixed. Screw-like rod 92 is rotatable by a person wearing the harness and sliding box 12 for descending, by operating handle 91 . When screw-like rod 92 is rotated in one direction, screw 93 and bearing 94 , which is affixed thereto, advance along the screw-like rod 92 , in a way that bearing 94 slides on lever 95 . Since the right end of lever 95 (i.e., according to this example) is rotatable around fixed pivot 97 , the movement of bearing 94 to the left-hand side direction (as seen in the drawing) causes friction strip 96 , which is affixed to the distal end of lever 95 , to be pushed against one face of pulley 31 , and, thereby, providing braking moment for slowing down pulley 31 , and maintaining a preferred descending velocity of; e.g., 1 meter per second. FIGS. 10 a to 10 c show a sliding box, according to another preferred embodiment of the present invention. Sliding box 12 includes velocity sensor 101 , the function of which is to measure the rotational speed of pulley 31 , by generating an electrical signal that represents the rotational speed. Velocity sensor 101 could be, for example, a magnetic pickup sensor, such as any of the magnetic pickup sensors from the NJ series manufactured by Pepperl & Fuchs (P&F), which generates a train of pulses having a frequency that linearly depends on the rotational speed of pulley 31 . The train of pulses can be forwarded to control unit 104 , which includes electronic circuitry for translating the train of pulses back into rotational speed. Another function of the electronic circuitry contained within electrical control unit 104 is to output electrical control signal to electric motor 102 for generating a magnetic moment that counteracts the mechanical moment exerted on pulley 31 by the descending sliding box 12 . The rotational speed, as measured by speed sensor 101 , is compared to a (“set-point”) rotational speed that corresponds to a wanted (i.e., preferred) descending rate of sliding box 12 . The higher the measured rotational speed, with respect to the preferred (i.e., set-point) rotational speed, the stronger is the generated moment, and therefore, the braking force. This way, it is possible to obtain essentially an accurate and uniform sliding rate irrespective of the weight of the descending person. According to an aspect of the present invention, the control unit includes setting means for allowing a descending person to change the preferred descending rate, by changing the set-point rotational speed of pulley 31 . According to an aspect of the present invention, the setting means includes a scale that is calibrated to descending rate (e.g., 0.5, 1.0 and 3.0 meters/second). Battery pack 103 provides the electric power required by the electronic circuitry inside control unit 104 and by electric motor 102 . Utilizing an electric motor for controlling the descend rate allows obtaining a more accurate and stable/fixed descending speed, comparing to the above-mentioned hydraulic solutions. FIGS. 11 a to 11 c show an electromechanical sliding box, according to another preferred embodiment of the present invention. According to this embodiment, the mechanical portion of sliding box 12 resembles to the mechanical portion of sliding box 12 shown in FIGS. 7 a and 7 b , and FIGS. 8 a and 8 b , as it includes oil pump 52 , hydraulic control unit 115 and related oil pipes (i.e., 71 / 1 and 71 / 2 ). In addition, according to this embodiment, the electrical portion of sliding box 12 resembles to the electrical portion of sliding box 12 shown in FIG. 10 , as it also includes speed sensor 101 and electronic control unit 104 . However, unlike in the embodiment shown in FIG. 10 , according to this embodiment the electronic control unit (i.e., electronic control unit 101 ) receives the picked-up train of pulses, which corresponds to the descend speed, and outputs a corresponding controlling electric signal that is forwarded to the hydraulic portion for regulating the descend speed. FIGS. 12 a and 12 b show in more details the internal structure of the electromechanical speed control unit shown in FIG. 11 . The functionality of speed control unit 115 is essentially the same as the functionality of speed control unit 71 (see, for example, FIG. 8 a ), except that in speed control unit 115 , the needle valve 81 is operated electrically (i.e., by electromechanical means 121 ) rather than by hydraulic piston that is movable in accordance with an oil pressure. The controlling electric signal, which is outputted by electronic control unit 114 ( FIG. 11 ), moves the hydraulic needle valve 81 so as to open/close the oil passage between inlet 55 / 4 and outlet 55 / 5 . When the descending speed is zero, oil pump 52 ( FIG. 11 ) does not circulate oil in the hydraulic system, needle valve 81 is in “retracted” position and a free passage of oil is allowed between oil inlet 55 / 4 and outlet 55 / 5 . As the descend speed starts to increase, oil pump 52 starts circulating oil; i.e., oil is pushed by the oil pump through inlet 55 / 4 and oil returns to the oil pump through outlet 55 / 5 . However, along side with the increase of the descend speed, electronic control unit 114 ( FIG. 11 ) outputs an electric signal to electromechanical means 121 , which moves needle valve 81 so as to partially close the oil passage between inlet 55 / 4 and outlet 55 / 5 . As a result of the partial closure of the aforesaid oil passage, the oil pressure in oil passage 82 increases, and piston 84 moves upwards, so as to cause friction end 83 to be pushed against pulley 31 , for employing a counteracting force there against, in order to prevent pulley 31 from further increasing its rotational speed. The more the descend speed tends to increase (i.e., due to gravitational force and a descending person having heavier weight), the more the needle valve ( 81 ) will close the oil passage between inlet 55 / 4 and outlet 55 / 5 , and the higher pressure will be built in oil passage 82 , which will result in a stronger counteracting (i.e., braking) force that is employed on pulley 31 . FIG. 13 shows the proportion between an exemplary sliding box and cable and a person's hand, according to the present invention. Hand 131 is shown gripping escape cable 21 (i.e., only for illustrating purpose), which is shown after having been inserted into sliding box 12 . Sliding box 12 includes projecting “eyes” 133 (only three are shown), which are intended to be connected to a harness that the person has to wear (see harness 11 in, e.g., FIG. 11 ). In order to insert escape cable 21 into sliding box 12 , the person opened sliding box 12 around pivot axis 56 (see also, for example, FIG. 5 a ). Reference numerals 134 and 135 denote securing elements, the function of which is securing sliding box 12 in its close position, for preventing unintentional escaping of escape cable 21 from sliding box 12 . When a person utilizes sliding box 12 to descend, securing elements 134 and 135 face the wall of the building (i.e., away from the descending person), in order to ensure that the descending person does not accidentally (e.g., out of panic) opens sliding box 12 . Wheels 136 prevent friction between the external side of the wall of the building and the sliding box. Wheels 136 can be of any suitable size. Wheels 136 can be replaced by any other friction-preventing, or friction-protecting, means. For example, a friction-protecting means can be an arcuated plate, which could be made of metal, plastics, etc. The sliding box shown in FIG. 13 is only a prototype, and the commercial sliding box is intended to be as small as half the size of the prototype sliding box. While some embodiments of the invention have been described by way of illustration, it will be apparent that the invention can be carried into practice with many modifications, variations and adaptations, and with the use of numerous equivalents or alternative solutions that are within the scope of persons skilled in the art, without departing from the spirit of the invention or exceeding the scope of the claims.

Escape device that comprises a sliding box worn by each escaping person, such that the escape device is combined with an escape cable. The sliding box comprises a supporting structure; a driven wheel supported in the structure for rotation, and adapted to be in engagement with the escape cable and to be driven thereby into rotation. The rotary speed correspond to the speed of the motion of the sliding box relative to the escape cable, and therefore, corresponds to the speed of descent of the escaping person; means for measuring the rotary speed of the driven wheel and therefore, the speed of descent of the escaping person; and braking means, for slowing the rotation of the driven wheel, and therefore the speed of descent of the escaping person, whenever it is required to maintain the speed of descent within predetermined limits.

This is a division of application Ser. No. 08/418,899 filed Apr. 7, 1995, (abandoned), which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/270,319 filed Jul. 5, 1994 (abandoned), which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/138,385 filed Oct. 20, 1993 (abandoned), which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/717,346 filed Jun. 18, 1991 (abandoned), which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 07/607,710 filed Nov. 1, 1990 (abandoned). BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a lens driving device for a zoom or a multifocus lens housing of a camera. 2. Related Background Art Hitherto, in order to smoothly rectilinearly move a zoom or a multifocus lens, a lens driving device has been arranged in such a manner that there are provided a guide member for rectilinearly guiding the lens and a supporting member for supporting the guide member, and the guide member and the supporting member are arranged to be movable. FIGS. 1, 2A and 2B are schematic views which respectively illustrate an example of the above-described structure. A roller 1 serving as the support member is placed within a groove hole 2 formed in a guide member 3. Since the roller 1 is arranged to be capable of freely rotating, an excellent driving efficiency can be realized in comparison to a structure in which a pin is employed. Furthermore, the lens can be rectilinearly moved without a play or a catch even if excellent parallelism between the guiding direction and the optical axis and the accuracy are not realized. However, the above-described conventional structure has a problem in that, in a case as shown in FIG. 2A in which the guide member is arranged to be a fork-like shape, the parallelism of the two side surfaces of the groove hole 2 in the guide member 3 which is positioned in contact with the roller 1 cannot be maintained by the side pressure given from the roller 1 when the lens is rectilinearly moved. As a result, the two end portions of the fork-like guide member 3 are undesirably opened, causing the accuracy in the guiding action to be deteriorated and a play to be generated. In order to overcome this problem, a structure has been employed in which the groove hole 4 is, as shown in FIG. 2B, closed. However, it leads to a fact that the length and the size of the guide member cannot be reduced. Therefore, the conventional technology encounters a problem in that a desire to reduce the size and the thickness of the camera for the purpose of realizing a collapsible lens housing cannot be met. Hitherto, as light shielding means, a structure has been employed in which a light shielding member made of rubber, paper, or woven fabric is secured to a camera body or a lens housing at, for example, the inner helicoid by an adhesive or the like so as to cover the gap. As an alternative to this, a rubber washer is inserted between the camera body and the lens housing for the purpose of covering the gap in such a manner that it is not fixed. The above-described light shielding structure of a type in which the light shielding member is secured to the inner helicoid encounters a problem in that, if there is an eccentricity generated between the inner helicoid and the lens housing due to manufacturing or an eccentricity generated due to the assembling work or the adjustment work, a gap is formed due to the thus generated eccentricity, causing light to be leaked. If the light shielding member is strongly abutted against the inner helicoid for the purpose of preventing the light leakage, an excessively large resistance arises at the time of the rectilinear movement of the lens housing, causing a load necessary to drive the lens housing to be excessively enlarged. In the case where the rubber washer is inserted between the camera body and the lens housing in such a manner that the washer is not fixed, the light leakage due to the above-described eccentricity can be prevented. However, a gap is formed with the inner helicoid when the lens housing is moved, in particular, when the same is forwards moved. In particular, light travelling in the direction except for the direction of the optical axis leaks. Furthermore, in a camera of a type arranged in such a manner that an electric device including a CPU, a collimator and a photometer and the like is provided in the camera housing and an electric device including a shutter operating portion and a focusing device and the like is provided in the lens portion, a flexible print substrate (to be called an "FPC" hereinafter) for establishing the connection between the above-described two electric devices is accommodated in the lens housing in a spiral or folded manner. In the above-described conventional structure, the FPC is not insulated from the inside portion of the lens housing. Therefore, the FPC has an exposure portion confronting the optical axis, causing the surface of the FPC to reflect the diffused light. As a result, a problem in terms of a ghost image takes place. Accordingly, coating or tape application becomes necessary in order to prevent the light reflection, causing the manufacturing cost to be raised. Furthermore, there has been a fear of introduction of the FPC deflected into the optical path, causing the travel of the light beam to be obstructed. If the above-described problem is prevented by a design arrangement, the FPC must forcibly be bent or deflected so as to realize the above-described arrangement. As a result, the FPC is applied with excessively large force, causing the durability to be deteriorated. Hitherto, a variety of cameras each of which has a barrier have been known which is arranged in such a manner that the forward end of the imaging lens is selectively capped by a barrier which is arranged to be optionally opened/closed. A barrier of the type described above is effective to protect the imaging lens from a damage due to an undesirable contact with an external substance or an adhesion of dust or the like. Furthermore, the above-described structure reveals an advantage in comparison to a lens cap employed in ordinary cameras since the fear of missing can be prevented. Therefore, it is preferable that a barrier of the type described above be employed in compact cameras. As a camera with a barrier of the type described above, a collapsible type camera has been known. A collapsible type camera of the type described above usually employs a barrier opening/closing mechanism capable of automatically opening/closing the lens protection barrier in synchronization with the retraction/protraction action of the lens housing which holds the imaging lens. The reason for this lies in that it is advantageous in terms of operation and handling that the barrier is automatically opened/closed in synchronization with the movement of the lens housing since the lens housing is retracted in the camera housing when a picture is not taken and the lens housing is protracted from the camera housing when the picture is taken. Although a variety of disclosures have been made relating to the barrier opening/closing mechanism for use in a collapsible type camera with the barrier of the type described above, a structure revealing both an extremely simple structure and easy handling has not as yet been disclosed. For example, a barrier opening/closing mechanism has been disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,864,338 which is arranged in such a manner that, when the lens housing is retracted, a portion of a barrier opening/closing member, which is arranged to be moved in synchronization with the movement of the lens housing, is engaged with a cam surface of an engagement member provided in the camera housing so that the barrier is closed. That is, the above-described barrier opening/closing mechanism is arranged in such a manner that a slide lever is provided for a transmission shaft which projects from the barrier opening/closing member disposed adjacent to the lens housing toward the camera housing. The slide lever is arranged to be selectively engaged with the cam surface of the engagement member disposed in the camera housing. The portion including the slide lever is forcibly rotated by the cam surface against the urging force of a spring which always urges the barrier in the opening direction. As a result, the barrier is opened/closed via the barrier opening/closing member including the transmission shaft. The above-described conventional barrier opening/closing mechanism is arranged in such a manner that the slide lever which is urged by the simple tension spring in a direction in which the barrier is opened and the cam surface having a simple slope are engaged to each other so that the movement in the direction of the optical axis of the lens is converted into a rotary motion. Therefore, the structure is not provided with means for preventing a change in the urging force of the spring acting on the slide lever. As a result, a problem arise in terms of a practical use. That is, the urging force of the spring is determined by the length of its elongation in accordance with the degree of the rotation of the slide lever, the spring acting on the slide lever which is engaged to the cam surface so as to be rotated while moving in synchronization with the rectilinear motion of the lens housing in the direction of the optical axis of the lens. As a result, the quantity of force (driving force) necessary to rectilinearly move the lens housing at the time of opening/closing the barrier becomes inequal. Therefore, a user feels uneasy because the retraction/protraction action of the lens housing cannot be smoothly performed. In particular, since collapsible cameras of the type described above usually use an electric motor so as to retract/protract the lens housing, the above-described inequal force causes the load of the electric motor acting on the lens housing driving system to be changed. Therefore, a problem arises in that vibrations and noise generated in the motor and/or the gear configuration and the change in the driving speed of the lens housing can be perceived by a user. What is even worse, if the battery has been consumed, the output from the motor is lowered excessively, causing the lens housing to be stopped at an intermediate position. The change in the moving force exerts a bad influence upon the mirror housing driving system and the cam engagement portion. In particular, a partial and eccentric wear will deteriorate the durability, causing a critical problem to take place when used practically. In particular, the above-described lens housing driving system and the barrier opening/closing mechanism must be able to smoothly operate while preventing the change in the load to be applied to the lens housing. In addition, there has been a desire to improve the durability of each of the above-described system and the mechanism. Thus, there arises a necessity of providing a structure capable of overcoming the above-described problems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to provide a lens driving device capable of smoothly rectilinearly moving a lens group and reducing the length of a guide member, the lens driving device being for use in a camera the size and the thickness of which are reduced. Another object of the present invention is to provide a reliable light leakage prevention device capable of overcoming the above-described problems. A further object of the present invention is to provide an electric signal transmission device for a zoom lens or a multifocus lens camera in which an FPC for establishing a connection between an electric device provided for the camera housing and an electric device provided for the lens portion can be smoothly accommodated in such a manner that the image quality cannot be deteriorated by a ghost or obstruction. A still further object of the present invention is to provide a barrier opening/closing mechanism for use in a collapsible camera with a barrier and capable of making the load to be substantially constant, the load acting on a cam surface of a barrier opening/closing cam for opening/closing the barrier disposed on the front surface of an imaging lens in synchronization with the protraction/retraction action of a lens housing. In order to overcome the above-described problems, as shown in the drawings, an aspect of the present invention lies in a lens driving device comprising a holding member 5 for holding imaging lenses 14 and having a first helicoid 5a formed relative to the optical axis of the lenses 14a and 14b; a rotary member 6 having a second helicoid 6b which is arranged to engage to the first helicoid 5a, the rotary member being arranged to be engaged to the holding member 5 via the two helicoids 5a and 6b and rotatably supported relative to the optical axis to a camera housing 17; a guide member 12 which is provided for either of the holding member 5 or the camera housing 17 and which extends in the direction of the optical axis; and supporting members 25 and 26 provided for the residual one of the holding member 5 and the camera housing 17 to which the guide member is brought into contact, whereby the rotation of the holding member 5 is prevented by the contact between the guide member 12 and the supporting members 25 and 26 and allows the holding member 5 to rectilinearly move in the direction of the optical axis in accordance with the rotation of the rotary member 6. The guide member 12 has two parallel surfaces which are perpendicular to the tangent of a circle centering the optical axis. The supporting members 25 and 26 comprise a pair of annular bodies 25 each of which has a conical surface which is rotatable relative to an axis perpendicular to the optical axis. The supporting members 25 and 26 come in contact with the two parallel surfaces of the guide member 12 at the above-described conical surfaces. According to the present invention, the rectilinear movement key of a camera can be shortened and the size and the thickness of the camera can thereby be reduced. Furthermore, since the rectilinear movement key serving as a guide member for rectilinearly moving the lens housing is in the form of a plate and has a proper elasticity, the parallelism of its two sides can be maintained even if it is deflected when the lens housing is rectilinearly moved. Furthermore, the supporting member which comes in contact with the parallel two surfaces is in the form of at least one pair of rollers having a rotatable conical surface. Therefore, a play or a catch can be prevented between the lens housing and the rectilinear movement key. In order to overcome the above-described problems, an aspect of the present invention lies in a light leakage prevention device for a camera having a lens housing 5 which is able to project and move from an opening formed in a camera housing 17 in the direction of the optical axis, the light shielding device having a light shielding member 29 disposed in the opening of the camera housing 17 in such a manner that it comes in contact with the outer surface of the lens housing 5. Furthermore, a cylindrical portion 29b is disposed in the periphery of the light shielding member 29. Furthermore, a light leakage prevention device is constituted in which one or more grooves 29d are formed in a portion in which the light shielding member 29 slides and comes in contact with the lens housing 5. In addition, a light leakage prevention device is constituted in which the light shielding member is in the form of a plate ring made of an elastic material, the light shielding member 29 being integrally formed with a metal holding member 29e. Since the light shielding member slides and comes in contact with the outer surface of the lens housing, light leakage taken place due to an eccentricity can be prevented. Therefore, the diagonal light can be stopped by the cylindrical portion disposed in the periphery portion. Since grooves are formed in the contact portion, the slide resistance can be reduced at the time of the rectilinear movement of the lens housing. In addition, sliding can be smoothly performed since the deformation of the light shielding member can be reduced. In order to overcome the above-described problems, an aspect of the present invention lies in an electric signal transmission device for a camera including a camera housing 17; a holding member 5 for holding a lens and having a first helicoid 5a formed relative to the optical axis of the lens; a rotary member having a second helicoid 6b which is arranged to engage to the first helicoid 5a, the rotary member 6 being arranged to be engaged to the holding member 5 via the two helicoids and rotatably supported relative to the optical axis to the camera housing; a guide member 12 disposed on the inside of the rotary member 6 in such a manner that its end portion is secured to the camera housing 17 and the guide member extends from the position at which the end portion is secured to the camera housing in the direction of the optical axis, the guide member 12 converting the rotary motion of the rotary member 6 into a rectilinear motion of the holding member 5 in the direction of the optical axis; a first electric device supported by the camera housing 17; a second electric device supported by the holding member 5; and a flexible substrate 27 establishing an electrical connection between the first and second electrical devices, the electric signal transmission device comprising: a fastening portion 27d secured to the camera housing 17, a deflection portion 27c connected to the fastening portion 27d, an extension portion 27b connected to the deflection portion 27c and extending on the inside of the rotary member and another fastening portion 27a connected to the extension portion and secured to the holding member, wherein the extension portion 27b is disposed between the rotary member 6 and the guide member 12 in such a manner that the extension portion 27b is positioned in contact with the guide member 12 and is able to move on the guide member 12 when the holding member 5 rectilinearly moves. Another aspect of the present invention lies in an electric signal transmission device wherein the deflection portion 27c is accommodated in a space formed outside the rotary member 6. Another aspect of the present invention lies in an electric signal transmission device characterized in that the first electric device includes collimator means 31 and 32 having a light emitting portion 31 and a light receiving means and a photometry means disposed between the light emitting portion 31 and the light receiving portion 32, the space being a space formed between the light emitting portion 31 and the light receiving portion 32 and behind the photometry means. According to the present invention, the flexible substrate is disposed between the rotary member and the guide member in such a manner that it is able to slide and its surface facing the optical axis is shielded by the guide member. Therefore, the image cannot be damaged due to the reflection of the diffused light. Since the flexible substrate is deflected in a sufficiently large space disposed outside the rotary member, it does not obstruct the optical path and is not damaged due to excessive bending, causing the durability to be improved. In order to overcome the above-described problems, an aspect of the present invention lies in an electric signal transmission device for a camera including a camera housing 17; a holding member 5 for holding a lens and having a first helicoid 5a formed so as to have an axial center corresponding to the optical axis of the lens; a rotary member 6 having a second helicoid 6b engaged with the first helicoid 5a in a screwing manner, the rotary member 6 being arranged to engage with the holding member through the two helicoids while being supported on the camera housing so as to be rotatable on the optical axis; a guide member 12 disposed on the inner circumferential side of the rotary member 6 in such a manner that its end portion is secured to the camera housing and that it extends from this secured portion in the direction of the optical axis, the guide member 12 converting the rotary motion of the rotary member 6 into a rectilinear motion of the holding member 5 in the direction of the optical axis; a first electric device supported on the camera housing 17; a second electric device supported by the holding member 5; and a flexible substrate 27 establishing an electrical connection between the first and second electrical devices. In this electric signal transmission device, the flexible substrate 27 includes a fastening portion 27d secured to the camera housing 17, a deflection portion 27c connected to the fastening portion 27d, an extension portion 27b connected to the deflection portion 27c and extending on the inner circumferential side of the rotary member and another fastening portion 27a connected to the extension portion and secured to the holding member. The extension portion 27b is disposed between the rotary member 6 and the guide member 12 in such a manner as to be in contact with the guide member 12 and to be able to slide on the guide member 12 when the holding member 5 moves rectilinearly. The deflection portion is accommodated in an accommodation chamber 31 provided on the outer circumferential side of the rotary member 6. There is also provided a limit member 17b for enabling formation of a deflected shape of the deflection portion 27c and for constantly limiting the direction of deflection thereof. The limit member 17b is formed integrally with a member forming the accommodation chamber 31. According to the present invention, the flexible substrate is deflected in the sufficiently large accommodation chamber outside of the rotary member, the limit member constantly enables the deflection portion connected to the fastening portion defining one end of the flexible substrate to be formed into a deflected shape, and applies a force to the deflection portion such that the deflection portion can be turned smoothly and the direction of deflection is constantly limited. The flexible substrate is comparatively reduced in length. The limit member for enabling formation of the deflected shape is formed integrally with a member which forms the accommodation chamber. Furthermore, an aspect of the present invention lies in a barrier opening/closing mechanism comprising a barrier opening/closing cam disposed in the camera housing. The barrier opening/closing cam has a cam lever disposed for opening/closing a lens protection barrier disposed on the front surface of an image lens, the cam lever being always rotatably urged by a spring in the direction in which the barrier is opened. The barrier opening/closing cam is further provided with a cam surface which is engaged to the cam lever by the movement of the cam lever in the direction of the optical axis of the lens so that the barrier is opened/closed. The cam surface of the barrier opening/closing cam is arranged to be formed in accordance with the magnitude of the urging force of the spring in such a manner that the angle of inclination is large in a range in which the urging force of the spring acting on the cam lever is large and the angle of inclination is small in a range in which the urging force is small. According to the present invention, the angle of inclination is large in the portion in which the barrier opening/closing cam is engaged to the cam surface is large in a range in which the urging force of the spring acting on the cam lever is large. Therefore, the load at the time of the rectilinear movement of the lens housing can be reduced. In a range in which the urging force of the spring is small, the angle of inclination in the fastening portion is small. Therefore, the load to the lens housing can be made substantially the same as the above-described case. Therefore, a substantially constant load is able to act the driving system for rectilinearly moving the lens system regardless of the magnitude of the urging force of the spring acting on the cam lever. Other and further objects, features and advantages of the invention will be appear more fully from the following description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross sectional view which illustrates a conventional lens driving mechanism; FIGS. 2A and 2B are plan views which respectively illustrate a conventional rectilinear movement key; FIG. 3 is a perspective view which illustrates an embodiment of a front body and a lens driving mechanism according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a vertical cross sectional view which illustrates a portion including the optical axis of a lens; FIG. 5 is a cross sectional view taken along line V--V of FIG. 4; FIG. 6A is a cross sectional view which illustrates a lens driving mechanism at the telescoping position; FIG. 6B is a longitudinal cross-sectional view including the optical axis of the lens in a state where the power source is turned off; FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view which illustrates a light shielding member; FIG. 8 is a schematic cross sectional view which illustrates another embodiment; FIG. 9 is a plan view which illustrates a camera; FIG. 10 is a schematic exploded perspective view which illustrates a lens housing portion of a collapsible camera with a barrier according to an embodiment of a barrier opening/closing mechanism according to the present invention; FIGS. 11 and 12 are schematic structural views which respectively illustrate the opening/closing action of the barrier when viewed from the front portion of the lens housing; FIG. 13 illustrates the relationship between the cam lever and the cam surface which is the characteristics of the present invention; FIGS. 14A, 14B and 14C are schematic views which illustrate the protraction/retraction operation of the lens housing of the collapsible camera; FIGS. 15A and 15B illustrate the relationship of the force when the fastening position is changed; and FIGS. 16, 17A and 17B are schematic view which illustrate a problem experienced with the conventional structure having a cam surface having a simple slanted surface. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view which illustrates a front housing and a lens driving mechanism according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a vertical cross sectional view which illustrates a portion including the optical axis of a lens of a camera according to the same, wherein a wide angle position at which the lens has been retracted is illustrated. FIG. 5 is a cross sectional view taken along line V--V of FIG. 4 and illustrates the lens driving mechanism when viewed from a rear portion of the optical axis after the lens driving mechanism has been cut by a rear lens chamber including the rear guide pin. FIG. 6A is a vertical cross section which illustrates a camera including the optical axis of the lens, in which a telescopic position at which the lens has been protracted is illustrated. A lens housing 5 is accommodated in an inner helicoid 6. A helicoid (rotary member) 5a formed on the outer surface of the lens housing 5 is engaged to another helicoid 6b formed on the inner surface of the inner helicoid 6. A front lens chamber 7 is accommodated in the forward inner portion of the lens housing 5 and a shutter (omitted from illustration) is disposed on the outside of the front portion of the lens housing 5. A rear cam ring 8 is disposed inside the lens housing 5 and as well as on the outside of the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder (guide member) 9 in such a manner that it can rotate. The rear cam ring 8 has, in the annular portion thereof, three cam grooves 8b each of which is diagonally formed in the circumferential direction. The rear cam ring 8 has two elongated holes 8a at the rear flat portion thereof. The elongated holes 8a form guide portions into which two round projection portions 10a formed on a clutch 10 can be movably introduced when the clutch 10 is brought into contact with the above-described rear flat portion of the rear cam ring 8. The clutch 10 is fastened to the rear cam ring 8 by a fixing screw 11 whereby the position at which the clutch 10 is secured can be shifted by loosening the fixing screw 11 in a range of the elongated hole 8a formed in the rear cam ring 8. The clutch 10 is slidably fitted with the inner helicoid cylinder 6 at a linear groove 6c formed in the inner helicoid cylinder 6. Three linear grooves 9a are formed in the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 at positions at which the circumference is divided into three sections. A flat slidable surface (omitted from illustration) which is arranged to slide on a rectilinear movement key (guide member) 12 is, in parallel to the optical axis, formed in the central portion of the outer surface of the rear linear guide cylinder 9. Furthermore, elongated portions (omitted from illustration) running parallel to the optical axis are respectively formed on the two sides of the slidable surface in the circumferential direction. The rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 is fixed and thereby integrated with the lens housing 5 by rectilinear movement guide fixing screws 13. A rear lens chamber 14 accommodates lenses 14a and 14b in a fixed manner. Three rear guide pins 15 are driven into the outer surface of the rear lens chamber 14 in the radial direction at positions which divide the circumference into three sections. The three rear guide pins 15 are respectively fitted within the cam grooves 8b formed in the rear cam ring 8 and the rectilinear movement grooves 9a formed in the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 so that a cam follower is established. A rear play-prevention spring 16 presses each of the rear guide pins 15 to the rear wall of the cam grooves 8b so that the play of the rear lens chamber 14 in the direction of the optical axis is prevented. The inner helicoid 6 is in the form of a cylinder and is accommodated in a cylindrical space formed in a front body 17 in such a manner that it is rotatably held in the front body 17 at an annular projection 6d formed on the outer surface of the inner helicoid 6 by a retaining plate 18 fixed by screws 19 which are inserted into screw holes 18a. A flexible printed circuit (to be abbreviated to an "FPC" hereinafter) encoder FPC 20 is adhered to the outer surface of the inner helicoid 6 in such a manner that its encoder pattern (omitted from illustration) which is an electric contact faces outwards. An encoder brush 21 is fixed to the front body 17 by an encoder brush fixing screw 22 in such a manner that a contact 21a at each of the front portions of the encoder brush 21, through a cut portion in the lower portion of the front body 17, comes in contact with the encoder FPC 20 applied to the inner helicoid 6. The rectilinear movement key 12 is in an elongated flat plate-like shape having parallel planes on the two sides thereof, the rectilinear movement key 12 being secured to a rear body 23 in an upper portion at an end portion thereof by rectilinear movement key fixing screws 24. The rectilinear movement key 12 serves as a guide member extending forwards between the rear cam ring 8 and the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 from the rear body 23 in parallel to the optical axis. The rectilinear movement key 12 is positioned on a smooth and flat portion on the top surface of the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 and is movably held between a pair of rollers provided for the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 in the direction of the optical axis. Each roller 25 has a conical surface on the side thereof. A pair of the rollers 25 are respectively fastened by roller screws 26 inserted into roller screw holes 9b formed in two elongated portions of the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 in such a manner that each roller can freely rotate about the axis of the conical surface. The pair of the rollers 25 are arranged in such a manner that they come in linear contact with the parallel planes on the two sides of the rectilinear movement key 12. In the thus constituted structure, since the rectilinear movement key 12 elongates in the direction of the optical axis and has a reduced thickness, it vertically deflects when viewed in FIG. 5 by a load generated from the rollers 25 when the lens rectilinearly moves. Furthermore, each surface on which the rectilinear movement key 12 slides on a roller 25 is arranged to be parallel to the direction in which the rectilinear movement key 12 deflects. The reason for this lies in that generation of a play or a catch between the rectilinear movement key 12 and the rollers 25 must be prevented even if the rectilinear movement key 12 is vertically deflected. As a result, the positional deviation between the rectilinear movement key 12 and the rollers 25 generated due to the manufacturing error can be absorbed. The shutter FPC 27 extends from a shutter driving member 28 positioned in the front portion on the outer surface of the lens housing 5, the shutter FPC 27 being positioned along the top surface of the rectilinear movement key 12 which extends forwards from the rear body 23, that is, the shutter FPC 27 being positioned toward the rear body 23. It is fitted within a rectangular groove 12a formed in the top portion of the rectilinear movement key 12. Furthermore, it is accommodated in an overlapped manner in a space formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23. A light shielding member 29 is positioned in contact with the outer surface of the front portion of the lens housing 5. FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view of the light shielding member 29 and a portion including it. FIG. 8 is a cross sectional view which illustrates another example of the light shielding member 29. The light shielding member 29 is a thin annular member having a large round hole formed in the central portion thereof, the light shielding member 29 comprising an annular disc portion 29a and a generally cylindrical flange portion 29b formed at the periphery of the disc portion 29a. The large round hole portion in the central portion of the disc portion 29a has a band portion 29c and a groove portion 29d formed in the direction toward the lens housing 5. The light shielding member 29 is arranged in such a manner that its holding member 29e is positioned more adjacent to the optical axis than the periphery of the disc portion 29a and farther from the optical axis than the band portion 29c and the groove portion 29d, the holding member 29e being integrally formed with the disc portion 29a. The light shielding member 29 is disposed in such a manner that it can slide around the outer surface 5c of the front portion of the lens housing 5 at a top 29f of the band portion 29c. Furthermore, the light shielding member 29 is positioned in contact with a front surface 6e of the inner helicoid 6 at a surface 29g of the disc portion 29a adjacent to the inner helicoid 6 in such a manner that it can separate from the same. The light shielding member 29 is, at a side surface 29h of the disc portion 29a adjacent to the side portion 30a of the front cover 30 adjacent to the subject, positioned in contact with an inner surface 30c of the side portion 30a of the front cover 30 adjacent to the subject in such a manner that it can separate from the same. The light shielding member 29 is made of silicone rubber and is fitted around the lens housing 5 at its front outer surface 5c due to the elasticity thereof. Therefore, the diameter of the round hole formed at its central portion is smaller than the outer diameter of the lens housing 5 by about 0.2 mm when measured in such a manner that the light shielding member 29 does not come in contact with the front outer surface 5c. The thickness of the disc portion 29a of the light shielding member 29 in the direction of the optical axis is about 0.8 mm, the thickness of the band portion 29c in the same direction is about 0.2 mm and the degree of the eccentricity is about 0.2 to 0.3 mm. The reason why the light shielding member is made of silicone rubber and is positioned about the front outer surface 5c of the lens housing 5 in such a manner that it is positioned in contact with the same lies in that the pressure of the light shielding member 29 against the front outer surface 5c must be made constant so as to prevent the light leakage due to the change in the pressure. That is, in the case where the light shielding member 29 is provided for the inner helicoid 6, the inner helicoid is necessarily rotated. Therefore, if there is an eccentricity between the lens housing 5 and the inner helicoid 6, the pressure of the light shielding member 29 against the lens barrel 5 is inevitably changed. As a result, a gap is undesirably formed between the above-described two members. Therefore, the light leakage cannot be perfectly prevented. The shutter FPC 27 is, at its end portion 27a, fixed by a projection 28b formed on the shutter driving member positioned on the front outer surface of the lens housing 5. Its elongated portion 27b is elongated from the shutter driving member 28 and is positioned between the rectilinear movement key 12 and the inner helicoid 6, the rectilinear movement key 12 being arranged in such a manner that an end portion is secured to the rear body 23 and extends. The shutter FPC 27 extends forward along the top surface of the rectilinear movement key 12 in the rearward direction, that is, toward the rear body 23. At the end portion of the rectilinear movement key 12, it is fitted within a gap formed in the rectangular groove 12a at the upwardly slanted portion which is continued to the end portion of the rectilinear movement key 12. Furthermore, its deflection portion 27c is, without being bent and thereby in a smooth shape, accommodated in a space formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23. The space formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23 serves, as is shown from FIG. 9 which is a plan view of the camera, as a marginal space at the time of mounting the electric elements, the space being disposed between a light emitting portion 31a and a light receiving portion 32 which constitute the collimator means and behind a photometry means 33. The shutter FPC 27 is secured at a projection portion 17a formed on the front body 17, while another end portion 27d is introduced and connected to a control portion (omitted from illustration). The space (accommodation chamber) formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23 is formed by an accommodation chamber member 17d which is a part of the front body 17, and is closed at the rear side by an accommodation chamber rear wall member 23a which is a part of the rear body 23. These members are integrally formed with high accuracy such that their portions contacting the two side surfaces of the shutter FPC 27 are smoothly formed without any joint. Inner side walls (not shown) of the accommodation chamber 31 are spaced by a distance close to the width of the shutter FPC 27 such that the shutter FPC can move smoothly on them. The shutter FPC 27 is thereby prevented from moving laterally and can be smoothly inserted in or drawn out of the the accommodation chamber 31. An FPC limit member 17b is fixedly provided integrally with upper side wall portions of the accommodation chamber member 17d so as to extend inwardly therefrom like a beam perpendicular to the optical axis and parallel to the surface of the rectilinear key 12. An eave 17e is fixedly provided integrally with an upper fore wall portion of the accommodation chamber member 17d so as to extend rearwardly and to face the FPC restraining member 17b. The FPC limit member 17b has a slant surface portion 17c facing the eave 17e. The slant surface portion 17c has a smooth recessed surface extending straight in the longitudinal direction. If this smooth recessed surface is approximated to a circularly cylindrical surface, the radius of curvature of this cylindrical surface is about 2 mm or longer. If it is smaller than 2 mm, the shutter FPC 27 cannot be smoothly curved along the slant surface and is sharply bent so as to be creased always at the same position. The shutter FPC 27 is fixed at a projection 17a and its portion located at the rear of this projection is led between the eave 17e and the FPC restraining member 17b and is smoothly bent downwardly and forwardly along the slant surface portion 17c. Referring to FIG. 4 which is a cross sectional view of the lens at the wide angle imaging operation in which the lens housing is retracted maximum, the shutter FPC 27 is fully expanded in the cross sectional space formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23. However, referring to FIG. 6A which is a cross sectional view of the lens at the telescopic imaging operation in which the lens housing is protracted maximum, the shutter FPC 27 is not expanded fully in the cross section of the space formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23 since the looseness is reduced by a degree which corresponds to the forward movement of the shutter FPC 27, causing a marginal space to be formed. Now, the operation of this embodiment will be described. A motor (omitted from illustration) provided in the camera housing is operated in response to a signal issued from a focal point detection device (omitted from illustration), which is individually provided, the signal denoting a command of forwards/rearwards moving the lens group. A drive gear (omitted form illustration) connected to the above-described motor is rotated in response to the above-described command. Since a major gear 6a formed on the outer surface of the inner helicoid 6 is engaged to the above-described drive gear, the inner helicoid 6 and the encoder FPC 20 applied to the outer surface of the inner helicoid 6 are integrally rotated when the motor is rotated. At this time, the encoder pattern (omitted from illustration) formed on the surface of the encoder FPC 20 is electrically connected due to the slide contact of the encoder brush front portion 21a provided for the encoder brush 21. As a result, the rotational angle of the inner helicoid 6 can be detected in accordance with the fact whether or not the circuit is opened. After the inner helicoid 6 has rotated by an angular degree which corresponds to the above-described command, a stop signal is transmitted so that the rotation of the motor is stopped and the rotations of the other elements connected to the motor are stopped. When the inner helicoid 6 commences to be rotated, the lens housing 5 commences to be rotated via the helicoid 6b and the helicoid 5a which is engaged to the helicoid 6b. However, the rotation of the lens housing 5 is restricted by the rectilinear movement key 12 as described above, and it therefore performs only a rectilinear movement motion along the optical axis. When the inner helicoid 6 is rotated, the rear cam ring 8 is engaged to the rectilinear movement groove 6c so that the rear cam ring 8 is rotated together with the inner helicoid 6 via the clutch 10, which is engaged to the rear cam ring 8. The rotation of the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 is restricted by the rectilinear movement key 12 which is held by the pair of rollers 25 which are fixed by the screws. As a result, the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 performs only the rectilinear movement. Since the side surface of the rollers 25 are in the form of a cone, the rollers 25 freely rotate at the time of the forward/rearward movement of the rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9. The side surfaces of the rectilinear movement key 12 are held by the rollers 25 which are positioned on the two sides thereof and which rotate so as to form parallel planes. Therefore, the rectilinear movement key 12 comes in contact the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 so that it is rectilinearly guided via the rollers 25. Since the rectilinear movement key 12 has proper elasticity, the two side surfaces maintain the parallelism even if they are deflected in parallel to each other. As a result, the linear contact with the rollers 25 can be maintained satisfactorily. Furthermore, since the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 is secured to lens housing 5 by the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder fixing screws 13, they are able to integrally rectilinearly move. When the rear cam ring 8 is rotated, its rotation is transmitted to the rear lens chamber 14 via the rear guide pins 15 which are inserted into the cam grooves 8b. However, its rotation is limited by the rectilinear movement grooves 9a formed in the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 into which the rear guide pins 15 are inserted. Therefore, the rear lens chamber 14 is only rectilinearly moved. The reason for this lies in that the rotation of the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 is restricted by the rectilinear movement key 12. The rear lens chamber 14 performs a relative rectilinear movement with respect to the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 in accordance with the movement of the cam grooves 8b. Therefore, the positional relationship between the front lens group which is integrally rectilinearly moved together with the lens housing 5 and the rear lens group is changed to a predetermined interval. As a result of this, zooming is performed. At this time, since the rear lens chamber 14 is always pressed against the rear wall of the cam grooves 8b by the rear play prevention spring 16, the fitting of the cam grooves 8b to the rear guide pins 15 may be performed while maintaining a sufficient margin. The shutter FPC 27 extends from the shutter driving member 28 disposed in the lens housing 5 and slides upwards on the top surface of the rectilinear movement key 12 along the rear body 23. Furthermore, it has a loose portion in the space formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23. Therefore, the length of the shutter FPC 27 can be automatically adjusted in accordance with the forward/rearward movement of the lens housing 5 in such a manner that the length of protraction is enlarged and the loose portion is shortened when the lens housing 5 has been protracted. Furthermore, when the lens housing 5 is retracted, the length of the protraction is shortened and the loose portion is elongated. The lens housing 5 is deeply retracted into the camera housing through the opening portion formed in the camera housing at the time of the wide angle imaging operation. Since the light shielding member 29 surrounds and comes in contact with the lens housing 5 at this time, it is retracted together with the lens housing 5 due to the slide resistance. The distance of the retraction is restricted by the inner helicoid 6 to be shorter than the lens housing 5. As a result, it comes in contact with the front surface 6e of the inner helicoid 6 on the surface 29g of the disc portion 29a adjacent to the inner helicoid 6. At the time of the telescopic imaging operation, the lens housing 5 protracts from the camera housing through the opening portion formed in the camera housing. At this time, since the light shielding member 29 comes in contact around the outer surface of the lens housing 5, it moves forwards together with the lens housing 5 due to the slide resistance. The distance of the forward movement is restricted by the front cover 30 to be smaller than the lens housing 5. As a result, the light shielding member 29 comes in contact with the inner surface 30c of the side portion 30a of the front cover 30 adjacent to the subject at its side surface 29h adjacent to the portion 30a of the front cover 30 adjacent to the subject. At the time of the telescopic imaging operation, the lens housing 5 moves forwards before the light shielding member 29 comes in contact with the front cover 30. As a result, a gap is formed between the light shielding member 29 and the lens housing 5. Since the cam 8 has three diagonal cam grooves 8b in the circumferential direction and the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 has three rectilinear movement grooves 9a at positions at which the circumference is divided into three sections, light from the above-described gap is able to leak through the above-described grooves. FIG. 8 is a schematic cross sectional view of an example arranged in such a manner that a light shielding member 34 is not provided with a cylindrical portion. Therefore, light diagonally or perpendicularly made incident or dispersed cannot be stopped. As a result, light leakage cannot be prevented. FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view of the light shielding member according to this embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 7, in the light shielding member 29 having the cylindrical portion 29c according to the present invention, the edge 29b of the cylindrical portion 29c is introduced into the gap between the inner helicoid 6 and the front cover 30. Therefore, the diagonal or vertical incident or scattering light with respect to the optical axis is stopped. Therefore, the cylindrical portion 29c must have a size which is sufficient to shield the gap between the inner helicoid 6 and the front cover 30. In the above-described structure, the light shielding member 29 is slidable and comes in contact with the lens housing 5 at a round hole having a relatively smaller diameter. Therefore, it clamps the lens housing 5 with a small constant force without an influence of the eccentricity taken place at the time of the manufacturing or the assembling work. The light shielding member 29 is integrally formed by using rubber of a good quality and a rigid body and the two band portions are formed on the lens housing 5 with respect to the groove. Therefore, it can be elastically deformed by a constant pressure and slide by a small load. The extension portion 27b of the shutter FPC 27 extends along the top surface of the rectilinear movement key 12 toward the rear body 23 from the projection portion 28b formed in the shutter driving member 28 to which an end portion of the shutter FPC 27 is secured. At the end portion of the rectilinear movement key 12, it is disposed upwards in the gap formed in the rectangular groove 12a. Then, it is accommodated in a smooth shape in the space formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23 in such a manner that the deflection portion 27c is not bent. The shutter FPC 27 slides in the rectilinear movement key 12 and the rectangular groove 12a when the lens housing 5 moves forwards/rearwards. At the time of the wide angle imaging operation in which the lens housing 5 is retracted maximum, the shutter FPC 27 is fully expanded in the cross section of space formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23. However, at the time of the telescopic imaging operation in which the lens housing 5 is protracted maximum, the shutter FPC 27 is protracted so that the looseness in the space formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23 is reduced. As shown in FIG. 4 with respect to a cross section of the lens, when the lens barrel is positioned for wide angle shooting, the shutter FPC 27 is accommodated in the interior space of the accommodation chamber 31 formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23 in such a manner as to meander largely as viewed in the cross section. At this time, as in the case of telephoto shooting, the shutter FPC 27 is fixed at the projection 17a, its portion located at the rear of this projection is led between the eave 17e and the FPC limit member 17b and is forced forwardly by the slant surface portion 17c of the FPC limit member 17b, and a force is applied constantly and forwardly to the shutter FPC 27. The shutter FPC 27 is smoothly bent forwardly and downwardly by the slant surface portion 17c, extends forward to a full extent such as to contact the fore wall of the accommodation chamber 31 and then the lower wall, and is then led rearwardly. Since in this case the deflection portion 27c is long, this portion extends rearwardly and fully in the accommodation chamber 31 to reach an upper rear portion of the same and to contact the rear body 23, and is led to the gap of a rectangular groove 12a. When the lens barrel is positioned for telephoto shooting, the shutter FPC 27 is fixed at the projection 17a, its portion located at the rear of this projection is led between the eave 17e and the FPC limit member 17b to be turned downward and is forced forwardly while being further turned by the slant surface portion 17c of the FPC limit member 17b, and a force is applied constantly and forwardly to the shutter FPC 27. The shutter FPC 27 is bent forcibly and smoothly to be turned forwardly and downwardly along a smoothly curved surface of 2 mm or more in terms of radius of curvature of the slant surface portion 17c, but it is led rearwardly without contacting the fore wall of the accommodation chamber 31. Since in this case the deflection portion 27c is short, this portion does not extend fully in the accommodation chamber 31 while extending rearwardly and does not contact the upper rear potion of the rear body 23, and is led to the gap of the rectangular groove 12a. As shown in FIG. 6B with respect to a longitudinal cross section of the lens containing the optical axis, when the power source is turned off, that is, when the lens barrel is retracted to the innermost position, the shutter FPC 27 extends fully in the interior space of the accommodation chamber 31 formed between the front body 17 and the rear body 23 while meandering and folding up several times as viewed in the cross section. At this time, as in the case of telephoto shooting, the shutter FPC 27 is fixed at the projection 17a, its portion located at the rear of this projection is led between the eave 17e and the FPC restraining member 17b and is forced forwardly by the slant surface portion 17c of the FPC limit member 17b, and a force is applied constantly and forwardly to the shutter FPC 27. The shutter FPC 27 is smoothly bent forwardly and downwardly by the slant surface portion 17c, extends forward to a full extent such as to contact the fore wall of the accommodation chamber 31 and then the lower wall, and is then led rearwardly. Since in this case the deflection portion 27c is long, this portion is further bent two times to form a loop without extending straight to the rear, then extends fully to the upper rear portion of the accommodation chamber 31, contacts the rear body 23, and is led to the gap of a rectangular groove 12a. Thus, the formation of a suitable deflected shape enabled by the slanted surface portion 17c of the FPC limit member 17b ensures that even when the power source is turned off and when the greater part of the shutter FPC 27 is retracted in the accommodation chamber 31, the shutter FPC 27 is not sharply bent or twisted and is not reversely turned to the rear. A sufficient space for accommodation of the shutter FPC 27 is thus provided and the shutter FPC 27 can be accommodated regularly. In the case where the number of the lens group exceeds 3, the same effect can, of course, be obtained from a similar structure. In a multifocus lens having no zooming function, the shutter FPC 27 is arranged to be a similar structure and smoothly slides on the rectilinear movement key 12 before it is accommodated in the upper space. According to this embodiment, the structure is arranged in such a manner that the supporting member which comes in contact with the two parallel surfaces of the rectilinear movement key for rectilinearly moving the lens housing is arranged to be a pair of rotatable rollers each of which has a conical surface. Therefore, there is provided a lens driving device which can be suitably provided for a camera the size and the thickness of which are desired to be reduced. Furthermore, since the lens groups are able to smoothly rectilinearly move at the time of changing the focal distance, the deterioration in the image quality due to the defective slide can be prevented and the power consumption can be reduced. In addition, since the front lens housing and the rectilinear movement key are not coupled to each other by using a hole, an eccentric fuzziness due to a catch can be prevented. Furthermore, the accuracy necessary to manufacture the rectilinear movement key and the rollers and the like can be made suitable. In a multifocus lens having no zooming function, the movements of the rectilinear moving lens groups can be smoothly completed with a similar structure. The degree of the parallelism of the two side surfaces of the rectilinear movement key 12 is sufficient if the rotation of the rear rectilinear movement guide cylinder 9 can be restricted and the sliding operation can be performed without occurrence of a looseness and the catch at the time of the rectilinear operation. Therefore, the necessary accuracy level can be lowered. In addition, each of the planes can be dissociated from a plane. According to this embodiment, the light shielding member made of silicone rubber is positioned in contact with the outer surface of the lens housing, and the light leakage due to the eccentricity taken place at the time of the manufacturing or assembling work can be prevented. Furthermore, since the cylindrical portion is provided in its periphery, the diagonal or vertical light incidence can be prevented. In addition, since the light shielding member is integrally formed with a rigid body by using silicone rubber and it slides on the surface having the groove portion and the band portion, the slide resistance can be reduced at the time of the rectilinear movement of the lens housing and the load at the time of driving the lens housing can be also reduced. Furthermore, the manufacturing accuracy for the elements can be made suitable and the assembling of these elements can be easily completed, causing the manufacturing cost to be reduced. According to this embodiment, the light diffusion to the film surface due to the light reflection on the FPC can be prevented and the obstruction of the optical path can be perfectly prevented. Since the FPC can be accommodated in a sufficiently large space and is not bent excessively, the durability can be improved. Furthermore, the marginal space which is provided for mounting the electric elements and which is positioned between the light emitting portion and the light receiving portion of the collimator means and behind the photometry means can be efficiently utilized. Since the necessity of the coating work or the like necessary to prevent the reflection on the FPC can be eliminated, the manufacturing cost can be reduced. Furthermore, in the conventional structure, a member for guiding the FPC must be provided separately from the rectilinear movement key. However, since in the invention the guide member can be arranged to act as the rectilinear movement key, the manufacturing cost can be reduced. According to the present invention, the flexible substrate can be bent in the accommodation chamber outside the rotary member, which chamber has a sufficiently large interior space, and the limit member for always enabling formation of a deflected shape of the flexible substrate limits the direction of deflection of the deflection portion of the shutter FPC connected to the fixed end portion of the same. The deflected portion can therefore be accommodated always regularly at the time of telephoto or wide angle shooting or even in the power-off state. The shutter FPC is free from damage due to forcible bending or the like and is therefore improved in durability. The length of the shutter FPC is limited, which effect enables a reduction in cost. Since the limit member for formation of a deflected shape is formed integrally with the member forming the accommodation chamber, it is improved in accuracy and enables the shutter FPC to be bent smoothly while avoiding any increase in cost. FIGS. 10 to 13 respectively illustrate an embodiment of a collapsible camera with a barrier to which a barrier opening/closing mechanism according to the present invention is applied. First, the schematic structure of the lens housing portion of the camera will be briefly described with reference to FIG. 10. Reference numeral 5 represents a lens housing in which imaging lens groups (omitted from illustration) are included. The lens housing 5 has an inwardly-directed flange 5b formed at its front end portion thereof, the flange 5b having a barrier operation ring 35 and two barriers 36 which can be opened/closed due to the rotation motion of the barrier operation ring 35 in such a manner that the two barriers 36 cover the above-described imaging lens group. The two barriers 36 are disposed in such a manner that they can rotate and swing. Furthermore, the front end portion of each of the barriers 36 is covered by a front ring 37 which is fixed to the lens housing 5 by a screw so that the two barriers 36 are integrally and rotatably fastened in a space in the front end portion of the lens housing 5. The barrier driving ring 35 comprises a cam lever 38 projecting from a portion thereof into the lens housing 5 along the direction of the optical axis of the lens and a spring retainer 35a which projects on the periphery of the same. The barrier driving ring 35 is rotatably disposed in the front cylindrical portion 5c of the lens housing 5. The cam lever 38 is inserted into the lens housing 5 via a circular arc groove 5d formed in the inwards-directed flange 5b in such a manner that the cam lever 38 can be rotated by a predetermined angular degree. A cam surface 39a to be described later is formed at the front end portion of a barrier opening/closing cam 39 which projects along the inner surface of the lens housing 5 in the direction of the optical axis of the lens, the base portion of the barrier opening/closing cam 39 being fixed, by screws, from the back side of a black box 17 which constitutes a portion of the camera housing. The cam surface 39a is arranged so as to confront the cam lever 38. The above-described cam lever 38 and the cam surface 39a are arranged to selectively engage to each other at the time of the protraction/retraction of the lens housing 5. A spring 40 is fitted to the spring retainer 35a of the barrier operating ring 45, the spring 40 always urging the barrier operating ring 45 in the direction (designated by an arrow a) in which the barriers 36 are opened. The other end portion of the spring 40 is fitted to a spring retainer 5e which projects on the inwards-directed flange 5 of the lens housing 5. Reference numeral 5f represents a stop which projects to the inner periphery of the inwards-directed flange 5b and which holds the barrier operating ring 35 while having the barrier operating ring 35 rotatably supported by a guide cylinder portion 5g. Two fastening claws 35b, which are fastened to fastening pins 36b projecting adjacent to rotational shafts 36a which correspond to the inwards-directed flanges 5b of the barriers 36, are disposed at two opposing positions on the outer periphery of the barrier operating ring 35. As a result, the urging force of the spring 40 at the time of the engagement is made to act on the barriers 36. Reference numeral 5h represent bearings of the rotational shafts 36a provided for the inwards-direction flange 5b so that each of the barriers 36 is supported rotatably relative to the above-described bearings 5h. Reference numeral 41 represents coil springs wound around the front portions of the above-described rotational shafts 36a. The coil springs 41 are disposed between the above-described fastening pins 36b and the front cylinder portion 5c of the lens housing 5. As a result, the barriers 36 are urged in the directions designated by arrows b, that is, in the closing direction (see FIGS. 11 and 12). The helicoid 5a, which is engaged to the helicoid 6b formed on the inner surface of the intermediate helicoid 6 which is rotatably supported adjacent to the black box 17, is formed on the outer surface at the rear end of the lens housing 5. Furthermore, the rotational force from an electric motor 42 transmitted via a gear configuration (omitted from illustration) is arranged to be transmitted to the gear portion 6a formed on the outer surface of the intermediate helicoid 6. As a result, the above-described lens housing 5 is protracted/retracted by the engagement of the helicoids 5a and 6b. The lens housing 5 is constituted in such a manner that it does not rotate but only rectilinearly moves by the rectilinear movement guide portion 39b of the barrier opening/closing cam 39. In FIG. 10, reference numeral 43 represents an AF.AE portion formed in the black box 17 and 44 represents a printed circuit board. As shown in FIGS. 14A, 14B and 14C, the lens housing 5 thus constituted is protracted/retracted in a range from a normal imaging state to the collapsible state after a successive retraction with respect to the intermediate helicoid 6 adjacent to the black box 17. The above-described drawings correspond to the positional relationships between the cam lever 38 and the cam surface 39a designated by numerals 1, 2 and 3 shown in FIG. 13. FIG. 14B illustrates the position at which the cam lever 38 engages to the front end portion of the cam surface 39a. The operation of the thus constituted lens housing 5 will be briefly described. When the lens housing 5 is positioned as shown in FIG. 14A, the cam lever 38 is positioned away from the cam surface 39a. At this time, the barriers 36 and the associated elements are positioned as shown in FIG. 11. That is, the coil springs 41 which urge the barriers 36 push the fastening pins 36b in the opening direction and push the fastening claws 35b of the barrier operating ring 35. As a result, a force to rotate the barrier operating ring 35 acts. However, the urging force from the spring 40 is larger, so the barriers 36 maintain its opened state. From this state, a lens housing driving system (the electric motor 42) is operated by control means (omitted from illustration), causing the lens housing 5 to commence to collapse. As a result, the cam lever 38 gradually comes closer to the cam surface 39a of the barrier opening/closing cam 39 until they come in contact with each other and engage to each other. FIGS. 14B and 13 2 respectively show the positional relationship in this state. The further collapse of the lens housing 5 causes the cam lever 38 to move along the cam surface 39a. As a result, the cam lever 38 is, against the urging force of the spring 40, rotated upon receipt of the force applied in the rotational direction. When the degree of the rotation increases, the urging force of the spring 40 is enlarged. As a result, the rotation is then stopped by control means (omitted from illustration) in the final collapse state shown in FIGS. 14C and 13 3. The operation of the barriers 36 due to the action of the cam lever 38 will be described with reference to FIGS. 11 and 12. When the barrier operating ring 35 is rotated due to the engagement of the cam lever 38 to the cam surface 39a, the fastening claws 35b move in the clockwise direction, that is, in the direction in which they separate from the fastening pins 36b. In this state, the urging force from the coil springs 41 acts on the fastening pins 36b. Therefore, the fastening pins 36b move while following the fastening claws 35b. As a result, the barriers 36 are rotated in the closing direction. When the barriers 36 are coupled to each other and the closed state as shown in FIG. 12 is realized, the above-described movement is stopped. On the other hand, the barrier operating ring 35 further rotates by a predetermined angular degree before it stops at the position at which the lens housing 5 is collapsed. When the lens housing 5 is protracted from the collapsed state, the cam lever 38 moves along the cam surface 39a by the urging force of the spring 40. As a result, the barrier operating ring 35 is rotated counterclockwise when viewed in the drawing, causing the fastening claws 35b to be engaged to the fastening pins 36b. The urging force of the coil springs 41 are overcome, causing the barriers 36 to be rotated in the opening direction. Then, the rotation is stopped by the front end cylinder portion 5c of the lens housing 5. This state is designated by the positional relationship shown in FIGS. 11 and 13 2. The lens housing 5 is further protracted until its reaches the position shown in FIG. 14A. The present invention is characterized by the thus constituted barrier opening/closing mechanism arranged in such a manner that the cam surface 39a of the barrier opening/closing cam 39b adjacent to the lens housing 5 which engages to the cam lever 38 for opening/closing the lens protection barriers 36 on the front surface of the imaging lens in accordance with the movement of the cam lever 38 in the optical axis of the lens is, as shown in FIGS. 13, 15A and 15B, arranged in such a manner that the inclination angle θ2 is enlarged in the range in which the urging force of the spring 40 which urges the cam lever 38 in the direction in which the barriers 36 are opened is large. Furthermore, the inclination angle θ1 (<θ2) is reduced in the range in which the above-described urging force is small. The above-described angle enlargement/reduction is realized by the urging force of the spring 40. According to this embodiment, a structure is shown in which the cam surface 39a is composed of curved surface formed by continuously combining curves having different curvatures. According to the above-described structure, in the range in which the urging force of the spring 40 acting on the cam lever 38 is large, the inclination angle θ2 becomes enlarged in the portion in which the barrier opening/closing cam 39 engages to the cam surface 39a. Therefore, the load at the time of rectilinearly moving the lens housing 5 can be reduced. Furthermore, in the range in which the urging force of the spring 40 is small, the inclination angle θ1 is small in the above-described engagement portion. Therefore, the load acting on the lens housing 5 can be made substantially the same as that in the above-described case. As a result, a substantially constant load is able to act on the driving system for rectilinearly moving the lens housing 5 regardless of the magnitude of the urging force of the spring 40 which acts on the cam lever 38. The above-described effect will be described in detail with reference to FIGS. 15A and 15B. As shown in FIG. 15A, force F1 acts on the contact point at which the cam lever 38 engages to the front end of the cam surface 39a, the force F1 acting due to the driving force of the lens housing 5, the urging force from the spring 40 and the frictional force. The force F1 actually acts as load Fa for the lens housing 5 and force Fb which moves the cam lever 38. However, since the magnitude of the urging force of the spring 40 is not considerably large in this state, the cam lever can be easily moved even if the inclination (θ1) of the cam surface 39a and the force Fb are reduced. When collapse commences from the above-described state and the state shown in FIG. 15B is realized, the urging force of the spring 40 becomes enlarged, and force F2 (>F1) acting on the contact point becomes considerably large. However, load Fc (component force in the direction of collapse) of the lens housing 5 can be reduced in this state since the inclination (θ2) of the cam surface 39a has been enlarged. As a result, the load Fc can be made substantially the same as the load Fa shown in FIG. 15A. In this state, force Fd for operating the cam lever 38 has been enlarged so as to overcome the urging force of the spring 40. The conventional structure in which the cam surface of the barrier opening/closing cam 39 is a simple slanted surface (reference numeral 39c) will be briefly described with reference to FIGS. 16, 17A and 17B. During the opening/closing operation of the barriers 36, force P1 acts, due to the driving force of the lens housing, the urging force from the spring 40 and the frictional force, on the contact point at which the cam lever 38 engages to the front end portion of the cam surface 39c. The force P1 actually acts as load Pa of the lens housing 5 and force Pb for operating the cam lever 38. In this state, the quantity of deflection of the spring 40 is not large and the urging force from the same is small. When a state shown in FIG. 17B is realized, the quantity of the deflection of the spring 40 becomes large, causing its urging force to be enlarged. Therefore, the force P2 (>P1) acts as force Pc (>Pa) of the load of the lens housing 5 and force Pd for operating the cam lever 40. Therefore, the undesirable change in the load that takes place in the opening/closing operation of the barriers 36 cannot be prevented. According to the thus constituted conventional structure, the lens housing 5 cannot be moved smoothly. Furthermore, in order to drive the lens housing 5, the driving system including the electric motor 42 must be constituted in such a manner as to provide a force of a level which can operate it on the basis of the maximum load state shown in FIG. 17B. Therefore, the motor 42 and the like must have a large capacity, causing a problem to arise in that a battery will be quickly consumed. Therefore, the effect of the invention can be easily understood. That is, according to the present invention, the structure is constituted in such a manner that the shape of the cam surface 39a of the barrier opening/closing cam 39 is structured as described above. Therefore, the loads Fa and Fc generated due to the engagement of the cam lever 38 to the cam surface 39a can be made uniform and constant over the entire range of the engagement regardless of the magnitude of the urging force of the spring 40 acting on the cam lever 38. Therefore, the rectilinear movement of the lens housing 5 by the lens housing driving system can be made a smooth operation. Furthermore, the generation of vibrations and noise due to the load change that takes place in the above-described lens housing driving system and a mechanism for opening/closing the barriers 36 in synchronization with the lens housing driving system can be prevented. In addition, eccentric wear or the like can be prevented, causing the durability of the overall apparatus to be improved. The present invention is not limited to the above-described embodiments. The shape and structure and the like of the elements of the camera including the lens housing 5 may be optionally varied/modified. For example, according to the above-described embodiments, the cam surface 39a is formed by a curved surface having an inclination obtained from the relationship with the urging force of the spring 40. However, the present invention is not limited to this. For example, a warped surface, a circular arc surface, a parabolic surface or a surface formed by connecting straight lines may, of course, be optionally employed. As described above, in the barrier opening/closing mechanism according to this embodiment, the cam surface of the barrier opening/closing cam adjacent to the camera housing is arranged as follows; The barrier opening/closing cam being arranged to engage to the cam lever, which opens/closes the lens protection barrier disposed on the front surface of the imaging lens, so as to open/close the barrier in accordance with the movement of the cam lever in the direction of the optical axis of the lens. The cam surface is arranged in accordance with the urging force of the spring in such a manner that the inclination angle is enlarged in a range in which the urging force of the spring for urging the cam lever in the direction in which the barrier is opened is large. Furthermore, the inclination angle is reduced in a range in which the urging force is small. Therefore, the load of the cam lever due to the engagement of the barrier opening/closing cam to the cam surface can be substantially uniform over the entire range of the above-described engagement regardless of the magnitude of the urging force of the spring acting on the cam lever. Therefore, the lens housing can be smoothly rectilinearly moved by the lens housing driving system. Furthermore, the generation of vibrations and noise due to the load change that takes place in the above-described lens housing driving system and a mechanism for opening/closing the barriers 36 in synchronization with the lens housing driving system can be prevented. In addition, eccentric wear or the like can be prevented, causing the durability of the overall apparatus to be improved. Although the invention has been described in its preferred forms with a certain degree of particularly, it is understood that the present disclosure of the preferred forms may be changed in the details of construction and the combination and arrangement of parts without departing from the spirit and the scope of the invention as hereinafter claimed.

A camera has a light shielding member surrounding an axially movable lens housing arranged to project through a circular opening in a camera housing. The light shielding member has an annular disc portion with an inner peripheral grooved surface frictionally engaging an outer cylindrical surface of the lens housing. The disc portion is positioned between a transverse inner surface of the camera housing cover and a surface of a helicoid member. At its outer periphery, the light shielding member has a generally cylindrical flange that projects axially between a longitudinal inner surface of the camera housing and the helicoid.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. 119 to Danish application PA 2003 00159 filed on Feb. 5, 2003, and under 35 U.S.C. 119(e)(1) to U.S. Provisional application Ser. No. 60/387,407 filed on Jun. 11, 2002, which are hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a disposable cartridge for characterizing particles suspended in a liquid, especially a self-contained disposable cartridge for single-use analysis, such as for single-use analysis of a small quantity of whole blood. The self-contained disposable cartridge facilitates a straightforward testing procedure, which can be performed by most people without any particular education. Furthermore, the apparatus used to perform the test on the cartridge, could be made simple, light and maintenance free, thus giving full portability and a large range of operation for the user. The invention provides steps for pre-analytic handling of samples such as hemolysing of red blood cells and inactivation of coagulation. 2.Description of the Background Art Present instruments for particle characterization such as counting and sizing are fairly expensive, immobile and require operation by trained personnel. The consequence hereof has been that many instruments are placed in dedicated laboratories that are operated by specialized personnel. Furthermore, the samples to be analysed must be transported to this laboratory and the results are reported back to the requiree. In WO 01/11338, which is hereby incorporated by reference, an apparatus is disclosed for characterizing particles suspended in a liquid, comprising a disposable cartridge and a docking station for removably receiving the cartridge. The cartridge comprises a housing with a first collection chamber bounded by a wall containing an orifice for the passage of the particles and having an inlet/outlet for connection to a source of positive or negative gas pressure, and components of a particle characterization device for characterizing particles passing through the orifice that are connectable from outside the housing. The docking station comprises a port for connection with a source of positive or negative gas pressure and forming a gas connection with the inlet/outlet when the cartridge is received in the docking station, and means for operative connection with the components of a particle characterization device when the cartridge is received in the docking station. In WO 02/089670, which is hereby incorporated by reference, a device for sampling a small and precise volume of liquid is disclosed, comprising a movable member with a cavity for entrapment and displacement of an accurate part of a liquid sample. It is a disadvantage of these prior art devices that several devices are used to perform an analysis, e.g. of a whole blood sample. The sample taking is performed with a separate device, and the sample has to be transferred to another device for sample preparation before it is finally transferred to a sensor for analysis. In WO 99/01742 a disposable sampling device is disclosed for an apparatus for counting particles contained in a liquid. The sampling device is connectable in a defined position to the apparatus. The device has means for introducing a sample therein, means for metering a defined volume of the sample, means containing a defined volume of a diluting liquid, a diluting chamber, means for simultaneously directing the defined volume of sample and the defined volume of diluting liquid to the diluting chamber for obtaining therein a diluted sample, means for directing at least a portion of the diluted sample past particle counting means and signal transmitting means connecting the particle counting means and terminal means located at an outer boundary of the housing in a position corresponding to a location of terminal means of the apparatus when the housing is connected thereto in the defined position. During blood analysis with the device described in WO 99/01742, the blood sample is pumped back and forth several times for dilution, mixing and analysis, and the flow system is closed so that the pressure in the system is increased and decreased above and below, respectively, atmospheric pressure during movement of the sample. Further, sample taking requires pumping with a membrane or another flow actuator causing entrance of blood into the flow system of the device. Thus, the above disclosed flow system is rather complicated. The particle counting is, as described in WO 99/01742, performed in an open-ended tube so that the volume of diluted sample passing the particle counting sensor is very small. The blood analysis, as described in WO 99/01742 does not take into account that particles of different kind and concentration might need pre-analytic separation, decomposition, staining or labeling in order to be accurately recorded by the sensing principle in account. The blood test sequence as described in WO 99/01742 does not take into account that users without prior education herein should be able to learn how to perform this test themselves, i.e. no pre-analytical dilution steps should be required. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Thus, it is an object of the present invention to provide a cartridge for characterizing particles suspended in a liquid that enables sample taking, sample preparation, and particle characterization so that analysis may be performed within one device without a need for sample handling and sample transfer to another unit. It is a further object of the present invention to provide a cartridge that is adapted for single-use to be discarded after analysis of one liquid sample. It is another object of the present invention to provide a cartridge that has a simple flow system. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a flow system in the cartridge communicating with the surroundings so that the pressure in the flow system remains substantially constant at atmospheric pressure. According to the present invention, the above-mentioned and other objects are fulfilled by a cartridge for characterizing particles suspended in a liquid, comprising a housing with a first mixing chamber and a first collection chamber separated by a wall containing an orifice for passage of the particles between the first mixing chamber and the first collection chamber. Particle characterization means are provided for characterizing particles passing through the orifice. Sample taking may be performed through a bore in the outer surface of the housing for entrance of a liquid sample. The housing further comprises a sampling member that is movably positioned in the housing. The sampling member has a first cavity for receiving and holding a small and precise volume of liquid. In a first position of the sampling member, the first cavity is in communication with the bore for entrance of the liquid sample into the first cavity, and, in a second position of the sampling member, the first cavity is in communication with an inlet to the first mixing chamber. Thus, the sampling member operates to receive and hold a precise volume of liquid sample and to transfer the sample to the inlet of the first mixing chamber. Preferably, liquid to be sampled enters the cavities by capillary attraction causing a liquid flow. Utilization of capillary forces simplify the flow system, since no pumps, membranes, syringes or other flow generating means are, in contrast to WO 99/01742, needed to take the sample. Thus, the bore may form a first capillary tunnel for entrance of a liquid sample by capillary attraction. The capillary tunnel is dimensioned so that, upon contact between the bore and liquid to be sampled, a sample of the liquid is drawn into the bore by capillary attraction. Further, the first cavity may form a second capillary tunnel adapted for drawing the liquid sample into the first cavity by capillary attraction. Preferably, the first and second capillary tunnel has the same diameter, and it is also preferred that, in the first position, the first and second capillary tunnel extend along substantially the same longitudinal center axis. Preferably, the sampling member is rotatable about an axis of rotation that is substantially perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the first cavity. Additionally or alternatively, the sampling member may be displaced in a direction substantially perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the first cavity. The surface of the first and second inner capillary tunnel walls may be hydrophilic whereby the capillary attraction of the liquid sample is facilitated. For example, the inner tunnel walls may be made of e.g. glass or polymers, such as polystyrene. Alternatively, the capillary tunnel walls may be made of another type of material and covalently or non-covalently coated with a hydrophilic material, such as a polymer or a reagent. The capillary tunnel may also include one or more reagents adhered or chemically bonded to the inner tunnel wall. These reagents serve the purposes of further facilitating the capillary attraction of the sample and optionally also causing a chemical reaction in the liquid sample, e.g. introducing anticoagulant activity in a blood sample. Such reagents may comprise heparin, salts of EDTA, etc. Preferably, the sampling member is made of a polymer. In accordance with a further aspect of the invention, an apparatus is provided for characterizing particles suspended in a liquid, comprising a cartridge as disclosed herein, and a docking station for removably receiving the cartridge, the docking station comprising connectors for operational connection with the particle characterization means when the cartridge is received in the docking station. The cartridge may further comprise a cartridge port communicating with the first collection chamber for causing a liquid flow through the orifice, and the docking station may further comprise a corresponding port for forming a gas connection with the cartridge port when the cartridge is received in the docking station for application of a pressure causing a liquid flow through the orifice. The particle characterization means may include a first electrode in the first mixing chamber and a second electrode in the first collection chamber, each electrode being electrically connected to a respective terminal member accessible at the outer surface of the cartridge for operational connection to the respective connector of the docking station when the cartridge is received in the docking station. Generally, it is preferred that all necessary electrical and fluid connections to the cartridge can be established by fitting the cartridge into the docking station, preferably by a simple push fit. The first and second electrodes may facilitate particle characterization utilizing the well-known Coulter impedance principle, e.g. for counting and sizing of blood cells. This method has become a globally accepted method and is being used in the majority of haematology-analysers. Several thousand particles per second may be characterized with high precision and accuracy utilizing this principle. With the electrical impedance technique it is possible to resolve the particle volume from the measurement. By maintaining a constant current across the orifice, the recorded voltage pulse from particles displacing the electrolyte in the orifice will have a height proportional to the volume of the particle. This is because particles can be considered non-conducting compared to the electrolyte, the electrical field (DC or RF) in the centre of the orifice is homogeneous, which is normally the case when the diameter D is smaller than the length l of the orifice (I/D>1), the particle d is to be considered small compared to the diameter of the orifice (d<0.2*D), only one particle passes through at a time and the particles are passed through the orifice along the length of the orifice. Normally such apparatus is operated so that the flow through the orifice is into the first collection chamber. Preferably, the length of the orifice is from 1 to 1000 μm, for example about 50 μm. Desirably the length of the orifice is chosen such that only one particle will be present in the orifice at the time when detecting particles of from 0.1 to 100 μm diameter. However, considerations to the homogeneity of the electrical field in the orifice may require a length of the orifice larger or equal to the diameter. The counts, of which some may be simultaneous counting of two particles, can be corrected mathematically by implementing a statistical estimation. The aspect ratio of the orifice, (length or depth divided by diameter) is preferably from 0.5:1 to 5:1, more preferably from 1:1 to 3:1. Preferably, the largest cross-sectional dimension of the orifice is from 5 to 200 μm, for example 10 to 50 μm. As explained above, the present invention provides in preferred aspects a sensor based on a membrane fabricated in e.g. a polymer sheet by laser ablation. The membrane has an orifice placed relatively in the centre of the membrane, which can be used for aspiration of particles suspended in a liquid, as the sensor is submerged into the liquid. This way of transporting particles into a measuring region is known for electrical characterization of particles by the Coulter principle (V. Kachel, “Electrical Resistance Pulse Sizing: Coulter Sizing”, Flow Cytometry and Sorting, 2. ed., pp 80, 1990 Wiley-Liss, Inc.). The cartridge may further comprise a breather inlet/outlet communicating with the surroundings for preservation of substantially ambient atmospheric pressure in the cartridge flow system for facilitation of liquid flow through the orifice. Preferably, the cartridge is designed to be disposable after a single use. It is desirable that after use there is no need to clean the apparatus before it can be used in a new assay procedure with a new cartridge. Accordingly, escape of liquid from the cartridge at its entry into the docking station should be avoided. To this end the positioning of the orifice with respect to the breather inlet/outlet, the second chamber inlet/outlet and the particle characterization device components is preferably such that a volume of liquid sufficient for the desired particle characterization can be drawn or pumped through the orifice without the liquid passing out of the housing. Generally, it should be possible to pass a volume of liquid, which is at least 0.1 ml to 10 ml, e.g. 0.5 ml, through the orifice whilst particle characterization measurements are being made with no liquid leaving the cartridge. The cartridge may comprise volume-metering means for determining the beginning and end of a period during which a predetermined volume of liquid has passed through the orifice. Preferably, the volume metering means comprises a volume-metering chamber with an input communicating with the first collection chamber and an output, and wherein presence of liquid is detected at the input and at the output, respectively. For example, presence of liquid may be detected optically due to changed optical properties of a channel configuration from being filled with air till when it is being filled with liquid. This could be constructed as reflectance or transmittance detection from the surface, where incident light is reflected from an empty channel and transmitted through a filled channel, thus giving a clear shift in the detected reflected or transmitted light. It is preferred that the input and output of the metering chamber is formed by narrow channels for accommodation of only a small liquid volume compared to the volume of the metering chamber so that the actual positioning of the volume metering means, e.g. optical reflectance detection, in the channels do not substantially influence the accuracy of the volume metering means determination. The first mixing chamber or the first collection chamber may constitute the volume metering chamber; however, it is preferred to provide an independent volume metering chamber facilitating positioning of the volume metering means, e.g. the optical reflectance detection. The volume metering means may be positioned for sensing when liquid in the metering chamber is at or above respective levels in the volume-metering chamber. The volume metering means may be used for sensing when the level of the liquid is such that the respective metering means are or are not filled with the liquid and may therefore serve for determining the beginning and end of a period during which a fixed volume of liquid has passed through the orifice. For example, particle characterization may begin when the level of the liquid just rises over the level of a first metering means and may end when the level of the liquid just rises over a second metering means, the volume of liquid passing through the orifice during this period being defined by the separation of the respective metering means. Where the end point of the passage of a defined volume of liquid is the effective emptying of one chamber to below the level of the orifice, it is preferred that each of the collection and first mixing chambers (or at least that chamber from which liquid passes) has a transverse cross sectional area at the level of the orifice which is substantially less than the transverse cross sectional area of the chamber over a substantial part of the height of the chamber above the orifice. According to a further aspect of the present invention a method is provided of operating a particle characterization apparatus comprising a cartridge as disclosed herein, the cartridge being demountable from the apparatus, the method comprising sampling liquid containing particles with the cartridge through the bore with the sampling member in its first position, positioning the cartridge in the apparatus, moving the sampling member to its second position, pumping liquid in the storage chamber through the first cavity and into the first mixing chamber together with the liquid sample, making particle characterizing measurements, disconnecting the cartridge from the apparatus, and discarding the cartridge. Generally, in all embodiments it is preferred that all components, which are wet by the sample in use, are disposable and all non-disposable components can be re-used without cleaning. It is an important advantage of the present invention that means for liquid sample preparation and analysis are integrated into a disposable cartridge. For example, the analytical steps comprise sampling of a precise amount of blood, dilution of the amount of blood and finally mixing the blood with diluent into a homogeneous solution. The analysis may include spectrophotometric analysis of the liquid. Thus, according to the present invention, means are provided for unambiguously making a blood analysis, such as counting the blood cells in a small amount of blood coming from a droplet of capillary blood. Means are provided for taking an exact amount of blood sample, reagents present in the diluent may be added for e.g. dilution and/or chemical preparation of the sample, and the mixed sample and diluent flows through a sensor for analysis of individual blood cells and determination of the volume of the analysed quantum of liquid. As a supplement a spectrophotometric measurement can be performed in order to quantify the content of e.g. haemoglobin. The cartridge may comprise the following parts: 1. A liquid storage chamber 2. A blood-sampling device 3. A first mixing chamber 4. A flow through sensor arrangement 5. A first collection chamber 6. A volume metering arrangement comprised of a chamber and two connected flow channels 7. A hydraulic connection for moving the liquid through the cartridge The concept of the disposable unit can be further combined with the following additional parts: A. Optical structures for optical liquid level measurement B. Electrodes for liquid level measurement C. Anti-coagulation treatment of surfaces D. Reagents in the diluent for modification of e.g. blood cells E. Mixing flee or baffle for assisted mixing F. Multiple volume metering arrangements for altering volumes G. A coating tape covering the sample inlet before use H. A waste chamber for waste/overflow I. A valve preventing liquid to exit through exhaust tube J. An integrated piston or membrane to replace an external source of pressure K. A window for spectrophotometric measurements The liquid storage chamber (part 1) holds the required amount of diluent used for the blood analysis. When the blood has been sampled into the cartridge, the diluent is flushed through the capillary to wash out the sampled blood and dilute it as required by the test. Dilutions of 100 to 100.000 times are considered to be normal ratings and dilutions of 500 to 10.000 times are preferred. The liquid storage chamber should preferably be constructed to facilitate total draining of the chamber. This would be accomplished by having a slanting of the bottom of the chamber. The sampling unit (part 2) may comprise a capillary extending through a movable rod placed in a tight-fitting supporting body. The movable rod is used for entrapment of a precise amount of blood sample. When blood has filled the capillary by capillary forces, the rod is turned and/or displaced from its initial position in the supporting body, thus isolating the part of the capillary that extends through the rod. After moving the rod in the supporting body into its second position the capillary forms a liquid path between the liquid storage chamber and the first mixing chamber (part 3). By applying a low pressure to the first mixing chamber the diluent and blood sample is forced into the first mixing chamber, where mixing will be performed by convection or subsequently by blowing bubbles into the mixing chamber. The flow through sensor arrangement (part 4) is comprised of a small orifice in a membrane that establishes a liquid path from the first mixing chamber to the first collection chamber. On each side of the membrane (in the first mixing chamber and in the first collection chamber) an electrode is placed contacting the liquid. The first collection chamber (part 5) forms a liquid priming function of the backside of the sensor system. The volume metering system (part 6) is necessary for determination of the cell concentration. It comprises volume-metering chamber of a known volume with two relatively thin channels connecting the inlet at the bottom and the outlet at the top. Sensing of the liquid at the inlet and outlet can be applied by optical or electrical means. The outlet of the volume metering system is connected through a channel (part 7) to a source of pressure for moving the liquid through the cartridge. The additional parts to the concept are further described here: Addition A: Optical detection by change of optical properties of a channel such as changed reflectance or transmittance due to replacement of air with liquid in the channel. The surface over the inlet and outlet of the volume-metering cell should be structured to optimize the coupling of the light into the channel. The presence of liquid in a transparent polymer channel will result in a transmission of the signals as opposed to a reflection when no liquid is present, which can be registered by optical sensors. Addition B: Two electrodes for liquid level measurement are connected through the body of the cartridge into the inlet and outlet of the volume-metering cell respectively. The electrodes will be short-circuited through the saline liquid to the electrode placed in the first collection chamber, which can be registered through an external electrical arrangement. Addition C: The anti-coagulation treatment of surfaces in the sampling structure can be achieved by having selected compounds adhered or chemically bonded to these surfaces. Examples of such compounds are heparin and salts of EDTA. Addition D: Reagent in the diluent for modification of e.g. blood cells. This reagent can consist of one or several compounds capable of hemolysing the erythrocytes. In addition other compounds may be added in order to: stabilize leukocytes and/or thrombocytes, adjust the pH-value and osmotic pressure, minimize bacterial growth, modify the haemoglobin present and minimize batch to batch variations. The following examples have been included to provide information on relevant subjects related to the performance of a self-contained test cartridge. Examples of compounds capable of selectively hemolysing the red blood cells are: mixtures of quaternary ammonium salts as described in e.g. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,485,175; 4,346,018; 4,745,071; 4,528,274; and 5,834,315. Examples of compounds capable of, during the hemolysis of the red blood cells, stabilizing the leukocytes are N-(1-acetamido)iminodiacetic acid, procaine hydrochloride as described in e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 4,485,175 and 1,3-dimethylurea as described in e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 4,745,071. In addition N-(1-acetamido)iminodiacetc acid is proposed to further assist the quaternary ammonium salts in minimizing debris stemming from hemolysed red blood cells as described in e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 4,962,038 and adjust the pH-value (see below). Examples of compounds added in order to adjust the pH-value and not least importantly the osmotic pressure of the diluent are: N-(1-acetamido)iminodiacetic acid, sodium chloride, sodium sulphate as described in e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 4,485,175 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,962,038. Examples of compounds capable of minimizing bacterial growth are: 1,3-dimethylolurea and chlorhexidine diacetate as described in e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 4,962,038. Examples of compounds added to convert the hemoglobin species to an end-product suitable for spectrophotometric analysis are: potassium cyanide as described in e.g. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,485,175; 4,745,071; 4,528,274 and tetrazole or triazole as described in WO 99/49319. Examples of particles or compounds which may be added in order to introduce a tool for minimizing variation between different batches of the disposable device are: latex beads of known size and glass beads of known size. Addition E: If assisted mixing is required the first mixing chamber might optionally include a mixing flee or a baffle. A magnetic flee may be used to force the convection through an externally moving magnetic field. A baffle may be used to mechanically stir the liquid when moved by an externally connecting mechanical device. This could be required if mixing with bubbles, such as bubbles blown into the sample through the sensor, is not adequate or possible. Addition F: Multiple volume metering arrangements can be successively included if the test must deal with different concentrations of the different particles. Addition G: A lid or coating tape may be used to cover the sample inlet before use. This ensures a clean sampling area at the origination of the test. Addition H: A waste chamber may be applied at the outlet of the volume-metering cell for waste or overflow of liquid. Addition I: At any connection ports, e.g. the connection port to the pressure source, a small valve can be integrated to prevent liquid to leak out of the cartridge. Addition J: A piston or membrane can be integrated into the cartridge to include a source of pressure for moving the liquid. The piston or membrane could be moved by a mechanical force provided by the instrument. Addition K: An optical window can be integrated into the cartridge in order to perform optical measurements such as spectrophotometric detection of the haemoglobin content in a blood sample. The methods described can be combined to give the best solution for the final application. The disposable sensor is particularly usable where portable, cheap, simple or flexible equipment is needed, such as in small laboratories, in measurements in the field or as a “point of care” (“near-patient”) diagnostic tool. When using the Coulter principle the diluent for use in the apparatus according to the invention may contain inorganic salts rendering the liquid a high electrical conductivity. When sample is applied to the electrolyte, the electrolyte to sample volumes should preferably be higher than 10. Sample preparation should preferably result in between 1.000 to 10.000.000 particles per ml and more preferably between 10.000 and 100.000 particles per ml. A mixing of the sample after adding electrolyte is recommended. Particle diameters should preferably be within 1 to 60 percent of the orifice diameter and more preferably between 5 to 25 percent of the orifice diameter. Volume flow should preferably be from 10 μl to 10 ml per minute and more preferably between 100 μl and 1 ml per minute. For the measurement a constant electrical current of approximately 1 to 5 mA should preferably be applied. The source of electrical current should preferably have a signal to noise ratio (S/N) better than 1.000. The response from the electrodes can be filtered electronically by a band-pass filter. According to yet another aspect of the invention a cartridge is provided comprising a housing with a first mixing chamber and a first collection chamber separated by a wall containing a first orifice for the passage of the particles between the first mixing chamber and the first collection chamber, first particle characterization means for characterizing particles passing through the first orifice, a bore in the outer surface of the housing for entrance of the liquid sample, communicating with a first sampling member positioned in the housing for sampling the liquid sample and having a first cavity for receiving and holding the liquid sample, the member being movably positioned in relation to the housing in such a way that, in a first position, the first cavity is in communication with the bore for entrance of the liquid sample into the first cavity, and, in a second position, the first cavity is in communication with the first mixing chamber for discharge of the liquid sample into the first mixing chamber. The cartridge may further comprise a second mixing chamber and a second collection chamber separated by a second wall containing a second orifice for the passage of the particles between the second mixing chamber and the second collection chamber, second particle characterization means for characterizing particles passing through the second orifice. In one embodiment of the invention, the first cavity is in communication with the first mixing chamber, when the first sampling member is in its first position, for entrance of liquid from the first mixing chamber into the first cavity, and, in a third position of the first sampling member, the first cavity is in communication with the second mixing chamber for discharge of the liquid in the first cavity into the second mixing chamber. In another embodiment of the invention, the cartridge further comprises a second sampling member positioned in the housing for sampling a small and precise volume of liquid from the first mixing chamber and having a second cavity for receiving and holding the sampled liquid, the member being movably positioned in relation to the housing in such a way that, in a first position, the second cavity is in communication with the first mixing chamber for entrance of liquid from the first mixing chamber into the first cavity, and, in a second position, the second cavity is in communication with the second mixing chamber for discharge of the sampled liquid in the second cavity into the second mixing chamber. The cartridge may further comprise a reagent chamber positioned adjacent to the first mixing chamber for holding a reagent to be entered into the first mixing chamber. Preferably, the cartridge further comprises a breakable seal separating the reagent chamber from the first mixing chamber. With this embodiment, different chemical treatment of different parts of the liquid sample may be performed. Also with this embodiment, further dilution of the liquid sample may be performed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be further described and illustrated with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 shows a cross sectional side view through the components of a disposable unit 85 , referred to as the cartridge, FIG. 2 shows the flow-through sensor concept FIG. 3 comprises an apparatus based on the disposable cartridge, a docking station 66 and a reader 74 , FIG. 4 shows the cartridge with a build in piston, FIG. 5 schematically illustrates the sampling procedure, FIG. 6 is a plot of results obtained in Example 1, FIG. 7 is a plot of results obtained in Example 2, FIG. 8 is a plot of results obtained in Example 3, FIG. 9 is a plot of results obtained in Example 4, FIG. 10 is a plot of results obtained in Example 5, FIG. 11 is a schematic illustration of the cartridge and hydraulic connections in example 6, FIG. 12 is a plot of the process described in example 7, FIG. 13 is a plot of the process described in example 8, FIG. 14 shows schematically a second embodiment of the cartridge, FIG. 15 shows schematically a third embodiment of the cartridge, and FIG. 16 shows in perspective an apparatus according to the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 A disposable cartridge with a housing 85 for blood analysis comprises a liquid storage chamber 1 containing a liquid diluent 11 , a first sampling member 2 positioned in the housing 85 for sampling a blood sample 8 and having a cavity 10 for receiving and holding the blood sample 8 , the member 2 being movably positioned in relation to the housing 85 in such a way that, in a first position, the cavity 10 is in communication with a bore 90 for entrance of the blood sample 8 into the cavity 10 by capillary forces, and, in a second position, the cavity 10 is in communication with the liquid storage chamber 1 and a mixing chamber 3 for discharge of the blood sample 8 diluted by the liquid diluent 11 into the mixing chamber 3 . The mixing chamber 3 is separated by a wall containing an orifice 59 from and a collection chamber 5 for the passage of the blood sample 8 between the mixing chamber 3 and the collection chamber 5 . The wall containing the orifice 59 constitutes a part of a flow-through sensor 4 . A volume metering arrangement is connected to the collection chamber comprising a volume metering chamber 6 having the size of the volume to be measured during the measurement with two connecting channels 12 , 13 of relatively diminutive internal volumes for registering liquid entry and exit by optical or electrical means, from the volume metering chamber a channel 7 leads out to a connection port 67 where a pressure can be applied. FIG. 2 The flow-through sensor 4 has a dividing wall 91 with a relatively narrow orifice 59 for the passage of particles suspended in liquid. The orifice serves as a sensing zone for detection and measurement of the individual cells. The orifice in the sensor may be formed as a count orifice for counting and sizing particles by an impedance method known as Coulter counting. Particles can be aspirated through the orifice by pressure driven flow in either direction. When a saline or other electrolytic liquid solution is added to the chambers, the two chambers will be electrically isolated from each other except for the route for current flow provided by the passage through the orifice. FIG. 3 The chambers on each side of the flow through sensor may have electrodes 34 , 35 extending from an external terminal 61 , 62 through the base wall 63 of the disposable unit and into a configuration facing the inside of its respective chamber. The cartridge is placed in a docking station 66 in a portable apparatus in order to carry out the test. The docking station 66 has a cup shaped housing having a base 70 and a circumambient sidewall 71 . In the base 70 there are respective spring loaded electrical connectors 64 , 65 for contacting the terminals 61 , 62 of the cartridge automatically when the cartridge is received as a push fit into the docking station. There is also a conduit 68 passing through the base wall 70 aligned with the conduit 67 of the cartridge. Conduit 67 at its opening into the upper face of the wall 70 has a seal 69 , such as e.g. an O-ring for forming a gas tight connection with the lower face of the base wall 63 of the cartridge. A vacuum pump 72 is connected by a line 73 to the lower end of the conduit 68 . In a modification of the apparatus, the vacuum pump 72 can be reversed so as to apply positive gas pressure to the conduit 68 . Schematically indicated at 74 are the further conventional components of a Coulter counter including all the electronic circuitry and display equipment needed for the operation of the apparatus. A general perspective view of the cartridge and reader is shown in FIG. 16 . FIG. 4 As an alternative to the gas pump a piston 9 could be build into the cartridge for directly appliance of a negative or positive pressure. FIG. 5 FIG. 5 schematically illustrates the blood sampling operation. The illustrated part of the cartridge 2 includes the liquid storage chamber 83 for storing a diluent for diluting the sample and the first mixing chamber 77 for mixing the sample 84 and the diluent. This figure schematically illustrates a device for sampling a small and accurate volume of liquid in accordance with the present invention. The device 10 comprises a first member 86 with a first opening 87 for entrance of a liquid sample into a bore 75 in the first member 86 and with a second opening 76 for outputting the liquid sample from the bore 75 . The bore 75 forms a capillary tunnel. The first opening 87 of the first member 86 may be brought into contact with a liquid 8 (shown in FIG. 1 ), 84 to be sampled so that the liquid 84 may flow through the first opening 87 into the bore 75 and out of the second opening 76 by capillary attraction. The device 12 further comprises a sampling member 78 with a first cavity 82 for receiving and holding the liquid sample 84 and having a third opening 88 communicating with the first cavity 82 . The first cavity forms a capillary tunnel with essentially the same diameter as the bore 75 . The sampling member 78 is a circular cylinder that is movably positioned in relation to the first member 86 . During sampling of the liquid, the sampling member 78 is positioned in the illustrated first position in relation to the first member 86 wherein the second opening 76 is in communication with the third opening 88 so that sampled liquid may flow through the second 76 and third opening 88 into the first cavity 82 by capillary attraction. The third opening 88 may be disconnected from the second opening 76 in a second position of the sampling member 78 in relation to the first member 86 so that the liquid sample 84 contained in the first cavity 82 is disconnected from the bore 75 . The sampling member 78 is inserted into a third cavity of the first member 86 for receiving and accommodating a part of the sampling member 78 . The sampling member 78 may be displaced between the first and second position along a longitudinal axis of the sampling member 78 that is also substantially perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the first cavity 82 . The sampling member 78 may also be rotatable about a longitudinal axis that is substantially perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the first cavity 82 . In the first position, the first 75 and second 82 capillary tunnels extend along substantially the same longitudinal center axis. In the illustrated embodiment the first member 86 is symmetrical and has a fourth cavity 80 with openings 81 , 79 opposite the bore 75 , and the sampling member 78 has an opening 89 opposite the opening 88 so that, in the first position, a capillary tunnel extends through the first 86 and the second 78 member and communicates with the environment through openings 87 , 79 . Thus, air may escape from the capillary tunnel through opening 79 . Further, in the first position, a part of the liquid entering the first cavity 82 will leave the cavity 82 through opening 89 thereby ensuring that the cavity 82 has been completely filled with liquid during liquid sampling eliminating the risk of sampling with a reduced sample volume leading to low accuracy sampling. FIG. 5 a illustrates the device 2 ready for receiving the liquid. In FIG. 5 b , a sample has entered into the capillary tunnel 82 , and in FIG. 5 c the sampling member 78 has been rotated into the second position for isolation of an accurate volume of the sample 84 , and finally FIG. 5 d illustrates that the sample 84 has been washed out of the capillary tunnel 82 and into the first mixing chamber 77 by the diluent. Example The capillary tunnel forming the first cavity 82 may have a length of 8 mm and a diameter of 0.9 mm for containing a liquid sample of 5.089 μL. Example The capillary tunnel forming the first cavity 82 may have a length of 5 mm and a diameter of 0.5 mm for containing a liquid sample of 0.982 μL. Example The capillary tunnel forming the first cavity 82 may have a length of 3 mm and a diameter of 0.3 mm for containing a liquid sample of 0.212 μL. FIG. 6 Example 1 Sizing of Polymer Beads A mixture of 5 μm and 10 μm particles suspended in electrolyte was aspirated through the orifice of the apparatus shown in FIG. 3 . The numbers of particles detected and the size of each detected particle were recorded. A bimodal distribution of detected particle size is clearly seen in FIG. 6 . FIG. 7 Example 2 Red Blood Cell Counting Measurement of blood cells has been performed and the result is shown in FIG. 7 . Red blood cells are normally around 5 to 7 μm in diameter and are the most frequent in whole blood, as can be seen on the FIG. 7 . The distribution is a Gaussian curve, as it should be expected. Blood counts can be used in clinical diagnostics. It is fairly simple to count erythrocytes, leukocytes and thrombocytes by impedance measurements, which are considered the basic parameters for haematology (see “Fundamentals of Clinical Haematology”, Stevens, W.B. Saunders Company, ISBN 0-7216-4177-6). FIG. 8 Example 3 White Cell Counting using a Diluent Containing a Reagent-Composition Selected so as to Preserve all Blood Cells Material Cartridge and apparatus containing the functions as described in the present invention, Isoton, Beckman Coulter (prod. no. 24655) containing: sodium chloride 7.9 g/L, potassium chloride 0.4 g/L, disodiumhydrogenphosphate 1.9 g/l, sodiumdihydrogenphosphate 0.2 g/L, disodium-EDTA 0.4 g/L and sodium fluoride 0.3 g/L. Vacutainer, K3E, Becton & Dickinson, prod. No. 367652. Bayer, ADVIA-120 equipment. Performance The full sequence of the procedure was as follows: Collection of a venous blood sample in a vacutainer tube. Leaving the sample, for the sedimentation process to proceed, for three hours. Extraction the plasma phase with the major part of the buffy-coat section included Performing analysis using the Bayer Advia 120 equipment for obtaining a comparative value for the content of leukocytes. Adding 5.00 ml isoton solution as diluent to the chamber of the test rig Adding 10.0 μl of sample to the chamber Mixing liquids in the chamber Starting test sequence on the computer (starts the pump and readies the sampling) When the liquid reaches the first level electrode sampling is started When the liquid reaches the second level electrode the sampling is stopped Sampled values are saved in a file The file is opened with a “pulse-viewer” for data analyzing and calculation of the result using a method of calculation involving subtraction of, with the leukocytes overlapping red blood cells. Results Bayer Advia-120: 11.96×10^9 leukocytes/L Test-rig: 11.92×10^9 leukocytes/L Difference in accuracy: (11.96−11.92)/11.96=0.33% FIG. 9 Example 4 White Cell Isolation using a Diluent Containing a Reagent Composition Selected so as to Primarily Hemolyse the Red Blood Cells Material Cartridge and apparatus containing the functions as described in the present invention, Diluent containing: procaine hydrochloride 0.10 g/L, 1,3-dimethylolurea 0.90 g/L, N-(1-acetamido)iminodiacetic acid 1.28 g/L, dodecyltrimethyl ammonium chloride 7.51 g/L and sodium chloride 0.03 g/L. Vacutainer, K3EDTA, Becton & Dickinson, prod. No. 367652. Performance The full sequence of the procedure was as follows: Collection of a venous blood sample in a vacutainer tube. Leaving the sample, for the sedimentation process to proceed, for three hours. Extraction the plasma phase with the major part of the buffy-coat section included Adding 2.000 ml diluent as described above to the chamber of the test rig Adding 4.0 μl of sample to the chamber Mixing liquids in the chamber Starting test sequence on the computer (starts the pump and readies the sampling) When the liquid reaches the first level electrode sampling is started When the liquid reaches the second level electrode the sampling is stopped Sampled values are saved in a file The file is opened with a “pulse-viewer” for data analyzing and generation of the result. Results As can be seen in the histogram in FIG. 6 the particle population corresponding to the leukocytes is easily identified in the absence of the red blood cells. FIG. 10 Example 5 Counting Somatic Cells Milk quality is essential for farmers, diary producers and consumers. Farmer has to deliver milk of a certain quality, which is controlled by the so-called Somatic Cell Count (SCC). In milk quality tests somatic cells in the milk are counted to determine infections (clinical mastitis). A limit of 400.000 cells pr. ml. has to be met by the farmers for dairy resale. Change of diet, stress or mastitis lead to higher SCC levels, thus lowering the quality of the milk and consequently lowering the price per unit volume. A cheap cell counter will help farmers and diary producers monitor SCC-level. FIG. 11 Example 6 A Blood Diagnostic System This is an example of a 3 part differential white blood cell count (monocytes, lymphocytes, granulocytes), thrombocytes count and haemoglobin measurement and the corresponding instrumentation and cartridge realized through the present invention. A three-part differentiation of white blood cells, thrombocyte counter with measurement of haemoglobin can be achieved with the specified components. A reagent for selectively lysing red blood cells is added to the diluent in the storage chamber 1 . When the whole blood 8 is added to the opening 58 of the first capillary section 15 , the blood will be dragged in to the capillary and through the middle section 10 and last section 14 of the capillary. The last section of the capillary is connected to a fill-chamber 43 for visually verification of the filling. The fill-chamber 43 is connected through a conduct 44 to open air. The blood filled middle section of the capillary is part of a knob 2 that can be moved to a second position, connecting the ends of the capillary to two other conducts, a conduct 45 connected to the storage chamber 1 and a second conduct 40 connected to the first mixing chamber 3 respectively. A third conduct 39 is leading from the first mixing chamber to a port opening 42 in the cartridge. The port opening is connected through a counter port opening 37 in the apparatus, through a tubing 46 to a three-position valve 51 and directed through the two positions of the valve to open air through a second tubing 55 or through a third tubing 50 to the suction port of a membrane pump 47 . When the blood and diluent with reagent has been sucked into the first mixing chamber, the blood can be mixed by blowing bubbles through the orifice of the sensor 4 . The air pressure is applied through the collection chamber 5 , via a fourth conduct 12 A, a small volume chamber 6 A, a fifth conduct 12 B, a large volume chamber 6 B and a sixth conduct 7 directed to an opening port 41 in the cartridge. A counter port 36 in the apparatus is connected through a fourth tubing 48 to a second three position valve 52 , which has positions to direct to both vacuum through a fifth tubing 56 to the suction port of the membrane pump, or to the exhaust of the membrane pump, through a third two position valve 53 and a sixth tubing 49 , the third valve having two positions for the connection and for directing the pump exhaust to open air through a seventh tubing 54 respectively. After mixing the diluted and lysed blood (red blood cells is removed) it is ready to be measured. The first mixing chamber is connected through the first valve to open air and the collection chamber is connected through the second valve to the suction port of the pump. The exhaust of the membrane pump is connected through the third valve to open air. As the blood and diluent flows from the first mixing chamber into the collection chamber, an electrical connection between to counter electrodes 34 and 35 placed in each chamber is established through the liquid. Cells are counted and differentiated by size by the Coulter principle. Through sizing of the cells, the cells can be distinguished and categorised into different groups containing cells of a certain type. Thus white blood cells (leucocytes) can be differentiated into granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes. Furthermore, thrombocytes (platelets) can be differentiated from leucocytes as well. In order to determine the concentration, the volume of the diluted blood, which has been counted, must be known. Since thrombocytes are approximately ten times as frequent as leucocytes, it may be necessary to measure two different volumes. The thrombocytes are counted according to a small volume chamber 6 A positioned between the collection chamber and the larger volume. By registering the liquid entry and exit at the inlet and outlet of the small volume chamber respectively, the counting period will be given. Registration of the liquid level is preferably done by an optical reflectance measurement at the inlet 33 and at the outlet 32 . The outlet of the small volume chamber is also the inlet of the large volume chamber 6 B. This chamber is used in connection with counting of leucocytes. At the outlet of the large volume chamber, a third optical reflectance measurement 31 is performed to register the exit of the liquid from this chamber. After counting both leucocytes and thrombocytes the haemoglobin content can be measured by optical spectroscopy preferably through the middle section of the large volume chamber 30 . Process of the test (example 6): The process of making a test by means of the present invention can be characterized as: 1) Draw blood by using a lancet device 2) Pick up blood droplet by touching the blood to the cartridge inlet 3) Mount cartridge in the instrument (instrument starts and runs the test) 4) Read the result from the display 5) Remove and discard cartridge FIG. 12 Example 7 Photolithography An orifice may suitably be formed in a photo-reactive polymer by photolithography and subsequent development. Thus a free standing sheet of polymer of the kind used conventionally as a photo resist material may be exposed to light to render a spot to soluble to define an orifice (or to render the non-spot forming areas in-soluble) followed by development with solvent to remove material to form the orifice. Normally, a large number of count wafers each containing a respective orifice will be made simultaneously in one sheet. Suitable photo resist polymers are described in e.g. M. Madou “Fundamentals of Micro fabrication, CRC Press LLC, 1997, ISBN 0-8493-9451-1. They include AZ-5214E, SU8, polyamides and others. Alternatively, the photo resist polymer may be used as a protecting layer over a substrate such as silicon in which the orifice is formed by etching regions exposed by development of the photo resist. If the etched substrate is electrically conducting it may be insulated prior to use by the formation of a suitable insulating layer there over. The photo resist polymer may be used as such a layer. Count wafers made lithographically may be used in all forms of apparatus and method according to this invention. FIG. 12 shows one process of fabricating the count wafer: (a) appliance of a thin sheet of photo resist. (b) Development of the mask. (c) Etching of the orifice by Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE, M. Madou “Fundamentals of Micro fabrication, CRC Press LLC, 1997, ISBN 0-8493-9451-1). FIG. 13 Example 8 Orifice Fabricated by Laser Micro Machining Orifices for Coulter counting can be fabricated by laser micro machining of polymers, which could lead to a simple and convenient way of fabricating and assembling orifices for the cartridge. A series of small holes of 50 μm has been fabricated with an UV-laser. The holes are made in less than 1 ms in a 50 μm polymer sheet. The uniformity of the holes is very high and the smoothness of the orifice entrance is unique. FIG. 13 shows the process of laser machining of the orifice. The laser cuts through the polymer foil in a circle, thus defining the size of the orifice. FIG. 14 FIG. 14 shows schematically a preferred embodiment of the cartridge according to the invention. The illustrated cartridge has a first member 104 for sampling blood. The member 104 is movably positioned in relation to the housing between three positions, a first position for blood sampling, a second position to connect the first storage chamber 103 with the first mixing chamber 112 , and a third position to connect the second storage chamber 105 with the second mixing chamber 110 . The blood is passed through the bore 122 into the first cavity of the member 104 by capillary forces or by applying a vacuum at the end of the sampling channel 111 . A liquid blocking valve 116 is arranged after the first sampling member to hinder passage of blood through the channel. After the blood sampling, the sampling member is turned to the second position and the sample is flushed into the first mixing chamber 112 by the liquid in the first storage chamber 103 . In the first mixing chamber 112 the sample is diluted 1:200 with the liquid in the first storage chamber 103 and a fraction is blown back into the first cavity of the sampling member 104 , which is turned to the third position so that the diluted sample is flushed into the second mixing chamber 110 by the liquid in the second storage chamber 105 . In the second mixing chamber 110 the sample is further diluted 1:200 to a total dilution of 1:40.000 with the liquid in the second storage chamber 105 . A hemolysing reagent is injected into the first mixing chamber 112 by a piston 115 , which breaks a seal 118 between a reagent chamber 119 and the first mixing chamber 112 . After hemolysing the blood the 1:200 diluted sample is ready for counting non-hemolysed white blood cells and for measuring hemoglobin by photometry. The white cells are counted by passing them through a first orifice 113 and measuring the response by impedance cell counting over a first electrode pair 117 , 120 . A fixed volume is counted by a first volume metering arrangement 107 connected to the first collection chamber 114 . A first overflow volume 106 is arranged after the first volume metering arrangement 107 . The white blood cells can be differentiated by volume after adding the lysing reagent to the blood. The white cells can be grouped by volume into: Granulocytes, Monocytes and Lymphocytes. The three groups together yield the total white cell count. In the second mixing chamber 110 , red cells and platelets are counted. The red cells and platelets are counted by passing them through a second orifice 109 and measuring the response by impedance cell counting over a second electrode pair 121 , 125 . A fixed volume is counted by a second volume metering arrangement 101 connected to the second collection chamber 108 . A second overflow volume 102 is placed after the second volume metering arrangement 101 . The embodiment may further comprise an additional optical detector for photometric determination of the hemoglobin content. Referred to simply as “total hemoglobin”, this test involves lysing the erythrocytes, thus producing an evenly distributed solution of hemoglobin in the sample. The hemoglobin is chemically converted to the more stable and easily measured methemoglobintriazole-complex, which is a colored compound that can be measured calorimetrically, its concentration being calculated from its amount of light absorption using Beer's Law. The method requires measurement of hemoglobin at approx. 540 nm where the absorption is high with a turbidity correction measurement at 880 nm where the absorption is low. FIG. 15 FIG. 15 shows schematically another preferred embodiment of the cartridge according to the invention. The illustrated cartridge has a first member 104 for sampling blood. The member 104 is movably positioned in relation to the housing 100 between two positions, a first position for blood sampling, and a second position to connect the first storage chamber 103 with the first mixing chamber 112 . A blood sample is passed through the bore 122 into the first cavity of the member 104 by capillary forces or by applying a vacuum at the end of the sampling channel 111 . A liquid blocking valve 116 is arranged after the first sampling member to hinder passage of blood through the channel. After the blood sampling, the sampling member is turned to the second position and the sample is flushed into the first mixing chamber 112 by the liquid in the first storage chamber 103 . In the first mixing chamber 112 the sample is diluted 1:200 with the liquid in the first storage chamber 103 . The cartridge further comprises a second sampling member 123 positioned in the housing 100 for sampling a small and precise volume of liquid from the first mixing chamber 112 and having a second cavity 123 for receiving and holding the sampled liquid, the member 123 being movably positioned in relation to the housing 100 in such a way that, in a first position, the second cavity 123 is in communication with the first mixing chamber 112 for entrance of a diluted sample from the first mixing chamber 112 into the second cavity 123 , and, in a second position, the second cavity 123 is in communication with the second mixing chamber 110 so that the diluted sample is flushed into the second mixing chamber 110 by the liquid in the second storage chamber 105 . In the second mixing chamber 110 the sample is further diluted 1:200 to a total dilution of 1:40.000 with the liquid in the second storage chamber 105 . A hemolysing reagent is injected into the first mixing chamber 112 by a piston, which breaks a seal between a reagent chamber and the first mixing chamber 112 . The piston, seal and reagent chamber are not shown in FIG. 15 . After hemolysing the blood the 1:200 diluted sample is ready for counting non-hemolysed white blood cells and for measuring hemoglobin by photometry. The white cells are counted by passing them through a first orifice 113 and measuring the response by impedance cell counting over a first electrode pair 117 , 120 . A fixed volume is counted by a first volume metering arrangement 107 connected to the first collection chamber 114 . A first overflow volume 106 is arranged after the first volume metering arrangement 107 . The white blood cells can be differentiated by volume after adding the lysing reagent to the blood. The white cells can be grouped by volume into: Granulocytes, Monocytes and Lymphocytes. The three groups together yield the total white cell count. In the second mixing chamber 110 , red cells and platelets are counted. The red cells and platelets are counted by passing them through a second orifice 109 and measuring the response by impedance cell counting over a second electrode pair 121 , 125 . A fixed volume is counted by a second volume metering arrangement 101 connected to the second collection chamber 108 . A second overflow volume 102 is placed after the second volume metering arrangement 101 . The embodiment may further comprise an additional optical detector for photometric determination of the hemoglobin content. Referred to simply as “total hemoglobin”, this test involves lysing the erythrocytes, thus producing an evenly distributed solution of hemoglobin in the sample. The hemoglobin is chemically converted to the more stable and easily measured methemoglobintriazole-complex, which is a colored compound that can be measured calorimetrically, its concentration being calculated from its amount of light absorption using Beer's Law. The method requires measurement of hemoglobin at approx. 540 nm where the absorption is high with a turbidity correction measurement at 880 nm where the absorption is low.

A disposable cartridge for characterizing particles suspended in a liquid, especially a self-contained disposable cartridge for single-use analysis, such as for single-use analysis of a small quantity of whole blood. The self-contained disposable cartridge facilitates a straightforward testing procedure, which can be performed by most people without any particular education. Furthermore, the apparatus used to perform the test on the cartridge is simple, maintenance free, and portable.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/208,264 entitled “PROTECTIVE MATERIAL APPLICATOR DEVICE” filed on Aug. 11, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,393,377, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/053,081 entitled “PROTECTIVE MATERIAL APPLICATOR DEVICE” filed on Mar. 21, 2011, which in turn claims the benefit of and the priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/444,597 filed on Feb. 18, 2011. The entire contents of all of these applications are hereby incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND 1. Field The present invention relates to an apparatus, method and/or system for applying a protective material or layer to a surface of a device. For example, the present invention may allow a user to apply a protective material or layer to the surface or screen of an electronic device. 2. Description of Related Art Electronic devices such as cellular phones, portable tablet computers and the like are gaining widespread popularity. For example, the Apple® iPhone® is estimated to reach 100 million users by the end of 2011. In addition, almost 15 million Apple® iPads® have been sold to date. The sheer volume of electronic devices sold by other major competitors such as Motorola®, Samsung®, HTC®, etc. only further confirms that consumers find these products very desirable. It should not come as a surprise that these same consumers want to protect their products from accidental denting, scratching or otherwise damaging these electronic devices. Accordingly, manufacturers have produced different cases, protective films and the like to help the consumer keep their electronic devices safe. However, with the progress of touch-based screens for operating these electronic devices, thick cases might not be suitable, as these cases may prevent the user from operating the device. Accordingly, many manufacturers are now producing clear films that keep, for example, the display of the electronic device clean while at the same time protecting the screen from accidental damage such as scratching. Despite the benefits that these films or screen protectors provide, many drawbacks remain in this relatively new technology. For example, many of these protectors require the use of a wet fluid solution to enable the film to adhere to the electronic device. Using a wet fluid solution is messy, requires a lot of work by the user to “squeegee” the excess out, and might not eliminate all annoying air bubbles immediately. Indeed, many of these products warn that 24-48 hours may be needed before the user can effectively determine if the trapped air bubbles are going to disappear. In other words, some consumers may have to wait for days before determining if the film was applied correctly. To some consumers, this long wait is annoying and may reduce the enthusiasm of an otherwise exciting moment of obtaining a cutting-edge electronic device. Moreover, the electronic device might not be functional until the solution dries out in 24-48 hours. Alternatively, the consumer might not want to risk using the device in fear during this time period as he or she may believe that usage may impact the film prior to drying of the wet fluid solution. What is needed is an applicator that eliminates the drawbacks above and allows a user to apply the protective film effectively for use without waiting for the protective film to dry and/or waiting for the air bubbles to disappear. SUMMARY Devices, methods and systems are provided to apply a protective film on a surface of an electronic device which reduces or eliminates air bubbles and eliminates the waiting time usually required when using a wet fluid solution. In one embodiment, a roller apparatus may be used in a protective film application process to eliminate air bubbles and assist the user in applying the film to the electronic device correctly. The roller apparatus may include a carriage or housing, one or more rollers coupled to or integrated with the housing and a splitter configured to separate the protective film from a backing material during the application process. In one embodiment, the roller apparatus may be configured to be maneuvered into position with the splitter between the exposed portion of the protective film and the backing with the roller portion of the roller apparatus trailing behind. As the user pulls the roller apparatus from a first edge of the electronic device to a second edge of the electronic device, the protective film may be removed from the backing, applied to the device, and any air bubbles may be immediately squeezed out such that in one motion the protective film may be applied to the electronic device without the use of a wet fluid solution. In one embodiment, a method of applying the protective film to an electronic device is provided. For example, first, a user may remove one edge of the protective film from a backing and line up the removed edge of the protective film with the corresponding edge of the electronic device. No wet fluid solution is sprayed on or applied to the surface or screen of the electronic device. Next, the roller apparatus may be maneuvered into position with the splitter between the exposed portion of the protective film and the backing with the roller portion of the roller apparatus trailing behind. As the user pulls the roller apparatus from a first edge of the electronic device to a second edge of the electronic device, the protective film may be removed from the backing, applied to the device, and any air bubbles may be immediately eliminated such that in one motion the protective film may be applied to the electronic device without the use of a wet fluid solution. In one embodiment, for example, where the protective film includes an overlay portion intended to be pressed down on the sides perpendicular or orthogonal to the main surface, the user may press the protective film down on the intended, corresponding areas and use the roller portion of the roller apparatus to further press down on the protective film. In one embodiment, a roller apparatus may include an integrated stand for propping up or holding the electronic device. In a first operational configuration, the roller apparatus may be used in a protective film application process to eliminate air bubbles and assist the user in applying the film to the electronic device correctly. In a second operational configuration, the roller apparatus may be used as a stand for propping up the electronic device. The roller apparatus may include a carriage or housing, one or more rollers coupled or integrated with the housing and a stand portion for propping up the electronic device. In one embodiment, to further assist the user in applying the protective film, a roller apparatus guide may be used in conjunction with a roller apparatus. The roller apparatus guide may be a substantially rectangular block having three or more portions including an inner wall defining a cavity used to receive or mount a mobile communication device, a roller supporting surface configured to be flush with a mounted mobile communication device and a set of roller guiding rails which may be parallel to one another and raised above the roller supporting surface. In addition, the roller apparatus guide may include pressing portions to assist the user when applying the protective film. In one embodiment, a film application system may include a roller apparatus, a roller apparatus guide, a mobile communication device, a protective film to be applied to a mobile communication device, and a wedge. Here, a wedge is incorporated to help the user apply the film to the mobile communication device. The wedge may be substantially triangular in shape, although minor variations are allowed provided that the functionality of the wedge remains. The wedge may comprise three adjacent, connected surfaces forming the structure of the wedge. The spacing created by the connecting of surfaces may be hollow or, in one embodiment, may be filled. The wedge may function to assist in removing the backing of the film during the film application process. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The features, obstacles, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the detailed description set forth below when taken in conjunction with the drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 illustrates a roller apparatus, a protective film and an electronic device according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 2A illustrates a top view of a roller apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 2B illustrates a perspective view of a roller apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 2C illustrates a side perspective view of a roller apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 2D illustrates a front perspective view of a roller apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 2E illustrates a rear perspective view of a roller apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 2F illustrates a bottom view of a roller apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 2G illustrates a cross-sectional view of the first roller according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 3A illustrates a protective material set-up configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 3B illustrates a roller apparatus set-up configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 3C illustrates a roller apparatus operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 4A illustrates a perspective view of a roller apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 4B illustrates a roller apparatus operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 5A illustrates a perspective view of a roller apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 5B illustrates a roller apparatus operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 6A illustrates a roller apparatus with an integrated stand, a protective film, a film tab and an electronic device according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 6B illustrates a roller apparatus with an integrated stand in a first operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 6C illustrates a roller apparatus with an integrated stand in a second operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 6D illustrates a side view of the roller apparatus of FIG. 6C according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 6E illustrates a protective material set-up configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 6F illustrates a protective material set-up configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 6G illustrates a roller apparatus operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 7A illustrates a perspective top view of a roller apparatus with an integrated stand according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 7B illustrates a perspective bottom view of a roller apparatus with an integrated stand according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 7C illustrates a perspective side view of a roller apparatus with an integrated stand according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 7D illustrates a perspective rear view of a roller apparatus with an integrated stand according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 7E illustrates a perspective front view of a roller apparatus with an integrated stand according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 8A illustrates a roller apparatus with an integrated stand in a first operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 8B illustrates a roller apparatus with an integrated stand in a second operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 8C illustrates a perspective bottom view of a roller apparatus with an integrated stand according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 8D illustrates a roller apparatus operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 8E illustrates a roller apparatus operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 8F illustrates a roller apparatus operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 8G illustrates a roller apparatus operation configuration according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 9A illustrates a roller guiding apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 9B illustrates a roller guiding apparatus with a film attached prior to mounting of the mobile communication device according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 9C illustrates a roller guiding apparatus with the mobile communication device mounted according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 9D illustrates a roller guiding apparatus with the mobile communication device mounted and with a roller applying a film on the mobile communication device according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 9E illustrates a roller guiding apparatus with the mobile communication device mounted and with a roller almost completed with applying a film on the mobile communication device according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 9F illustrates a film tab removal process according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 9G illustrates removing the mobile communication device from the roller guiding apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 9H illustrates reinforcement of the applied film by using the roller after the mobile communication device is removed from the roller guiding apparatus according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 10A illustrates a roller apparatus, a mobile communication device, a film to be applied to the mobile communication device, a roller apparatus guide and a wedge according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 10B illustrates the wedge of FIG. 10A according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 10C illustrates the wedge of FIG. 10A according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 10D illustrates the wedge of FIG. 10A according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 10E illustrates the wedge of FIG. 10A according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 10F illustrates a roller guiding apparatus with the mobile communication device mounted and with a roller apparatus initially positioned prior to the applying of a film on the mobile communication device with the assistance of a wedge according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 10G illustrates a roller guiding apparatus with the mobile communication device mounted and with a roller apparatus initially positioned to apply a film on the mobile communication device with the assistance of a wedge according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 10H illustrates a roller guiding apparatus with the mobile communication device mounted and with a roller apparatus being maneuvered to apply the film on the mobile communication device with the assistance of a wedge according to one or more embodiments described herein; FIG. 10I illustrates a roller guiding apparatus with the mobile communication device mounted and with a roller apparatus moving the wedge during the application of a film to the mobile communication device according to one or more embodiments described herein; and FIG. 10J illustrates a roller guiding apparatus with the mobile communication device mounted and with a roller apparatus positioned to apply a film on the mobile communication device with wedge located at the bottom portion of the mobile communication device according to one or more embodiments described herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Apparatus, systems and/or methods that implement the embodiments of the various features of the present invention will now be described with reference to the drawings. The drawings and the associated descriptions are provided to illustrate some embodiments of the present invention and not to limit the scope of the present invention. Throughout the drawings, reference numbers are re-used to indicate correspondence between referenced elements. FIG. 1 illustrates a roller apparatus 100 , an electronic device 135 and a film 150 . The roller apparatus 100 may be used to apply the film 150 to a surface of the electronic device 135 . The film 150 may protect the electronic device 135 from damage (e.g., scratches) and/or smudges. As shown, the roller apparatus 100 may have a width wider than the width of the electronic device 135 and the film 150 . In this manner, the roller apparatus 100 may be configured to apply films of varying sizes onto devices of varying sizes. In addition, the roller apparatus 100 may be configured to apply the film 150 to a device with a curved surface (not shown). In one embodiment, the roller apparatus 100 may be increased in size or decreased in size (along with the appropriate proportions) for usage with significantly larger films and devices (e.g., a tablet PC). FIG. 2A illustrates one embodiment of a roller apparatus 200 . As shown, the roller apparatus 200 may include a roller base or carriage 205 , a first or front roller 210 , a second or back roller 215 , a mid-bar 220 , a first or left splitter 225 and a second or right splitter 230 . The roller base 205 may be constructed out of a rigid material such as a plastic, a metal, a wood and the like. The roller base 205 is configured to provide structural support for the roller apparatus 200 . In addition, the roller base 205 may be sized to be easily manipulated and graspable by a user's hand. The roller base 205 may be configured to hold the first roller 210 in place and allow the first roller 210 to “roll” or rotate about a longitudinal axis created by the roller base 205 . In one example, the roller base 205 may be structured to include a first rod member (not shown) spanning the entire length of the first roller 210 , thereby forming an axis for the first roller 210 to rotate about. The first roller 210 is configured to rotate and apply physical pressure on a film (e.g., film 150 of FIG. 1 ) in operation. The first roller 210 may be separated from the mid bar 220 by a first roller gap 235 and may be further separated from the first splitter 225 and the second splitter 230 by a splitter gap 245 . These gaps (e.g., the first roller gap 235 and the splitter gap 245 ) may serve as structural openings to allow the first roller 210 to rotate freely. The second roller 215 may be a redundant pressure applicator and may be substantially the same size as, and substantially parallel to the first roller 210 . The first roller 210 and the second roller 215 may be separated by a mid bar 220 . The mid bar 220 may connect the two ends of the roller base 205 and provide the entire roller apparatus with stability. In addition, a gap 240 may exist between the mid bar 220 the second roller 215 to allow the second roller 215 to rotate freely. The first splitter 225 and the second splitter 230 may lie along the same plane and may be slightly curved. The splitters 225 and 230 may be configured to be rigid and may function to separate an adhesive portion of a film (e.g., film 150 ) from its non-adhesive backing during the application process. FIG. 2B is a perspective view of the roller apparatus 200 . In one embodiment, the roller apparatus 200 may be configured to function as a film applicator for phone-sized devices and may have a length of 1-2 inches, a width of 2-4 inches, and a height of 0.5-1 inch. In one embodiment, the roller apparatus 200 may be configured to function as a film applicator for tablet-sized devices and may have a length of 1-5 inches, a width of 8-12 inches, and a height of 0.5-2 inches. Other dimensions are also possible depending on the size of the device to be protected and/or depending on the size of the film to be applied. FIG. 2C is a side perspective view of the roller apparatus 200 . As shown, the rollers 210 and 215 may include inner cores 255 and 260 , respectively. In addition, the rollers 210 and 215 may include outer cores 265 and 270 , respectively. In one embodiment, the outer cores 265 and 270 may be configured to “flatten” at the point of contact and thereby providing pressure in a more uniform and distributed manner, efficiently eliminating air bubbles. The outer cores 265 and 270 may be configured to return to its original configuration when not pressed to the surface of the device (e.g., electronic device 135 ). In one embodiment, the mid bar 220 may be curved or straight, and may have a length substantially equivalent to the length of the rollers 210 and 215 , thereby joining the two ends of the roller base 205 . Additionally, the mid bar 220 may be configured to have a width shorter than a diameter of the outer cores 265 and 270 . In this manner, the mid bar 220 provides structural support to the roller apparatus 200 without contacting the film (e.g., film 150 ) or the device (e.g., electronic device 135 ) during the application process. In one embodiment, the splitters 225 and 230 may be located adjacent to the first roller 210 . The splitters 225 and 230 may jut inward from the roller base 205 so as not to extend the footprint of the roller apparatus 200 . In addition, the splitters 225 and 230 may function to remove the non-adhesive backing from the adhesive portion of the film (e.g., film 150 ) during an application process. While shown to be two, distinct parallel elements, the splitters 225 and 230 may be joined together (e.g., by extending the splitters 225 and 230 towards one another) and/or may be constructed as one piece. The splitters 225 and 230 may be constructed out of any material with sturdiness sufficient enough to separate and remove the adhesive portion of the film (e.g., film 150 ) from a non-adhesive backing. In one embodiment, the splitters 225 and 230 may be curved and formed in the shape of a “C” as shown in FIG. 2C . The curvature (“C” shape) of the splitters 225 and 230 may advantageously increase the ease of by which the non-adhesive backing from the adhesive portion of the film (e.g., film 150 ) is removed. However, other configurations are possible. For example, a “letter opener” configuration where the splitters 225 and 230 include tapered edges may be utilized. While described in FIG. 2C to have inner cores 255 and 260 , certain embodiments of the roller apparatus 200 might not include inner cores 255 and 260 . In one embodiment, the roller apparatus 200 may comprise any number of rollers (e.g., one roller—by removing the second roller 215 , three rollers—by extending the width of roller base 205 and adding a third roller, etc.) In one embodiment, the roller apparatus 200 may comprises two parts, a roller (e.g., the first roller 210 ) and a base (e.g., the roller base 205 ), wherein the base may include an integrated mid bar (e.g., mid bar 220 ) and a splitter (e.g., splitters 225 and 230 ). FIGS. 2D , 2 E and 2 F show other various views of one embodiment of the roller apparatus 200 . FIG. 2G illustrates a cross-sectional view of the first roller 210 . All principles of the first roller 210 discussed herein may be equally applicable to the second roller 215 . As shown, the outer core 265 may wrap the entirety of the inner core 255 . In addition, the inner core 255 may have a substantially smaller diameter than the outer core 265 . In one embodiment, the inner core 255 may be constructed out of a rigid material such as metal, wood, a hard plastic, etc. The outer core 265 may be constructed out of a different, non-rigid or semi-rigid material such as a rubber, a soft plastic or a polymer. In one embodiment, the material used to construct the inner core 255 may be the same as the material used to construct the outer core 265 . However, in one embodiment, the densities of the material may be different. For example, the materials used to construct the outer core 265 may be less dense and/or have a lower durometer rating. By having a softer outer core 265 , the roller apparatus 200 may be able to press the film (e.g., film 150 ) onto the device (e.g., electronic device 135 ) without causing surface damage. The softer material of the outer core 265 also helps to more effectively and advantageously remove the air bubbles between the film 150 and the screen of the electronic device 135 . Turning to FIG. 3A , an operation of the application process will now be discussed. As shown, a user may apply part of an adhesive portion 355 of a film 350 by removing a part of the backing portion 360 of the film 350 and lining up the adhesive portion 355 to a surface (e.g., a screen) of an electronic device 335 . The roller apparatus 300 might not be used in this initial set-up step. Next, as shown in FIG. 3B , the roller apparatus 300 may be configured and placed into position for operation. More particularly, the roller apparatus 300 may be placed on top of the film 300 and electronic device 335 with the splitters 325 and 330 between the adhesive portion 355 and the backing portion 360 . Once the roller apparatus 300 is in position, the user may place one hand on the electronic device 335 (for stability) and use the other hand to push (and roll) the film 350 onto the surface of the electronic device 335 by moving the roller apparatus 300 in a downward direction 380 . As the roller apparatus 300 moves in the downward direction 380 , one or more rollers 310 and 315 press the adhesive portion 355 of the film 350 onto the electronic device 335 and squeeze out any air bubbles that may be trapped between the film 350 and the electronic device 335 . Contemporaneously, the splitters 325 and 330 provide a guide for the film 350 (i.e., “lead the way”) and remove the backing portion 360 of the film 350 , thereby progressively providing more of the adhesive portion 355 of the film 350 for the rollers 310 and 315 to press down on. After the roller apparatus 300 is pulled through, across or over the length of the electronic device 335 , the adhesive portion 355 of the film 350 may be pressed onto the electronic device 335 and the user does not have to perform any other functions with respect to the surface with the applied adhesive portion 355 . Depending on the design of the film 350 , this may conclude the application process. However, in certain embodiments, where the film 350 includes “overhanging” portions, the user may simply press these portions down onto the sides of the electronic device 335 to conclude the application process. In this manner, the user does not have to use a squeegee, wet solution, etc. to remove the air bubbles or to apply the adhesive portion 355 of the film 350 onto the electronic device 335 and the entire application process may be improved with respect to, for example, cleanliness, ease of use and convenience. FIG. 4A illustrates one embodiment of a roller apparatus 400 . The roller apparatus 400 may include an apparatus body 405 , a first roller 410 inserted into the apparatus body 405 and held in place by via hole 425 (and its paired hole—not shown). The roller apparatus 400 may also include a second roller (not shown) held in place by hole 430 (and its paired hold—not shown). The roller apparatus 400 may also include a splitter bar 415 and a mid bar 420 . The mid bar 420 may be configured to span the length of the first roller 410 and may provide structural support to the roller apparatus 400 . FIG. 4B illustrates how the roller apparatus 400 may be used to apply a protective material 450 onto a device 435 . The splitter bar 415 may be used to split or separate an adhesive portion of a protective material 450 from a non-adhesive backing during the application process. As shown, the roller apparatus 400 may be placed on the device 435 with the protective material 450 wedged between the first roller 410 and the electronic device 435 . As the roller apparatus 400 is moved along the surface of the electronic device 435 , the splitter bar 415 exposes the adhesive portion of the protective material 450 prior to the first roller 410 pressing the adhesive portion of the protective material 450 down onto the surface of the electronic device 435 . In addition, the non-adhesive backing is removed during this process. FIG. 5A illustrates one embodiment of a roller apparatus 500 . The roller apparatus 500 may include a body 505 , a first roller 520 , a second roller 515 , a splitter 510 , a first pressing surface 525 and a second pressing surface 530 . In one embodiment, the roller apparatus 500 may be constructed as one integrated piece. By integrating the first roller 520 and the second roller 515 , along with the splitter 510 into the body 505 , additional structural components may be eliminated. In one embodiment, the first roller 520 and the second roller 515 may be rod members that might not rotate. In another embodiment, the first roller 520 and the second roller 515 may be rotatable members. FIG. 5B illustrates how the roller apparatus 500 may be used to apply a film 550 onto a device 535 . As shown, the roller apparatus 500 may separate a top non-adhesive portion of the film 550 from the adhesive bottom portion of the film 550 as the user presses on the first pressing surface 525 and the second pressing surface 530 while moving the roller apparatus 500 along the length of the device 535 . During such an operation, the splitter 510 may separate the adhesive and non-adhesive portions of the film 550 while the rollers 520 and 515 may apply the adhesive portions of the film 550 to the surface of the device 535 . In this embodiment, the device 535 may be sandwiched or be located between the first roller 520 and the second roller 515 . The first roller 520 may contact the film 550 (as shown in FIG. 5B ) on a first surface (e.g., a screen) of the device 535 while the second roller 515 may contact a second surface (e.g., a backing) of the device 535 . FIG. 6A illustrates a roller apparatus 600 , an electronic device 635 , a film 650 and an optional film tab 695 . The roller apparatus 600 may be used to apply the film 650 to a surface of the electronic device 635 . In one embodiment, the film tab 695 may be used to improve the ease of applying the film 650 as further discussed below. FIG. 6B illustrates one embodiment of how the roller apparatus 600 may appear when mounted on the electronic device 635 , for example, during a film application process. As shown, the roller apparatus 600 may have a width wider than the width of the electronic device 635 . In this manner, the roller apparatus 600 may be configured to apply films of varying sizes onto devices of varying sizes (e.g., a tablet PC). In addition, the roller apparatus 600 may be configured to apply the film 650 to a device with a curved surface (not shown). However, distinct from the first operation configuration, the roller apparatus 600 may be utilized in a second operation configuration to hold, secure, prop or otherwise position the electronic device 635 such that it may be easier for a user to view and/or use the electronic device 635 . For instance, the roller apparatus 600 may be flipped over to a second operation configuration and rest on a flat surface and the like to prop up the electronic device 635 and improve viewing angles of the electronic device 635 to a user. In this manner, the roller apparatus 600 may have continued utility even after a film (e.g., film 650 ) is applied by the roller apparatus 600 to the electronic device 635 . As shown in FIG. 6C , the electronic device 635 sits in an upright manner within a cavity of the roller apparatus 600 . In one embodiment, the cavity is defined to be a space between a front bar and a first roller. FIG. 6D illustrates a side view of the roller apparatus 600 with the electronic device 635 held in an upright manner. As shown in FIG. 6D , the electronic device 635 may sit angled while still being upright. By varying the width of the cavity (i.e., distance between the front bar and the first roller), the positioning of the stand edge and the like, the viewing angle may be adjusted between 90 degrees and 135 degrees. For example, as shown in FIG. 6D , the electronic device 635 may be held at an angle of 120 degrees as measured between a table surface and a viewing surface of the electronic device 635 . FIGS. 6E-6G illustrate one example of how the roller apparatus 600 may be utilized to apply the film 650 onto a surface of the electronic device 635 . As shown in FIG. 6E , the film tab 695 may be applied (and may adhere) to the film 650 and held in a preliminary application position by a user's hand near the surface of the electronic device 635 . The film tab 695 may function to aid the user in lining up the film 650 with the electronic device 635 and simplifying the application process since the user may be able to handle a portion of the film tab 695 without worrying about whether the film 650 will adhere to the user's fingers during the application process. The roller apparatus 600 might not be engaged at this stage. In one embodiment, the film tab 695 may be pre-installed on the film 650 for the consumer's convenience. Next, as shown by FIG. 6F , a portion of the adhesive portion 655 of the film 650 has been separated from a portion of the non-adhesive film backing 660 , and has been pressed onto the surface of the electronic device 635 . At this point of the film application process, the user may retrieve the roller apparatus 600 . The user may then utilize the roller apparatus 600 and press the adhesive portion 655 of the film 650 to the surface of the electronic device 635 with one hand while moving the roller apparatus 600 in a length-wise direction. Immediately proceeding the moment when the roller apparatus 600 presses one section of the adhesive portion 655 of the film 650 onto the surface of the electronic device 635 to remove any air bubbles, the user may remove a corresponding section of the non-adhesive film backing 660 with the other hand in preparation. In this manner, the adhesive portion 655 of the film 650 may be applied to the surface of the electronic device 635 . In addition, any air bubbles between the adhesive portion 655 and the surface of the electronic device 635 resulting from the application process may be removed or squeezed out by the roller apparatus 600 being pressed and maneuvered. FIG. 6G illustrates an example of how the user may utilize the roller apparatus 600 to apply the film 650 to the surface of the electronic device 635 while removing any air bubbles. Once the adhesive portion 655 of the film 650 is applied to the surface of the electronic device 635 , the film tab 695 may be removed by peeling (not shown) it from the film 650 . In this quick and efficient manner, the application process may be completed. FIG. 7A illustrates an embodiment of a roller apparatus 700 with an integrated stand. The roller apparatus 700 may be an embodiment of the roller apparatus 600 of FIG. 6 . As shown, the roller apparatus 700 may be in a first operational position with rollers 710 and 715 in contact with the flat surface beneath it (e.g., table). The roller apparatus 700 may include a body or carriage 705 configured to provide structural support for the rollers 710 and 715 . The carriage 705 may include attached or integrated handle portions 775 , a mid bar 720 and two contact edges 780 and 785 separated by the rollers 710 and 715 . The rollers 710 and 715 may include inner and outer cores 755 , 760 (shown in FIGS. 7B and 7C ), 765 and 770 ). The carriage 705 may also include a device insertion portion 795 for insertion of the electronic device (e.g., electronic device 635 ). However, the device insertion portion 795 may be intended for usage when the roller apparatus 700 is flipped over, as shown in FIG. 7B . In one embodiment, the handle portions 775 may be configured to allow a user to press down on the handle portions 775 to transfer pressure onto the rollers 710 and 715 during a protective film application process. When the user presses down on the handle portions 775 and maneuvers the roller apparatus 700 along the length of a protective film (e.g., film 650 ), a force may be transferred to the rollers 710 and 715 , which in turn applies a pressure to the protective film (e.g., film 650 ) resulting in adherence of the film (e.g., film 650 ) to a surface (e.g., a screen) of the electronic device (e.g., electronic device 635 ). In addition, any air bubbles may be eliminated due to the pressure applied by the rollers 710 and 715 . The carriage 705 may be constructed out of a rigid material such as a plastic, a metal, a wood and the like. In addition, the carriage 705 may be sized to be easily graspable and manipulated by a user's hand. The carriage 705 may be configured to hold the first roller 710 in place and allow the first roller 710 to “roll” or rotate about a longitudinal axis created by the carriage 705 . In one example, the carriage 705 may be structured to include a rod member (not shown) spanning the entire length of the first roller 710 , thereby forming an axis for the first roller 710 to rotate about. In another example, the carriage 705 may include two insertion portions opposite each other for inserting a rotational member of a first roller 710 . The first roller 710 may be configured to apply physical pressure on a film (e.g., film 650 ) in operation. The second roller 715 may be a redundant pressure applicator and may be substantially the same size as, and parallel to the first roller 710 . The first roller 710 and the second roller 715 may be separated by a mid bar 720 . The mid bar 720 may connect the two ends of the carriage 705 and provide the entire roller apparatus 700 with stability. In addition, gaps between the mid bar 720 and the rollers 710 and 715 may allow the rollers 710 and 715 to rotate freely without contacting the mid bar 720 . In one embodiment, the roller apparatus 700 may be configured to function as a film applicator for phone-sized devices and may have a length of 1-2 inches, a width of 2-4 inches, and a height of 0.5-1 inches. In one embodiment, the roller apparatus 700 may be configured to function as a film applicator for tablet-sized devices and may have a length of 1-5 inches, a width of 8-12 inches, and a height of 0.5-2 inches. Other dimensions are also possible depending on the size of the device to be protected and/or the size of the film to be applied. In one embodiment, the mid bar 720 may be curved or straight, and may have a length substantially equivalent to the length of the rollers 710 and 715 , thereby joining the two ends of the carriage 705 . Additionally, the mid bar 720 may be configured have a width shorter than a diameter of the outer cores 765 and 770 . In this manner, the mid bar 720 provides structural support to the roller apparatus 700 without contacting the film (e.g., film 750 ) or the device (e.g., electronic device 735 ) during the film application process. In one embodiment, the contact edge 780 may be raised and further away from the flat surface (e.g., the table) than, for example, the rollers 710 and 715 when the roller apparatus 700 is positioned as shown in FIG. 7A . As shown in FIG. 7B , when the roller apparatus 700 is flipped over, the contact edge 780 raises the rollers 710 and 715 off a flat surface (e.g., a table) and also orients the device insertion portion 795 such that insertion and propping of the electronic device (e.g., electronic device 635 ) is possible. As more clearly shown in FIG. 7C , when the roller apparatus 700 is in this position, the second roller 715 may be raised off the table and may allow for the electronic device (e.g., electronic device 635 ) to rest on an outer core 770 of the second roller 715 . More particularly, the electronic device (e.g., the electronic device 635 ) may be contacted on a first surface by the second roller 715 and contacted on a second surface by the stand portion 790 as it sits within the insertion portion 795 . In one embodiment, the stand portion 790 may be a flat panel having a length substantially similar to a length of the first roller 710 and the second roller 715 . As shown, the stand portion 790 may be offset from the first roller 710 and the second roller 715 . In other words, the stand portion 790 may be separated from the first roller 710 and the second roller 715 by a gap constituting the device insertion portion 795 . FIG. 7C is a side perspective view of the roller apparatus 700 in its second operation configuration. As shown, the rollers 710 and 715 may include the inner cores 755 and 760 , respectively. In addition, the rollers 710 and 715 may include the outer cores 765 and 770 , respectively. In one embodiment, the inner cores 755 and 760 may be constructed out of the same material (e.g., a rigid material such as metal, wood, and a hard plastic). Similarly, the outer cores 765 and 770 may be constructed out of the same material (e.g., rubber, a soft plastic, an encapsulated gel, etc.) or a softer material. In one embodiment, the material used to construct the inner cores 755 and 760 may be the same as the material used to construct the outer cores 765 and 770 . However, the densities of the material may be different. For example, the materials used to construct the outer cores 765 and 770 may be less dense and/or have a lower durometer rating. By having softer outer cores 765 and 770 , the roller apparatus 700 may be able to press the film onto the device (e.g., electronic device 635 ) without damaging the surface. In one embodiment, the outer cores 765 and 770 may be configured to “flatten” at the point of contact and thereby providing pressure in a more uniform and distributed manner, efficiently eliminating air bubbles. The outer cores 765 and 770 may be configured to return to its original configuration when not pressed to the surface of the device (e.g., electronic device 635 ). FIG. 7D and FIG. 7E show other various views of one embodiment of the roller apparatus 700 . FIG. 8A illustrates a roller apparatus 800 with an integrated stand in a first operation configuration according to another embodiment of the present invention. Generally, the roller apparatus 800 may function similarly to roller apparatus 600 and 700 . More particularly, FIG. 8A illustrates the roller apparatus 800 in position to perform a film application process to apply a film 850 to the top surface of an electronic device 835 . As shown, the roller apparatus 800 may have a width wider than the width of the electronic device 835 . In this manner, the roller apparatus 800 may be configured to apply films of varying sizes onto devices of varying sizes (e.g., a tablet PC). In addition, the roller apparatus 800 may be configured to apply the film 850 to a device with a curved surface (not shown). Here, in preparing to apply the film 850 to the electronic device 835 , the film 850 may be placed on the surface of the electronic device 835 with a film tab 896 positioned between the film 850 and the surface of the electronic device 835 to be protected. Further details of the structure of the roller apparatus 800 and the film application process are discussed below with respect to FIGS. 8C-8G . However, as shown in FIG. 8B , distinct from the first operation configuration, the roller apparatus 800 may be utilized in a second operation configuration to hold, secure, prop or otherwise position the electronic device 835 such that it may be easier for a user to view and/or use the electronic device 835 . For instance, the roller apparatus 800 may be flipped over to a second operation configuration and rest on a flat surface and the like to prop up the electronic device 835 and improve viewing angles of the electronic device 835 to a user. In this manner, the roller apparatus 800 may have continued utility even after a film (e.g., film 850 ) is applied by the roller apparatus 800 to the electronic device 835 . As shown in FIG. 8B , the electronic device 835 sits in an upright manner within a cavity of the roller apparatus 800 . In one embodiment, the cavity is defined to be a space or opening within the roller apparatus 800 . FIG. 8C illustrates a perspective bottom view of the roller apparatus 800 with an integrated stand. One main difference between the roller apparatus 800 and the roller apparatus 600 and 700 is that the former further includes a slit or slot 825 for receiving and guiding the film (e.g., film 850 shown in FIG. 8B ) during the film application process. As shown, the roller apparatus 800 may include a body 805 comprising a first side panel 806 , a second side panel 807 integrated with a stand portion 808 having the slit 825 . The first side panel 806 and second side panel 807 may be substantially parallel and include holes or openings to hold therebetween a first roller 815 and a second roller 820 and to allow the rollers 815 and 820 to rotate during usage to apply the film. The first roller 815 and the second roller 820 may be separated by a mid portion. The first roller 815 and the second roller 820 may be similar to the other first and second rollers described herein (e.g., first and second rollers 715 and 720 ). The side panels 806 and 807 may each integrate a pressing portion (e.g., pressing portion 876 —the other pressing portion is hidden from view) to allow the user to press on and thereby exert pressure on the rollers 815 and 820 during the film application process. The roller apparatus 800 may also include a contact edge 890 and a non-contact edge 895 to define how the roller apparatus 800 is positioned to be operable in the second operation configuration. The contact edge 890 is operatively configured to contact a table surface and position the roller apparatus 800 to be able to receive and hold upright the electronic device 835 . As is shown, the non-contact edge 895 might not contact either the electronic device or the table surface in the second operation configuration. The operational configurations and the structure of the roller apparatus 800 having been described, attention will now be turned to the film application process. As shown in FIG. 8D , the user may position the film 850 having the backing still attached substantially in the position that the film 850 would be in after application. Here, the film 850 may be temporarily adhered to the electronic device 835 via a film tab 896 . When positioned as shown, the user may bend the non-adhered portion of the film and move it towards the slit 825 of the roller apparatus 800 . FIG. 8E illustrates the film 850 as inserted through the slit 825 . As shown in FIG. 8F , as the film 835 is inserted through the slit 825 , the film tab 896 becomes exposed to the user. With one hand holding the roller apparatus 800 , the user may use his or her other hand to begin pulling the film tab 896 in the direction shown by arrow 855 and separate the protective layer of the film from the backing. As shown in FIG. 8G , as the user continues to pull the film tab 896 with one hand and exposes the protective layer of the film, the user may begin to move the roller apparatus 800 with the other hand also in the direction shown by arrow 855 to press the exposed portion of the protective layer to the electronic device 835 . In this manner, the user may progressively apply the protective layer to the electronic device 835 until the protective layer is completely separated from the backing and completely applied to the electronic device 835 . Optionally, the user may use the roller apparatus 800 to further redundantly press the protective layer to ensure a thorough application. As discussed above, even after the completion of the application process, the roller apparatus 800 may still retain utility as a device stand (e.g., described as the second operational configuration). Any of the roller apparatus as discussed herein may be used to apply a protective film onto the surface of a mobile communication device. However, to further assist the user in applying the protective film, a roller apparatus guide 900 may be used in conjunction with a roller apparatus (e.g., roller apparatus 800 ). As illustrated in FIG. 9A , the roller apparatus guide 900 may be constructed out of materials such as polycarbonate, metal, wood (e.g., a cardboard or thick paper) or any combinations thereof. The roller apparatus guide 900 may be a substantially rectangular block having three or more portions including an inner wall 905 defining a cavity 925 used to receive or mount a mobile communication device, a roller supporting surface 910 configured to be flush with a mounted mobile communication device and a set of roller guiding rails 915 which may be parallel to one another and raised above the roller supporting surface 910 . In addition, the roller apparatus guide 900 may include pressing portions 920 to assist the user when applying the protective film. As shown, the roller apparatus guide 900 may be configured to fit a particular mobile communication device with a distinct length, width and height. However, one of ordinary skill will understand that the roller apparatus guide 900 may be designed to fit any mobile communication device of any length, width and height. Indeed, the cavity 925 formed by the inner wall 905 may be sized to be substantially the same as the mobile communication device to be protected. The fit of the mobile communication device within the cavity 925 may be important to ensure that the applied protective film is correctly positioned. In one embodiment, the cavity 925 formed by the inner wall 905 may be closed on a back side by a thin backing layer spanning the length and width of the cavity 925 . The thin backing layer may be integrated into the body of the apparatus guide 900 and constructed out of the same or different material. In this implementation, the cavity 925 may be formed by the inner wall 905 and the thin backing layer and the depth of the cavity 925 may be designed to maintain the feature of the mobile communication device being flush with the top surface of the apparatus guide 900 when placed into the cavity 925 . In this manner, the user may be able to use the apparatus guide 900 in various situations where a flat support surface is not readily available. In one embodiment, the roller apparatus guide 900 may include different removable and insertable portions to enable the roller apparatus guide 900 to fit multiple devices depending on which portions are inserted. For example, consider a first device having dimensions of 5 inches long by 4 inches wide by 1 inch thick and a second device having dimensions of 3 inches long by 2 inches wide by 1 inch thick. The cavity 925 of the roller apparatus guide 900 may initially be designed to fit the larger first device, but not the smaller second device. However, when a molded portion of 5 inches long by 4 inches wide by 1 inch thick having a cavity 925 that is 3 inches long by 2 inches wide by 1 inch thick is inserted in the cavity 925 of the roller apparatus guide 900 , the resulting roller apparatus guide 900 may then be utilized to fit the smaller second device. Other molded portions may be swapped in and out depending on the size and shape of the mobile communication device. Alternatively, the user may include further additional portions or remove inserted portions as desired to fit the particular devices. In this manner, roller apparatus guide 900 may be versatile and cater to different mobile communication devices of different sizes. The structure of the roller apparatus guide 900 having been described, attention will now be turned to the functionality as shown in FIGS. 9B-9H . FIG. 9B illustrates the roller apparatus guide 900 , a film 950 to be applied, and a mobile communication device 935 . The film 950 may be temporarily held to the roller apparatus guide 900 via an adhesive (not shown). As the film 950 is sized to correspond to the mobile communication device 935 (which is to be inserted or mounted by the roller apparatus guide 900 ), the film 950 may freely move in and out of the cavity 925 as shown. FIG. 9C illustrates the roller apparatus guide 900 fully mounted on the mobile communication device 935 , and with the film 950 in a ready-to-be-applied position. While roller 700 is shown in FIG. 9C , any roller may be used in conjunction with the roller apparatus guide 900 . The roller 700 may be placed at the top of the roller apparatus guide 900 , with the film-contacting outer cores held between the roller guiding rails 915 . The distance between the roller guiding rails 915 may be configured to be the same as the length of the roller 700 thereby forming a path for the movement of the roller 700 along a surface of the mobile communication device 935 . In other words, the roller guiding rails 915 create a pathway to prevents the roller 700 from veering off the intended positional direction of application, and thus ensuring that the film 950 is applied at a correct position and providing a simplified methodology for imparting the desired precision during the film application process. As shown in FIG. 9D , after the user pulls a film tab 996 to expose the protective layer of the film 950 and as the user begins to move the roller 700 from one end of the mobile communication device 935 to the other end of the mobile communication device 935 in the direction of arrow 955 , the backing of the film 950 is automatically removed while the exposed protective film is applied to the mobile communication device 935 . FIG. 9E illustrates the roller 700 as the user is about to conclude application of the film 950 . As shown, the film backing of the film 950 is substantially separated from the applied portion of the film 950 . As shown in FIG. 9F , after the user finishes using the roller 700 to apply the film when the electronic device 935 is situated within the roller guide apparatus 900 , the user may remove any adhesive tabs that may have been used to attach the film 950 to the roller guide apparatus 900 for ease of positioning of the film 950 during the application process. As shown in FIG. 9G , the user may remove the mobile communication device 935 from the roller apparatus guide 900 by simply popping it out or lifting the roller apparatus guide 900 off the mobile communication device 935 . If desired, the user may use the roller 700 and reinforce the applied film in the manner shown in FIG. 9H . FIG. 10A illustrates a system including a roller apparatus 1075 (which may be, for example, the roller apparatus 800 , 700 , 600 , etc.), a roller apparatus guide 1000 (which may be, for example, the roller apparatus 900 ), a mobile communication device 1035 , a protective film 1050 (with a backing portion 1060 ) to be applied to a mobile communication device 1035 , and a wedge 1080 . Unlike the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 9A-9G , a wedge 1080 is incorporated in FIG. 10A to help the user apply the film 1050 to the mobile communication device 1035 . While not drawn to scale, in one embodiment, a length 1081 of the wedge 1080 may be configured to fit within a distance 1001 between rails 1002 . FIG. 10B illustrates the wedge 1080 apart from the previously described portions of the film application system. The wedge 1080 may be substantially triangular in shape, although minor variations are allowed provided that the functionality of the wedge 1080 remains (as described with respect to FIGS. 10E-10I ). The wedge 1080 may comprise three adjacent, connected surfaces 1085 , 1090 and 1093 forming the structure of the wedge 1080 . The spacing 1095 created by the connecting of surfaces 1085 , 1090 and 1093 may be hollow or, in one embodiment, may be filled. As illustrated in FIGS. 10C-10D , the surfaces 1085 , 1090 and 1093 may be substantially flat and may have surface areas that are equal or different to one another (e.g., the surface area of the surface 1093 may be 50% smaller than the surface area of the surface 1085 and/or 1090 ). As shown in FIG. 10E , the acute angle 1096 created between surfaces 1085 and 1090 may be in the range of 0-90°, but preferably between 5-15°. The angle 1096 is selected to allow the wedge 1080 to be manipulated by the roller 1075 during the application process. Any of a plurality of materials including paper, cardboard, plastic, metal, wood, or combination thereof may be used to construct the wedge 1080 to facilitate the main functionality of the wedge 1080 . The user may initially separate the backing 1060 of the protective film 1050 by pushing the roller apparatus 1075 into the wedge. Advantageously, the user does not need to manually peel the backing 1060 , and instead may rely on the wedge 1080 , thereby simplifying the process for the user. In other words, the user can simply install the protective film 1050 by moving the roller apparatus 1075 in one smooth, continuous motion. FIGS. 10E-10J illustrate how the wedge 1080 may be used with the roller apparatus 1075 and the roller guiding apparatus 1000 to apply the film 1050 to the mobile communication device 1035 . As illustrated in FIG. 10F , initially, the wedge 1080 may be positioned between the film 1050 and the mobile communication device 1035 after the mobile communication device 1035 is mounted by the roller guiding apparatus 1000 . Here, the roller apparatus 1075 is placed at the top of the roller guiding apparatus 1000 . As shown, in this position, the film 1050 is separated from the surface of the mobile communication device 1035 by the wedge 1080 . In this initial position, the surface 1090 of the wedge 1080 contacts the top of the mobile communication device 1035 and/or the top of the roller guiding apparatus 1000 while the other surface 1085 of the wedge 1080 contacts the film 1050 . In addition, the surface 1085 adheres to a backing of film 1050 which assists the film application process as illustrated in the following figures. FIG. 10G illustrates the behavior of the wedge. As user moves the roller apparatus 1075 across the roller guiding apparatus 1000 in the direction shown by arrow 1095 , the roller apparatus 1075 places pressure on the film 1050 and/or the wedge 1080 . This in turn causes the surface 1090 to begin to move away from the top surface of the mobile communication device 1035 and/or the top of the roller guiding apparatus 1000 , while the surface 1085 continues to adhere to the backing of the film 1050 . Furthermore, the configuration of the wedge 1080 and the attachment to the backing portion 1060 of the film 1050 lends itself to be flipped upwards as shown in FIG. 10G . As the user continues to move the roller apparatus 1075 in the direction of arrow 1095 , the backing portion 1060 of the film 1050 begins to separate from the portion of the film to be applied to the mobile communication device 1035 and at this position, the wedge 1080 is no longer in contact with the surface of the mobile communication device 1035 . Instead, the wedge 1080 is separated from the top of the mobile communication device by the backing of the film 1050 as shown in FIG. 10H . FIG. 10I illustrates how the wedge 1080 works with the roller apparatus 1075 to separate the backing portion 1060 of the film 1050 and applies the exposed protective portion of the film 1050 onto the mobile communication device 1035 . As the user continues to move the roller apparatus 1075 in the direction of arrow 1095 , the pressure exerted by the roller apparatus 1075 causes the wedge 1080 to “flip over” such that the backing portion 1060 , which still adheres on one side to the surface 1085 of the wedge 1080 , is pulled away from the protective portion of the film 1050 . In addition, the portion of the film 1050 that remains to be separated is kept out of the way by resting on the edge between the surfaces 1090 and 1093 of the wedge. As the user manipulates the roller apparatus 1075 from the position shown in FIG. 10I from the end proximal to the initial position and down through the rails 1002 of the roller apparatus guide 1000 to complete the film application process, the roller apparatus 1077 continues to apply force that moves the wedge 1080 away from its initial position as shown in FIG. 10J . Eventually, the wedge 1080 and the attached backing portion 1060 of the film 1050 may be completely separated from the protective portion of the film 1050 applied to the mobile communication device 1035 , thereby completing the film application process. In the manner described, the wedge 1080 may be utilized to assist the user to apply a film 1050 to a mobile communication device 1035 in conjunction with the roller apparatus 1075 and the roller guiding apparatus 1000 . Skilled artisans may implement the described functionality in varying ways for each particular application, but such implementation decisions should not be interpreted as causing a departure from the scope of the disclosed apparatus and/or methods. The previous description of examples is provided to enable any person of ordinary skill in the art to make or use the disclosed methods and apparatus. Various modifications to these examples will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the principles defined herein may be applied to other examples without departing from the spirit or scope of the disclosed method and apparatus. The elements and uses of the above-described embodiments can be rearranged and combined in manners other than specifically described above, with any and all permutations within the scope of invention. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive and the scope of the invention is, therefore, indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope. In addition, the invention is not limited to the illustrated embodiments, and all embodiments of the invention need not necessarily achieve all the advantages or purposes or possess all characteristics identified herein.

Devices, methods and systems disclosed herein relate to the application of a protective film on a surface of an electronic device that instantly reduces air bubbles and eliminates the waiting time usually required when using a wet fluid solution. In one embodiment, a roller device may include a carriage or housing and one or more rollers coupled or integrated with the housing, configured to apply a protective material to a surface of the electronic device in a first orientation, and configured to function as a device stand in a second orientation. In addition or alternatively, a roller guide apparatus and/or a wedge may be utilized to assist the roller device in applying the protective material to the surface of the electronic device.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to co-pending and commonly-assigned patent application Ser. No. 09/494,325, filed on Jan. 28, 2000, by Cynthia M. Saracco, entitled “TECHNIQUE FOR DETECTING A SHARED TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIP OF VALID TIME DATA IN A RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM,” which application is incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates in general to relational database management systems, and, in particular, to a technique for detecting a subsuming temporal relationship of valid time data in a relational database management system. 2. Description of Related Art Databases are computerized information storage and retrieval systems. A Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) is a database management system (DBMS) which uses relational techniques for storing and retrieving data. Relational databases are organized into tables which consist of rows and columns of data. The rows are formally called tuples. A database will typically have many tables and each table will typically have multiple tuples and multiple columns. The tables are typically stored on random access storage devices (RASD) such as magnetic or optical disk drives for semi-permanent storage. RDBMS software using a Structured Query Language (SQL) interface is well known in the art. The SQL interface has evolved into a standard language for RDBMS software and has been adopted as such by both the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). The SQL interface allows users to formulate relational operations on the tables either interactively, in batch files, or embedded in host languages, such as C and COBOL. SQL allows the user to manipulate the data. A data warehouse is a combination of many different databases across an entire enterprise. Data warehouses contain a wide variety of data that presents a coherent picture of business conditions at a single point in time. As a result, many companies use data warehouses to support management decision making. A data mart is similar to a data warehouse. The only difference between the data mart and the data warehouse is that data marts are usually smaller than data warehouses, and data marts focus on a particular subject or departments. Both the data warehouse and the data mart use the RDBMS for storing and retrieving information. Companies frequently use data warehouses and data marts to create billions of bytes of data about all aspects of a company, including facts about their customers, products, operations, and personal. Many companies use this data to evaluate their past performance and to plan for the future. To assist the companies in analyzing this data, some data warehousing and decision support professionals write applications and generate reports that seek to shed light on a company's recent business history. Several common forms of data analysis involve evaluating time-related data, such as examining customer buying behaviors, assessing the effectiveness of marketing campaigns or determining the impact of organizational changes on sales during a selected time period. The relevance of time-related data to a variety of business applications has caused some DBMS professionals to reexamine the need for temporal data analysis. Temporal data is often used to track the period of time at which certain business conditions are valid. To illustrate, a company may sell product X for: $50 during a first period of time; $45 during a second period of time; and $52 during a third period of time. The company may even know that this same product will sell for $54 during some future period of time. When the company's database contains information about the valid times for each of these price points, the pricing points are referred to as temporal data. Common techniques for recording valid time information in a RDBMS involve including a DATE column in a table that tracks business conditions, such as a START_DATE and an END_DATE column in a table that tracks pricing information for products. Analyzing temporal data involves understanding the manner in which different business conditions relate to one another over time. Returning to the previous example, each product has a retail price for a given period of time, and each product also has a wholesale cost. Retail prices can fluctuate independently of the product's wholesale cost, and vice versa. To determine efficiencies (or inefficiencies) in a product's pricing scheme, a retailer may wish to understand the relationship between a product's retail price and a product's wholesale cost over time. More specifically, a retailer may wish to evaluate: whether products are being placed on sale at inopportune times (e.g., before the retailer is eligible to receive a reduction in wholesale price) or whether the retailer has failed to pass on cost savings to customers (e.g., failing to place products on sale during the period in which their wholesale cost is reduced). These questions involve temporal analysis because the questions involve tracking the period of time at which certain business conditions were in effect. These questions can be challenging to express in SQL, and many users are incapable of correctly formatting such SQL queries. Further, mistakes in the SQL query are common and difficult to detect. Thus, there is a need in the art for a technique of creating a simplified SQL query to analyze the temporal relationships of various business conditions. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To overcome the limitations in the prior art described above, and to overcome other limitations that will become apparent upon reading and understanding the present specification, the present invention discloses a method, apparatus, and article of manufacture for detecting subsuming temporal relationships in a relational database. In accordance with the present invention, an invocation of a within operation that specifies a first event and a second event is received. In response to the invocation, a combination of temporal relationships between the first event and the second event is evaluated to determine (1) whether the second event starts at the same time as the first event or whether the second event starts before the first event and (2) whether the second event ends at the same time as the first event or whether the second event ends after the first event. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Referring now to the drawings in which like reference numbers represent corresponding parts throughout: FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a hardware environment of a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates seven temporal relationship operators; and FIGS. 3A-3B are flow charts that illustrate the steps performed by the single function operator system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In the following description of the preferred embodiment, reference is made to the accompanying drawings which form a part hereof, and which is shown by way of illustration a specific embodiment in which the invention may be practiced. It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized as structural changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention. Hardware Environment FIG. 1 illustrates a computer hardware environment that could be used in accordance with the present invention. In the exemplary environment, a computer system 102 is comprised of one or more processors connected to one or more data storage devices 104 and 106 that store one or more relational databases, such as a fixed or hard disk drive, a floppy disk drive, a CDROM drive, a tape drive, or other device. Operators of the computer system 102 use a standard operator interface 108 , such as IMS/DB/DC®, CICS®, TSO®, OS/390®, ODBC® or other similar interface, to transmit electrical signals to and from the computer system 102 that represent commands for performing various search and retrieval functions, termed queries, against the databases. In the present invention, these queries conform to the Structured Query Language (SQL) standard, and invoke functions performed by Relational DataBase Management System (RDBMS) software. The SQL interface has evolved into a standard language for RDBMS software and has been adopted as such by both the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). The SQL interface allows users to formulate relational operations on the tables either interactively, in batch files, or embedded in host languages, such as C and COBOL. SQL allows the user to manipulate the data. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, the RDBMS software comprises the DB2® UDB V5.2 product offered by IBM for the Windows NT 4.0 operating systems. Those skilled in the art will recognize, however, that the present invention has application program to any RDBMS software, whether or not the RDBMS software uses SQL. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the DB2® UDB V5.2 system for the Windows NT 4.0 operating system includes three major components: the Internal Resource Lock Manager (IRLM) 110 , the Systems Services module 112 , and the Database Services module 114 . The IRLM 110 handles locking services for the DB2® UDB V5.2 system, which treats data as a shared resource, thereby allowing any number of users to access the same data simultaneously. Thus concurrency control is required to isolate users and to maintain data integrity. The Systems Services module 112 controls the overall DB2® UDB V5.2 execution environment, including managing log data sets 106 , gathering statistics, handling startup and shutdown, and providing management support. At the center of the DB2® UDB V5.2 system is the Database Services module 114 . The Database Services module 114 contains several submodules, including the Relational Database System (RDS) 116 , the Data Manager 118 , the Buffer Manager 120 , the Rebalancing System 124 , and other components 122 such as an SQL compiler/interpreter. These submodules support the functions of the SQL language, i.e. definition, access control, interpretation, compilation, database retrieval, and update of user and system data. The Single Function Operator System 124 works in conjunction with the other submodules to provide a single function operator that simplifies the process of detecting and tracking subsuming temporal relationships. The present invention is generally implemented using SQL statements executed under the control of the Database Services module 114 . The Database Services module 114 retrieves or receives the SQL statements, wherein the SQL statements are generally stored in a text file on the data storage devices 104 and 106 or are interactively entered into the computer system 102 by an operator sitting at a monitor 126 via operator interface 108 . The Database Services module 114 then derives or synthesizes instructions from the SQL statements for execution by the computer system 102 . Generally, the RDBMS software, the SQL statements, and the instructions derived therefrom, are all tangibly embodied in a computer-readable medium, e.g. one or more of the data storage devices 104 and 106 . Moreover, the RDBMS software, the SQL statements, and the instructions derived therefrom, are all comprised of instructions which, when read and executed by the computer system 102 , causes the computer system 102 to perform the steps necessary to implement and/or use the present invention. Under control of an operating system, the RDBMS software, the SQL statements, and the instructions derived therefrom, may be loaded from the data storage devices 104 and 106 into a memory of the computer system 102 for use during actual operations. Thus, the present invention may be implemented as a method, apparatus, or article of manufacture using standard programming and/or engineering techniques to produce software, firmware, hardware, or any combination thereof. The term “article of manufacture” (or alternatively, “computer program product”) as used herein is intended to encompass a computer program accessible from any computer-readable device, carrier, or media. Of course, those skilled in the art will recognize many modifications may be made to this configuration without departing from the scope of the present invention. Those skilled in the art will recognize that the exemplary environment illustrated in FIG. 1 is not intended to limit the present invention. Indeed, those skilled in the art will recognize that other alternative hardware environments may be used without departing from the scope of the present invention. Single Function Operator System The growing interest in advanced data analysis techniques—prompted, in part, by increased use of data warehouses, data marts, and other decision support environments—has led some DBMS professionals to revisit the need for temporal data analysis. Such analysis attempts to discern the manner in which the states of things (e.g., product content, product pricing, product promotions, product management, etc.) vary over time and the manner in which these different states may be inter-related. For example, a product may sell at its standard retail price for certain periods of time, while at other times it may sell at various discounted rates. Furthermore, this same product may cost the retailer different prices at different periods of time (perhaps due to a manufacturer's rebate offer). Understanding the relationship between the product's various states of pricing can be important when determining the effectiveness of the product's pricing strategy and assessing profits on the product's sales. The examples discussed herein involve retail-oriented databases with a star schema architecture. The retail industry is used because of its commercial significance in the data warehousing and decision support fields and because members of the retail industry tend to be interested in temporal analysis. However, the single function operator system 124 is applicable to other industries. Some forms of temporal analysis are challenging to express using current commercial technology. Researchers have argued that these commercial limitations may place an undue burden on DBMS users in the future, as data warehouses are likely to store greater quantities of historical data. Temporal data tracks state-related information. This often translates into recording the time period for which a given condition was (or is or will be) valid. An example of temporal data is shown below in Table 1 and Table 2. Specifically, Table 1 and Table 2 contain information about Grace Theophila's salary and job titles over time. Grace Theophila is a fictional employee. Date information is shown in the MM/DD/YYYY format. TABLE 1 ID NAME SALARY START_DATE END_DATE 123 Grace Theophila 45,000 Feb. 01, 1997 Apr. 20, 1998 123 Grace Theophila 48,000 Apr. 20, 1998 Oct. 30, 1998 123 Grace Theophila 49,500 Oct. 30, 1998 Apr. 04, 1999 ... ... ... ... ... TABLE 2 START — ID NAME TITLE DATE END_DATE 123 Grace Theophila Asst Feb. 01, 1997 Dec. 01, 1997 Manager 123 Grace Theophila Manager Feb. 01, 1997 Apr. 04, 1999 ... ... ... ... ... Both Table 1 and Table 2 track valid time information about different business conditions. Table 1 records salary information for employees throughout various periods of time, and Table 2 records employees'job titles throughout various periods of time. The “period” nature is a characteristic of temporal data and temporal analysis. Traditional databases (i.e., databases which focus on currently valid data) rarely model employee salary and job title information in two separate tables, as shown in Table 1 and Table 2. However, for simplicity, a “temporal” database (i.e., one which attempts to track historical information and, possibly, current and future information as well) may model data in separate tables. An employee's salaries and job titles can vary over time, independently of one another. Storing both pieces of information in a single temporal table forces the DBMS professional to design the database in the following manner either: (1) retain only one start/end date pair to record the valid time for all the row's content; or (2) include multiple start/end date pairs, each recording the valid time for a single part of the row's content. Each of these design options increases the complexity of the temporal analysis. Therefore, in the interest of simplicity and clarity, the single function operator system 124 will be described herein with respect to separate tables for each type of data. However, if desired, the single function operator system 124 can be used with other database designs, e.g., single table designs. Both Table 1 and Table 2 use dates as their level of temporal granularity, because presumably, an employee's salary or job title remains constant for a single day. However, temporal data can be recorded at coarser or finer levels of granularity. The START_DATE represents the first day on which the condition became true, and the END_DATE represents the first day thereafter in which the condition failed to remain true. For example, beginning Feb. 1, 1997, Grace had a salary of $45,000 per year. Grace continued to earn this salary until—but not including—Apr. 20, 1998. This technique of modeling temporal data is sometimes referred to as a “closed-open” representation in research literature. Of course, other representations of the data are possible without exceeding the scope of the single function operator system 124 . Many of the underlying principles for a preferred embodiment of the single function operator system 124 are based on the theoretical work of J. F. Allen, who identified a set of operators (commonly referred to as Allen's operators) that can be used to assess temporal relationships. Allen's operators can be expressed in a variety of languages, including SQL. Allen's operators are shown in FIG. 2 . FIG. 2 has an OPERATOR column 200 , a RELATIONSHIP column 202 , and a GRAPHIC EXAMPLE column 204 . The OPERATOR column 200 contains seven of Allen's operators, including BEFORE 206 , MEETS 208 , OVERLAPS 210 , DURING 212 , STARTS 214 , FINISHES 216 , and EQUAL 218 . These operators 206 , 208 , 210 , 212 , 214 , 216 , and 218 perform a comparison operation. The result of each comparison operation yields a TRUE or FALSE value. The RELATIONSHIP column 202 shows the relationship between a time period X 220 and a time period Y 222 . The GRAPHIC EXAMPLE column 204 displays a graphical representation of the relationship between the time period X 220 and the time period Y 222 . Other of Allen's operators include MET BY, OVERLAPPED BY, STARTED BY, and FINISHED BY. The results of these operators also produce a TRUE or FALSE value. The preferred embodiment of the single function operator system 124 combines some of the operators 206 , 208 , 210 , 212 , 214 , 216 , and 218 into a single function. Combining some of the operators 206 , 208 , 210 , 212 , 214 , 216 , and 218 simplifies certain queries and helps reduce the number of lines of SQL code. More specifically, an embodiment of the single function operator system 124 provides a WITHIN operator that combines the EQUAL 218 , DURING 212 , STARTS 214 , and FINISHES 216 operators into a single function operator. The WITHIN operator returns a TRUE value when the time period X 220 is wholly or partly contained (or subsumed) within the time period Y 222 . Another embodiment of the present invention provides a SHARES operator. The SHARES operator is similar to the WITHIN operator. Like the WITHIN operator, the SHARES operator combines the EQUAL 218 , DURING 212 , STARTS 214 , and FINISHES 216 operators into a single function operator. The difference between the WITHIN operator and the SHARES operator is that the SHARES operator adds the following operators to the combination: OVERLAPS 210 , OVERLAPPED BY, CONTAINS, STARTED BY, and FINISHED BY. The SHARES operator returns a TRUE value when time period X 220 shares any time in common with time period Y 222 . To illustrate the benefits of the SHARES operator, the SHARES operator is used to extract data from Table 3 and Table 4 . Table 3 represents a Store database. The Store database records data about stores and the districts to which each store reports. Table 3 contains five columns, a SID column, a STORE_NAME column, a DID column, a ORG_START column, and ORG_END column. The SID column contains a store identifier. The STORE_NAME column contains the name of store. The DID column contains the district identifier of the district that the store reports to. The ORG_START column contains the start date of the store-to-district reporting structure, and the ORG_END column contains the end date of the store-to-district reporting structure. TABLE 3 SID STORE_NAME DID ORG_START ORG_END 0 Acme 0 7 May 06, 1998 July 20, 1998 0 Acme 0 6 Jan. 01, 1998 May 06, 1998 1 Acme 1 7 Apr. 20, 1998 May 05, 1998 2 Acme 2 6 Jan. 01, 1998 Sep. 30, 1998 2 Acme 2 7 Sep. 30, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 3 Acme 3 5 Jan. 10, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 4 Acme 4 5 Sep. 01, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 ... ... ... ... ... Table 4 represents a District database. The District database records data about the districts and about the districts associated trading area. Table 4 contains five columns: a DID column that contains a district identifier; a D_NAME column that contains a district name; a TID column that contains an identifier of the trading area that the districts reports to; an ORG_START column that contains a start date of the reporting structure, and an ORG_END column that contains an end date of the reporting structure. TABLE 4 DID D_NAME TID ORG_START ORG_END 5 Valley District 11 Jan. 01, 1998 July 30, 1998 6 Springs District 11 May 30, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 6 Lakes District 12 Jan. 01, 1998 May 30, 1998 7 Mountain District 12 Feb. 04, 1998 Nov. 30, 1998 5 Willows District 12 July 30, 1998 Aug. 30, 1998 6 Waterfront District 9 Jan. 01, 1997 Dec. 30, 1997 ... ... ... ... ... As an example, assume that a query seeks to report the names of stores and the districts which the stores are associated with over time. This type of query is sometimes referred to as a “temporal sequenced join”. Such a query might produce a report that cites the name of each store, the name of the district into which the store reported, and the dates for which this store-to-district reporting information is valid. Table 5 represents a sample result. TABLE 5 STORE_NAME D_NAME ORG_START ORG_END Acme 0 Lakes District Jan. 01, 1998 May 06, 1998 Acme 0 Mountain District May 06, 1998 July 20, 1998 Acme 1 Mountain District Apr. 20, 1998 May 05, 1998 Acme 2 Lakes District Jan. 01, 1998 Sep. 30, 1998 Acme 2 Springs District Jan. 01, 1998 Sep. 30, 1998 Acme 2 Mountain District Sep. 30, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 Acme 3 Valley District Jan. 10, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 Acme 3 Willows District Jan. 10, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 Some conventional techniques for drafting a query that produces the results contained in Table 5 require four SELECT statements, three UNION statements, and a total of eleven data comparison operations. Each SELECT statement tests for some relationship between the time period of validity for the store-to-district reporting structure. The data comparison operators, which implement Allen's operators, test for various temporal relationships. After testing for the temporal relationships, the query then unions the results together. A sample conventional query is shown below: SELECT store_name, d_name, store.org_start, store.org_end FROM store, district WHERE store.did=district.did and district.org_start<=store.org_start and store.org_end<=district.org_end UNION SELECT store_name, d_name, store.org_start, store.org_end FROM store, district WHERE store.did=district.did and store.org_start>district.org_start and district.org_end<store.org_end and store.org_start<district.org_end UNION SELECT store_name, d_name, store.org_start, store.org_end FROM store, district WHERE store.did=district.did and district.org_start>store.org_start and store.org_end<district.org_end and district.org_tart<store.org_end UNION SELECT store_name, d_name, store.org_start, store.org_end FROM store, district WHERE store.did=district.did and district.org_start>=store.org_start and district.org_end<=store.org_end ORDER BY store_name The above query contains four query blocks. Each section of the query that begins with a SELECT statement is a query block. Each query block contains a standard join clause based on the district identification number (i.e., the DID column of the STORE and DISTRICT tables). Each query block also includes a temporal join clause. To simplify the discussion of the temporal join clauses, assume “P 1 ” denotes the time period specified by the ORG_START and ORG_END dates of the STORE table shown in Table 3, and assume “P 2 ” denotes the time period specified by the ORG_START and ORG_END dates of the DISTRICT table shown in Table 4. Thus, the four query blocks test for the following temporal conditions: Query Block 1 : P 1 DURING P 2 or P 1 EQUAL P 2 or P 1 STARTS P 2 Query Block 2 : P 2 OVERLAPS P 1 Query Block 3 : P 1 OVERLAPS P 2 Query Block 4 : P 2 DURING P 1 or P 2 EQUAL P 1 or P 2 FINISHES P 1 While this query produces the intended result set shown in Table 5, many users would experience difficulty formulating this query. In particular, few users are capable of developing the logic and correctly coding the syntax (particularly all the date comparison operators) in a timely manner. Assuming that users store their temporal data in a relational or object/relational DBMS, a user must perform the following steps to formulate the above query: (1) understand the logic of each of the relevant temporal conditions; (2) correctly translate the logic into SQL date comparison operators; (3) formulate appropriate query blocks; and (4) UNION these query blocks together. Such query logic can be difficult to debug, as an error in one date comparison operator will yield incorrect results. However, that same error will fail to produce an error warning message from the database. In addition to the difficulty in formulating and debugging the SQL query, the execution of the SQL query can cause a database management system to scan the table(s) referenced in the query multiple time (one time for each query block). Such scanning may result in considerable input and output processing and poor performance (e.g., delays in receiving query results). Fortunately, the single function operator system 124 provides the SHARES operator. The SHARES operator simplifies the above query. More specifically, the SHARES operator eliminates three of the four SELECT statements, all of the UNION statements, and ten of the eleven date comparisons. Using the SHARES operator, the above query can be revised as follows: SELECT store_name, store.did, d_name, store.org_start, store.org_end FROM store, district WHERE store.did=district.did and shares(store.org_start, store.org_end, district.org_start, district.org_end)=1 ORDER BY store_name, store.did In addition to greatly simplifying the traditional query, the revised query adds a the district identifier (the DID column of Table 4) to the result shown in Table 6. TABLE 6 STORE — NAME DID D_NAME ORG_START ORG_END Acme 0 6 Lakes District Jan. 01, 1998 May 05, 1998 Acme 0 7 Mountain District May 06, 1998 July 20, 1998 Acme 1 7 Mountain District Apr. 20, 1998 May 05, 1998 Acme 2 6 Springs District Jan. 01, 1998 Sep. 30, 1998 Acme 2 6 Lakes District Jan. 01, 1998 Sep. 30, 1998 Acme 2 7 Mountain District Sep. 30, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 Acme 3 5 Valley District Jan. 10, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 Acme 3 5 Willows District Jan. 10, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 In the revised query, the operator that eliminates the most code is the SHARES OPERATOR: shares(store.org_start, store.org_end, district.org_start, district.org_end)=1 The SHARES function combines several temporal tests into one. A temporal relationship exists when either time period is equal to the other time period, or overlaps with the other time period, or occurred during the other time period, or starts during the other time period, or finishes during the other time period. That is, the two periods share some time in common. The SHARES operator expects to receive four DATE values as input (each pair containing the start/end points of each time period). The SHARES operator returns a “1” if the test evaluates as TRUE or a “0” if the test evaluates as FALSE. The WITHIN operator also eliminates the amount of code used in a traditional query. To illustrate the benefit of using the WITHIN operator, the WITHIN operator is used to extract data from Table 7 and Table 8 below. Table 7 represents a Discount database. The discount database records the retail price discount offered by store for products. Table 7 contains five columns: a PID column, a SID column, a PERCENT_OFF column, a D_START column, and a D_END column. The PID column contains a product identifier. The SID column contains a store identifier. The PERCENT_OFF column contains a discount rate. The D_START column contains a start time for a discount on product. The D_END columns contains the end time for a discount on product. TABLE 7 PID SID PERCENT_OFF D_START D_END 100 3 5 May 01, 1998 May 30, 1998 200 1 7 Apr. 30, 1998 May 10, 1998 200 2 7 Apr. 30, 1998 May 10, 1998 600 2 5 Nov. 30, 1998 Dec. 05, 1998 500 0 10 Feb. 01, 1998 Feb. 10, 1998 ... ... ... ... ... Table 8 represents a Manu_Special database. The Manu_Special database records a manufacturer's discount offered to retailers. Table 8 contains four columns, a PID column, a PERCENT_OFF column, a S_START column, and a S_END column. The PID column contains the product identifier. The PERCENT_OFF column contains manufacturer's discount rate. The S_START column contains the start date of manufacturer's special pricing. The S_END column contains the end date of manufacturer's special pricing. TABLE 8 PID PERCENT_OFF S_START S_END 100 2 Apr. 30, 1998 May 15, 1998 100 5 July 30, 1998 Aug. 15, 1998 400 10 July 30, 1998 Aug. 30, 1998 600 5 Dec. 10, 1998 Dec. 30, 1998 500 15 Jan. 01, 1998 Feb. 15, 1998 ... ... ... ... A sample query is shown below. The query seeks to determine which products were put on sale during a time period X 220 , wherein the time period X 220 occurs outside of the time period Y 222 . The time period Y 222 represents the time period in which the store was eligible to receive a manufacturer's rebate. In other words, the query seeks to determine if any portion of a product's retail discount period fell outside the manufacturer's rebate period. SELECT discount.pid, sid, d_start as disc_start, d_end as disc_end, s_start as rebate_start, s_end as rebate_end FROM discount, manu_special WHERE discount.pid=manu_special.pid and ((d_start<s_start) or (d_end>s_end)) The query contains one query block. The query block contains a standard join clause based on the product identification number (i.e., the PID column of the Discount and Manu_Special tables). The query block also includes a temporal join clause. Formulating this temporal join clause is difficult because correct date comparison operations must be specified. In this example, the goal is to produce a result that contains discounted products that fell outside the manufacturer's rebate period—that is, any discounts occurring before or after the rebate period. To simplify the discussion of the temporal join clauses, assume “P 1 ” denotes the time period specified by the D_START and D_END dates of the Discount table shown in Table 7, and assume “P 2 ” denotes the time period specified by the S_START and S_END dates of the Manu Special table shown in Table 8. While this query produces the intended result set, many people would experience difficulty formulating this query. In particular, few people are capable of developing the logic and correctly coding the syntax (particularly the date comparison operators) in a timely manner. The WITHIN operator simplifies the above query. Using the WITHIN operator, the above query can be revised as follows: SELECT discount.pid, sid, d_start as disc_start, d_end as disc_end, s_start as rebate_start, s_end as rebate_end FROM discount, manu_special WHERE discount.pid=manu_ 1 special.pid and within(d_start, d_end, s_start, s_end)=0 In the revised query, formulating the temporal portion of the query is simple. Namely, the revised query returns those rows that lack the WITHIN condition. Specifying that the query return a “0” or FALSE value produces rows that lack the WITHIN condition. FIGS. 3A and 3B are flow charts illustrating the steps performed by the present invention 124 in accordance with an embodiment of the single function operator system 124 . In particular FIG. 3A illustrates the steps performed by the present invention to create a WITHIN operator and FIG. 3B illustrates the steps performed by the present invention to create a SHARES operator. In FIG. 3A, block 300 represents the single function operator system 124 receiving a WITHIN operator. Block 302 represents the single function operator system 124 logically combining the EQUAL, DURING, STARTS, and FINISHES operators into a single function operation represented by the WITHIN operator. In FIG. 3B, block 304 represents the single function operator system receiving a SHARES operator. Block 306 represents the single function operator system 124 logically combining the OVERLAP, OVERLAPPED BY, DURING, CONTAINS, STARTS, STARTED BY, FINISHES, FINISHED BY, and EQUALS operators into a single operation represented by the SHARES operator. CONCLUSION This concludes the description of the preferred embodiment of the invention. The following describes some alternative embodiments for accomplishing the present invention. For example, any type of computer, such as a mainframe, minicomputer, or personal computer, or computer configuration, such as a timesharing mainframe, local area network, or standalone personal computer, could be used with the present invention. The foregoing description of the preferred embodiment of the invention has been presented for the purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed. Many modifications and variations are possible in light of the above teaching. It is intended that the scope of the invention be limited not by this detailed description, but rather by the claims appended hereto.

A method, apparatus, and article of manufacture for detecting subsuming temporal relationships in a relational database. In accordance with the present invention, an invocation of a within operation that specifies a first event and a second event is received. In response to the invocation, a combination of temporal relationships between the first event and the second event is evaluated to determine (1) whether the second event starts at the same time as the first event or whether the second event starts before the first event and (2) whether the second event ends at the same time as the first event or whether the second event ends after the first event.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/766,558, filed Jan. 26, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,188,993 B1 which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/443,051, filed Jan. 27, 2003, the disclosures of which applications are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of Contract No. DAAH01-00-C-R086 awarded by U.S. Army. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to mixing and mass transport. In particular, the invention relates to an apparatus and method for resonant-vibratory mixing. The mixing of fluids involves the creation of fluid motion or agitation resulting in the uniform distribution of either heterogeneous or homogeneous starting materials to form an output product. Mixing processes are called upon to effect the uniform distribution of: miscible fluids such as alcohol in water; immiscible fluids such as the emulsification of oil in water; of particulate matter such as the suspension of pigment particles in a carrier fluid; mixtures of dry materials with fluids such as sand, cement and water; thixotropic (pseudo plastic) fluids with solid particulates; the chemical ingredients of pharmaceuticals; and biological specimens, such as bacteria, while growing in a nurturing media without incurring physical damage. Mixing may be accomplished in a variety of ways: either a rotating impeller(s) mounted onto a shaft(s) immersed in the fluid mixture agitate(s) the fluid and/or solid materials to be mixed, or a translating perforated plate does the agitation, or the vessel itself containing the materials is agitated, shaken or vibrated. Mixing may be continuous (as when a rotating impeller is used or the containing vessel is vibrated) or intermittent as when the drive mechanism starts and stops in one or several directions. With a conventional vibrational mixer, the amplitude can be varied within very narrow limits, and the frequency is generally set at the frequency of the alternating current (AC) power source. Even when using a motor controller with frequency control, the vibrational frequency of a conventional vibrational mixer can be varied only within relatively narrow limits. Mixing at the natural resonant frequency of the mechanism is usually avoided do to the high loads and associated wear of the mechanisms. When biological tissue is cultivated, all cells must stay suspended in the nutrient broth; that is, the cells should not settle to the bottom of the vessel in which they are cultivated. However, in agitating living cells so as to minimize sedimentation, the mechanical effect of high shear caused by the agitator should not compromise the integrity of the cells. In the case of rotating agitators, quite often the culture medium creates a turbulent vortex into which the cells are sucked. Under the turbulent vortex conditions, the cells are at greater risk of being mechanically damaged and the continuous supply of oxygen to the cells is not consistently assured. The background art is characterized by U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,091,414; 3,162,910; 2,353,492; 2,636,719; 3,498,384; 3,583,246; 3,767,168; 4,619,532; 4,972,930; 5,979,242; 6,213,630; 6,250,792; 6,263,750; and 6,579,002; the disclosures of which patents are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Newport et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 2,091,414 disclose an apparatus for effecting vibration. This invention is limited in that only a single-mass system is disclosed. Behnke et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 3,162,910 disclose a apparatus for shaking out foundry flasks. This invention is limited in that only a single-mass system and a single set of springs is provided. The present invention overcomes the limitations of U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,353,492 and 2,636,719 issued to John C. O'Connor (the “O'Conner patents”) and 6,213,630 issued to Olga Kossman (the “Kossman patent”). The O'Conner patents disclose devices, which provide for the vibrational compaction of dry materials and for the feeding of material via a vibratory conveyance. The Kossman patent claims electronic control of motors for the purpose of vibrational control of a compaction device. The O'Conner patents disclose vibrational mechanisms comprised of two masses. A means of imposing a cyclical force is attached to the first mass. The second mass, which holds or includes the material to be affected, is resiliently mounted to the first. The assembly is then held by resilient members to a fixed ground position. This mechanism can be effectively tuned by proper resilient member selections to substantially reduce transmitted forces to the ground position but is limited in its ability to reduce accelerations imposed on the first mass. Accelerations on the first mass, which includes the driver inducing the cyclical forces, induce high forces which in turn lead to premature failures. To lower the failure rates of the driver, either the induced forces must be reduced or the mass of the material to be affected must be severely limited. Both cases limit the available applications of the device. Further, it is stated that the preferred operating conditions are between the first and second modes of peak vibrations. This further limit the device's effectiveness due to the additional power required to operate in this range for optimum mixing accelerations and amplitudes. If the device were to operate at one of the peek modes only enough power to overcome inherent damping of the device would be required to effect maximum acceleration and amplitude at mass two. The Kossman patent discloses a method of controlling the driver motor or motors of a vibrational device similar to the O'Conner patent. The disclosed device lacks the ability to operate at the natural frequency peaks and also suffers from a lack of ability to limit transmitted forces to either the driver or ground positions. Ogura in U.S. Pat. No. 3,498,384 discloses a vibratory impact device. This invention is limited in that only a two-mass system is disclosed. It is not possible to achieve high payload accelerations, force cancellation and low driver accelerations with a two-mass system. Stahle et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 3,583,246 disclose a vibration device driven by at least one imbalance generator. This invention is limited in that only a single-mass system is disclosed. Dupre et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 3,767,168 disclose a mechanical agitation apparatus. This invention is limited in that only a single-mass system is disclosed. Schmidt in U.S. Pat. No. 4,619,532 discloses a shaker for paint containers. This invention is limited in that only a double-mass system is disclosed. Davis in U.S. Pat. No. 4,972,930 discloses a dynamically adjustable rotary unbalance shaker. This invention is limited in that only a single-mass system is disclosed. Moreover, the vibratory driver is directly attached to the single mass and this mass is attached to ground by pneumatic springs. High driver accelerations are an unavoidable result of such a device. Hobbs in U.S. Pat. No. 5,979,242 discloses a multi-level vibration test system having controllable vibration attributes. This invention is limited in that it discloses a multi-driver system with a driver attached on each of the masses in the system. No disclosure of means for achieving low driver accelerations or low transmitted forces to ground is made. Krush et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 6,250,792 discloses an integrated vibratory adapter device. This invention is limited in that only a single-mass system is disclosed. Maurer et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 6,263,750 disclose a device for generating directed vibrations. This invention is limited in that only a single-mass system is disclosed. Bartick et al., in U.S. Pat. No. 6,579,002 disclose a broad-range large-load fast-oscillating high-performance reciprocating programmable laboratory shaker. This invention is limited in that only a single-mass system is disclosed. This invention is not capable of operating in a resonant condition as it is displacement rather than vibration driven. In summary, the background art does not teach a three-mass system having a structure that is capable of achieving low-frequencies of 0-1000 Hertz (Hz), high accelerations of 2-75 accelerations equal to that caused by gravity (g's) and large displacement amplitudes of 0.01-0.5 inches. What is needed is an apparatus and method for mixing fluids and/or solids in a manner that can be varied from maintaining the integrity of fragile molecular and biological materials in the mixing vessel to homogenizing heavy aggregate material by supplying large amounts of energy. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The purpose of the invention is to provide intimate processing, for example, mixing a plurality of fluids, e.g., intimately mixing a gas in a liquid, or a liquid in another liquid, or more than two phases. One application is the mixing and dispersion of solids in liquids, in particular hard to wet solids and small particles. Other applications include preparing emulsions for chemical and pharmaceutical applications, gasifying liquids for purification and for chemical reactions, accelerating physical and chemical reactions, and suspending fine particles in fluids. The fluids to which reference is made herein may or may not include entrained solid particles. The present invention provides an apparatus and method for mixing materials, which apparatus and method afford exquisite control over mixing in a wide range of applications. The range of applications extends from heavy-duty agitation for preparation of concrete to delicate and precise mixing required for the preparation of pharmaceuticals and the processing of biological cultures in which living organisms must remain viable through the mixing process. In a preferred embodiment, the present invention provides a vibration mixer, driven by an electronically controllable motor or motors, adapted so as to allow virtually unlimited control of the mixing process. In a preferred embodiment, the present invention is comprised of three masses with a cyclical linear force applied to one of the masses. The linear force applied to the first mass produces a vibratory motion which is transmitted through resilient members to a second coupling mass then to a third mass. By adding a second mass, it is possible to tune the response of the system so that transmitted forces are cancelled out. A vessel is attached to the second or third mass for the purpose of mixing two or more constituents. The three masses are coupled together with resilient members which are optimized to transfer the vast majority of the force to the mixing vessel and minimize the transmitted force to the ground and supporting structure. Minimizing the transmission of force to ground and maximizing the transmitted force to the vessel most efficiently affects work done on the vessel contents and reduces wear on the linear force transducer. Most efficient operation is achieved by operation at or near resonant frequencies of the mechanism. Levels of intensity that are nearly impossible with conventional methods of vibration mixing are attained with ease by employing the resonating system disclosed herein. One object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate mixing of two or more liquids. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate mixing of one or more liquids and one or more gases. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate mixing of one or more liquids and one or more gases. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate mixing of one or more liquids with one or more solid particles. A further object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate mixing of one or more liquids with one or more solid particles with one or more gases. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate mixing of two or more solids. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate mixing of two or more non-Newtonian materials. A further object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate mixing of one or more non-Newtonian materials with one or more solid particles. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate gasification of liquids. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate de-gasification of liquids. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to accelerate physical and chemical reactions. A further object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to accelerate heat transfer. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to accelerate mass transfer. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to suspend and distribute particles. A further object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to suspend nanoparticles distribute particles. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to cause micromixing. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to create Newtonian instabilities. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to cause high rates of gas-liquid and liquid-gas mass transfer. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to cause dispersion of vapor bubbles into the surface and disperse into the liquid. A further object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to cause bubbles to move downward into a liquid. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to cause bubbles to be suspended in a liquid. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to cause vapor to cavitate in a liquid. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to facilitate mixing by a selected frequency, amplitude or acceleration. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to disperse fine particles in a uniform manner in a Newtonian or non-Newtonian liquid medium. A further object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to cause liquids to migrate into porous solids. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to cause liquids to migrate through porous solids. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to cause liquids to migrate into porous solids and leach out materials. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is reduce boundary layers that impede mass transport and heat transfer. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to employ resonant operation to improve efficiency of mixing. A further object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to combine three or more masses in such a manner to provide a force-canceling mode of operation. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to produce low-frequencies of 0-1000 Hertz (Hz), high accelerations of 2-75 accelerations equal to that caused by gravity (g's) and large displacement amplitudes of 0.01-0.5 inches. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to provide a self-contained system for placing the fluids and solids to be mixed on a platform and a mechanism for securing the system to the platform. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is provides a means for force cancellation to the base of the device. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to reduce acceleration on the oscillator, thereby increasing bearing life and extending the useful life of the components of the device. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to provides mechanisms for operation at the resonant frequency of the device for increased efficiency and effectiveness. Another object of preferred embodiment of the invention is to employ internal force cancellation and reduce forces transmitted to the surroundings of the device. A further object of the invention is to efficiently transfer applied forces and related accelerations to the payload mass and reduce acceleration of the oscillator. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to allow for automatic and/or manual adjustment of oscillatory force during operation. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is provide a a three, or more, mass system where operating parameters (frequency and displacement) are less sensitive to payload mass changes and provides consistent operation in a variety of situations. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is a device that has three modes of vibration and operates at the highest, thereby affording the use of more compliant springs, which reduces intrinsic damping and increases efficiency. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to provide high mass transport of gases, liquids and nutrients to cells with low shear. Another object of the invention is to provide high mass transport of gases and waste products from cells at low shear. A further object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to provide high mass transport of gases, liquids and nutrients to and into microcarriers with low shear while causing a minimum of microcarrier collisions. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention to provide high mass transport of gases out of and from microcarriers with low shear while causing a minimum of microcarrier collisions. Yet another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to provide a vibratory device that can be adjusted to produce frequencies and displacements that cause fluids (gas-liquid, gas-liquid-solid systems and combinations of these systems) in the payload vessel to develop a resonant/mixing condition that establishes high levels of gas-liquid contact, a standing acoustic wave, and axial flow patterns that result in high levels of gas-liquid mass transport and mixing. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to provide a vibratory device that can be adjusted to displace a payload such as a vessel filled with a variety solids that are highly loaded, e.g., very close to theoretical density, at a frequency and amplitude that cause the material to fluidize and become highly mixed. A further object of the invention is to provide a vibratory device that can be adjusted to displace a payload, such as a vessel filled with variety of solids and liquids that are highly loaded, e.g., very close to theoretical density, at a frequency and amplitude to cause the material to fluidize and become highly mixed. Another object of preferred embodiments of the invention is to provide a vibratory device comprised of two or more masses, a substantially linear vibrator and a method of control, which allows for variable force cancellation during operation, the masses being connected by resilient members in order to transfer the forces generated by the vibrator to the vessel and wherein force cancellation is controllable such that substantially linear forces can be generated in any direction. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is an apparatus comprising: a base assembly comprising a plurality of base legs with each adjacent pair of legs being connected by at least one leg connector assembly, each of said base legs having a bottom resilient member (e.g., spring) support and a top resilient member support attached thereto; a driver assembly, said driver assembly being movable in a first linear direction and in an opposite linear direction and said driver assembly comprising a plurality of resilient member shafts having ends, each of which resilient member shafts has a driver to payload resilient member attached to each end thereof; a plurality of motor assemblies comprising a motor having a motor shaft to which an eccentric mass is attached, each of said eccentric masses having a centroid, each of said motor assemblies being rigidly connected to said driver assembly and being adapted to rotate the centroid of its eccentric mass in a plane that is parallel to another plane in which said first direction and said opposite direction lie; a payload assembly, said payload assembly being movable in the same directions as said driver assembly and being movably connected to said driver assembly by the driver to payload springs and being movably connected to the bottom resilient member support and the top resilient member support of said base assembly by a plurality of payload to base resilient members; and a plurality of reaction mass assemblies, each reaction assembly being movable in the same directions as said driver assembly and being movably connected to said payload assembly by a plurality of reaction mass to payload resilient members and movably connected to said base assembly by a plurality of reaction mass to base resilient members; wherein each of said eccentric masses has substantially the same weight and inertial properties, and wherein the eccentric masses are rotatable at substantially the same rotational speed in opposite rotational directions and around axes that lie in the same plane and, during rotation, are operative to produce a first force on said driver assembly in said first direction and a second force on said driver assembly in said opposite direction and substantially no other forces on said driver assembly. Preferably, the apparatus of further comprises: four base legs; four resilient member shafts; four motor assemblies; and four reaction mass assemblies. Preferably, the apparatus further comprises: a controller that is operative to control the rotation of the motor shafts. Preferably, the apparatus further comprises: a mixing vessel attached to said payload assembly. Preferably, the apparatus further comprises: a motor controller that is operative to cause two of the motor shafts to rotate in a clockwise direction and two of the motor shafts to rotate in a counterclockwise direction. Preferably, apparatus of claim 5 further comprises: an accelerometer that is attached to the payload assembly or to the driver assembly, said accelerometer being operative to produce a first signal that characterizes the motion of the assembly to which it is attached. Preferably, apparatus of further comprises: a polar position transducer (e.g., a resolver) that is attached to each motor shaft, each polar position transducer being operative to produce a second signal that characterizes the absolute position of the motor shaft to which it is attached. In another preferred embodiment, the invention is a method of mixing comprising: providing an apparatus disclosed herein; and causing the eccentric masses to rotate at substantially the same rotational speed in opposite rotational directions and around axes that lie in the same plane. In yet another preferred embodiment, the invention is a method of mixing comprising: a step for providing an apparatus disclosed herein; a step for placing a composition to be mixed in said mixing chamber; and a step for causing the eccentric masses to rotate at substantially the same rotational speed in opposite rotational directions and around axes that lie in the same plane. In another preferred embodiment, the invention is an apparatus for agitation comprising: a base; a first movable mass, said first movable mass being movable in a first linear direction and in an opposite linear direction; two means for rotating an eccentric mass, each of said eccentric masses having a centroid, each of said means for rotating being rigidly connected to said first movable mass and being adapted to rotate its eccentric mass in a first plane that is parallel to a second plane in which said first direction and said opposite direction lie; a second movable mass, said second movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said first movable mass by a first resilient means and being movably connected to said base by a second resilient means; and a third movable mass, said third movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said second movable mass by a third resilient means and movably connected to said base by a fourth resilient means; wherein each of said eccentric masses has substantially the same weight and inertial properties, and wherein the eccentric masses are rotatable at substantially the same rotational speed in opposite rotational directions and around axes that lie in the same plane and, during rotation, are operative to produce a first force on said first movable mass in said first direction and a second force on said first movable mass in said opposite direction and substantially no other forces on said first movable mass. Preferably, the apparatus further comprises: a mixing chamber that is rigidly connected to said second movable mass. Preferably, apparatus further comprises: a mixing chamber that is rigidly connected to said third movable mass. Preferably, the apparatus further comprises: first electronic or electro-mechanical means for controlling the frequency at which said second mass or said third mass moves cyclically and/or the displacement of said second mass or third mass as it moves cyclically. Preferably, the apparatus further comprises: second electronic or electro-mechanical means for controlling the frequency at which said second mass or said first mass moves cyclically and/or the displacement of said first mass as it moves cyclically. Preferably, said resilient means have spring constants that are adjustable. Preferably, apparatus further comprises: electronic or electro-mechanical means for automatically adjusting the characteristics of said resilient means, the magnitudes of the forces and the frequency at which the forces are imposed, thereby allowing control of the frequency of vibration or displacement of a payload to provide consistent and/or controlled operation of the apparatus in a variety of situations. Preferably, at least some of the resilient means are selected from the group consisting of spiral springs, leaf springs, pneumatic springs, rubber springs, piezoelectric variable springs, and pneumatic variable springs. Preferably, the second mass comprises a plurality of additional masses, each of additional masses is connected to the third mass by an additional resilient means. Preferably, the third mass comprises a plurality of additional masses, each of additional masses is connected to the second mass by an additional resilient means. In a further preferred embodiment, the invention is an apparatus for agitation comprising: a base; a first movable mass, said first movable mass being movable in a first linear direction and in an opposite linear direction; means for cyclically imposing forces on said first movable mass in said first direction and in said opposite direction; a second movable mass, said second movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said first movable mass by a first resilient means and being movably connected to said base by a second resilient means; and a third movable mass, said third movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said second movable mass by a third resilient means and movably connected to said base by a fourth resilient means; wherein each of said means for imposing forces is operative to produce a first force on said first movable mass in said first direction and a second force on said first movable mass in said opposite direction and substantially no other forces on said first movable mass. Preferably, the apparatus further comprises: a mixing chamber that is rigidly connected to said second movable mass. Preferably, the apparatus further comprises: a mixing chamber that is rigidly connected to said third movable mass. In another preferred embodiment, the invention is an apparatus for agitation comprising: a base; a first movable mass, said first movable mass being movable in a first linear direction and in an opposite linear direction; a driver for cyclically imposing a force on said first movable mass in said first direction or in said opposite direction; a second movable mass, said second movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said first movable mass by a first resilient means and being movably connected to said base by a second resilient means; and a third movable mass, said third movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said second movable mass by a third resilient means and movably connected to said base by a fourth resilient means; wherein said driver is operative to produce a first force on said first movable mass in said first direction or a second force on said first movable mass in said opposite direction and substantially no other forces on said first movable mass. Preferably, the apparatus further comprises: four or more independently adjustable and controllable drivers that can be adjusted to control the vibrating force, vibrating amplitude and/or vibrating frequency of said second mass or said third mass. In a preferred embodiment, the invention is an apparatus for agitation comprising: a base; a first movable mass, said first movable mass being movable in a first linear direction and in an opposite linear direction; two means for rotating an eccentric mass, each of said eccentric masses having a centroid, each of said means for rotating being rigidly connected to said first movable mass and being adapted to rotate its eccentric mass in a first plane that is parallel to a second plane in which said first direction and said opposite direction lie; a second movable mass, said second movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said first movable mass by a first resilient means and being movably connected to said base by a second resilient means; and a third movable mass, said third movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said second movable mass by a third resilient means; wherein each of said eccentric masses has substantially the same weight and inertial properties, and wherein the eccentric masses are capable of rotation at substantially the same rotational speed in opposite rotational directions and around axes that lie in the same plane and, during rotation, are operative to produce a first force on said first movable mass in said first direction and a second force on said first movable mass in said opposite direction and substantially no other forces on said first movable mass. Preferably, the third movable means is connected to said base by a fourth resilient means. In another preferred embodiment, the invention is a method of mixing comprising: cyclically imposing a first force on a first movable mass in a first linear direction and a second force on said first movable mass in an opposite linear direction relative to a base, said first movable mass being moved in said first linear direction and then in said opposite linear direction; the movement of said first movable mass causing movement of a second movable mass, said second movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said first movable mass by a first resilient means and being movably connected to said base by a second resilient means; the movement of said first movable mass or said second movable mass causing the movement of a third movable mass, said third movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said second movable mass by a third resilient means and movably connected to said base by a fourth resilient means; the movement of said second movable mass or said third movable mass causing mixing of a composition moved by the movement of said second movable mass or said third movable mass. Preferably said composition comprises a plurality of liquids and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing said composition to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 15 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch; thereby achieving micromixing of said composition with generation of bubbles in said composition in the range of 10 microns to 100 microns in size with substantial uniformity of droplet size and droplet distribution. Preferably, said composition comprises a liquid and a gas and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing said composition to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 10 Hertz to about 100 Hertz and at an amplitude of less than about 0.025 inch; thereby achieving separation of the liquid and the gas. Preferably, said composition comprises a plurality of reactants and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing the reactants to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 10 Hertz to about 100 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.025 inch; thereby increasing heat transfer toward or away from the reactants, mass transfer among the reactants or suspension of the reactants. Preferably, said composition comprises a first liquid or a gas entrained in a second liquid and a porous solid media having a boundary layer and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing the porous solid media and the first liquid or the gas entrained in the second liquid to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a frequency between about 5 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch; thereby breaking the boundary layer and forcing the first liquid or the gas entrained in a second liquid into, out and through the porous solid media. Preferably, said composition comprises a culture comprising a nutrient medium and a microorganism and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing the culture to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a frequency between about 5 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.01 inch to about 0.2 inch; thereby achieving low shear mixing of said composition. Preferably, said composition comprises a solid and a liquid and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing the solid and the liquid to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 15 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch, said vibratory environment having a volume having parts; thereby subjecting all parts of the volume to a substantially equal amount of acoustic energy at substantially the same time and incorporating the solid into the liquid. In yet another preferred embodiment, the invention is a method of mixing comprising: cyclically imposing a first force on a first movable mass in a first linear direction or a second force on said first movable mass in an opposite linear direction relative to a base, said first movable mass being moved in said first linear direction and then in said opposite linear direction; the movement of said first movable mass causing movement of a second movable mass, said second movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said first movable mass by a first resilient means and being movably connected to said base by a second resilient means; the movement of said first movable mass or said second movable mass causing the movement of a third movable mass, said third movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said second movable mass by a third resilient means and movably connected to said base by a fourth resilient means; and the movement of said second movable mass or said third movable mass causing mixing of a composition moved by the movement of said second movable mass or said third movable mass. Preferably, the second movable mass or the third movable mass vibrates at the third harmonic and is operative to produce a force canceling effect, thereby reducing or eliminating forces transmitted to the surrounding environment and increasing mixing efficiency. Preferably, said composition comprises a plurality of liquids and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing said composition to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 15 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a liquid and a gas and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing said composition to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 10 Hertz to about 100 Hertz and at an amplitude of less than about 0.025 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a plurality of reactants and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing the reactants to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 10 Hertz to about 100 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.025 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a first liquid or a gas entrained in a second liquid and a porous solid media having a boundary layer and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing the porous solid media and the first liquid or the gas entrained in the second liquid to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a frequency between about 5 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a culture comprising a nutrient medium and a microorganism and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing the culture to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a frequency between about 5 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.01 inch to about 0.2 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a solid and a liquid and said causing mixing step further comprises: exposing the solid and the liquid to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 15 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch, said vibratory environment having a volume having parts. In another preferred embodiment, the invention is a method of mixing comprising: a step for cyclically imposing a first force on a first movable mass in a first linear direction or a second force on said first movable mass in an opposite linear direction relative to a base, said first movable mass being moved in said first linear direction and then in said opposite linear direction; a step for the movement of said first movable mass causing movement of a second movable mass, said second movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said first movable mass by a first resilient means and being movably connected to said base by a second resilient means; a step for the movement of said first movable mass or said second movable mass causing the movement of a third movable mass, said third movable mass being movable in the same directions as said first movable mass and being movably connected to said second movable mass by a third resilient means and movably connected to said base by a fourth resilient means; and a step for the movement of said second movable mass or said third movable mass causing mixing of a composition moved by the movement of said second movable mass or said third movable mass. Preferably, the second movable mass or the third movable mass vibrates at the third harmonic and is operative to produce a force canceling effect, thereby reducing or eliminating forces transmitted to the surrounding environment and increasing mixing efficiency. Preferably, said composition comprises a plurality of liquids and said causing mixing step further comprises: a step for exposing said composition to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 15 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a liquid and a gas and said causing mixing step further comprises: a step for exposing said composition to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 10 Hertz to about 100 Hertz and at an amplitude of less than about 0.025 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a plurality of reactants and said causing mixing step further comprises: a step for exposing the reactants to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 10 Hertz to about 100 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.025 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a first liquid or a gas entrained in a second liquid and a porous solid media having a boundary layer and said causing mixing step further comprises: a step for exposing the porous solid media and the first liquid or the gas entrained in the second liquid to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a frequency between about 5 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a culture comprising a nutrient medium and a microorganism and said causing mixing step further comprises: a step for exposing the culture to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a frequency between about 5 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.01 inch to about 0.2 inch. Preferably, said composition comprises a solid and a liquid and said causing mixing step further comprises: a step for exposing the solid and the liquid to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate said composition at a frequency between about 15 Hertz to about 1,000 Hertz and at an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch, said vibratory environment having a volume having parts. Further aspects of the invention will become apparent from consideration of the drawings and the ensuing description of preferred embodiments of the invention. A person skilled in the art will realize that other embodiments of the invention are possible and that the details of the invention can be modified in a number of respects, all without departing from the concept. Thus, the following drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature and not restrictive. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The features of the invention will be better understood by reference to the accompanying drawings which illustrate presently preferred embodiments of the invention. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a front elevation view of the flat plate resonant reactor constructed in accordance with a first preferred embodiment of the invention with some elements omitted for clarity. FIG. 2 is a right side sectional view of the flat plate resonant reactor of FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the preferred embodiment of FIGS. 1 and 2 with some elements omitted for clarity. FIG. 4 is a front elevation view of the preferred embodiment of FIGS. 1-4 with some elements omitted for clarity. FIG. 5 is a diagram representing the transmissive force response behavior of the preferred embodiment of FIGS. 1-4 . FIG. 6 is a diagram representing the phase response behavior of the preferred embodiment of FIGS. 1-4 . FIG. 7 is a perspective view of an alternative three mass system with a side-mounted vibration drive. FIG. 8 is a perspective view of an alternative three mass system with a low-mounted vibration drive. FIG. 9 is a side or front (they are the same) view of an alternative three mass system with middle-mounted vibration drive. FIG. 10 is a chart showing the performance differences between a two-mass system and a preferred embodiment of a three-mass system. FIG. 11 is schematic free body diagram of a preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 12 is a perspective view of a second preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 13 is a perspective view of the resonating system of the second preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 14 is a perspective view of the base assembly of the second preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 15 is a perspective view of a reaction mass assembly of the second preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the driver assembly of the second preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 17 is a perspective view of the payload assembly of the second preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 18 is a perspective view of the motor block assembly of the second preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 19 is a perspective view of a motor assembly of the second preferred embodiment of the invention. The following reference numerals are used to indicate the parts and environment of the invention on the drawings: 10 device, apparatus 11 intermediate mass 12 oscillator mass 13 payload, payload mass 24 payload mass to ground springs 25 oscillator to intermediate mass springs 26 payload mass to intermediate mass springs 27 intermediate mass to ground springs 30 stops 37 ground frame, base, rigid structure 38 oscillator drives, servo motors, force transducers 39 payload mass to ground alignment struts 40 retainers 41 locking nuts 43 oscillator to intermediate mass alignment struts 53 intermediate mass to ground alignment struts 55 payload mass to intermediate mass struts 56 eccentric masses, eccentric weights, eccentrics 57 motor shafts, shafts 60 mixing chamber 70 resonating system 72 base assembly 74 payload assembly 76 driver assembly 78 reaction mass assembly 80 base legs 82 leg connector assemblies 84 bottom spring support 86 top spring support 88 base foot 100 spans 102 uprights 104 tuning weight 106 base connector 108 reaction mass to base springs 110 reaction mass to payload springs 120 motor block assembly 122 driver to shaft mounts 124 driver spring shafts 126 top spring flange 128 driver to payload springs 130 payload upright supports 132 payload top plate 134 payload bottom plate 136 payload to base springs 138 driver spring shaft holes 140 motor assemblies 142 motor brackets 144 heat sink 146 power connector 148 feedback connector 150 access holes 160 motor stator housing 162 self-aligning bearing 164 wave springs 166 motor stator 168 motor rotor 170 motor shaft 172 keys 174 counterweight 176 counterweight spacer 178 angular contact ball bearing 180 resolver rotor 182 motor weight housing 184 resolver stator 190 retaining ring DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to FIGS. 1-4 , a preferred embodiment of the present invention is presented. Device 10 comprises three independent movable masses (intermediate mass 11 , oscillator mass 12 and payload 13 ) and four distinct spring beds or spring systems (payload mass to ground springs 24 , oscillator to intermediate mass springs 25 , intermediate mass to payload springs 26 and intermediate mass to ground springs 27 ) that are housed in rigid structure 7 . Oscillator mass 12 is preferably situated between the other two masses. Intermediate mass 11 is preferably situated below oscillator mass 12 . Payload 13 is preferably situated above oscillator mass 12 . Preferably, all of the masses are constructed of steel or some comparable alloy. Oscillator mass 12 is rigidly connected to two oscillator drives 38 (e.g., two direct current (DC) servo motors) and is movably connected to intermediate mass 11 by means of oscillator to intermediate mass alignment struts 43 (two of them that are preferably rigidly connected to oscillator mass 12 ), oscillator to intermediate mass springs 25 (comprising four compliant springs), two retainers 40 and two locking nuts 41 . Intermediate mass 11 is movably connected to rigid structure 37 by means of intermediate mass to ground alignment struts 53 (four of them that are preferably rigidly connected to rigid structure 37 ), intermediate mass to ground springs 27 (comprising eight compliant springs), four retainers 40 and four locking nuts 41 . Payload 13 is movably connected to intermediate mass 11 by means of payload mass to intermediate mass struts 55 (two of them that are preferably rigidly connected to payload mass 13 ), payload mass to intermediate mass springs 26 (comprising four compliant springs), two retainers 41 and two locking nuts 40 . One end of payload mass to intermediate mass springs 26 rests on stops 30 that are preferably rigidly connected to payload mass to intermediate mass struts 55 . Payload 13 is also movably connected to rigid structure 37 by means of payload mass to ground alignment struts 39 (four of them that are preferably rigidly connected to payload 13 ), payload mass to ground springs 24 (comprising eight compliant springs), four retainers 40 and four locking nuts 41 . FIG. 2 is a right side view of the embodiment of the invention presented in FIG. 1 showing further detail. It is apparent that intermediate mass 11 supports payload mass 13 and oscillator mass 12 in parallel. Furthermore, oscillator mass 12 is not directly connected to payload mass 13 . In this figure, a portion of the cover of one of the servo motors 38 is not shown so that one of the motor shafts 57 and one of the eccentric masses 56 are visible. In another preferred embodiment, device 10 further comprises mixing chamber 60 . Mixing chamber 60 is preferably attached to either intermediate mass 11 or payload 13 . The mass that does not have mixing chamber 60 attached to it may also be divided into multiple masses, each with its own resilient member attachment means for attaching the mass to the mass that does not have mixing chamber 60 attached to it. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4 , the preferred embodiment of FIGS. 1 and 2 is illustrated with elements deleted from the corner of device 10 that is nearest the viewer in FIG. 3 . In these views, both of the oscillator drives 38 are visible. In yet another preferred embodiment, additional servo motors 38 can be added to device 10 to provide for variability of the impulse force while device 10 is in operation. With the addition of two more servo motors 38 with identical eccentric masses 56 , total force cancellation can be achieved. This is accomplished by setting all motor axes to be parallel to one another with two motors rotating clockwise and two motors rotating counterclockwise. Preferably, the eccentric masses 56 are selected so as to cancel out all forces at startup by setting the phase angle to 180 degrees for counter rotating pairs of motors. When the motors have reached the desired frequency of rotation, eccentric masses 56 are moved out of phase, thus creating an impulse force. The phase angle movement is accomplished by decelerating two of the motors for a fraction of a revolution and then reestablishing the selected frequency of rotation such that the eccentric masses no longer oppose each other. Deceleration of the motors is accomplished through a servo motor motion control unit. Operation of the embodiment of present invention illustrated in FIGS. 1-4 is achieved by the synchronized rotation by servomotors 8 of eccentric weights 56 of equal mass and inertial properties that are attached to each end of shafts 57 of servomotors 38 . Synchronization of rotation the two shafts 57 is accomplished by means of electronic controls. The rotating shafts 57 of the two servomotors 38 are oriented parallel to each other and are operated in opposing rotational directions with their eccentric weights 56 opposing each other at the horizontal axis and coincident in the vertical axis. This arraignment produces substantially vertical linear forces with horizontal force cancellation. The centerline axis of each of the shafts 57 and the centroid of the attached eccentric masses 56 form a mass plane. In the course of one revolution, the initial position has the mass planes parallel to one another with the eccentrics 56 on each shaft above the motor plane defined by the two parallel motor shafts 57 . At a quarter turn, the mass planes are coincident with the motor plane and the eccentric weights 56 of each of the shafts 57 are nearest each other. The centrifugal forces created by eccentric masses 56 are translated in the motor plane. This force is of the same magnitude but opposite direction for each of the shafts 57 . This effectively cancels the force in the plane of the motor. At one half a revolution, the mass planes are again perpendicular to the motor plane and the eccentrics 56 are all below the motor plane. The centrifugal force acting on each of the shafts 57 is in the same direction, perpendicular to the motor plane. At three quarters of a revolution, the mass planes and the motor plane are again coincident but the eccentric masses 56 of each of the shafts 57 are oriented away from each other. Here again, the centrifugal forces created by the eccentric masses 56 are translated in the motor plane. Again, this force is of the same magnitude but opposite direction for each of the shafts 57 . This effectively cancels the force in the plane of the motor. At one full revolution, the mass planes are again perpendicular to the motor plane and the eccentrics 56 are all above the motor plane. The centrifugal force acting on each of the shafts is in the same direction, perpendicular to the motor plane. The force acting perpendicular to the motor plane is translated vertically through connecting springs to intermediate mass 11 . A further translation is then achieved through linear guides and springs from intermediate mass 11 to payload mass 13 . The springs that comprise spring beds 24 , 25 , 26 and 27 are selected to optimize force transmission through intermediate mass 11 to payload mass 13 and minimize transmission to supporting structure 37 and surrounding environment. Operation at resonance is determined when the disparity between the payload mass level of vibration and the driver mass level of vibration is maximized. This resonant condition is dependent on the selected spring/mass system. Preferably, springs characteristics and mass weights are chosen such that the resonant condition is achievable for the anticipated payload weight. Operation at the resonant condition is not always be required to achieve the level of mixing desired. Operation near resonance provides substantial amplitude and accelerations to produce significant mixing. Desired levels of mixing are set by satisfying time requirements with dispersion requirements. To mix faster or more vigorously, amplitude is increased by operating closer to resonance. Operation is typically within 10 Hz of resonance. As the frequency approaches the resonant condition, small changes produce large results (the slope of the curve—frequency vs. amplitude—changes rapidly as the resonant condition is approached). Mixing vessel 60 (in which materials are placed for mixing) is preferably attached to payload mass 3 . Vigorous mixing is achieved when the transmitted force is converted to acceleration and displacement amplitude thrusting the mix constituents up and down producing a toroidal flow with sub-eddy currents. In a further preferred embodiment, two more servo motors 38 are added to the mechanism shown in FIGS. 1-4 . The two additional servo motors 38 are fitted with eccentric weights 56 having the same physical characteristics as those above noted. With these additional motors 38 , control of the impulse force is possible. This is accomplished by controlling the relative phase angle between the two sets of motors 38 . In a similar manner as described above, the two sets of servo motors 38 are electrically controlled to accomplish total force cancellation through all frequencies. After the desired frequency has been achieved, the relative phase angle between the two motor sets is changed until the desired impulse force has been achieved. This arraignment has the added advantage of producing variable force and frequency. In another preferred embodiment, variable resilient members are substituted for springs 24 ; 25 , 26 and/or 27 to provide for changes to the resonant frequency. This addition also allows for a larger variability in the payload without sacrificing performance. Variable resilient members can be either mechanically or electronically controlled. Examples of such devices are air filled bellows, variable length leaf springs, coil spring wedges, piezoelectric bi-metal springs, or any other member which can be used as a resilient member which also has the capability of having its spring rate changed or otherwise affected. Rather than mix by inducing bulk fluid flow, as is the case for impeller agitation, ResonantSonic® agitation as produced by the present invention mixes by inducing micro-scale turbulence through the propagation of acoustic waves throughout the medium. It is different from ultrasonic agitation because the frequency of acoustic energy is lower and the scale of mixing is larger. Another distinct difference from ultrasonic technology is that the ResonantSonic® devices are simple, mechanically driven agitators that can be made large enough to perform industrial scale tasks at reasonable cost. A difference between the acoustic agitation technology disclosed herein and conventional impeller agitation is the scale at which complete mixing occurs. In impeller agitation, the mixing occurs through the creation of large scale eddies which are reduced to smaller scale eddies where the energy is dissipated through viscous forces. With acoustic agitation, the mixing occurs through acoustic streaming, which is the time-independent flow of fluid induced by a sound field. It is caused by conservation of momentum dissipated by the absorption and propagation of sound in the fluid. The acoustic streaming transports “micro scale” eddies through the fluid, estimated to be on the order of 100-200 μm. Although the eddies are of a microscale, the entire reactor is well mixed in an extremely short time because the acoustic streaming causes the microscale vortices to be transmitted uniformly throughout the fluid. Device 10 in FIGS. 1-4 is preferably operated at resonance to produce intense displacement and acceleration so as to provide vigorous mixing potential. FIG. 5 shows an aspect of the response of the preferred embodiment of the invention presented in FIGS. 1-4 to operation at various oscillator frequencies. The graph shows the force transmitted to the ground by device 10 when operated at each indicated frequency. Operation at the first harmonic frequency of device 10 (point A) and at the second harmonic frequency of device 10 (point B) are indicated by the force peaks shown on the graph In operation, a user selects an operating frequency at or near the third mode (i.e., at or near the third harmonic frequency of device 10 or point C) as appropriate for the desired level of mixing. FIG. 6 shows another aspect of the response of the preferred embodiment of the invention presented in FIGS. 1-4 to operation at various oscillator frequencies. The phase of motion of payload mass 13 and the reaction mass (e.g., intermediate mass 11 ) is illustrated. Above a frequency of about 40 Hetrz (Hz), the phase difference between payload mass 13 and the reaction mass is about 180 degrees, indicating that they are moving in opposite directions. FIGS. 7 , 8 and 9 are alternative embodiments of the three mass system of FIGS. 1-4 but differ from those preferred embodiment in the type of force transducers 38 used. These figures depict a device 10 that is excited by linear electromagnetic force transducers 38 as opposed to the servo motors 38 in the preferred embodiment of FIGS. 1-4 . All other functions of device 10 are equivalent to the previously described preferred embodiment. Referring to FIG. 7 , a single linear electromagnetic force transducer 38 is rigidly attached to one side of oscillator mass 12 . Oscillator mass 12 is movably connected to intermediate mass 11 by means of oscillator to intermediate mass springs 25 . Payload mass 13 is movably connected to intermediate mass 11 by means of payload to intermediate mass springs 26 . Intermediate mass 11 is movably connected to base 37 by means of intermediate mass to ground springs 27 . Referring to FIG. 8 , oscillator mass 12 and payload mass 13 are situated at approximately the same elevation and both are above intermediate mass 12 . This illustrates that the relative locations of the masses can vary among embodiments. Referring to FIG. 9 , a single linear electromagnetic force transducer 38 is rigidly attached to the middle of oscillator mass 12 . Oscillator mass 12 is movably connected to intermediate mass 11 by means of oscillator to intermediate mass springs 25 . Payload mass 13 is movably connected to intermediate mass 11 by means of payload to intermediate mass springs 26 . Intermediate mass 11 is movably connected to base 37 by means of intermediate mass to ground springs 27 . Referring to FIG. 10 , the accelerations produced by three-mass systems of the type disclosed herein are compared to the accelerations produced by two-mass systems disclosed in the background art. The points on line F represent the accelerations of the oscillator mass produced by the associated force inputs and the points on line G represent the accelerations of the payload mass produced by the associated force inputs in a two-mass system. The points on line H represent the accelerations of the oscillator mass produced by the associated force inputs and the points on line I represent the accelerations of the payload mass produced by the associated force inputs in a three-mass system. Referring to FIG. 11 , a free body diagram of the preferred embodiment of the invention of FIGS. 1-4 is presented. The following are the equations of motion of device 10 : m 1 a 1 =−k 1 x 1 −c 1 v 1 +k 2 ( x 2 −x 1 )+ k 3 ( x 3 −x 1 )+ c 2 ( v 2 −v 1 )+ c 3 ( v 3 −v 1 ) m 2 a 2 =k 2 ( x 2 −x 1 )− c 2 ( v 2 −v 1 )+ F m 3 a 3 =−k 3 ( x 3 −x 1 )− c 3 ( v 3 −v 1 )− k 4 x 3 −c 4 v 3 where m x =mass x k x =spring rate of spring x c x =damping coefficient of dash pot x x x =position of mass x v x =velocity of mass x a x =acceleration of mass x F=applied force By solving these equations simultaneously, appropriate weights for the masses and appropriate spring rates and damping coefficients for the springs can be selected for preferred embodiments of the invention. A person having ordinary skill in the art would be capable of writing similar equations for other embodiments of the invention. There are an infinite number of solutions to the three equations of motion above which describe the motion of the three mass system of device 10 . Optimization of the system is dependent upon the desired operation of the system. In general, the selection of mass and spring sizes are subject to maximizing payload amplitude, minimizing forces transmitted to ground and minimizing driver amplitude. A preferred embodiment uses spring ratios as follows; k1/k1=1, k2/k1=4.6, k3/k1=3.9, k4/k11.3, and mass ratios of; m1/m1=1, m2/m1=1.17, m3/m1=0.6. The dashpot constants are a result of natural damping in the preferred embodiment and are not actual components. Therefore, the values of dashpot constants are preferably determined by testing after an embodiment is fabricated. Referring to FIGS. 12-19 , another preferred embodiment of device 10 is presented. As shown in FIG. 12 , resonating system 70 is essentially enclosed by base assembly 72 in this embodiment. Referring to FIG. 13 , base assembly 72 is removed from device 10 to show just a preferred embodiment of resonating system 70 . In this embodiment, resonating assembly 70 comprises payload assembly 74 , driver assembly 76 and reaction mass assembly 78 . Referring to FIG. 14 , resonating system 70 is removed from device 10 to show just a preferred embodiment of base assembly 70 . Base assembly 70 comprises four base legs 80 with each adjacent pair of the base legs 80 connected by two leg connector assemblies 82 . One bottom spring support 84 and one top spring support 86 is attached to each of the base legs 80 . Preferably, a base foot 88 is attached to the bottom of each of the base legs 80 . Referring to FIG. 15 , a preferred embodiment of reaction mass assembly 78 is presented. In a preferred embodiment, four reaction mass assemblies are included in resonating system 70 . In this embodiment, reaction mass assembly 78 comprises two spans 100 that are connected by uprights 102 . In a preferred embodiment, a tuning weight 104 is attached to each of the uprights 102 . Base connectors 106 support each of the two reaction mass to base springs 108 . In a preferred embodiment, reaction mass to base springs 108 are Part No. RHL 200-400 from Moeller Manufacturing Company of Plymouth, Mich. Reaction mass to payload springs 110 movably connect reaction mass assembly 78 to payload assembly 74 . In a preferred embodiment, reaction mass to payload springs 110 are Part No. RHL 250-450 from Moeller Manufacturing Company of Plymouth, Mich. In a preferred embodiment, a three mass system is tuned in such a way as to minimize the transmitted forces to ground. This is accomplished by selecting a reaction mass (mass m3) such that the forces to the ground are canceled out. From FIG. 6 , it is evident that the mass m1 (payload mass) and mass m3 (reaction mass) are 180 degrees out of phase (moving in opposite directions). If the weights of the masses are the same, or modified slightly by the natural damping constants, the forces will be canceled for a net force of zero being transferred to ground. Referring to FIG. 16 , a preferred embodiment of driver assembly 76 is presented. In this embodiment, driver assembly 76 comprises motor block assembly 120 to which two driver to shaft mounts 122 are fixed. Two driver spring shafts 124 are attached to the ends of each of the shaft mounts 122 . A top spring flange 126 is attached to the top of each of the driver spring shafts 124 . In a preferred embodiment, eight driver to payload springs 128 are attached to each end of each of the driver to shaft mounts 122 and to each top spring flange. Driver to payload springs 128 movably connect driver assembly 76 to payload assembly 74 . In a preferred embodiment, driver to payload springs 128 are Part No. RHL 125-450 from Moeller Manufacturing Company of Plymouth, Mich. Referring to FIG. 17 , a preferred embodiment of payload assembly 74 is presented. In this embodiment, driver assembly 76 comprises eight payload upright supports 130 to which one payload top plate 132 and one payload bottom plate 134 are attached. Both payload top plate 132 and payload bottom plate 134 have four driver spring shaft holes 138 through which the driver spring shafts 124 pass when device 10 is assembled. Preferably, eight payload to base springs 136 are attached to payload top plate 132 and eight payload to base springs 136 are attached to payload bottom plate 134 . Payload to base springs 136 movably connect payload assembly 74 to base assembly 72 . In a preferred embodiment, payload to base springs 136 are Part No. RHL 200-400 from Moeller Manufacturing Company of Plymouth, Mich. Referring to FIG. 18 , a preferred embodiment of motor block assembly 120 is presented. In this embodiment, motor block assembly 120 comprises four motor assemblies 140 , two motor brackets 142 and heat sink 144 . Preferably, each of the motor assemblies 140 is connected to a (preferably three-pin) power connector 146 and a (preferably seven-pin) feedback connector 148 . One end of the motor shaft 170 of each of the four motor assemblies 140 is preferably visible through two access holes 150 in each of the motor brackets 142 . Two of the motor assemblies 140 are oriented toward one of the motor brackets 142 and two of the motor assemblies 140 are oriented toward the other of the motor brackets 142 . Referring to FIG. 19 , a preferred embodiment of each of the motor assemblies 140 is presented. In this embodiment, each of the motor assemblies 140 preferably comprises motor stator housing 160 , self-aligning bearing 162 , two wave springs 164 , motor stator 166 , motor rotor 168 , motor shaft 170 , keys 172 , counterweight 174 , counter weight spacer 176 , angular contact ball bearing 178 , resolver rotor 180 , motor weight housing 182 , resolver stator 184 and retaining ring 190 . In a preferred embodiment, the resolver is Model No. JSSB-15-J-05K, Frameless Resolver, manufactured by Northrop Grumman, Poly-Scientific, Blacksburg, Va. In operation, the motor assemblies 140 of the embodiment of FIGS. 12-19 are activated by a controller (not shown) that causes two of the motor shafts 170 to rotate in a clockwise direction and two to rotate in a counterclockwise direction. As was noted above, the motor shafts 107 are oriented parallel to each other and pairs are operated in opposing rotational directions with pairs of counter weights 174 opposing each other at the horizontal axis and coincident in the vertical axis. As with the other embodiments, this arraignment produces substantially vertical linear forces with horizontal force cancellation. Variation in the manner of mixing is accomplished using a motor controller or motion controller (not shown) to generate signals to control the frequency and amplitude of the motor assemblies 140 to produce a linear vibratory motion. In alternative embodiment, the motor may be a stepper motor, a linear motor or a direct current (DC) continuous motor. By placing a accelerometer (not shown) on payload assembly 74 and/or motor block assembly 120 to provide feedback control of the mixing motor, the characteristics of agitation in the fluid or solid can be adjusted to optimize the degree of mixing and produce a high quality mixant. In a preferred embodiment, the motor controller is Model No. 6K4, 4-Axis 6K Controller, manufactured by Parker Hannifin Corporation, Compumotor Division, Rohnert Park, Calif. In a preferred embodiment, the accelerometer is a Model No. 793, Accelerometer, manufactured by Wilcoxon Research, Gaithersburg, Md. Control of a three mass system includes of two primary aspects. The first aspect includes control of the phase angle or relative position of each of the servo motors with respect to each other. Sensors for this are the resolvers which are attached to the shaft of each motor. These devices send an absolute position signal back to the motion controller which tracks the position error from one motor to another. In turn, the motion controller then calculates and sends a correction signal back to the motors. This keeps the motors phase angles within a tolerance which is set in the control code. The second aspect of the control system is the setting and maintenance of a desired vibration amplitude. This is accomplished by monitoring the amplitude of the payload mass movements (m1) with an accelerometer. Signals from the accelerometer are sent to the motion controller and are compared to a value set by the operator. An error correction signal is then calculated and sent to the motors to increase or decrease their frequency and phase angle to achieve the desired amplitude. Control of the phase angle control of the motors also has two aspects. The first aspect is to maintain motor to motor position and the second aspect is to control the magnitude of the force input to the system. Maintenance of motor to motor position is necessary so that the resultant force input to the system is oriented in a single direction. This is accomplished by controlling the position of motor pairs. The motors are paired in twos or sets such that each set has identical phase angles. The motor pairs are then set in motion such that they have equal but opposite rotational frequencies. The phase position is then controlled in a manner that sums the resultant forces from the eccentric masses in a singular direction which is parallel to the orientation of the spring axes. Force magnitude is controlled by the controlling the phase angle between motor pairs. If the motor pairs are 180 degrees out of phase with each other, the net resultant force is zero. When the phase angle between motor pairs is zero degrees, the net resultant force is 100 percent of the summation of the four eccentric masses. Phase angles between these extremes result in forces that are lower than the maximum. In summary, applicants have discovered systems and processes for the application of acoustic energy to a reactor volume that can achieve a high level of uniformity of mixing. The micromixing that is achieved and the effects in the combinations of frequency ranges, displacement ranges and acceleration ranges disclosed herein produce very high-quality mixants. The method disclosed herein can be practiced with the preferred systems disclosed herein and with single mass vibrators, dual mass vibrators, and piezoelectric and magnetostrictive transducers. Liquid to liquid mixing is enhanced when a composition that comprises a plurality of liquids is exposed a vibratory environment that is preferably operative to vibration the composition at a frequency between about 15 Hz to about 1,000 Hz with an amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch. Liquids that are not miscible are readily mixed when subjected to this condition. Normal boundary layers which prevent mixing are broken and the liquids are freely and evenly distributed with each other. Micromixing with generation of 10 micron to 100 micron droplets is achieved in this vibratory environment. The uniformity of droplet size and distribution is enhanced by this vibratory process thereby achieving greater mass transport, but the mixture is easily separated when the vibratory agitation is removed. Tuning the process between a preferred frequency between about 15 Hz to about 1,000 Hz with a preferred amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch optimizes the transfer of acoustic energy into the fluid. This energy then generates an even distribution of droplets (larger than those generated with typical related processes) which collide with each other to affect mass transfer from one droplet to another. After the acoustic energy is removed, the liquids easily and quickly separate thus effecting high mass transfer without creating an emulsion. Mixing of a composition comprising a liquid, a gas and a solid is enhanced when it occurs in a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a preferred frequency between about 15 Hz to about 1,000 Hz with a preferred amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch. Fluids (gas-liquid, gas-liquid-solid systems and multiples of these systems) in the payload vessel are caused to develop a resonant/mixing condition that establishes high levels of gas-liquid contact, an acoustic wave, and axial flow patterns that result in high levels of gas-liquid mass transport and mixing. Non-Newtonian or thixotropic (pseudo plastic) fluids are typically difficult to mix. By placing a composition comprising these fluids in a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a preferred frequency between about 15 Hz to 1,000 Hz with a preferred amplitude between 0.02 inch to 0.5 inch they become fluidized and readily mix. Under these conditions, it is possible to mix such fluids containing one or more solids, one or more gases and one or more liquids. Mixing of a composition comprising a liquid and a gas is enhanced when it occurs in a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a preferred frequency between about 15 Hz to 1,000 Hz with a preferred amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch to produce a gasified media. Boundary layers are easily broken and gas is entrained into the fluid. Micro sized bubbles are trapped in the fluid for extended periods of time. This process is particularly effective for the gasification of liquids used to supply gasses to bioreactors. Small bubbles subjected to the acoustic energy produce “bubble pumping.” This is the effect of compressing and expanding a bubble trapped in the fluid by acoustic energy. This instability causes the bubbles to be completely engulfed by the fluid at preferred operating conditions. The mass transfer of gas trapped in the bubbles to the liquid is also affected by the increased pressure on the bubble as the acoustic waves pass through the liquid. Henery's law states that the mass transfer of gas to liquid is proportional to the gas pressure in the bubble. This effect is dependent on the head space or volume of gas in relation to the volume of fluid in the mixing vessel. A relatively small volume of gas will produce very small bubbles with higher gas bubble pressure and retention of the bubbles is achieved for longer periods of time after the acoustic agitation is removed. Mixing in order to remove a gas from a composition comprising a liquid and a gas (degasification) is enhanced when the composition is exposed to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the composition at a lower preferred frequency of about 10 Hz to about 100 Hz and a preferred displacement of less than about 0.025 inch. Reducing the displacement and frequency to these lower levels is particularly useful in driving out entrained gas in fluids. These conditions are effective for both light fluids, such as water, and for highly viscous and solids-loaded fluids. Physical reactions such as heat transfer, mass transfer and suspension of particles are greatly accelerated by exposing the reactants to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the reactants at a preferred frequency between about 15 Hz to about 1,000 Hz with a preferred amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch. By placing media containing the reactants in such an environment, the physical forces that generate these reactions are driven at higher rates. Similarly, chemical reactions are increased in rate due to enhanced contact and micro-mixing. The increased rate of media contact and breaking or reduction of boundary layers drives the reactions to occur at increased rates. Intrusion or infusion of liquids or gases entrained in liquids into a porous solid media is enhanced by placing the porous media in an environment that is operative to vibrate the porous media at a preferred frequency of about 5 Hz to about 1,000 Hz with a preferred amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch. Boundary layers are broken and fluids and gases are forced into, out of and through the porous structure. Low shear mixing applications are necessary to prevent damage to biological cultures to reduce damage to the media. This is achieved by placing the cultures in a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the cultures at a preferred frequency of about 5 Hz to about 1,000 Hz with a preferred amplitude between about 0.01 inch to about 0.2 inch. The cell cultures are physically mixed with gases, solids and liquids in an environment of low shear and minimal cell to cell collisions. Nutrients and waste products are transported to and from the cell cultures with very low shear. This process also produces more conducive cell culture morphology due to the low shear. Cells are kept from agglomerating into large masses that block mass transfer to and from the individual cells. Incorporation of a solid into a liquid is enhanced by exposing the solid and liquid to a vibratory environment that is operative to vibrate the combination at a preferred frequency between about 15 Hz to about 1,000 Hz with preferred amplitude between 0.02 inch to 0.5 inch. Incorporation can be so complete it is approaching the theoretical maximum. By placing the fluid and solids in a vibratory environment and, as a result, providing acoustic energy to the media, the effect is to fluidize the mixture. In the process, micro-mixing is accomplished throughout the vessel while macro-mixing the product. Complete and thorough mixing is accomplished by the use of acoustic energy at previously unachievable solids loadings. Similar to liquids mixing, solids are mixed by adding acoustic energy so that micromixing is achieved. A vibratory environment operating at a preferred frequency between about 15 Hz to about 1,000 Hz with a preferred amplitude between about 0.02 inch to about 0.5 inch provides the necessary acoustic energy required to mix solids. The size of the solids can be nano-sized to much larger particles. The acoustic energy provided to the particles directly acts on the media to produce mixing. Other processes use components such as propellers to produce fluid motion through eddies which then mix the media. These eddies are dampened by the media and thus the mixing is localized near the component creating them. Acoustic energy supplied to the media is not subject to the localization of input because the entire mixing vessel volume is subject to the energy at the same time. Many variations of the invention will occur to those skilled in the art. Some variations include embodiments wherein the oscillator mass is connected to the intermediate mass by springs and the intermediate mass is connected to the payload mass by springs. Other variations call for embodiments wherein the oscillator mass is connected to the payload mass by springs and the payload mass is connected to the intermediate mass by springs. All such variations are intended to be within the scope and spirit of the invention. Although some embodiments are shown to include certain features, the applicant(s) specifically contemplate that any feature disclosed herein may be used together or in combination with any other feature on any embodiment of the invention. It is also contemplated that any feature may be specifically excluded from any embodiment of an invention.

A method for mixing fluids and/or solids in a manner that can be varied from maintaining the integrity of fragile molecular and biological materials in the mixing vessel to homogenizing heavy aggregate material by supplying large amounts of energy. Variation in the manner of mixing is accomplished using an electronic controller to generate signals to control the frequency and amplitude of the motor(s), which drive an unbalanced shaft assembly to produce a linear vibratory motion. The motor may be a stepper motor, a linear motor or a DC continuous motor. By placing a sensor on the mixing vessel platform to provide feedback control of the mixing motor, the characteristics of agitation in the fluid or solid can be adjusted to optimize the degree of mixing and produce a high quality mixant.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an audio processing apparatus that plays back multichannel audio data including an upper left audio signal, an upper right audio signal, an outer left audio signal, and an outer right audio signal. 2. Description of the Related Art An audio playback system including a BD player, an AV amplifier, and a display apparatus has been used. Audio data transmitted from the BD player to the AV amplifier is obtained by encoding multichannel audio data. For example, the multichannel audio data includes, as shown in FIG. 3 , a left audio signal L, a right audio signal R, a center audio signal C, a low-frequency audio signal SW, a surround left audio signal SL, a surround right audio signal SR, a surround back left audio signal SBL, and a surround back right audio signal SBR. Recently, HD (High Definition) related audio formats such as Dolby True HD, Dolby Digital Plus, and DTS-HD have appeared. In these formats, an upper left audio signal LH, an upper right audio signal RH, an outer left audio signal LW, and an outer right audio signal RW are further added. However, when amplifiers associated with audio signals of all these channels are provided to the AV amplifier, amplifiers for 11.1 channels in total are to be provided, resulting in very high cost. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is therefore to provide an audio processing apparatus capable of amplifying audio signals, such as an upper left audio signal LH, an upper right audio signal RH, an outer left audio signal LW, and an outer right audio signal RW, and outputting the amplified audio signals from speaker terminals associated with these channels, without the need to provide amplifiers of the same number as all channels. According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, an audio processing apparatus comprising: first amplification section for amplifying an outer left audio signal or an upper left audio signal; second amplification section for amplifying an outer right audio signal or an upper right audio signal; a first speaker terminal that outputs the outer left audio signal; a second speaker terminal that outputs the outer right audio signal; a third speaker terminal that outputs the upper left audio signal; a fourth speaker terminal that outputs the upper right audio signal; channel determination section for determining which one of a combination of the outer left audio signal and the outer right audio signal and a combination of the upper left audio signal and the upper right audio signal is included in multichannel audio data; and switching section for causing the first amplification section to amplify the outer left audio signal and supply the amplified outer left audio signal to the first speaker terminal and causing the second amplification section to amplify the outer right audio signal and supply the amplified outer right audio signal to the second speaker terminal when the combination of the outer left audio signal and the outer right audio signal is determined to be included; and causing the first amplification section to amplify the upper left audio signal and supply the amplified upper left audio signal to the third speaker terminal and causing the second amplification section to amplify the upper right audio signal and supply the amplified upper right audio signal to the fourth speaker terminal when the combination of the upper left audio signal and the upper right audio signal is determined to be included. A determination as to which channel combination is included in multichannel audio data is made and the included channel combination is amplified by the first amplification section and the second amplification section. By this, only by providing two amplification section, a combination of an outer left audio signal and an outer right audio signal or a combination of an upper left audio signal and an upper right audio signal can be amplified and the amplified audio signals can be outputted to speaker terminals associated with channels of the audio signals. Preferably, the audio processing apparatus further comprising: a fifth speaker terminal that outputs a surround back left audio signal; and a sixth speaker terminal that outputs a surround back right audio signal, wherein the channel determination section determines which one of a combination of the outer left audio signal and the outer right audio signal, a combination of the upper left audio signal and the upper right audio signal, and a combination of the surround back left audio signal and the surround back right audio signal is included in multichannel audio data, and when the combination of the outer left audio signal and the outer right audio signal is determined to be included, the switching section causes the first amplification section to amplify the outer left audio signal and supply the amplified outer left audio signal to the first speaker terminal and causes the second amplification section to amplify the outer right audio signal and supply the amplified outer right audio signal to the second speaker terminal; when the combination of the upper left audio signal and the upper right audio signal is determined to be included, the switching section causes the first amplification section to amplify the upper left audio signal and supply the amplified upper left audio signal to the third speaker terminal and causes the second amplification section to amplify the upper right audio signal and supply the amplified upper right audio signal to the fourth speaker terminal; and when the combination of the surround back left audio signal and the surround back right audio signal is determined to be included, the switching section causes the first amplification section to amplify the surround back left audio signal and supply the amplified surround back left audio signal to the fifth speaker terminal and causes the second amplification section to amplify the surround back right audio signal and supply the amplified surround back right audio signal to the sixth speaker terminal. A determination as to which channel combination is included in multichannel audio data is made and the included channel combination is amplified by the first amplification section and the second amplification section. By this, only by providing two amplification section, a combination of an outer left audio signal and an outer right audio signal, a combination of an upper left audio signal and an upper right audio signal, or a combination of a surround back left audio signal and a surround back right audio signal can be amplified and the amplified audio signals can be outputted to speaker terminals associated with channels of the audio signals. According to another preferred embodiment of the present invention, an audio processing apparatus comprising: first amplification section for amplifying a first left audio signal or a second left audio signal; second amplification section for amplifying a first right audio signal or a second right audio signal; a first speaker terminal that outputs the first left audio signal; a second speaker terminal that outputs the first right audio signal; a third speaker terminal that outputs the second left audio signal; a fourth speaker terminal that outputs the second right audio signal; channel determination section for determining which one of a combination of the first left audio signal and the first right audio signal and a combination of the second left audio signal and the second right audio signal is included in multichannel audio data; and switching section for causing the first amplification section to amplify the first left audio signal and supply the amplified first left audio signal to the first speaker terminal and causing the second amplification section to amplify the first right audio signal and supply the amplified first right audio signal to the second speaker terminal when the combination of the first left audio signal and the first right audio signal is determined to be included; and causing the first amplification section to amplify the second left audio signal and supply the amplified second left audio signal to the third speaker terminal and causing the second amplification section to amplify the second right audio signal and supply the amplified second right audio signal to the fourth speaker terminal when the combination of the second left audio signal and the second right audio signal is determined to be included. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram showing an arrangement of an AV amplifier 1 and speakers; FIG. 2 is a diagram showing an audio playback system; FIG. 3 is a diagram showing channels of audio signals; FIG. 4 is a diagram showing an audio processing unit 5 ; FIG. 5 is a flowchart showing a process performed by a control unit 2 ; FIG. 6 is a diagram showing an audio processing unit 5 B; FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing a process performed by the control unit 2 ; FIG. 8 is a diagram showing an audio processing unit 5 C; and FIG. 9 is a diagram showing an audio processing unit 5 D. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Audio playback systems including a disc playback apparatus (hereinafter, referred to as the BD player), an audio processing apparatus (hereinafter, referred to as the AV amplifier), and a display apparatus, according to preferred embodiments of the present invention will be specifically described below with reference to the drawings but the present invention is not limited thereto. FIG. 1 is a diagram showing an example of an arrangement of an AV amplifier 1 and speakers. To the AV amplifier 1 are connected a left speaker SL, a right speaker SR, a center speaker SC, a low-frequency speaker SSW, a surround left speaker SSL, a surround right speaker SSR, a surround back left speaker SSBL, a surround back right speaker SSBR, an upper left speaker SLH, an upper right speaker SRH, an outer left speaker SLW, and an outer right speaker SRW. FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing a configuration of an audio playback system. A BD player 100 , an AV amplifier 1 , and a display apparatus 200 conform to the HDMI standard, for example, and are connected to each other via HDMI cables. The BD player 100 transmits HDMI data including multichannel audio data and video data to the AV amplifier 1 . The AV amplifier 1 amplifies the multichannel audio data included in the HDMI data received from the BD player 100 and outputs the amplified multichannel audio data to speakers. Also, the AV amplifier 1 transmits the HDMI data including video data to the display apparatus 200 . The display apparatus 200 displays the video data included in the HDMI data received from the AV amplifier 1 . The AV amplifier 1 has a control unit 2 , an HDMI receiving unit 3 , an HDMI transmitting unit 4 , an audio processing unit 5 , an operation unit 6 , a display unit 7 , and HDMI terminals 8 and 9 . To the AV amplifier 1 are connected speakers 300 (corresponding to the speakers in FIG. 1 ). The HDMI receiving unit 3 receives HDMI data transmitted from the BD player 100 , generates original video data from the received HDMI data, and supplies the video data to the HDMI transmitting unit 4 . Also, the HDMI receiving unit 3 generates original multichannel audio data from the received HDMI data and supplies the multichannel audio data to the audio processing unit 5 . The audio processing unit 5 decodes the multichannel audio data supplied from the HDMI receiving unit 3 , performs processes including an acoustic process, a D/A conversion process, a volume control process, an amplification process, and the like, on the decoded multichannel audio data, and supplies audio signals of various channels to the speakers 300 . Multichannel audio data to be supplied to the audio processing unit 5 will be described. In HD (High Definition) related audio formats such as Dolby True HD, Dolby Digital Plus, and DTS-HD, as shown in FIG. 3 , there are, for example, a left audio signal L (front left audio signal), a right audio signal R (front right audio signal), a center audio signal C, a low-frequency audio signal SW, a surround left audio signal SL, a surround right audio signal SR, a surround back left audio signal SBL, a surround back right audio signal SBR, an outer left audio signal LW (first left audio signal), an outer right audio signal RW (first right audio signal), an upper left audio signal LH (second left audio signal), an upper right audio signal RH (second right audio signal), and the like. The upper left audio signal LH is an audio signal played back from a position on the upper side of the left audio signal L (i.e., the front upper left side of a user). The upper right audio signal RH is an audio signal played back from a position on the upper side of the right audio signal R (i.e., the front upper right side of the user). The outer left audio signal LW is an audio signal played back from a position on the outer side (left side) of the left audio signal L (i.e., the front outer left side of the user). The outer right audio signal RW is an audio signal played back from a position on the outer side (right side) of the right audio signal R (i.e., the front outer right of the user). FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing the main part of the audio processing unit 5 . The audio processing unit 5 has a pre-out unit 11 , power amplifiers 12 , an SP (speaker) relay 13 , and SP (speaker) terminals 14 . In FIG. 4 , circuits for basic 5.1 channels (a left audio signal L, a right audio signal R, a center audio signal C, a low-frequency audio signal SW, a surround left audio signal SL, and a surround right audio signal SR) are the same as those in conventional art and thus are not shown. A DSP and the like provided in a previous stage to the pre-out unit 11 are not shown, either. The DSP decodes and D/A converts multichannel audio data supplied from the HDMI receiving unit 3 and thereby generates audio signals of various channels. The generated audio signals are supplied to the pre-out unit 11 . The pre-out unit 11 includes switches S 11 a to S 11 f . The switch S 11 a switches whether to output a surround back left audio signal SBL to an amplifier 12 a . The switch S 11 b switches whether to output an upper left audio signal LH to the amplifier 12 a . The switch S 11 c switches whether to output an outer left audio signal LW to the amplifier 12 a . Any one of the switches S 11 a to S 11 c is brought into an on state and any one of the surround back left audio signal SBL, the upper left audio signal LH, and the outer left audio signal LW is supplied to the amplifier 12 a. The switch S 11 d switches whether to output a surround back right audio signal SBR to an amplifier 12 b . The switch S 11 e switches whether to output an upper right audio signal RH to the amplifier 12 b . The switch S 11 f switches whether to output an outer right audio signal RW to the amplifier 12 b . Any one of the switches S 11 d to S 11 f is brought into an on state and any one of the surround back right audio signal SBR, the upper right audio signal RH, and the outer right audio signal RW is supplied to the amplifier 12 b. The power amplifiers 12 include the amplifiers 12 a and 12 b . The amplifier 12 a amplifies the surround back left audio signal SBL, the upper left audio signal LH, or the outer left audio signal LW inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to the SP relay 13 (a switch S 13 a , S 13 c , or S 13 e ). The amplifier 12 b amplifies the surround back right audio signal SBR, the upper right audio signal RH, or the outer right audio signal RW inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to the SP relay 13 (a switch S 13 b , S 13 d , or S 13 f ). The SP relay 13 has the relay switches (hereinafter, referred to as the switches) S 13 a to S 13 f . The switch S 13 a switches whether to supply the surround back left audio signal SBL inputted from the amplifier 12 a , to a surround back left SP terminal 14 a . The switch S 13 a is brought into an on state when the switch S 11 a is in an on state. The switch S 13 c switches whether to supply the upper left audio signal LH inputted from the amplifier 12 a , to an upper left SP terminal 14 c . The switch S 13 c is brought into an on state when the switch S 11 b is in an on state. The switch S 13 e switches whether to supply the outer left audio signal LW inputted from the amplifier 12 a , to an outer left SP terminal 14 e . The switch S 13 e is brought into an on state when the switch S 11 c is in an on state. The switch S 13 b switches whether to supply the surround back right audio signal SBR inputted from the amplifier 12 b , to a surround back right SP terminal 14 b . The switch S 13 b is brought into an on state when the switch S 11 d is in an on state. The switch S 13 d switches whether to supply the outer right audio signal RH inputted from the amplifier 12 b , to an upper right SP terminal 14 d . The switch S 13 d is brought into an on state when the switch S 11 e is in an on state. The switch S 13 f switches whether to supply the outer right audio signal RW inputted from the amplifier 12 b , to an outer right SP terminal 14 f . The switch S 13 f is brought into an on state when the switch S 11 f is in an on state. The SP terminals 14 include the SP terminals 14 a to 14 f . The surround back left speaker SSBL is connected to the surround back left SP terminal 14 a , the surround back right speaker SSBR is connected to the surround back right SP terminal 14 b , the upper left speaker SLH is connected to the upper left SP terminal 14 c , the upper right speaker SRH is connected to the upper right SP terminal 14 d , the outer left speaker SLW is connected to the outer left SP terminal 14 e , and the outer right speaker SRW is connected to the outer right SP terminal 14 f. Returning to FIG. 2 , the HDMI transmitting unit 4 converts the video data supplied from the HDMI receiving unit 3 to HDMI data and transmits the HDMI data to the display apparatus 200 . The control unit 2 controls each unit based on an operating program of the AV amplifier 1 stored in a memory (not shown) built therein or connected thereto. The control unit 2 is, for example, a microcomputer or CPU. The control unit 2 performs control to switch between the switches S 11 a to S 11 f and S 13 a to S 13 f (a detail of which will be described later). The display unit 7 displays images showing the SP terminals 14 a to 14 f and the channels and functions of audio signals assigned to the SP terminals 14 a to 14 f (a detail of which will be described later). FIG. 5 is a flowchart showing a process performed by the control unit 2 . The HDMI receiving unit 3 generates original multichannel audio data from HDMI data and supplies the multichannel audio data to the audio processing unit 5 . The audio processing unit 5 decodes the multichannel audio data, reads channel information included in an information area of the multichannel audio data, and supplies the channel information to the control unit 2 . The control unit 2 determines whether a determination as to whether which one of a combination of the surround back left audio signal SBL and the surround back right audio signal SBR, a combination of the upper left audio signal LH and the upper right audio signal RH, and a combination of the outer left audio signal LW and the outer right audio signal RW is supplied to corresponding SP terminals is uniquely made by a listening mode selected by a user operation (S 1 ). If the determination is uniquely made (YES in S 1 ), then the control unit 2 controls the switches S 11 a to S 11 f and S 13 a to S 13 f to supply a combination to be determined to corresponding SP terminals (S 2 ). If the determination is not uniquely made (NO in S 1 ), then the control unit 2 determines whether in the listening mode selected by the user operation a channel combination to be supplied to SP terminals is determined by a user operation (S 3 ). If a channel combination is thus determined (YES in S 3 ), then the control unit 2 controls the switches S 11 a to S 11 f and S 13 a to S 13 f to supply a channel combination to be determined to corresponding SP terminals (S 4 , S 5 , and S 8 to S 10 ). If a channel combination is not thus determined (NO in S 3 ), then the control unit 2 determines which one of a combination of the surround back left audio signal SBL and the surround back right audio signal SBR, a combination of the upper left audio signal LH and the upper right audio signal RH, and a combination of the outer left audio signal LW and the outer right audio signal RW is included, based on the channel information of input signals included in the multichannel audio data supplied from the audio processing unit 5 (S 6 , S 7 , and S 11 ). If a combination of the outer left audio signal LW and the outer right audio signal RW is included in the multichannel audio data (YES in S 6 ), then the control unit 2 controls the switches to supply the outer left audio signal LW to the outer left SP terminal 14 e and supply the outer right audio signal RW to the outer right SP terminal 14 f (S 8 ). Specifically, the control unit 2 controls the switches S 11 c , S 11 f , S 13 e , and S 13 f to be an on state and other switches to be an off state. If a combination of the upper left audio signal LH and the upper right audio signal RH is included in the multichannel audio data (NO in S 6 and YES in S 7 ), then the control unit 2 controls the switches to supply the upper left audio signal LH to the upper left SP terminal 14 c and supply the upper right audio signal RH to the upper right SP terminal 14 d (S 9 ). Specifically, the control unit 2 controls the switches S 11 b , S 11 e , S 13 c , and S 13 d to be an on state and other switches to be an off state. If a combination of the surround back left audio signal SBL and the surround back right audio signal SBR is included in the multichannel audio data (NO in S 6 , NO in S 7 , and YES in S 11 ), then the control unit 2 controls the switches to supply the surround back left audio signal SBL to the surround back left SP terminal 14 a and supply the surround back right audio signal SBR to the surround back right SP terminal 14 b (S 10 ). Specifically, the control unit 2 controls the switches S 11 a , S 11 d , S 13 a , and S 13 b to be an on state and other switches to be an off state. If none of a combination of the outer left audio signal LW and the outer right audio signal RW, a combination of the upper left audio signal LH and the upper right audio signal RH, and a combination of the surround back left audio signal SBL and the surround back right audio signal SBR is included in the multichannel audio data (NO in S 11 ), then the control unit 2 controls the switches not to supply audio signals of all these channels to the SP terminals (S 12 ). Specifically, the control unit 2 controls all the switches to be an off state. As described above, only with the provision of the two amplifiers 12 a and 12 b , by determining channel information included in multichannel audio data to be inputted and switching between the switches, any one of a combination of the surround back left audio signal SBL and the surround back right audio signal SBR, a combination of the outer left audio signal LW and the outer right audio signal RW, and a combination of the upper left audio signal LH and the upper right audio signal RH can be amplified and the amplified signals can be supplied to corresponding SP terminals. Next, an audio processing unit 5 B of an AV amplifier according to another preferred embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 6 . A pre-out unit 21 includes switches S 21 a to S 21 d . The switch S 21 a switches whether to output an upper left audio signal LH to an amplifier 22 c . The switch S 21 b switches whether to output an outer left audio signal LW to the amplifier 22 c . The switch S 21 c switches whether to output an upper right audio signal RH to an amplifier 22 d . The switch S 21 d switches whether to output an outer right audio signal RW to the amplifier 22 d. Power amplifiers 22 include amplifiers 22 a to 22 d . The amplifier 22 a amplifies a surround back left audio signal SBL inputted thereto and supplies the amplified surround back left audio signal SBL to a switch S 23 a . The amplifier 22 b amplifies a surround back right audio signal SBR inputted thereto and supplies the amplified surround back right audio signal SBR to a switch S 23 b . The amplifier 22 c amplifies the upper left audio signal LH or the outer left audio signal LW inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to a switch S 23 c or S 23 e . The amplifier 22 d amplifies the upper right audio signal RH or the outer right audio signal RW inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to a switch S 23 d or S 23 f. An SP relay 23 includes the switches S 23 a to S 23 f . The switch S 23 a switches whether to supply the surround back left audio signal SBL inputted from the amplifier 22 a , to a surround back left SP terminal 24 a . The switch S 23 c switches whether to supply the upper left audio signal LH inputted from the amplifier 22 c , to an upper left SP terminal 24 c . The switch S 23 c is brought into an on state when the switch S 21 a is in an on state. The switch S 23 e switches whether to supply the outer left audio signal LW inputted from the amplifier 22 c , to an outer left SP terminal 24 e . The switch S 23 e is brought into an on state when the switch S 21 b is in an on state. The switch S 23 b switches whether to supply the surround back right audio signal SBR inputted from the amplifier 22 b , to a surround back right SP terminal 24 b . The switch S 23 d switches whether to supply the upper right audio signal RH inputted from the amplifier 22 d , to an upper right SP terminal 24 d . The switch S 23 d is brought into an on state when the switch S 21 c is in an on state. The switch S 23 f switches whether to supply the outer right audio signal RW inputted from the amplifier 22 d , to an outer right SP terminal 24 f . The switch S 23 f is brought into an on state when the switch S 21 d is in an on state. FIG. 7 is a flowchart showing a process performed by a control unit 2 according to the present example. S 11 to S 14 are the same as S 1 to S 5 in FIG. 5 and thus description thereof is omitted. The control unit 2 determines whether a combination of the outer left audio signal LW and the outer right audio signal RW is included in multichannel audio data (S 15 ). If included (YES in S 15 ), then the control unit 2 controls the switches to supply the outer left audio signal LW to the outer left SP terminal 24 e and supply the outer right audio signal RW to the outer right SP terminal 24 f (S 16 ). Specifically, the control unit 2 controls the switches S 21 b , S 21 d , S 23 e , and S 23 f to be an on state and the switches S 21 a , S 21 c , S 23 c , and S 23 d to be an off state. If determined to be NO in S 15 , then the control unit 2 determines whether a combination of the upper left audio signal LH and the upper right audio signal RH is included in the multichannel audio data (S 18 ). If included (YES in S 18 ), then the control unit 2 controls the switches to supply the upper left audio signal LH to the upper left SP terminal 24 c and supply the upper right audio signal RH to the upper right SP terminal 24 d (S 17 ). Specifically, the control unit 2 controls the switches S 21 a , S 21 c , S 23 c , and S 23 d to be an on state and the switches S 21 b , S 21 d , S 23 e , and S 23 f to be an off state. If determined to be NO in S 18 , then the control unit 2 controls the switches not to supply a combination of the outer left audio signal LW and the outer right audio signal RW and a combination of the upper left audio signal LH and the upper right audio signal RH to corresponding SP terminals (S 19 ). Specifically, the control unit 2 controls the switches S 21 a to S 21 d and S 23 c to S 23 f to be an off state. Next, an audio processing unit 5 C of an AV amplifier according to still another preferred embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 8 . The audio processing unit 5 C is a variant of the audio processing unit 5 in FIG. 4 and is configured to be able to use Zone2 and Bi-Amp functions. A pre-out unit 31 includes switches S 31 a to S 31 f . The switch S 31 a switches whether to output any one of a surround back left audio signal SBL, an upper left audio signal LH, and an outer left audio signal LW inputted from a DSP, to an amplifier 32 a . Specifically, by an instruction from a control unit 2 , in the DSP, as a channel to be supplied to the switch S 31 a , any one of the surround back left audio signal SBL, the upper left audio signal LH, and the outer left audio signal LW is selected. The switch S 31 b switches whether to output a Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 32 a . The switch S 31 c switches whether to output a left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp) inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 32 a . Any one of the switches S 31 a to S 31 c is brought into an on state depending on whether to use the Zone2 or Bi-Amp function. The switch S 31 d switches whether to output any one of a surround back right audio signal SBR, an upper right audio signal RH, and an outer right audio signal RW inputted from the DSP, to an amplifier 32 b . Specifically, by an instruction from the control unit 2 , in the DSP, as a channel to be supplied to the switch S 31 d , any one of the surround back right audio signal SBR, the upper right audio signal RH, and the outer right audio signal RW is selected. The switch S 31 e switches whether to output a Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 32 b . The switch S 31 f switches whether to output a right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp) inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 32 b . Any one of the switches S 31 d to S 31 f is brought into an on state depending on whether to use the Zone2 or Bi-Amp function. Power amplifiers 32 include the amplifiers 32 a and 32 b . The amplifier 32 a amplifies the surround back left audio signal SBL, the upper left audio signal LH, the outer left audio signal LW, the Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L, or the left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp) inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to a corresponding one of switches S 33 a , S 33 c , and S 33 e . The amplifier 32 b amplifies the surround back right audio signal SBR, the upper right audio signal RH, the outer right audio signal RW, the Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R, or the right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp) inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to a corresponding one of switches S 33 b , S 33 d , and S 33 f. An SP relay 33 includes the switches S 33 a to S 33 f . The switch S 33 a switches whether to supply the surround back left audio signal SBL, the Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L, or the left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp) inputted from the amplifier 32 a , to a surround back left SP terminal 34 a . The switch S 33 a is brought into an on state when the switch S 31 a is in an on state and the surround back left audio signal SBL is supplied to the switch S 31 a , when the switch S 31 b is in an on state, or when the switch S 31 c is in an on state. The switch S 33 c switches whether to supply the upper left audio signal LH inputted from the amplifier 32 a , to an upper left SP terminal 34 c . The switch S 33 c is brought into an on state when the switch S 31 a is in an on state and the upper left audio signal LH is supplied to the switch S 31 a . The switch S 33 e switches whether to supply the outer left audio signal LW inputted from the amplifier 32 a , to an outer left SP terminal 34 e . The switch S 33 e is brought into an on state when the switch S 31 a is in an on state and the outer left signal LW is supplied to the switch S 31 a. The switch S 33 b switches whether to supply the surround back right audio signal SBR, the Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R, or the right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp) inputted from the amplifier 32 b , to a surround back right SP terminal 34 b . The switch S 33 b is brought into an on state when the switch S 31 d is in an on state and the surround back right audio signal SBR is supplied to the switch S 31 d , when the switch S 31 e is in an on state, or when the switch S 31 f is in an on state. The switch S 33 d switches whether to supply the upper right audio signal RH inputted from the amplifier 32 b , to an upper right SP terminal 34 d . The switch S 33 d is brought into an on state when the switch S 31 d is in an on state and the upper right audio signal RH is supplied to the switch S 31 d . The switch S 33 f switches whether to supply the outer right audio signal RW inputted from the amplifier 32 b , to an outer right SP terminal 34 f . The switch S 33 f is brought into an on state when the switch S 31 d is in an on state and the outer right audio signal RW is supplied to the switch S 31 d. SP terminals 34 include the SP terminals 34 a to 34 f . When the functions are not used, the same speakers as those described above are connected to the SP terminals. When the Zone2 function is used, a Zone2 left speaker SZ 2 L is connected to the surround back left SP terminal 34 a and a Zone2 right speaker SZ 2 R is connected to the surround back right SP terminal 34 b . When the Bi-Amp function is used, a Bi-Amp terminal of a left speaker SL is connected to the surround back left SP terminal 34 a and a Bi-Amp terminal of a right speaker SR is connected to the surround back right SP terminal 34 b. Next, operations in the present example will be described. (1) When the Bi-Amp Function is Used The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp) to the surround back left SP terminal 34 a and supply the right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp) to the surround back right SP terminal 34 b . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp) to the switch S 31 c and supply the right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp) to the switch S 31 f . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 31 c , S 31 f , S 33 a , and S 33 b to be an on state and other switches to be an off state. (2) When the Zone2 Function is Used The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L to the surround back left SP terminal 34 a and supply the Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R to the surround back right SP terminal 34 b . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L to the switch S 31 b and supply the Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R to the switch S 31 e . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 31 b , S 31 e , S 33 a , and S 33 b to be an on state and other switches to be an off state. (3) When a Combination of the Outer Left Audio Signal LW and the Outer Right Audio Signal RW is Included The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the outer left audio signal LW to the outer left SP terminal 34 e and supply the outer right audio signal RW to the outer right SP terminal 34 f . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the outer left audio signal LW to the switch S 31 a and supply the outer right audio signal RW to the switch S 31 d . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 31 a , S 31 d , S 33 e , and S 33 f to be an on state and other switches to be an off state. (4) When a Combination of the Upper Left Audio Signal LH and the Upper Right Audio Signal RH is Included The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the upper left audio signal LH to the upper left SP terminal 34 c and supply the upper right audio signal RH to the upper right SP terminal 34 d . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the upper left audio signal LH to the switch S 31 a and supply the upper right audio signal RH to the switch S 31 d . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 31 a , S 31 d , S 33 c , and S 33 d to be an on state and other switches to be an off state. (5) A Combination of the Surround Back Left Audio Signal SBL and the Surround Back Right Audio Signal SBR is Included The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the surround back left audio signal SBL to the surround back left SP terminal 34 a and supply the surround back right audio signal SBR to the surround back right SP terminal 34 b . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the surround back left audio signal SBL to the switch S 31 a and supply the surround back right audio signal SBR to the switch S 31 d . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 31 a , S 31 d , S 33 a , and S 33 b to be an on state and other switches to be an off state. Next, an audio processing unit 5 D of an AV amplifier according to yet another preferred embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 9 . The audio processing unit 5 D is a variant of the audio processing unit 5 B in FIG. 6 and is configured to allow Zone2, Zone3, Bi-Amp, BTL, speaker B, and passive sub-woofer output functions to be applicable thereto. A pre-out unit 41 includes switches S 41 a to S 41 n . The switch S 41 a switches whether to output a surround back left audio signal SBL inputted from a DSP, to an amplifier 42 a . The switch S 41 b switches whether to output a Zone3 left audio signal Z 3 L inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 42 a . The switch S 41 c switches whether to output a left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp) inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 42 a . The switch S 41 d switches whether to output a BTL left audio signal L− to the amplifier 42 a . Any one of the switches S 41 a to S 41 d is brought into an on state depending on whether to use the functions. The switch S 41 e switches whether to output a surround back right audio signal SBR inputted from the DSP, to an amplifier 42 b . The switch S 41 f switches whether to output a Zone3 right audio signal Z 3 R inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 42 b . The switch S 41 g switches whether to output a right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp) inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 42 b . The switch S 41 h switches whether to output a BTL right audio signal R− to the amplifier 42 b . Any one of the switches S 41 e to S 41 h is brought into an on state depending on whether to use the functions. The switch S 41 i switches whether to output an upper left audio signal LH or an outer left audio signal LW inputted from the DSP, to an amplifier 42 c . Specifically, in the DSP, as a channel to be supplied to the switch S 41 i , one of the upper left audio signal LH and the outer left audio signal LW is selected. The switch S 41 j switches whether to output a low-frequency audio signal SW inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 42 c . The switch S 41 k switches whether to output a Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 42 c . Any one of the switches S 41 i to S 41 k is brought into an on state depending on whether to use the functions. The switch S 41 l switches whether to output an upper right audio signal RH or an outer right audio signal RW inputted from the DSP, to an amplifier 42 d . Specifically, in the DSP, as a channel to be supplied to the S 41 l , one of the upper right audio signal RH and the outer right audio signal RW is selected. The switch S 41 m switches whether to output a low-frequency audio signal SW inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 42 d . The switch S 41 n switches whether to output a Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R inputted from the DSP, to the amplifier 42 d . Any one of the switches S 41 l to 41 n is brought into an on state depending on whether to use the functions. Power amplifiers 42 include the amplifiers 42 a to 42 d . The amplifier 42 a amplifies the surround back left audio signal SBL, the Zone3 left audio signal Z 3 L, the left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp), or the BTL left audio signal L− inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to a switch S 43 a . The amplifier 42 b amplifies the surround back right audio signal SBR, the Zone3 right audio signal Z 3 R, the right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp), or the BTL right audio signal R− inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to a switch S 43 b . The amplifier 42 c amplifies the upper left audio signal LH, the outer left audio signal LW, the low-frequency audio signal SW, or the Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to a switch S 43 c . The amplifier 42 d amplifies the upper right audio signal RH, the outer right audio signal RW, the low-frequency audio signal SW, or the Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R inputted thereto and supplies the amplified audio signal to a switch S 43 d . An amplifier 42 e is an amplifier for a left audio signal L, amplifies the left audio signal L supplied from the DSP, and supplies the amplified left audio signal L to a switch S 43 f . An amplifier 42 f is an amplifier for a right audio signal R, amplifies the right audio signal R supplied from the DSP, and supplies the amplified right audio signal R to a switch S 43 h. An SP relay 43 includes the switches S 43 a to S 43 h . The switch S 43 a switches whether to supply the surround back left audio signal SBL, the Zone3 left audio signal Z 3 L, the left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp), or the BTL left audio signal L− inputted from the amplifier 42 a , to a surround back left SP terminal 44 a . The switch S 43 a goes to an on state when any one of the switches S 41 a to S 41 d is in an on state. The switch S 43 b switches whether to supply the surround back right audio signal SBR, the Zone3 right audio signal Z 3 R, the right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp), or the BTL right audio signal R− inputted from the amplifier 42 b , to a surround back right SP terminal 44 b . The switch S 43 b goes to an on state when any one of the switches S 41 e to S 41 h is in an on state. The switch S 43 c switches whether to supply the upper left audio signal LH or the low-frequency audio signal SW inputted from the amplifier 42 c , to an upper left SP terminal 44 c . The switch S 43 c is brought into an on state when the switch S 41 i is in an on state and the upper left audio signal LH is supplied to the switch S 41 i or when the switch S 41 j is in an on state. The switch S 43 d switches whether to supply the upper right audio signal RH or the low-frequency audio signal SW inputted from the amplifier 42 d , to an upper right SP terminal 44 d . The switch S 43 d is brought into an on state when the switch S 41 l is in an on state and the upper right audio signal RH is supplied to the switch S 41 l or when the switch S 41 m is in an on state. A switch S 43 e switches whether to supply the outer left audio signal LW or the Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L inputted from the amplifier 42 c , to an outer left SP terminal 44 e . The switch S 43 e is brought into an on state when the switch S 41 i is in an on state and the outer left audio signal LW is supplied to the switch S 41 i or when the switch S 41 k is in an on state. A switch S 43 g switches whether to supply the outer right audio signal RW or the Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R inputted from the amplifier 42 d , to an outer right SP terminal 44 f . The switch S 43 g is brought into an on state when the switch S 41 l is in an on state and the outer right audio signal RW is supplied to the switch S 41 l or when the switch S 41 n is in an on state. The switch S 43 f switches whether to supply the left audio signal L (for speaker B) inputted from the amplifier 42 e , to the outer left SP terminal 44 e . The switch S 43 h switches whether to supply the right audio signal R (for speaker B) inputted from the amplifier 42 f , to the outer right SP terminal 44 f. SP terminals 44 include the SP terminals 44 a to 44 f . When the functions are not used, the same speakers as those described above are connected to the SP terminals. When the Zone3 function is used, a Zone3 left speaker SZ 3 L is connected to the surround back left SP terminal 44 a and a Zone3 right speaker SZ 3 R is connected to the surround back right SP terminal 44 b . When the Bi-Amp function is used, a Bi-Amp terminal of a left speaker SL is connected to the surround back left SP terminal 44 a and a Bi-Amp terminal of a right speaker SR is connected to the surround back right SP terminal 44 b . When the BTL function is used, a − side of the left speaker SL is connected to the surround back left SP terminal 44 a and a − side of the right speaker SR is connected to the surround back right SP terminal 44 b . When the passive sub-woofer output function is used, a passive sub-woofer (a speaker dedicated to low frequencies, which is not built in the amplifier) is connected to the upper left SP terminal 44 c and the upper right SP terminal 44 d . When the Zone2 function is used, a Zone2 left speaker SZ 2 L is connected to the outer left SP terminal 44 e and a Zone2 right speaker SZ 2 R is connected to the outer right SP terminal 44 f . When the speaker B function is used, a speaker B left speaker SLB is connected to the outer left SP terminal 44 e and a speaker B right speaker SRB is connected to the outer right SP terminal 44 f. Next, operations in the present example will be described. (1) When the Bi-Amp Function is Used A control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp) to the surround back left SP terminal 44 a and supply the right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp) to the surround back right SP terminal 44 b . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the left audio signal L (for Bi-Amp) to the switch S 41 c and supply the right audio signal R (for Bi-Amp) to the switch S 41 g . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 41 c , S 41 g , S 43 a , and S 43 b to be an on state and the switches S 41 a , S 41 b , S 41 d , S 41 e , S 41 f , and S 41 h to be an off state. (2) When the BTL Function is Used The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the BTL left audio signal L− to the surround back left SP terminal 44 a and supply the BTL right audio signal R− to the surround back right SP terminal 44 b . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the BTL left audio signal L− to the switch S 41 d and supply the BTL right audio signal R− to the switch S 41 h . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 41 d , S 41 h , S 43 a , and S 43 b to be an on state and the switches S 41 a , S 41 b , S 41 c , S 41 e , S 41 f , and S 41 g to be an off state. (3) When the Speaker B Function is Used The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the left audio signal L to the outer left SP terminal 44 e and supply the right audio signal R to the outer right SP terminal 44 f . Specifically, the control unit 2 controls the switches S 43 f and S 43 h to be an on state and the switches S 41 i to S 41 n , S 43 c , S 43 d , S 43 e , and S 43 g to be an off state. (4) When the Passive Sub-Woofer Output Function is Used The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the low-frequency audio signal SW to the upper left SP terminal 44 c and the upper right SP terminal 44 d . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the low-frequency audio signal SW to the switches S 41 j and S 41 m . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 41 j , S 41 m , S 43 c , and S 43 d to be an on state and the switches S 41 i , S 41 k , S 41 l , S 41 n , S 43 e , S 43 f , S 43 g , and S 43 h to be an off state. (5) When the Zone2 Function is Used The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L to the outer left SP terminal 44 e and supply the Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R to the outer right SP terminal 44 f . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the Zone2 left audio signal Z 2 L to the switch S 41 k and supply the Zone2 right audio signal Z 2 R to the switch S 41 n . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 41 k , S 41 n , S 43 e , and S 43 g to be an on state and the switches S 41 i , S 41 j , S 41 l , S 41 m , S 43 c , S 43 d , S 43 f , and S 43 g to be an off state. (6) When the Zone3 Function is Used The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the Zone3 left audio signal Z 3 L to the surround back left SP terminal 44 a and supply the Zone3 right audio signal Z 3 R to the surround back right SP terminal 44 b . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the Zone3 left audio signal Z 3 L to the switch S 41 b and supply the Zone3 right audio signal Z 3 R to the switch S 41 f . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 41 b , S 41 f , S 43 a , and S 43 b to be an on state and the switches S 41 a , S 41 c , S 41 d , S 41 e , S 41 g , and S 41 h to be an off state. (7) When a Combination of the Outer Left Audio Signal LW and the Outer Right Audio Signal RW is Included The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the outer left audio signal LW to the outer left SP terminal 44 e and supply the outer right audio signal RW to the outer right SP terminal 44 f . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the outer left audio signal LW to the switch S 41 i and supply the outer right audio signal RW to the switch S 41 l . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 41 i , S 41 l , S 43 e , and S 43 g to be an on state and the switches S 41 j , S 41 k , S 41 m , S 41 n , S 43 c , S 43 d , S 43 f , and S 43 h to be an off state. (8) When a Combination of the Upper Left Audio Signal LH and the Upper Right Audio Signal RH is Included The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the upper left audio signal LH to the upper left SP terminal 44 c and supply the upper right audio signal RH to the upper right SP terminal 44 d . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the upper left audio signal LH to the switch S 41 i and supply the upper right audio signal RH to the switch S 41 l . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 41 i , S 41 l , S 43 c , and S 43 d to be an on state and the switches S 41 j , S 41 k , S 41 m , S 41 n , S 43 e , S 43 f , S 43 g , and S 43 h to be an off state. (9) When a Combination of the Surround Back Left Audio Signal SBL and the Surround Back Right Audio Signal SBR is Included The control unit 2 controls the DSP and the switches to supply the surround back left audio signal SBL to the surround back left SP terminal 44 a and supply the surround back right audio signal SBR to the surround back right SP terminal 44 b . Specifically, the control unit 2 causes the DSP to supply the surround back left audio signal SBL to the switch S 41 a and supply the surround back right audio signal SBR to the switch S 41 e . The control unit 2 controls the switches S 41 a , S 41 e , S 43 a , and S 43 b to be an on state and the switches S 41 b , S 41 c , S 41 d , S 41 f , S 41 g , and S 41 h to be an off state. Although the preferred embodiments of the present invention are described above, the present invention is not limited thereto. Instead of an upper left audio signal and an upper right audio signal, a center left audio signal (a signal between a left audio signal and a center audio signal) and a center right audio signal (a signal between a right audio signal and the center audio signal) may be applied. The present invention may also be provided in the form of a program that causes a computer to perform the above-described operations of an AV amplifier, and a recording medium recording the program.

An audio processing apparatus comprising: channel determination section for determining which one of a combination of the first left audio signal and the first right audio signal and a combination of the second left audio signal and the second right audio signal is included in multichannel audio data; and switching section for causing the first amplification section to amplify the first left audio signal and supply the amplified first left audio signal to the first speaker terminal and causing the second amplification section to amplify the first right audio signal and supply the amplified first right audio signal to the second speaker terminal when the combination of the first left audio signal and the first right audio signal is determined to be included; and causing the first amplification section to amplify the second left audio signal and supply the amplified second left audio signal to the third speaker terminal and causing the second amplification section to amplify the second right audio signal and supply the amplified second right audio signal to the fourth speaker terminal when the combination of the second left audio signal and the second right audio signal is determined to be included.

[0001] This application is a continuation-in-part application of, and claims the benefit of priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 11/026,859, filed on Dec. 30, 2004, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/355,955, filed on Jan. 31, 2003, which claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/354,098, filed on Feb. 4, 2002. These prior applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to medical electrical stimulators, such as Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) systems and more particularly to methods for efficiently selecting electrode configurations. An SCS system, used herein as an example of a medical electrical stimulator of the invention, treats chronic pain by providing electrical stimulation pulses through the individual contacts (a.k.a., electrodes) of an electrode array (a.k.a., a lead) placed epidurally next to a patient's spinal cord. The combination of stimulation pulses delivered to the electrodes of an electrode array constitutes an electrode configuration. In other words, an electrode configuration represents each polarity, being positive, negative, or zero of each of the electrodes. Other parameters that may be controlled or varied in SCS and other forms of medical electrical stimulation are the frequency of pulses provided through the electrode array, pulse width, and the strength (amplitude) of pulses delivered. Amplitude may be measured in milliamps, volts, etc. In some SCS systems, the “distribution” of the current/voltage across the electrodes may be varied such that the polarity of each electrode is not a whole number value, but represents a fraction of positive or negative values. Moreover, there may be some electrodes that remain inactive for certain electrode configurations, meaning that no current/voltage is applied through the inactive electrode(s). Therefore, for such systems, each electrode configuration also represents a polarity percentage of each active electrode of an electrode array. [0003] Previous SCS technology identified these parameters and effectuated stimulation through an electrode array or lead at specific electrode configurations. However, previous SCS technologies attempted to evaluate parameters, including electrode configuration, strength, pulse width, etc., one at a time. An optimized stimulation parameter set for a specific patient may be determined from the response of the patient to various sets of stimulation parameters. There is, however, an extremely large number of possible combinations of stimulation parameters, and evaluating all possible sets is very time consuming, and perhaps impractical. [0004] Spinal cord stimulation is a well accepted clinical method for reducing pain in certain populations of patients. An SCS system typically includes an Implantable Pulse Generator (IPG), electrodes, electrode lead, and, if needed, one or more electrode lead extensions. Some systems, rather than using an IPG, include an implanted Radio-Frequency receiver that receives pulses from an external transmitter. In either case, the electrodes are implanted along the dura of the spinal cord, and the IPG generates electrical pulses that are delivered, through the electrodes, to the dorsal column and dorsal root fibers within the spinal cord. Individual electrode contacts (the “electrodes”) are arranged in a desired pattern and spacing in order to create an electrode array. Individual wires within one or more electrode leads connect with each electrode in the array. The electrode leads exit the spinal column and generally attach to one or more electrode lead extensions or, depending on the length of the leads, they may attach directly to the IPG. The leads and/or lead extensions are typically tunneled around the torso of the patient to a subcutaneous pocket where the IPG is implanted. [0005] Spinal cord stimulators and other stimulation systems are known in the art. For example, an implantable electronic stimulator is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,646,940 issued Mar. 7, 1972 for “Implantable Electronic Stimulator Electrode and Method” that provides timed sequenced electrical impulses to a plurality of electrodes. As another example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,724,467 issued Apr. 3, 1973 for “Electrode Implant For The Neuro-Stimulation of the Spinal Cord,” teaches an electrode implant for the neuro-stimulation of the spinal cord. A relatively thin and flexible strip of physiologically inert plastic is provided as a carrier on which a plurality of electrodes are formed. The electrodes are connected by leads to an RF receiver, which is also implanted. [0006] In U.S. Pat. No. 3,822,708, issued Jul. 9, 1974 for “Electrical Spinal Cord Stimulating Device and Method for Management of Pain,” another type of electrical spinal cord stimulation device is taught. The device disclosed in the '708 patent has five aligned electrodes, which are positioned longitudinally on the spinal cord. Electrical pulses applied to the electrodes block perceived intractable pain, while allowing passage of other sensations. A patient-operated switch allows the patient to adjust the stimulation parameters. [0007] Electrode arrays currently used with known SCS systems may employ between one and sixteen electrodes on a lead or leads. Electrodes are selectively programmed to act as anodes, cathodes, or left off, creating an electrode configuration. The number of electrode configurations available, combined with the ability of integrated circuits to generate a variety of complex stimulation pulses, presents a huge selection of stimulation parameter sets to the clinician. When an SCS system is implanted, a “fitting” procedure is performed to select an effective stimulation parameter set for a particular patient. Such a session of applying various stimulation parameters and electrode configurations may be referred to as a “fitting” or “programming” session. Additionally, a series of electrode configurations to be applied to a patient may be organized in a steering table or in another suitable manner. [0008] A known practice is to manually test one parameter set, and then select a new stimulation parameter set to test, and compare the results. Each parameter set is painstakingly configured and increased in amplitude gradually to avoid patient discomfort. A clinician often bases his selection of a new stimulation parameter set on his/her personal experience and intuition. There is no systematic method to guide the clinician. If the selected stimulation parameters are not an improvement, the clinician repeats these steps, using a new stimulation parameter set, based only on dead-reckoning. The combination of the time required to test each parameter set, and the number of parameter sets tested, may result in a very time consuming process. For instance, a system with 16 selectable electrodes contains over 40 million possible combinations of electrode configurations alone. Thus, testing all possible combinations is impractical. [0009] In order to achieve an effective result from spinal cord stimulation, the lead or leads may be placed in a location such that the electrical stimulation will cause paresthesia. The paresthesia induced by the stimulation and perceived by the patient should be located in approximately the same place in the patient's body as the pain that is the target of treatment. If a lead is not correctly positioned, it is possible that the patient will receive little or no benefit from an implanted SCS system. Thus, correct lead placement can mean the difference between effective and ineffective pain therapy. [0010] In order to test the effectiveness on a particular patient of various stimulation parameters and electrode configurations, it is necessary to provide a series of stimulation parameters in a systematic method. Several such systems exist including the systems disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,393,325, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety, wherein a patient may direct the movement of the stimulus current through a suitable interface. [0011] Another method of testing the effectiveness of various stimulation parameters is disclosed in U.S. application Ser. No. 11/026,859, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In this Application, during a fitting session with a patient, a clinician uses navigation with two parameter tables to step through and optimize stimulation parameters. [0012] The inventors have ascertained that improved methods are needed for selection of electrode configurations during navigation through a programming session, whereby each patient may efficiently optimize and personalize his/her stimulation treatment in terms of stimulation strength, pulse rate, pulse width, and electrode configuration. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0013] The present invention addresses the above and other needs by providing methods for selecting stimulation electrode configurations, which methods guide users toward effective stimulation treatments. [0014] In one embodiment of the invention, a method for selecting electrode configurations for use in a medical electrical stimulator is provided. The method may comprise: (1) providing a set of electrode configurations for at least the active electrodes of an electrode array; (2) automatically testing at least a first portion of the set of electrode configurations in a first order; (3) allowing the selection of one or more of the tested electrode configurations; and (4) automatically testing at least a second portion of the set of electrode configurations in a second order if a suitable number of electrode configurations from among said first portion are not selected within a predefined interval. [0015] The rate at which the electrode configurations are tested may be controlled. For example, the rate at which the configurations are tested may correspond to about a 5% change in current amplitude per second to about a 50% change in current amplitude per second. Selection of the electrode configurations may be by a patient or may be by objective criteria. Methods may further comprise the steps of re-testing the selected electrode configurations for fine-tuning. The selected electrode configurations may be stored and organized. [0016] The electrode configurations may correspond to stimulation of a particular part or section of a patient's body. For example, a user may select a particular area of the body by virtue of an interface device. The electrode configurations may then be applied to the patient, as the patient (or attending clinician) is allowed to select particular electrode configurations that are effective. A programming tool may be used to group together related series of electrode configurations. Therefore, the starting electrode configuration may correspond to a stimulation directed to a particular part or section of a patient's body. The starting electrode configuration may be selected by a program or by a user or it may correspond to a particular portion of the electrode array corresponding to a particular part of the patient's body or section of the area of potential stimulation. [0017] The methods may also comprise clinician, automatic or patient control of other stimulation parameters as the electrode configurations are being applied to the patient. For example, a user may adjust one or more stimulation parameters before or during the testing. These stimulation parameters include polarity or polarity percentage, amplitude, pulse width, pulse rate, and combinations thereof. Various levels of shared control of the other stimulation parameters may be distributed between an automated system, a clinician, and the patient. [0018] The methods may further comprise: (1) interrupting the continuous testing, (2) selecting a second starting electrode configuration, (3) continuously testing the set of electrode configurations in an order based on the second starting electrode configuration, and (4) allowing the selection of one or more of the tested electrode configurations. [0019] Another embodiment is a method for selecting an electrode configuration for use in a medical electrical stimulator, comprising: (1) providing a set of electrode configurations the active electrodes of an electrode array; (2) automatically testing at least a portion of the set of electrode configurations; (3) allowing the selection of one or more of the tested electrode configurations; (4) adjusting one or more parameters during the testing, wherein the parameters are selected from the group consisting of polarity, polarity percentage, amplitude, pulse width, pulse rate, and combinations thereof, and wherein the adjusting is controllably shared between a clinician and a patient. [0020] Another embodiment of the present invention is a method for selecting an electrode configuration for use in a medical electrical stimulator, comprising: (1) providing a set of electrode configurations for at least each active electrode of an electrode array; and (2) testing an effective number of electrode configurations of the set of electrode configurations by, wherein the testing comprises: (a) sweeping through each section of an area of potential stimulation provided by one or more implanted electrode arrays; (b) marking electrode configurations that are effective; (c) testing electrode configurations near any marked electrode configurations; and (d) allowing the selection of one or more of the tested electrode configurations. The sweep may be completed in less than about five minutes. [0021] In another embodiment, an electrode selection system is provided. A system may comprise (1) a neural stimulation system, the neural stimulation system having a multiplicity of implantable electrodes, (2) an implantable pulse generator connected to the implantable electrodes, (3) electrical circuitry means within the implantable pulse generator for applying a prescribed current stimulus through a selected electrode configuration of the implantable electrodes, (4) a device coupled to the implantable pulse generator for storing and delivering a set of electrode configurations to the pulse generator, (5) means for applying the set of electrode configurations to a patient, and (6) means for allowing user selection of one or more of the electrode configurations in the series. [0022] The system may further comprise means for generating and displaying a sequence of instructional displays that guide a user through the process of selecting one or more electrode configurations. The system may also comprise means for displaying a graphical representation of a human body such that the set of electrode configurations being applied to the patient is correlated to a part of the human body and such correlation is indicated on the graphical representation. The system may also comprise means for displaying a generic graphic that represents a relative two-dimensional map such that the set of electrode configurations being applied to the patient is correlated to the relative two-dimensional position of the stimulation area and such correlation is indicated on the graphical representation. [0023] Another embodiment of the invention is an electrode selection system comprising: (1) a neural stimulation system, the neural stimulation system having a multiplicity of implantable electrodes, (2) an implantable pulse generator connected to the implantable electrodes, (3) electrical circuitry means within the implantable pulse generator for applying a prescribed current stimulus through a selected electrode configuration of the implantable electrodes, (4) a memory device coupled to the implantable pulse generator for storing a set of electrode configurations, wherein each electrode configuration represents a polarity or a polarity percentage of each active electrode of an electrode array, wherein the implantable pulse generator automatically tests at least a portion of the set of electrode configurations in order based on a starting electrode configuration, and (5) a user interface device for allowing the selection of one or more of the tested electrode configurations. [0024] It is thus a feature of the present invention to provide a method for determining optimum electrode configurations without requiring exhaustive testing associated with creating, optimizing and testing each parameter of each electrode configuration. A set of electrode configurations is applied to a patient for selection by the patient. By providing a systematic method for searching for effective electrode configurations, a therapeutic session may be specifically developed for each patient. [0025] Once one or more electrode configurations are selected and identified by a patient or clinician, these selected electrode configurations may be optimized. An electrode configuration may be adjusted for amplitude (stimulation strength), pulse width, and pulse rate. One such an optimizing procedure is described more fully in U.S. application Ser. No. 11/026,859. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0026] The above and other aspects of the present invention will be more apparent from the following more particular description thereof, presented in conjunction with the following drawings wherein: [0027] FIG. 1 shows a Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) system, as an example of a medical electrical stimulator. [0028] FIG. 2 depicts the SCS system of FIG. 1 implanted in a spinal column. [0029] FIG. 3 depicts a flow chart according to one embodiment of the present invention. [0030] FIG. 4 depicts a user interface that may be used during navigation through the electrode configurations. [0031] FIG. 5 depicts a user interface device that may be used during navigation through the electrode configurations. [0032] Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding components throughout the several views of the drawings. [0033] Appendix A, known as a steering table, herein incorporated by reference, is an example of a set of electrode configurations. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0034] The following description is of the best mode presently contemplated for carrying out the invention. This description is not to be taken in a limiting sense, but is made merely for the purpose of describing the general principles of the invention. The scope of the invention should be determined with reference to the claims. [0035] The methods of the present invention provide systematic approaches for selecting stimulation parameter sets, or electrode configurations, for medical electrical stimulators. A Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) system will be used herein as an example of such a medical electrical stimulator. The methods lead a user through a selection process that efficiently locates optimum electrode configurations. The selection process and system may also herein be referred to as “fitting,” “programming,” “navigating” a “fitting system,” or a “fitting program.” Thus, a user is allowed to navigate through the millions of electrode configurations to determine a customized treatment. As used herein, the term “user” may refer to a patient, a clinician, an automated program, or a combination thereof. [0036] An exemplary Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) system 10 is shown in FIG. 1 . SCS system 10 comprises an Implantable Pulse Generator (IPG) 12 , an optional lead extension 14 , an electrode lead 16 , and an electrode array 18 . The IPG 12 generates stimulation current for implanted electrodes that make up the electrode array 18 . When needed, a proximal end of the lead extension 14 is removably connected to the IPG 12 and a distal end of the lead extension 14 is removably connected to a proximal end of the electrode lead 16 . Alternatively, a proximal end of lead 16 is attached directly to the IPG 12 . Electrode array 18 is formed on a distal end of the electrode lead 16 . The in-series combination of the lead extension 14 and electrode lead 16 , carry the stimulation current from the IPG 12 to the electrode array 18 . [0037] The SCS system 10 described in FIG. 1 above is depicted implanted in the epidural space 20 in FIG. 2 . The electrode array 18 is implanted at the site of nerve fibers that are the target of stimulation, e.g., along the spinal cord. Due to the lack of space near the location where the electrode lead 16 exits the spinal column, the IPG 12 is generally implanted in the abdomen or above the buttocks. When needed, the lead extension 14 facilitates locating the IPG 12 away from the electrode lead exit point. [0038] In a preferred embodiment, one, two or more electrode arrays 18 may be implanted in the patient. Having a relatively greater number of electrodes increases the area of the body that can be affected by stimulation, or the “area of potential stimulation.” The area of potential stimulation corresponds roughly to the area of the body mapped to the dermatomes for the area of the spine adjacent to the implanted electrodes. The area of potential stimulation may be divided into sections, each section corresponding to the electrodes that typically provide stimulation to that section of the body. [0039] A more detailed description of a representative SCS system that may be used with the present invention is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,516,227, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. It is to be emphasized, however, that the invention herein described may be used with many different types of stimulation systems, and is not limited to use only with the representative SCS system described in the U.S. Pat. No. 6,516,227 patent. [0040] The systems and methods explained herein provide a programming or navigation system used to select electrode configurations useful for providing stimulation to a patient. Automated systems and methods offer an alternative to manual selection and testing of electrode configurations to find an appropriate stimulation therapy, e.g., for pain management. Manual selection of electrode configurations has proven to be time consuming and complicated. Electrodes may be manually selected to be positive, negative, or turned off, such that a subset of anodes and cathodes are selected from a total set to create a stimulation delivery electrode configuration. One problem with manual selection, as discussed in the background section, is that it is sometimes a trial and error process, requiring a sophisticated understanding of current field generation. The present systems and methods provide for an easy-to-use navigational system, which allows for patient control, while testing a maximum number of electrode configurations. The present systems and methods eliminate the need to manually select electrode polarity. The present systems and methods eliminate the need to train clinicians on the complications of current field generation. Instead, a large number of electrode configurations is consecutively applied to a patient for testing. [0041] A flow chart representing one embodiment of a method for electrode configuration testing is depicted in FIG. 3 . As with most flow charts, each step or act of the method is represented in a “box” or “block” of the flow chart. Each box or block, in turn, has a reference number associated with it to help explain the process in the description that follows. [0042] A set of electrode configurations is provided at step 201 , such as the set illustrated in Appendix A. The exemplary electrode configurations may be arranged in a predetermined order, as shown in Appendix A, may be determined by parameters in software, may be established by an algorithm, may be decided by combinations thereof, or equivalents. A table such as shown in Appendix A may be referred to as a steering table. A steering table typically comprises rows, with each row defining each electrode configuration. In a preferred embodiment, each row specifies the polarity or polarity percentage on each electrode of each electrode array 18 ( FIGS. 1 and 2 ). Each electrode array 18 preferably comprises four or eight electrodes, but certain embodiments may only utilize a subset or superset of the electrode array 18 , for example three or twelve electrodes, respectively. In a preferred embodiment, one or two electrode arrays, each having eight electrodes, are used, resulting in a steering table having eight or sixteen entries per row, respectively (the latter is shown in the example of Appendix A), or nine or seventeen entries per row, respectively (one for each electrode and one for the case of the stimulator, which may also function as an electrode). Those skilled in the art will recognize that a steering table may include, in addition to polarity definitions, other parameters, such as pulse duration and/or pulse frequency, and that table with such other variations is intended to come within the scope of the present invention. [0043] When polarity percentages are used, rather than just simple polarity settings, the polarity distribution of the rows of the steering table may differ by about 0.05 in value, such as the one illustrated in Appendix A, or by any other suitable order of magnitude. The polarity associated with the electrodes in the electrode array, or a subset or superset of the electrode array, may be summed to zero. For example, one electrode of the electrode array may have a polarity of negative one (cathode), while another electrode may have a polarity of positive one (anode), such as the entry corresponding to Entry No. 21 of Appendix A. Entry No. 21 defines Electrode No. 1 as a cathode and Electrode No. 3 as an anode. [0044] The rows in the steering table may be ordered or arranged based on the physical characteristics of the stimulation provided by each electrode configuration, so that moving from one row to the next in the steering table represents a gradual, and somewhat uniform, change in stimulation. In other words, stepping from one row to an adjacent row in the steering table causes the stimulation applied to the tissue through the individual electrodes of the electrode array 18 to gradually move in a desired direction. This type of current steering is described more fully in U.S. Pat. No. 6,393,325, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. [0045] Once the desired set of electrode configurations or steering table has been provided, a starting electrode configuration is selected (step 202 ). For example, the first row of the steering table may be tested first, followed in order by the remaining rows. The rows may be ordered, as explained above, by current steering methods. Groups of electrode configurations (groups of rows within a steering table) may correspond to a certain part of a patient's body. For example, electrodes No. 1 through No. 3 may correspond to stimulating the lower right leg of a patient when programmed in a particular configuration. However, the order of rows is not essential to these embodiments, and the rows may be arranged in any order. The starting electrode configuration may also be selected as corresponding to a particular section of the area of potential stimulation created by one or more implanted electrode arrays. The steering table may be arranged by portions of the electrode array corresponding to the sections, as well. For example, in Appendix A, Entries Nos. 21-41 correspond to electrodes No. 1-4, or a first portion of the electrode array, corresponding to a first section of the area of potential stimulation. [0046] A clinician or patient may select a row as the starting electrode configuration. This selection may be based on an area of the body to be stimulated by the SCS system. Alternatively, the starting electrode may be predetermined, determined by a program or algorithm, through a user interface, or randomly. A patient may choose from a few possibilities of starting electrode configurations. For example, the patient may choose from a discrete number of trial electrode configurations to select the starting configuration. Such a selection from a discrete number of trial configurations is explained more fully in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/026,859. [0047] Once the starting electrode configuration is selected, stimulation is applied to the patient, as a program automatically steps through each entry or row of the steering table from the selected starting electrode configuration. For example as seen in Appendix A, if Entry No. 21 is the starting electrode configuration, this stimulation is applied to the patient, followed by the stimulation represented in Entry Nos. 22, 23, etc. As each electrode configuration is consecutively tested on the patient, the patient or attending clinician has the power to select, highlight or mark any particular electrode configuration of the set being tested. For example, a patient may select a particular configuration that feels good, or specifically targets an area of the body. The patient may provide this feedback as to the effectiveness of the stimulation that has been applied as represented by the electrode configuration entries of the steering table. [0048] Objective criteria may also be used to select from the electrode configurations being tested. Alternative means (e.g., objective measurements of various physiological parameters of the patient, such as perspiration, muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate, and the like) may also be used to judge the effectiveness of the applied stimulation. Selected electrode configurations may be stored for further testing. [0049] The change in polarity or polarity distribution for consecutive electrode configurations tested may be varied during stimulation or predetermined, such as by selection of an appropriate steering table. For example, the entries for one or more electrodes in two consecutive rows in the steering table of Appendix A may differ by about 5% in polarity distribution. An automated program may test electrode configurations at a more drastic change in polarity distribution, such as up to 50% distribution change on one or more electrodes, per electrode configuration tested. The automated program could skip to every tenth row of a table such as the table of Appendix A, or a different steering table could be used, with rows that differ in polarity distribution for one or more electrodes by 0.50 per row. Such change in the polarity distribution may be limited by a patient's discomfort with the distribution changes during row transitions. A more gradual change in the polarity distribution may result in a more comfortable application of the stimulation to the patient. However, changes in the polarity distribution should be large enough so as to effectively test enough electrode configurations in a given clinical time period. A polarity distribution change of about 1% may not be “fast” enough to test a suitable number of electrode configurations during the fitting session. [0050] To avoid uncomfortable over-stimulation, the stimulation amplitude may be initially set to a relatively low level, perhaps even below the level that will result in the patient perceiving paresthesia. The stimulation level at which the patient begins to perceive paresthesia is called the perception or perceptual threshold. See e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,393,325, noted above. The stimulation may be increased until it begins to become uncomfortable for the patient. This level is called the maximum or discomfort threshold. See e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,393,325, noted above. These pre-navigation measured thresholds may be noted before the selection of the starting electrode configuration. Alternatively, these thresholds may be determined based on pre-established values, or based on previously-measured thresholds for the patient. [0051] Additionally, the amplitude may be adjusted by the user during the testing of the electrode configurations. In other words, while the automated program steps through the entries of the steering table, a user may pay attention to the strength of the stimulation being applied. The electrode configurations represent the polarity or the polarity percentage of the individual electrodes of the array. The steering table entries denote polarity using a positive or negative “1” or, for polarity percentage or polarity distribution, a fraction thereof. The total current applied through each electrode may be about 1 to about 13 milliamps, up to a “grand total” of 20 milliamps applied through all active electrodes combined. The values of the electrode configurations therefore represent a percentage of this grand total current applied. Alternatively, the stimulation amplitude may be quantified by voltage applied to the electrodes. A user may vary this strength of stimulation while the automated program circulates through the configuration of polarities as seen in the steering table. [0052] Therefore, the amplitude or stimulation strength may be adjusted by a patient, clinician or program before or during a testing session. The pulse width and or frequency may also be controlled or adjusted before or during the testing of the electrode configurations. [0053] The electrode configurations may be tested in any order, such as the order of the rows in the steering table (step 203 ). In order to efficiently move through all the electrode configurations of the set, a pace may be set or adjusted. A suitable rate or pace may be a current shifting rate of about 5% per 1-3 seconds to about 50% per second. A suitable pause in between rows, entries or electrode configurations may be about 0.1 to about 5 seconds. This time allows a patient, clinician, or program to select the tested electrode configuration. Preferably, about 0.2 to about 10 electrode configurations may be tested per second. More preferably, about 1 electrode configuration per 1-3 seconds should be applied to a patient to allow for adequate testing and possible selection of such electrode configuration. [0054] In order to rapidly move through the steering table and test an effective number of the electrode configurations on the patient, a navigation program may be used. A navigation program may allow a user to “skip” through part of the steering table if a relatively low number of entries are being selected in that particular part of the table. For example, if no selections have been made within about 20 successive rows of a steering table, the program may move ahead a certain number of entries to another point within the steering table. Successive row testing may then resume at this point in the steering table. The point where the testing resumes may also be referred to as a second (or third, etc.) starting electrode configuration if such skipping is accomplished. Interrupting the sequence of the steering table to move ahead may be prompted by any objective criteria. Additionally, a user may be allowed to skip ahead to test another area of the body. Referring to step 204 of FIG. 3 , if no selections have been made within a certain number of configurations (rows or entries), a program allows the user to skip to another section of the steering table (step 205 ). Alternatively, another steering table may be provided having a second order of electrode configurations to be tested. When and how to skip entries is related to known characteristics of the electrode configurations arranged in the steering table, as explained above. If a patient is making selections frequently enough, the program continues to test the electrode configurations in the order as defined by the rows of the steering table (step 206 ). [0055] As seen in step 207 , testing is resumed through the steering table at the second (or third, etc.) starting electrode configuration. Once testing is resumed, the patient still has an option to select one or more of the configurations. If the user continues not to select electrode configurations frequently enough, the program is prompted again (step 208 ) to forward to another section in the steering table for testing. In this continuous manner (step 209 ), each electrode configuration may be tested or effectively skipped by a user (step 210 ). [0056] The selected electrode configurations may be further tested on the patient for “fine tuning” (step 212 ). Such fine tuning may be done in the manner described by U.S. application Ser. No. 11/026,859, wherein it is described that once an electrode configuration is selected from one table, a more detailed table may be used to test entries “before” and “after” the selected entry. For example, if an electrode configuration was selected from a steering table that varied from row to row by 0.05 in relative current (milliamps), a more detailed table may vary from row to row by 0.01 current. As explained in U.S. application Ser. No. 11/026,859, if entry No. 1 of the steering table is selected by a user (or program) during the navigation, this entry may correspond to an entry of the more detailed table, e.g., Entry No. 1001 of a more detailed table (not shown). Thus, Entry No. 1001 thus serves as a “benchmark.” [0057] Once a benchmark is identified in the more detailed table, entries above and below the benchmark are tested for fine tuning. For example, going “down” in the more detailed table, Entry No. 1002 is applied, then No. 1003, and then No. 1004, and so on, until the patient (or other means) determines that no further improvement results, at least going in that direction in the more detailed table. For example, Entry No. 1002 may be found to be the most effective electrode configuration in that direction in the more detailed table. [0058] In a similar manner, going “up” in the more detailed table from the benchmark (No. 1001), means that Entry No. 1000 is applied, then No. 999, then No. 998, and so on, until the patient (or other means) determines that no further improvement results in that direction in that portion of the table. For example, Entry No. 998 may be found to be the most effective electrode configuration in that direction and that section of the more detailed table. [0059] Once at least two Stimulation Sets, e.g., No. 998 and 1002, have been identified, then a determination may be made as to which one is the most effective to use for stimulation. The sets chosen to be the most effective, e.g., Stimulation Set No. 998, is selected as the best one to use for stimulation in this instance, and the re-testing for the original selected Entry No. 1 from the steering table is completed. Other fine-tuning methods or re-testing may be employed. Fine-tuning and/or re-testing may be done for all the selected electrode configurations of the steering table. Such selections may be saved for this patient such that fitting does not have to reoccur prior to each treatment session. The selections may also be used in other aspects of the system. [0060] Furthermore, the methods discussed above are not limited to use with a steering table. Any method in which stimulation is transitioned along the electrode array may be used. For example, stimulation may be defined by parameters specified by software. As another example, stimulation may be activated in one portion of an array and an algorithm may be used to transition stimulation from that portion of the electrode array to another or from one end of the array to the other without the use of a steering table. Fixed step sizes may be used to transition stimulation, or a method such as the method disclosed in U.S. application Ser. No. 11/026,859, may be used to determine the appropriate step sizes to use for ordering the set of electrode configurations. [0061] In order to rapidly and efficiently move through a fitting session to test an effective number of the electrode configurations on the patient, other parameter controls may be implemented. For example, a suitable time for a fitting session may be determined for a patient, such as, for example, between about 15 to about 60 minutes. A suitable number of configurations should be tested during the fitting session. The number of electrode configurations that are tested during the fitting depends on the patient as well as the therapeutic goals for the fitting. Based on the optimal time of the session and therapeutic goals of the sessions, parameters may be controlled to test this effective number of electrode configurations during the fitting session. For example, the rate of applying successive electrode configurations may be controlled, adjusted, increased, or decreased to effectively move through all of the electrode configurations to be tested. Additionally, the change in the polarity distribution of the electrode configurations being applied may be controlled. In controlling these parameters, effective fitting in the allotted therapy time may be accomplished. [0062] Other methods may be used to help ensure that a relatively larger number of different electrode configurations are tested in an efficient manner. For example, software (or other means, such as the patient or clinician) controlling a fitting session may be programmed to start with an electrode configuration corresponding to a first section of the area of potential stimulation. The stimulation may then be transitioned (or “swept”) through some electrode configurations for that section and then through some electrode configurations for other sections, in a relatively short period of time, e.g., five minutes. During this first “sweep” through each section, the patient may select or mark electrode configurations and/or stimulation parameter sets that appear to be effective. The software might then optionally sweep through the sections again, using different electrode configurations and/or stimulation parameter sets than were used in the first sweep. Again, the patient may select or mark electrode configurations and/or stimulation parameter sets that appear to be effective. Once one or more sweeps is completed, the software can then return to electrode configurations that the patient marked and “sweep” through various configurations near the marked configurations in order to locate the locally optimal electrode configuration. The “fine tuning” methods described above and in U.S. application Ser. No. 11/026,859 may also be used to test configurations near the marked configurations. The patient or clinician can then select the optimal electrode configuration(s) from the locally optimal configurations. If a suitable number of configurations are not marked within a sweep through a section (which number may be, for example, two, five, ten, or determined by the system, the clinician, the patient, or a combination thereof), the system may skip to the next section. Thus, the method of this example enables the testing of electrode configurations from different portions of the electrode array(s) as well as localized testing of electrode configurations near configurations identified by the patient as effective in an efficient and effective manner. [0063] Various levels of patient control may be used before and during a fitting session, such as navigation. Control may be shared between the clinician and the patient. Patients may use a handheld device or other suitable interface that allows her to control the navigation and the adjustment of parameters between identified bounds. There may be a program that allows the clinician to select the level of patient control. Because no two patients are alike, the degree of patient control may be assessed for each patient. Thus, a system that allows the clinician to select the degree, level or amount of patient control would be more time efficient and allow for individualized fitting sessions. A clinician may select this level of control before or during a fitting session. Additionally, a clinician may use information from previous stimulation sessions with such patient to determine stimulation control. Allowing an appropriate level of patient control reduces patient anxiety over the fitting session and also enhances the effectiveness of patient/clinician communication. [0064] In fitting sessions, control may be parallel between the clinician and the patient. However, based upon the patient's level of control, the patient may be given priority of control over a clinician, effectively allowing the patient control to override the clinician control. Such priority to the patient's selection, decisions, and control may be given only to specific parameters. For example, the patient may be given priority control for the adjustment of amplitude, pulse width, and/or pulse rate. The clinician, however, may have the priority in deciding how to steer navigation through the navigational fitting session. [0065] Other combinations of patient, clinician and automated control are possible. For example, electrode configuration variations (e.g., via movement through a steering table) may be fully automated and thus blocked from patient control, while a patient is free to adjust amplitude. A patient may also have both amplitude and current field steering control. Most likely, all patients should have priority control to lower or reduce the applied amplitude of any stimulation. Thus, the patient controlled amplitude down “button” would have priority over either clinician or automated controls. These programmable control variations allow for flexibility in safe fitting sessions. Better patient outcomes are received due to reduced communication difficulties. [0066] Any suitable user interface may be incorporated into embodiments of the invention. For example, the interfaces described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,393,325 may be used or altered for the navigational fitting system described herein. Additionally, the interface displayed in FIG. 4 may be used to guide a user through the fitting program. As seen in FIG. 4 , the interface may include three panels, or any combination or portion of the three panels ( 401 , 402 , 403 ). In the 401 panel, automatic navigation parameters may be set such as pulse width 404 , rate 405 and amplitude or strength 406 . The interface may also have a start 407 and stop 408 switch that halts or resumes the automated navigation, respectively. The user may be able to adjust the pulse width 409 , amplitude 410 or rate 411 , as well as entirely halt delivery of stimulation pulses, i.e., turn simulation off 418 , within the interface displayed at panel 402 . In panel 403 , a user may be able to adjust the amplitude 412 . The user is also able to highlight, mark, or select 413 the electrode configurations being tested. The user may be able to select from 414 , 415 , and 416 , which correspond to sets of electrode configurations to be tested. Finally, the pace 417 may be varied during the navigation so as to adjust the speed at which consecutive electrode configurations are applied. As described above, a suitable pace may be about 1 electrode configuration per 1-3 seconds. Each parameter may be adjusted by the user within the bounds determined by the clinician and/or automated system. [0067] Although the interface controls of FIG. 4 are illustrated as being a touch screen, any other interface device that allows adjustment of these various parameters may be designed. For example, a hand-held user control device may be used having these parameter controls. Also, although the controls of FIG. 4 may appear to be “buttons” any other suitable controls may be used, such as sliding scales or dials. [0068] One such suitable hand-held device for allowing user adjustment of the stimulation parameters is depicted in FIG. 5 . The hand-held device 500 may be small and easy to manipulate. The patient is given control to mark, highlight or select 501 electrode configurations. Additionally, the patient may turn the navigation session “off” 502 with a suitable safety or escape button. The patient may adjust the amplitude 503 through a pair of increase and decrease buttons. Finally, with a series of four directional buttons 504 , the patient may be able to gradually shift paresthesia locations on the body until pain coverage is obtained. [0069] Clinician and patient control may be shared as explained above. In one embodiment, the clinician uses the interface described in FIG. 4 , while the patient uses the hand-held device depicted in FIG. 5 . Thus, during navigation, the clinician has the ability to control all of the parameters, while the patient may have a simplified hand-held device that allows for control of only a few parameters. The selection of a suitable hand-held device may depend of patient sophistication. In other words, a patient may “graduate” from a simplified device to a more advanced device, allowing her greater control over the navigation session. [0070] The methods of the present invention may be incorporated into any medical electrical stimulator, such as any SCS, neural or muscle stimulation system. Thus, in another embodiment, a stimulation system is provided. A system may comprise: (1) a neural stimulation system, the neural stimulation system having a multiplicity of implantable electrodes, (2) an implantable pulse generator connected to the implantable electrodes, (3) electrical circuitry means within the implantable pulse generator for applying a prescribed current stimulus through a selected electrode configuration of the implantable electrodes, (4) a device coupled to the implantable pulse generator for storing and delivering a set of electrode configurations to the pulse generator, (5) means for applying the set of electrode configurations to a patient in one or more series, and (6) means for allowing user selection of one or more of the electrode configurations in the series. [0071] Another embodiment of the invention is an electrode selection system comprising: (1) a neural stimulation system, the neural stimulation system having a multiplicity of implantable electrodes, (2) an implantable pulse generator connected to the implantable electrodes, (3) electrical circuitry means within the implantable pulse generator for applying a prescribed current stimulus through a selected electrode configuration of the implantable electrodes, (4) a memory device coupled to the implantable pulse generator for storing a set of electrode configurations, wherein each electrode configuration represents a polarity or polarity percentage of each active electrode of an electrode array, wherein the implantable pulse generator automatically tests at least a portion of the set of electrode configurations based on a starting electrode configuration, and (5) a user interface device for allowing the selection of one or more of the tested electrode configurations. Such stimulation systems and devices involved in such systems are more fully described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,393,325 and related applications and issued patents. [0072] While the invention herein disclosed has been described by means of specific embodiments and applications thereof, numerous modifications and variations could be made thereto by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention set forth in the claims. For example, the methods discussed above are not limited to spinal cord stimulation systems and may be used with many kinds of stimulation systems such as, but not limited to, cochlear implants, cardiac stimulation systems, peripheral nerve stimulation systems, brain stimulation systems and microstimulators. Simplified Steering Table Stimulation Electrode Set 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0.45 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 −1 0 0.1 0 0 0 0.4 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 −1 0 0.15 0 0 0 0.4 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 −1 0 0.2 0 0 0 0.4 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 −1 0 0.25 0 0 0 0.35 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 −1 0 0.3 0 0 0 0.3 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 −1 0 0.35 0 0 0 0.3 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 −1 0 0.4 0 0 0 0.3 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 −1 0 0.45 0 0 0 0.25 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 −1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0.2 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 −1 0 0.55 0 0 0 0.2 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 −1 0 0.6 0 0 0 0.2 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 −1 0 0.65 0 0 0 0.15 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 −1 0 0.7 0 0 0 0.1 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 −1 0 0.75 0 0 0 0.1 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 −1 0 0.8 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 −1 0 0.85 0 0 0 0.05 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 −1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 −1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 −1 0 0.95 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 −1 0 0.9 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 −1 0 0.85 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 −1 0 0.8 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 −1 0 0.75 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 27 −1 0 0.7 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28 −1 0 0.65 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 −1 0 0.6 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 −1 0 0.55 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 31 −1 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 32 −1 0 0.45 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33 −1 0 0.4 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 −1 0 0.35 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 −1 0 0.3 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 −1 0 0.25 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 37 −1 0 0.2 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 −1 0 0.15 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 39 −1 0 0.1 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 −1 0 0.05 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 41 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 42 −1 −0.1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 −0.9 −0.1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 44 −0.9 −0.2 0 0.85 0 0 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 45 −0.8 −0.2 0 0.8 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 46 −0.8 −0.3 0 0.75 0 0 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 47 −0.7 −0.3 0 0.7 0 0 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 −0.7 −0.4 0 0.65 0 0 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 49 −0.6 −0.4 0 0.6 0 0 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 −0.6 −0.5 0 0.55 0 0 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 51 −0.5 −0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 52 −0.5 −0.6 0 0.45 0 0 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 53 −0.4 −0.6 0 0.4 0 0 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 54 −0.4 −0.7 0 0.35 0 0 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 55 −0.3 −0.7 0 0.3 0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 56 −0.3 −0.8 0 0.25 0 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 57 −0.2 −0.8 0 0.2 0 0 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 58 −0.2 −0.9 0 0.15 0 0 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 59 −0.1 −0.9 0 0.1 0 0 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 −0.1 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 61 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 62 0 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 63 0 −1 0 0.1 0 0 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 64 0 −1 0 0.15 0 0 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 65 0 −1 0 0.2 0 0 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 66 0 −1 0 0.25 0 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 67 0 −1 0 0.3 0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 68 0 −1 0 0.35 0 0 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 69 0 −1 0 0.4 0 0 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 0 −1 0 0.45 0 0 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 71 0 −1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 72 0 −1 0 0.55 0 0 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 73 0 −1 0 0.6 0 0 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 74 0 −1 0 0.65 0 0 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 0 −1 0 0.7 0 0 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 76 0 −1 0 0.75 0 0 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 77 0 −1 0 0.8 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 78 0 −1 0 0.85 0 0 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 79 0 −1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 80 0 −1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 81 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 82 0 −1 0 0.95 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 83 0 −1 0 0.9 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 84 0 −1 0 0.85 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 85 0 −1 0 0.8 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 86 0 −1 0 0.75 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 87 0 −1 0 0.7 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 88 0 −1 0 0.65 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 89 0 −1 0 0.6 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 90 0 −1 0 0.55 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 91 0 −1 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 92 0 −1 0 0.45 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 93 0 −1 0 0.4 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 94 0 −1 0 0.35 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 95 0 −1 0 0.3 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 96 0 −1 0 0.25 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 97 0 −1 0 0.2 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 98 0 −1 0 0.15 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 99 0 −1 0 0.1 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 −1 0 0.05 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 101 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 102 0 −1 −0.1 0 0.95 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 103 0 −0.9 −0.1 0 0.9 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 104 0 −0.2 0 0.85 0 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 105 0 −0.8 −0.2 0 0.8 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 106 0 −0.8 −0.3 0 0.75 0 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 107 0 −0.7 −0.3 0 0.7 0 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 108 0 −0.7 −0.4 0 0.65 0 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 109 0 −0.6 −0.4 0 0.6 0 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 110 0 −0.6 −0.5 0 0.55 0 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 111 0 −0.5 −0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 112 0 −0.5 −0.6 0 0.45 0 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 113 0 −0.4 −0.6 0 0.4 0 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 114 0 −0.4 −0.7 0 0.35 0 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 115 0 −0.3 −0.7 0 0.3 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 116 0 −0.3 −0.8 0 0.25 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 117 0 −0.2 −0.8 0 0.2 0 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 118 0 −0.2 −0.9 0 0.15 0 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 119 0 −0.1 −0.9 0 0.1 0 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 120 0 −0.1 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 121 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 122 0.05 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 123 0.1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 124 0.15 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 125 0.2 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 126 0.25 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 127 0.3 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 128 0.35 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 129 0.4 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 130 0.45 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 131 0.5 0 −1 0 0 0 0 −0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 132 0.55 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 133 0.6 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 134 0.65 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 135 0.7 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 136 0.75 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 137 0.8 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 138 0.85 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 139 0.9 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 140 0.95 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 141 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 142 0.95 0 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 143 0.9 0 −1 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 144 0.85 0 −1 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 145 0.8 0 −1 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 146 0.75 0 −1 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 147 0.7 0 −1 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 148 0.65 0 −1 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 149 0.6 0 −1 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 150 0.55 0 −1 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 151 0.5 0 −1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 152 0.45 0 −1 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 153 0.4 0 −1 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 154 0.35 0 −1 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 155 0.3 0 −1 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 156 0.25 0 −1 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 157 0.2 0 −1 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 158 0.15 0 −1 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 159 0.1 0 −1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 160 0.05 0 −1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 161 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 162 0 0 −1 0 0.95 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 163 0 0 −1 0 0.9 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 164 0 0 −1 0 0.85 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 165 0 0 −1 0 0.8 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 166 0 0 −1 0 0.75 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 167 0 0 −1 0 0.7 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 168 0 0 −1 0 0.65 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 169 0 0 −1 0 0.6 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 170 0 0 −1 0 0.55 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 171 0 0 −1 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 172 0 0 −1 0 0.45 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 173 0 0 −1 0 0.4 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 174 0 0 −1 0 0.35 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 175 0 0 −1 0 0.3 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 176 0 0 −1 0 0.25 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 177 0 0 −1 0 0.2 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 178 0 0 −1 0 0.15 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 179 0 0 −1 0 0.1 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 180 0 0 −1 0 0.05 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 181 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 182 0.05 0 −1 −0.1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 183 0.1 0 −0.9 −0.1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 184 0.15 0 −0.9 −0.2 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 185 0.2 0 −0.8 −0.2 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 186 0.25 0 −0.8 −0.3 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 187 0.3 0 −0.7 −0.3 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 188 0.35 0 −0.7 −0.4 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 189 0.4 0 −0.6 −0.4 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 190 0.45 0 −0.6 −0.5 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 191 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 192 0.55 0 −0.5 −0.6 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 193 0.6 0 −0.4 −0.6 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 194 0.65 0 −0.4 −0.7 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 195 0.7 0 −0.3 −0.7 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 196 0.75 0 −0.3 −0.8 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 197 0.8 0 −0.2 −0.8 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 198 0.85 0 −0.2 −0.9 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 199 0.9 0 −0.1 −0.9 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 200 0.95 0 −0.1 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 201 1 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 202 0.95 0.05 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 203 0.9 0.1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 204 0.85 0.15 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 205 0.8 0.2 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 206 0.75 0.25 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 207 0.7 0.3 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 208 0.65 0.35 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 209 0.6 0.4 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 210 0.55 0.45 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 211 0.5 0.5 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 212 0.45 0.55 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 213 0.4 0.6 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 214 0.35 0.65 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 215 0.3 0.7 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 216 0.25 0.75 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 217 0.2 0.8 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 218 0.15 0.85 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 219 0.1 0.9 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 220 0.05 0.95 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 221 0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 222 0 0.95 0 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 223 0 0.9 0 −1 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 224 0 0.85 0 −1 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 225 0 0.8 0 −1 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 226 0 0.75 0 −1 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 227 0 0.7 0 −1 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 228 0 0.65 0 −1 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 229 0 0.6 0 −1 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 230 0 0.55 0 −1 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 231 0 0.5 0 −1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 232 0 0.45 0 −1 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 233 0 0.4 0 −1 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 234 0 0.35 0 −1 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 235 0 0.3 0 −1 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 236 0 0.25 0 −1 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 237 0 0.2 0 −1 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 238 0 0.15 0 −1 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 239 0 0.1 0 −1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 240 0 0.05 0 −1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 241 0 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 242 0 0 0 −1 0 0.95 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 243 0 0 0 −1 0 0.9 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 244 0 0 0 −1 0 0.85 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 245 0 0 0 −1 0 0.8 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 246 0 0 0 −1 0 0.75 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 247 0 0 0 −1 0 0.7 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 248 0 0 0 −1 0 0.65 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 249 0 0 0 −1 0 0.6 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 250 0 0 0 −1 0 0.55 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 251 0 0 0 −1 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 252 0 0 0 −1 0 0.45 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 253 0 0 0 −1 0 0.4 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 254 0 0 0 −1 0 0.35 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 255 0 0 0 −1 0 0.3 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 256 0 0 0 −1 0 0.25 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 257 0 0 0 −1 0 0.2 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 258 0 0 0 −1 0 0.15 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 259 0 0 0 −1 0 0.1 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 260 0 0 0 −1 0 0.05 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 261 0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 262 0 0.05 0 −1 −0.1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 263 0 0.1 0 −0.9 −0.1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 264 0 0.15 0 −0.9 −0.2 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 265 0 0.2 0 −0.8 −0.2 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 266 0 0.25 0 −0.8 −0.3 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 267 0 0.3 0 −0.7 −0.3 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 268 0 0.35 0 −0.7 −0.4 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 269 0 0.4 0 −0.6 −0.4 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 270 0 0.45 0 −0.6 −0.5 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 271 0 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 272 0 0.55 0 −0.5 −0.6 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 273 0 0.6 0 −0.4 −0.6 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 274 0 0.65 0 −0.4 −0.7 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 275 0 0.7 0 −0.3 −0.7 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 276 0 0.75 0 −0.3 −0.8 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 277 0 0.8 0 −0.2 −0.8 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 278 0 0.85 0 −0.2 −0.9 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 279 0 0.9 0 −0.1 −0.9 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 280 0 0.95 0 −0.1 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 281 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 282 0 0.95 0.05 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 283 0 0.9 0.1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 284 0 0.85 0.15 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 285 0 0.8 0.2 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 286 0 0.75 0.25 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 287 0 0.7 0.3 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 288 0 0.65 0.35 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 289 0 0.6 0.4 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 290 0 0.55 0.45 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 291 0 0.5 0.5 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 292 0 0.45 0.55 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 293 0 0.4 0.6 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 294 0 0.35 0.65 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 295 0 0.3 0.7 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 296 0 0.25 0.75 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 297 0 0.2 0.8 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 298 0 0.15 0.85 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 299 0 0.1 0.9 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 300 0 0.05 0.95 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 301 0 0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 302 0 0 0.95 0 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 303 0 0 0.9 0 −1 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 304 0 0 0.85 0 −1 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 305 0 0 0.8 0 −1 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 306 0 0 0.75 0 −1 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 307 0 0 0.7 0 −1 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 308 0 0 0.65 0 −1 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 309 0 0 0.6 0 −1 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 310 0 0 0.55 0 −1 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 311 0 0 0.5 0 −1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 312 0 0 0.45 0 −1 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 313 0 0 0.4 0 −1 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 314 0 0 0.35 0 −1 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 315 0 0 0.3 0 −1 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 316 0 0 0.25 0 −1 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 317 0 0 0.2 0 −1 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 318 0 0 0.15 0 −1 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 319 0 0 0.1 0 −1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 320 0 0 0.05 0 −1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 321 0 0 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 322 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.95 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 323 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.9 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 324 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.85 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 325 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.8 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 326 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.75 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 327 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.7 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 328 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.65 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 329 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.6 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 330 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.55 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 331 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 332 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.45 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 333 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.4 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 334 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.35 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 335 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.3 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 336 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.25 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 337 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.2 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 338 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.15 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 339 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.1 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 340 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.05 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 341 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 342 0 0 0.05 0 −1 −0.1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 343 0 0 0.1 0 −0.9 −0.1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 344 0 0 0.15 0 −0.9 −0.2 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 345 0 0 0.2 0 −0.8 −0.2 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 346 0 0 0.25 0 −0.8 −0.3 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 347 0 0 0.3 0 −0.7 −0.3 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 348 0 0 0.35 0 −0.7 −0.4 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 349 0 0 0.4 0 −0.6 −0.4 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 350 0 0 0.45 0 −0.6 −0.5 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 351 0 0 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 352 0 0 0.55 0 −0.5 −0.6 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 353 0 0 0.6 0 −0.4 −0.5 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 354 0 0 0.65 0 −0.4 −0.7 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 355 0 0 0.7 0 −0.3 −0.7 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 356 0 0 0.75 0 −0.3 −0.8 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 357 0 0 0.8 0 −0.2 −0.8 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 358 0 0 0.85 0 −0.2 −0.9 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 359 0 0 0.9 0 −0.1 −0.9 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 360 0 0 0.95 0 −0.1 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 361 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 362 0 0 0.95 0.05 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 363 0 0 0.9 0.1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 364 0 0 0.85 0.15 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 365 0 0 0.8 0.2 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 366 0 0 0.75 0.25 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 367 0 0 0.7 0.3 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 368 0 0 0.65 0.35 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 369 0 0 0.6 0.4 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 370 0 0 0.55 0.45 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 371 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 372 0 0 0.45 0.55 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 373 0 0 0.4 0.6 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 374 0 0 0.35 0.65 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 375 0 0 0.3 0.7 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 376 0 0 0.25 0.75 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 377 0 0 0.2 0.8 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 378 0 0 0.15 0.85 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 379 0 0 0.1 0.9 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 380 0 0 0.05 0.95 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 381 0 0 0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 382 0 0 0 0.95 0 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 383 0 0 0 0.9 0 −1 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 384 0 0 0 0.85 0 −1 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 385 0 0 0 0.8 0 −1 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 386 0 0 0 0.75 0 −1 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 387 0 0 0 0.7 0 −1 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 388 0 0 0 0.65 0 −1 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 389 0 0 0 0.6 0 −1 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 390 0 0 0 0.55 0 −1 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 391 0 0 0 0.5 0 −1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 392 0 0 0 0.45 0 −1 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 393 0 0 0 0.4 0 −1 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 394 0 0 0 0.35 0 −1 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 395 0 0 0 0.3 0 −1 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 396 0 0 0 0.25 0 −1 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 397 0 0 0 0.2 0 −1 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 398 0 0 0 0.15 0 −1 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 399 0 0 0 0.1 0 −1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 400 0 0 0 0.05 0 −1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 401 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 402 0.05 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 403 0.1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 404 0.15 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 405 0.2 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 406 0.25 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 407 0.3 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 408 0.35 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 409 0.4 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 410 0.45 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 411 0.5 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 412 0.55 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.45 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 413 0.6 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 414 0.65 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.35 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 415 0.7 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 416 0.75 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 417 0.8 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 418 0.85 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 419 0.9 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 420 0.95 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 421 1 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 422 0.95 0 0 0.05 0 −1 −0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 423 0.9 0 0 0.1 0 −0.9 −0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 424 0.85 0 0 0.15 0 −0.9 −0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 425 0.8 0 0 0.2 0 −0.8 −0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 426 0.75 0 0 0.25 0 −0.8 −0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 427 0.7 0 0 0.3 0 −0.7 −0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 428 0.65 0 0 0.35 0 −0.7 −0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 429 0.6 0 0 0.4 0 −0.6 −0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 430 0.55 0 0 0.45 0 −0.6 −0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 431 0.5 0 0 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 432 0.45 0 0 0.55 0 −0.5 −0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 433 0.4 0 0 0.6 0 −0.4 −0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 434 0.35 0 0 0.65 0 −0.4 −0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 435 0.3 0 0 0.7 0 −0.3 −0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 436 0.25 0 0 0.75 0 −0.3 −0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 437 0.2 0 0 0.8 0 −0.2 −0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 438 0.15 0 0 0.85 0 −0.2 −0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 439 0.1 0 0 0.9 0 −0.1 −0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 440 0.05 0 0 0.95 0 −0.1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 441 0 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 442 0 0 0 0.95 0.05 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 443 0 0 0 0.9 0.1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 444 0 0 0 0.85 0.15 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 445 0 0 0 0.8 0.2 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 446 0 0 0 0.75 0.25 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 447 0 0 0 0.7 0.3 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 448 0 0 0 0.65 0.35 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 449 0 0 0 0.6 0.4 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 450 0 0 0 0.55 0.45 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 451 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 452 0 0 0 0.45 0.55 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 453 0 0 0 0.4 0.6 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 454 0 0 0 0.35 0.65 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 455 0 0 0 0.3 0.7 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 456 0 0 0 0.25 0.75 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 457 0 0 0 0.2 0.8 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 458 0 0 0 0.15 0.85 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 459 0 0 0 0.1 0.9 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 460 0 0 0 0.05 0.95 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 461 0 0 0 0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 462 0.05 0 0 0 0.95 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 463 0.1 0 0 0 0.9 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 464 0.15 0 0 0 0.85 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 465 0.2 0 0 0 0.8 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 466 0.25 0 0 0 0.75 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 467 0.3 0 0 0 0.7 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 468 0.35 0 0 0 0.65 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 469 0.4 0 0 0 0.6 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 470 0.45 0 0 0 0.55 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 471 0.5 0 0 0 0.5 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 472 0.55 0 0 0 0.45 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 473 0.6 0 0 0 0.4 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 474 0.65 0 0 0 0.35 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 475 0.7 0 0 0 0.3 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 476 0.75 0 0 0 0.25 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 477 0.8 0 0 0 0.2 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 478 0.85 0 0 0 0.15 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 479 0.9 0 0 0 0.1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 480 0.95 0 0 0 0.05 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 481 1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 482 0.95 0 0 0 0.05 0 −1 −0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 483 0.9 0 0 0 0.1 0 −0.9 −0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 484 0.85 0 0 0 0.15 0 −0.9 −0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 485 0.8 0 0 0 0.2 0 −0.8 −0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 486 0.75 0 0 0 0.25 0 −0.8 −0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 487 0.7 0 0 0 0.3 0 −0.7 −0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 488 0.65 0 0 0 0.35 0 −0.7 −0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 489 0.6 0 0 0 0.4 0 −0.6 −0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 490 0.55 0 0 0 0.45 0 −0.6 −0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 491 0.5 0 0 0 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 492 0.45 0 0 0 0.55 0 −0.5 −0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 493 0.4 0 0 0 0.6 0 −0.4 −0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 494 0.35 0 0 0 0.65 0 −0.4 −0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 495 0.3 0 0 0 0.7 0 −0.3 −0.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 496 0.25 0 0 0 0.75 0 −0.3 −0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 497 0.2 0 0 0 0.8 0 −0.2 −0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 498 0.15 0 0 0 0.85 0 −0.2 −0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 499 0.1 0 0 0 0.9 0 −0.1 −0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 0.05 0 0 0 0.95 0 −0.1 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 501 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 502 0 0 0 0 0.95 0.05 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 503 0 0 0 0 0.9 0.1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 504 0 0 0 0 0.85 0.15 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 505 0 0 0 0 0.8 0.2 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 506 0 0 0 0 0.75 0.25 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 507 0 0 0 0 0.7 0.3 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 508 0 0 0 0 0.65 0.35 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 509 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.4 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 510 0 0 0 0 0.55 0.45 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 511 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 512 0 0 0 0 0.45 0.55 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 513 0 0 0 0 0.4 0.6 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 514 0 0 0 0 0.35 0.65 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 515 0 0 0 0 0.3 0.7 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 516 0 0 0 0 0.25 0.75 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 517 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.8 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 518 0 0 0 0 0.15 0.85 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 519 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.9 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 520 0 0 0 0 0.05 0.95 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 521 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 522 0 0.05 0 0 0 0.95 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 523 0 0.1 0 0 0 0.9 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 524 0.05 0.1 0 0 0 0.85 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 525 0.1 0.1 0 0 0 0.8 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 526 0.1 0.15 0 0 0 0.75 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 527 0.1 0.2 0 0 0 0.7 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 528 0.15 0.2 0 0 0 0.65 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 529 0.2 0.2 0 0 0 0.6 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 530 0.2 0.25 0 0 0 0.55 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 531 0.2 0.3 0 0 0 0.5 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 532 0.25 0.3 0 0 0 0.45 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 533 0.3 0.3 0 0 0 0.4 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 534 0.3 0.35 0 0 0 0.35 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 535 0.3 0.4 0 0 0 0.3 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 536 0.35 0.4 0 0 0 0.25 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 537 0.4 0.4 0 0 0 0.2 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 538 0.4 0.45 0 0 0 0.15 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 539 0.4 0.5 0 0 0 0.1 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 540 0.45 0.5 0 0 0 0.05 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 541 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

A method for selecting Spinal Cord Stimulation (SCS) stimulation parameter sets guides a clinician towards an effective set of stimulation parameters. The clinician first evaluates the effectiveness of a small number of trial stimulation parameters sets from a Measurement Table comprising for example, four stimulation parameter sets. Based on the patient's assessment, the trial stimulation parameter sets are ranked. Then the clinician selects a starting or benchmark row in a Steering Table corresponding to the highest ranked trial stimulation parameter set. The clinician moves either up or down form the starting row, testing consecutive parameter sets. The clinician continues as long as the patient indicates that the stimulation results are improving. When a local optimum is found, the clinician returns to the benchmark row, and tests in the opposite direction for another local optimum. If an acceptable set of stimulation parameters is found, the selection process is complete. If an acceptable set is not found, a new starting row in the Steering Table is selected based on the next ranked trial set from the Measurement Table, and the process of searching for local optima is repeated.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/620,928, entitled “Device and Method for Measuring a Property in a Downhole Apparatus,” Attorney docket number 063718.1004, filed on Jan. 8, 2007. BACKGROUND [0002] The present invention relates to measuring a property in a downhole apparatus. [0003] More particularly, the various embodiments of the invention are directed to measuring incremental torque between sensors and using this information to improve drilling practices. [0004] In downhole drilling, it has become commonplace to include in the downhole apparatus one or more logging tools. This may include any number of logging-while-drilling (LWD) and measuring-while-drilling (MWD) tools, which generally have mechanical apparatuses and electrical circuits to perform specific tasks. [0005] As those skilled in the art know, the operating environment experienced by the logging tools is very harsh. By virtue of the tools being part of the downhole apparatus, the tools experience relatively high accelerating forces due to vibration of a drill bit cutting through downhole formations. Some parameters can be measured downhole and transmitted to the surface, thereby providing a feedback system, which improves drilling efficiency and downhole tool reliability. The torque and vibration experienced may exceed specified ranges for some components that make up the downhole apparatus, thus reducing the life span of any particular electrical or mechanical device. [0006] These problems benefit from a method for updating and/or measuring the downhole torque on the downhole apparatus and transmitting this information to the surface to improve real-time operations. A common method currently used today for measuring downhole torque utilizes strain gauges. These devices require a lengthy and complex calibration process in order for them to properly measure the torque applied to the downhole devices. Even with this calibration process these gauges drift over time causing error with the measurements and must be periodically recalibrated. SUMMARY [0007] The present invention provides a method and device for measuring incremental torque in a downhole apparatus. [0008] In one embodiment of the present invention, the device comprises a first sensor and a second sensor attached to the downhole apparatus, separated by a distance and an angle. Also included is a logic circuit, which may compute the torque over the distance, based on the distance, the angle, and physical properties of the downhole apparatus. [0009] In another embodiment of the present invention, the device also comprises additional sensors, such that the torque is calculable over various distances. [0010] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the sensors are magnetometers that measure the angle based on azimuths. [0011] In a further embodiment of the present invention, the method comprises the steps of applying torque, determining the orientation of sensors, determining the distance between the sensors, and using a logic circuit, either on the surface or downhole, to determine the torque. This may occur after a step of aligning the sensors. [0012] In another embodiment, the method does not include the step of aligning the sensors. Instead, the method includes an additional step of determining the directions of the sensors prior to the application of the torque. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0013] FIG. 1 is a side view of a downhole apparatus in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. [0014] FIG. 2 is a side view of the downhole apparatus of FIG. 1 , after application of an incremental torque. [0015] FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the downhole apparatus of FIG. 2 , showing only the portion between lines AA and BB. [0016] FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the downhole apparatus of FIG. 1 , showing only the portion between lines AA and BB. [0017] FIGS. 5A and 5B are block diagrams of a logic circuit in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0018] Referring to FIG. 1 , shown therein is a downhole apparatus 100 , having a first sensor 102 and a second sensor 202 disposed thereon. The downhole apparatus 100 may be a casing string, a pipe string, a logging tool, or anything else that may have a rotational force applied, causing it to experience an incremental torque T. As used herein, the term “incremental torque” refers to torque that is not present in an initial or base condition, the term “base torque” refers to torque that is present in the base condition, and “total torque” refers to the sum of the incremental torque and the base torque. [0019] The downhole apparatus 100 typically has multiple components, which connect to one another by threaded connections. Frequently, the downhole apparatus 100 already includes the sensors 102 , 202 , such as magnetometers, which can provide information about their orientation in the drillstring. These sensors 102 , 202 commonly provide information to operators regarding the orientation of the downhole apparatus 100 . Additionally, the downhole apparatus 100 may have strain gauges (not shown), which are used to measure torque at the locations of the strain gauges. While torque measurements at a given location provide useful information, the strain gauges, which require calibration, may lose their calibration in the harsh conditions present in the downhole environment. The heat involved, in particular, may cause a need for frequent recalibration of the strain gauges. This is costly and time-consuming. The replacement of the strain gauge measurement with a method of measurement based on more stable sensors that are typically present in the system would improve the accuracy and greatly minimize calibration costs. By employing devices already in the downhole apparatus, no additional components would be needed to measure torque. This would result in the downhole apparatus 100 having fewer components, saving time and money and allowing for more accuracy in readings. Additionally, the strain gauge only takes measurements at a single, finite location. [0020] The sensors 102 , 202 may threadedly attach to the downhole apparatus 100 or they may otherwise attach to the downhole apparatus 100 . The sensors 102 , 202 may both be within a single section, the sensors 102 , 202 may be in multiple sections, or the sensors 102 , 202 may be distributed along the string. [0021] Regardless of the manner of attachment, the first sensor 102 and the second sensor 202 are separated by a distance L (shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 ). Before incremental torque T is applied, the sensors 102 , 202 may initially be aligned azimuthally (not shown), or they may be offset from one another at an initial or base angle φ b (shown in FIG. 4 ). When the sensors 102 and 202 azimuthally align, the base angle φ b will separate them. [0022] FIG. 2 shows the downhole apparatus 100 , with the sensors 102 , 202 separated by the distance L after the incremental torque T has been applied. This distance L typically remains substantially unchanged in the presence of torque. However, the sensors 102 , 202 of FIG. 2 have experienced a relative rotational movement about the downhole apparatus 100 due to the incremental torque T. The incremental torque T is the result of a rotational force applied to the apparatus 100 , such as might be present in a drilling operation. The incremental torque T causes the sensors 102 , 202 to be offset from one another by a resulting angle φ r (shown in FIG. 3 ). The direction and the magnitude of the movement and the resulting angle φ r will vary, depending on the incremental torque T and other factors as described below. [0023] Referring now to FIG. 3 , the incremental torque T can be calculated based on readings from at least the first sensor 102 and the second sensor 202 attached to the downhole apparatus 100 . The sensors 102 , 202 attach to the downhole apparatus 100 , and simultaneously measure directions of a first resulting radial vector 104 r , which corresponds to the first sensor 102 , and a second resulting radial vector 204 r , which corresponds to the second sensor 202 . The incremental torque T is calculated using the equation T=(φ r −φ b )GJ/L, which takes into account the change in position of the sensors 102 , 202 resulting from the incremental torque T. This change in position is measured by the change in angle between the sensors 102 , 202 , which is represented by the difference between the resulting angle φ r , and the base angle φ b . This is represented as “(φ r −φ b )” in the equation. The equation also uses the distance L, the polar moment of inertia J, and the material makeup G of the downhole apparatus 100 between the sensors 102 and 202 . [0024] The present invention calculates the incremental torque T in the downhole apparatus 100 using the sensors 102 , 202 , which may already be present in the downhole apparatus 100 for another purpose. Alternatively, the sensors 102 , 202 may be present in the downhole apparatus 100 for the sole purpose of measuring incremental torque T. Each sensor 102 , 202 provides an indication of which direction that sensor 102 , 202 is facing relative to the downhole apparatus 100 after incremental torque T has been applied. A first resulting vector 104 r and a second resulting vector 204 r represent these directions. The resulting vectors 104 r , 204 r radiate from a centerline 106 of the downhole apparatus 100 . The centerline 106 is only an imaginary reference for the resulting vectors 104 r , 204 r . The centerline 106 need not be vertical, or even straight. In fact, the centerline 106 may be horizontal, or it may curve at any angle. [0025] The first resulting vector 104 r extends perpendicularly from the centerline 106 to the first sensor 102 and the second resulting vector 204 r extends perpendicularly from the centerline 106 to the second sensor 202 . In one embodiment, the direction of the resulting vectors 104 r , 204 r translate to azimuths, which may represent directions defined by the projection of the Earth's magnetic field on a plane orthogonal to the drill string axis. The azimuths are not necessarily limited to magnetic azimuths, but may be an angle around the borehole that indicates the direction of maximum sensitivity of the sensors 102 , 202 . Likewise, vectors refer to the representative components of the constant vectors and are representative relative to the coordinate system of the tool. [0026] The application of force resulting in the incremental torque T causes the direction of the respective sensors 102 , 202 to change. However, the incremental torque T is not the only possible cause of a change in the direction of the sensors 102 , 202 . The direction of the sensors 102 , 202 also change when the downhole apparatus 100 is rotated, even when no torque is present, i.e., when the downhole apparatus 100 rotates freely, with no constraints. [0027] As shown in FIG. 3 , it is useful to compare the direction of the first resulting vector 104 r to the direction of the second resulting vector 204 r , in order to determine the incremental torque T. This eliminates any influence caused by directional change resulting from free rotation, which would cause changes in the directions of the resulting vectors 104 r , 204 r , but which would not cause a change in the angle φ r between them. In this manner, only directional change caused by the incremental torque T is measured. [0028] Referring now to FIGS. 3 and 4 , incremental torque T may be determined based on directional readings of the first sensor 102 and the second sensor 202 . In this determination, the following equation, as stated above, is useful: T=(φ r φ b )GJ/L. In this equation, T is the incremental torque. φ r is a resulting angle formed between the first resulting vector 104 r and the second resulting vector 204 r. φ b is a base angle formed between a first base vector 104 b and a second base vector 204 b . G is the modulus of rigidity of the portion of the downhole apparatus 100 that lies between the sensors 102 and 202 . J is the polar moment of inertia of the portion of the downhole apparatus 100 that lies between the sensors 102 and 202 . L is the length of the portion of the downhole apparatus 100 that lies between the sensors 102 and 202 and represents the distance between the sensors 102 and 202 . L remains substantially constant when incremental torque T is applied. [0029] The incremental torque T may have any units common to torque measurements, such as, but not limited to, Lb-in. The angles φ r , φ b may have radians as units. However, any angular units can be used. The modulus of rigidity G is a constant that is readily ascertainable, based on the material used. Modulus of rigidity G may have units of lb/in 2 or any other suitable substitute. The polar moment of inertia J is a function of the cross sectional shape of the downhole apparatus 100 . The polar moment of inertia J may have units of in 4 or any other suitable substitute. For a uniform tubular cross section, the polar moment of inertia J is equal to π(d o 4 −d i 4 )/32, where d o is the outer diameter and d i is the inner diameter of the tubular. However, the polar moment of inertia J is also readily ascertainable for a variable tubular cross section, such as that of a stabilizer. One skilled in the art could easily calculate polar moment of inertia J for a variety of shapes, as polar moment of inertia J is calculable with well-known formulas. [0030] A logic circuit 502 , illustrated in FIGS. 5A and 5B , may be provided to perform the calculations. The logic circuit 502 includes a processor 504 , which serves as a controller processor. This controller processor 504 communicatedly connects 506 with a number of sensors 508 a , 508 b , 508 c in the vicinity of the controller processor 504 downhole. Each sensor 508 may be a smart sensor, a microcontroller, or any other type of sensor known in the art. Each sensor 508 may contain its own processor coupled to a sensor, such as one of the sensors 102 , 202 , and may collect data from, or provide data to, the sensors. The sensor 508 may collect data from the associated sensors to transmit to the controller processor 504 , which in turn gathers all of the data from the sensors 508 a , 508 b , 508 c , and transmits it to the surface for processing as described herein. Alternatively, the controller processor 504 may perform the processing. [0031] The controller 504 and sensors 508 may be distributed among elements of the drill string 510 a , 510 b , 510 c , 510 d and 510 e , as shown in FIG. 5B . [0032] It may be desirable to measure the incremental torque T relative to a prior, known condition. In this instance, the logic circuit 502 compares base readings with new readings obtained after a rotational force is applied. The first base vector 104 b represents the position of the first sensor 102 before rotational force is applied, and the first resulting vector 104 r represents the position of the first sensor 102 after application of the rotational force. Likewise, the second base vector 204 b represents the position of the second sensor 202 before rotational force is applied, and the second resulting vector 204 r represents the position of the second sensor 202 after application of the rotational force. Similarly, the base angle φ b represents the angle between the first base vector 104 b and the second base vector 204 b , and the resulting angle φ r represents the angle between the first resulting vector 104 r and the second resulting vector 204 r. [0033] However, these various base readings are not always required. For example, the resulting angle φ r between the first resulting vector 104 r and the second resulting vector 204 r may be enough to determine the incremental torque T. This condition would occur when sensors 102 , 202 and thus the base vectors 104 b , 204 b align, or face in the same direction, prior to the application of rotational force. This causes the base angle φ b to be equal to zero, such that the later measured resulting angle φ r will only be associated with the incremental torque T between the first sensor 102 and the second sensor 202 . Nonetheless, it is not always practical or desirable to set the sensors 102 , 202 in the same direction while refraining from applying a rotational force. The base angle φ b may also be measured prior to tripping into the borehole or the base angle φ b may be measured at a time when the tool is stationary. [0034] When the first base vector 104 b and the second base vector 204 b do not align, the incremental torque T may still be easily calculated. This is particularly useful when already present components of the downhole apparatus 100 function as the sensors 102 , 202 . For example, magnetometers are commonly present on the downhole apparatus 100 and can provide information useful for calculating incremental torque T. The ability to calculate the incremental torque T without the need for alteration of existing components saves both time and money. [0035] In this instance, the base angle φ b between the first base vector 104 b and the second base vector 204 b is calculated. This may occur at any time during the downhole operation, such as when the drilling operation is stopped for pipe connections, maintenance or retooling. After recordation of the base angle φ b , rotational force is applied, causing the resulting angle φ r between the first resulting vector 104 r and the second resulting vector 204 r . In order to determine the incremental torque T, the base angle φ b is subtracted from the resulting angle φ r in the equation above. [0036] As discussed above, the incremental torque T can be calculated without first aligning the sensors 102 , 202 , or incremental torque T can be calculated by comparing the base angle φ b with the resulting angle φ r . Additionally, the incremental torque T can be calculated when the base conditions additionally include an already present known base torque Tb. This allows the incremental torque T to be calculated without stopping the operation, so long as the base torque Tb is known. The known base torque Tb may be zero (representing no torque at all), or it may be any other known measurement. If a total torque T tot is required, it can be easily calculated by summing the base torque Tb and the incremental torque T. When there is no base torque Tb, the total torque T tot will be equal to the incremental torque T. It should be noted that the quantity (φ r −φ b ) indicates the movement of the sensors 102 , 202 from a position indicated by base vectors 104 b , 204 b to a position indicated by resulting vectors 104 r , 204 r as a result of the incremental torque T. Therefore, one of ordinary skill in the art will be able to modify this equation to accommodate conditions resulting in negative numbers or any other special circumstances. [0037] In this manner, the incremental torque T can be determined between any two sensors 102 , 202 , so long as either of two conditions are met: (1) the sensors 102 , 202 are aligned such that their respective base vectors 104 b , 204 b have the same direction, or (2) the base angle φ b corresponding to a known base torque Tb is recorded. [0038] Each sensor 102 , 202 may have one or more magnetometers, or any other device capable of measuring the resulting vectors 104 r , 204 r or the base vectors 104 b , 204 b . Since magnetometers lose accuracy when the field of measurement is nulled, a single magnetometer may not perform optimally in, for example, a direction of drilling that would cause the sensing field to be minimized. In this instance, multiple devices may be included within the sensors 102 , 202 . For example, each sensor 102 , 202 may include a magnetometer, a gyro device, a gravity device, or any other type of device that measures orientation. These measurements may be taken based on magnetic fields, gravity, or the earth's spin axis. This may allow for directional readings in any position. Multiple devices may also be used to check the measurements of one another. Additionally, the sensors 102 , 202 may indicate the quantity (φ r −φ b ) by any method, either with or without the use of vectors 104 b , 104 r , 204 b , 204 r radiating from the centerline 106 . For example, the sensors 102 , 202 may indicate relative position by sonic ranging, north seeking gyros, multiple directional instruments, or any other means capable of communicating the position of the first sensor 102 relative to the second sensor 202 . The sensors 102 , 202 may attach to the downhole apparatus 100 in any position. Since the quantity (φ r −φ b ) can be measured at any point outside the centerline 106 , the sensors 102 , 202 may be on an inside surface, an outside surface, or within a wall of the downhole apparatus 100 . Additionally, the sensors 102 , 202 may threadedly attach at threaded ends of a section, or the sensors 102 , 202 may be an integral part of the downhole apparatus 100 . [0039] Each sensor 102 , 202 may provide a signal to indicate its position and orientation. This may be done via the logic circuit 502 . The logic circuit 502 may then calculate the incremental torque T between any two sensors 102 , 202 . This calculation may be an average reading over a period of time, or it may be at a single measured point in time. Since the incremental torque T may vary along the length, it may be desirable to have additional sensors (not shown). In the event that additional sensors are used, multiple sectional incremental torque readings are calculable. This is useful during drilling operations. Due to the length of the typical downhole apparatus 100 , it is common that the incremental torque T varies along the length. This may occur, for example, when a portion of the downhole apparatus 100 rubs against a formation, or otherwise experiences binding. This may cause a very low incremental torque in one portion of the downhole apparatus 100 , while causing another portion of the same downhole apparatus 100 to experience very high incremental torque. As one of ordinary skill in the art can appreciate, this is undesirable for a number of reasons, including bit stick/slip. [0040] When more than two sensors are used, the methods described above may be used between any two sensors, resulting in a number of incremental torque T readings that exceeds the number of sensors. For example, four sensors could give six readings. Say these sensors are called A, B, C, and D (not shown). Readings are calculable between A and B; A and C; A and D; B and C; B and D; C and D. While some of these readings would appear redundant, these multiple readings are useful to check or calibrate the incremental torque T readings during operation, without the need to cease operations. [0041] During a downhole operation, many measurements may be taken and averaged or otherwise analyzed to find the incremental torque T. These measurements may reflect a constant incremental torque, or these measurements may reflect a changing incremental torque. One skilled in the art will recognize that the number of measurements necessary for statistical accuracy may vary, depending on the actual conditions. [0042] Likewise, measurements may be used to determine other data. For example, tortuosity may be measured by taking multiple shots over time, giving the shape of the borehole. This can be used to build a model for drilling efficiency and can assist in getting the casing into the borehole. Additionally, monitoring tortuosity may allow the driller to straighten out the borehole. In another example, dogleg severity, or the limit of angle of deflection, can be determined using multiple samples over time to provide information on stresses that the drillstring is experiencing. This would allow for a determination as to whether the tool is being pushed beyond recommended limits. Additionally, bending can be measured with a device, such as an accelerometer. The bending measurement may be a one-time sample. While a bending radius can be inferred from any bending measurement, samples over time may give a more accurate bending radius. Other examples of measurements include stick slip, sticking, and the like. [0043] The sensors 102 , 202 can also be useful in determining problems, such as, but not limited to inelastic deformation, and unscrewing. For instance, if the sensors 102 , 202 are separated across one or more joints, and the offset between the sensors 102 , 202 changes significantly, there is a high likelihood that something has gone wrong. Additionally, the sensors 102 , 202 may be used on a deliberately bent assembly to ensure that the bend is still proper, or for other purposes. The sensors 102 , 202 may also be used with motors and rotary steerables to validate that the build angle is matching the well plan. [0044] In addition to measuring changes in conditions, multiple samples may be used to correct noise in sampling. This may be done using e.g. a “burst” sample. [0045] Measurements may be taken using differential change in measured magnetic tool face. For example, this may begin with the transformation from Earth coordinates to tool coordinates, where BN is the North component of the Earth's magnetic field, BV is the vertical component (and by definition, the East component is 0), and where Bx1, By1, and Bz1 are the respective x, y, and z components of the observed magnetic field at magnetometer 1 . Likewise Bx2, By2, and Bz2 are the respective x, y, and z components of the observed magnetic field at magnetometer 2 . ρ1 is the magnetic tool face at magnetometer 1 , and ρ2 is the magnetic tool face at magnetometer 2 . [0046] In general: [0000] ( Bx By Bz ) = ( Cos  [ θ ]  Cos  [ φ ]  Cos  [ ψ ] - Sin  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] Cos  [ ψ ]  Sin  [ φ ] + Cos  [ θ ]  Cos  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] - Cos  [ φ ]  Sin [ θ - Cos  [ θ ]  Cos  [ ψ ]  Sin  [ φ ] - Cos  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] Cos  [ φ ]  Cos  [ ψ ] - Cos  [ θ ]  Sin  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] Sin  [ θ ]  Sin  [ φ ] Cos  [ ψ ]  Sin  [ φ ] Sin  [ θ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] Cos  [ θ ] ) · ( BN 0 BV ) From   which  ( Bx By Bz ) = ( - BV  Cos  [ φ ]  Sin  [ θ ] + BN  ( Cos  [ θ ]  Cos  [ φ ]  Cos  [ ψ ] - Sin  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] ) BV  Sin  [ θ ]  Sin  [ φ ] + BN  ( - Cos  [ θ ]  Cos  [ ψ ]  Sin  [ φ ] - Cos  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] ) BV  Cos  [ θ ] + BN  Cos  [ ψ ]  Sin  [ θ ] ) [0047] The formula below may be used to calculate two magnetic tool face values. While this may be defined in any number of ways, the choice should not significantly affect the result. [0000] Φ=ArcTan [− Bx,By] [0048] Where arctan is the four quadrant arctan, with quadrant information derived from the algebraic signs of the x and y terms. [0049] So that: [0000] Φ1=ArcTan [ BV Cos [φ1] Sin [θ1 ]−BN (Cos [θ1] Cos [φ1] Cos [ψ1]+Sin [φ1] Sin [ψ1]), BV Sin [θ1] Sin [φ1 ]−BN (−Cos [θ1] Cos [ψ2] Sin [φ1]−Cos [φ1] Sin [ψ1])] [0000] Φ2=ArcTan [ BV Cos [φ2] Sin [θ2 ]−BN (Cos [θ2] Cos [φ2] Cos [ψ2]+Sin [φ2] Sin [ψ2]), BV Sin [θ2] Sin [φ2 ]−BN (−Cos [θ2] Cos [ψ2] Sin [φ2]−Cos [φ2] Sin [ψ2])] [0050] Defining the dip angle as D: [0000]  BV = Bt * Sin  [  ]  BN = Bt * Cos  [  ] 1 =  ArcTan [ Cos ( θ1 ]  Cos  [ ψ1 ] - Sin  [ θ1 ]  Tan  [  ] Sin  [ ψ1 ] + Tan  [ φ1 ] , 1 - ( - Cos ( θ1 ]  Cos  [ ψ1 ] + Sin  [ θ1 ]  Tan  [  ] ) Sin  [ ψ1 ]  Tan  [ φ1 ] ]  Let  :  Tan  [ α1 ] = Cos ( θ1 ]  Cos  [ ψ1 ] - Sin  [ θ1 ]  Tan  [  ] Sin  [ ψ1 ]  So   that  :  1 = ArcTan  [ Tan  [ α1 ] + Tan  [ φ1 ] , 1 - Tan  [ α1 ]  Tan  [ φ1 ] ]  1 = φ1 + α1  Similarly  :  2 = φ2 + α2  Where  :  Tan  [ α2 ] = Cos  [ θ2 ]  Cos  [ ψ2 ] - Sin  [ θ2 ]  Tan  [  ] Sin  [ ψ2 ] [0051] The quantity of interest is: [0000] Φ2−Φ1=(φ2−φ1)+(α2−α1) [0052] This equation illustrates an important point: In order to calculate a specific torque (i.e. a torque about the drillstring axis, or a bending moment), it is sometimes necessary to decouple the available measurements. The equations given here indicate when this is necessary in the case of measurements made with magnetometers and inclinators, and they show how the decoupling is effected. This is further illustrated in cases 1-4 below. If other types of sensors are used, similar equations can be derived, as will be evident to one skilled in the art. Case 1 [0053] When there is constant inclination and azimuth, only the tool face may vary. In this case, α2=α1, and the change in magnetic tool face equals the change in gravitational tool face. If there is a change in inclination or azimuth, a change in dip is not expected, except via noise. Case 2 [0054] When there is constant azimuth, the inclination and tool face may vary. In this case, working first with inclination, suppose θ2=θ1+δθ, and dropping second order terms: [0000] Tan  [ α2 ] = Cos  [ θ1 ]  Cos  [ ψ2 ] - Sin  [ θ1 ]  Tan  [  ] - δθ  ( - Cos  [ ψ2 ]  Sin  [ θ1 ] - Cos  [ θ1 ]  Tan  [  ] ) Sin  [ ψ2 ] So   that  : Tan  [ α2 - α1 ] = Tan  [ α2 ] - Tan  [ α1 ] 1 + Tan  [ α2 ] * Tan  [ α1 ] Tan  [ α2 ] - Tan  [ α1 ] =  Cos  [ θ1 ]  Cos  [ ψ2 ] - Sin  [ θ1 ]  Tan  [  ] + δθ  ( - Cos  [ ψ2 ]  Sin  [ θ1 ] - Cos  [ θ1 ]  Tan  [  ] ) Sin  [ ψ2 ] -  Cos  [ θ1 ]  Cos  [ ψ1 ] - Sin  [ θ1 ]  Tan  [  ] Sin  [ ψ1 ] [0055] But, the assumption in this case is that ψ2=ψ1, so [0000] Tan [α2−α1]=−δθ(Cot [ψ1] Sin [θ1]+Cos [θ1] Csc [ψ1] Tan [D]) [0056] Or, to the small angle approximation: [0000] α2−α1=−δθ(Cot [ψ1] Sin [θ1]+Cos [θ1] Csc [ψ1] Tan [D]) [0057] There is, therefore, the potential that small changes in inclination will, at small azimuths, make a significant contribution to ρ2−ρ1. Case 3 [0058] When there is constant inclination, the azimuth and tool face may vary. In this case, θ2=θ1, but ψ2=1+δψ. With the same type of reasoning, it can be shown that in the differential limit: [0000] α2−α1=−δψ Csc [ψ1](Cos [θ1] Csc [ψ1]−Cot [ψ1] Sin [θ1] Tan [D]) [0059] With sin [θ1]=cos [D], and cos [θ1]=sin [D], then: [0000] α2−α1=−δψ Csc [ψ1](Sin [D] Csc [ψ1]−Cot [ψ1] Sin [D]) [0060] So that as ψ1→0, i.e. as the trajectory aligns with the Earth's magnetic field, this term vanishes. However, the magnetic tool face is not defined under this condition. Case 4 [0061] When inclination azimuth and tool face vary, in the small angle approximation, the previous results can be combined to obtain: [0000] α2−α1=−δθ(Cot [ψ1] Sin [θ1]−Cos [θ1] Csc [ψ1] Tan [D])−δψ Csc [ψ1](Sin [D] Csc [ψ1]−Cot [ψ1] Sin [D]) [0000] Or: [0000] Φ2−Φ1=δφ−δθ(Cot [ψ1] Sin [θ1]−Cos [θ1] Csc [ψ1] Tan [D])−δψ Csc [ψ1](Sin [D] Csc [ψ1]−Cot [ψ1] Sin [D]) [0062] Note that torque is preferably inferred using δφ, not δρ=ρ2−ρ1. [0063] Therefore, if a lot of change is expected in inclination and/or azimuth, in addition to the change in magnetic tool face, the inclination and azimuth is desirably measured at both points where the magnetic tool face is measured. It may be advantageous under these conditions to use the gravitational readings instead of the magnetic field readings. [0064] Measurements may also be taken using differential change in gravitational tool face. Because gravity simply points down, the transformation of the gravitational field from NEV to tool coordinates is much simpler. gx1, gy1, and gz1 are the respective x, y, and z components of the observed gravitational field at accelerometer 1 . Likewise gx2, gy2, and gz2 are the respective x, y, and z components of the observed gravitational field at accelerometer 2 . ρ1 is the magnetic tool face at magnetometer 1 , and ρ2 is the magnetic tool face at magnetometer 2 . φ1 is the gravitational tool face at accelerometer 1 and φ2 is the gravitational tool face at accelerometer 2 . [0065] In general: [0000] ( gx gy gz ) = ( Cos  [ θ ]  Cos  [ φ ]  Cos  [ ψ ] - Sin  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] Cos  [ ψ ]  Sin  [ φ ] + Cos  [ θ ]  Cos  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] - Cos  [ φ ]  Sin [ θ - Cos  [ θ ]  Cos  [ ψ ]  Sin  [ φ ] - Cos  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] Cos  [ φ ]  Cos  [ ψ ] - Cos  [ θ ]  Sin  [ φ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] Sin  [ θ ]  Sin  [ φ ] Cos  [ ψ ]  Sin  [ φ ] Sin  [ θ ]  Sin  [ ψ ] Cos  [ θ ] ) · ( 0 0 g ) . [0066] Where g is the magnitude of the gravitational field: [0000] g = gx 2 + gy 2 + gz 2 ( gx gy gz ) = g  ( - Sin  [ θ ]  Cos  [ φ ] Sin  [ θ ]  Sin  [ φ ] Cos  [ θ ] ) [0067] Therefore, except when θ=0 or θ=π: [0000] φ=ArcTan [− gx,gy] [0068] And is independent of the inclination or the azimuth. Therefore, φ2−φ1 is independent of changes in the inclination or azimuth, so that changes in gravitational tool face can be used directly to measure torque. [0069] Since gz is independent of the tool face, a bending moment can be measured using changes in the inclination. A change in inclination is reflected by a deflection in a vertical plane containing the well trajectory (at least locally). [0070] In general, there will also be a second bending moment for deflections of the drillstring orthogonal to a vertical plane containing the well trajectory (locally). An azimuth change is associated with this deflection, but is not sufficient by itself to calculate die desired bending moment since the torque acts along the tool axis, whereas the azimuth change is defined as a rotation towards North. [0071] Assuming there is no magnetic interference: [0000] ψ=ArcTan [ Bx *Cos [φ]− By *Sin [φ])*Cos [θ]+ Bz *Sin [θ],−( Bx *Sin [φ]+ By *Cos [φ])] [0072] The azimuth can often be calculated in the presence of magnetic interference, but the techniques used are considerably more complicated. A similar analysis can be carried out with them, but with considerable complexity. Adding suffixes 1 and 2 for measurements made at locations 1 and 2 gives: [0000] ψ1=ArcTan [( Bx *Cos [φ1 ]−By 1*Sin [φ1])*Cos [θ1 ]+Bz 1*Sin [θ1],−( Bx 1*Sin [φ1 ]+By 1*Cos [φ1])] [0000] ψ2=ArcTan [( Bx 2*Cos [φ2 ]−By 2*Sin [φ2])*Cos [θ2 ]+Bz 2*Sin [θ2],−( Bx 2*Sin [φ2 ]+By 2*Cos [φ2])] [0073] The angular change δψ=ψ2−ψ1 could be used to define a bending moment, but it is desirable to equate this to a deflection of the drillstring in a direction generally perpendicular to a vertical plane tangent to the trajectory at either measurement point 1 or measurement point 2 . This deflection, called δζ, can be calculated considering that the change in azimuth is the projection of the sought deflection on the horizontal plane. Therefore, the desired angular deflection, assuming that the change in inclination between the two survey points is small compared to the inclination itself, is: [0000] δζ = ( ψ2 - ψ1 ) * Sin  [ θ1 + θ2 2 ] [0074] Therefore, the present invention is well adapted to attain the ends and advantages mentioned as well as those that are inherent therein. The particular embodiments disclosed above are illustrative only, as the present invention may be modified and practiced in different but equivalent manners apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings herein. Furthermore, no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown, other than as described in the claims below. It is therefore evident that the particular illustrative embodiments disclosed above may be altered or modified and all such variations are considered within the scope and spirit of the present invention. Also, the terms in the claims have their plain, ordinary meaning unless otherwise explicitly and clearly defined by the patentee.

A method and device for measuring a property, such as torque, includes a plurality of sensors, and a measuring device. The sensors attach to a downhole apparatus at a distance from one another. The sensors provide signals indicating their positions. A logic circuit may calculate an angle between the sensors. The logic circuit then calculates the property based on the angle, the distance between the sensors, and other known physical properties of the downhole apparatus.

CONTINUING APPLICATION DATA This application is a continuation of, and claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 120 to U.S. application Ser. No. 10/840,574, filed May 6, 2004, the content of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates an electronic timepiece with a radio communication function such as a radio-controlled timepiece, and relates more particularly to an electronic timepiece with a radio communication function having an antenna positioned within the timepiece relative to one or more other components to facilitate reception of radio waves by the antenna. 2. Description of the Related Art Radio-controlled timepieces having an antenna to receive a radio signal containing standard time information and adjust the time based on the received time signal are one type of electronic timepiece with a radio communication function for receiving radio frequency (RF) signals from external sources and transmitting RF signals to external devices. Radio-controlled timepieces that have the antenna disposed externally to the case so that the antenna can easily receive RF signals have been proposed (see, for example, Japanese Unexamined Patent Appl. Pub. H11-223684, FIG. 4 ). This radio-controlled timepiece can receive RF signals with good reception by means of the antenna even if the case member is metal without the metal case interfering with RF signal reception. However, locating the antenna externally to the case detracts from the appearance of the radio-controlled timepiece. Some radio-controlled timepieces also have solar power generating means, thermal power generating means, or other electrical generating means assembled with the movement of the timepiece, and use the generated output of such generating means to drive the timepiece (see, for example, Japanese Unexamined Patent Appl. Pub. 2003-121569, FIG. 1 ). However, while the antenna is disposed in the movement and the arrangement of the generating means and antenna are shown in the figures for the radio-controlled timepiece of this patent application, the location of the movement relative to the case is not described. As a result, there could be interference with signal reception by the antenna if, for example, the case is metal, and poor signal reception could result in some situations. Radio-controlled timepieces having the antenna housed inside the case have also been proposed (see, for example, Japanese Unexamined Patent Appl. Pub. 2002-31690, FIG. 6 ). The solar cell circuit board in this radio-controlled timepiece is located inside the movement at a position covering the antenna. However, because the solar cell circuit board is usually made from stainless steel or other metal, the circuit board can interfere with signal reception. A radio-controlled timepiece in which the dial is made from ceramic or other non-metallic material has also been proposed (see, for example, Japanese Unexamined Patent Appl. Pub. 2003-139869, FIG. 1 ). The back cover or case member of this radio-controlled timepiece, however, must be made from ceramic in order to lower the possibility of interference with signal reception, thus detracting from the appearance of the radio-controlled timepiece. If the back cover or case member is made of metal in order to improve the appearance, signals cannot be received with good reception because the antenna is surrounded by the back cover and case member. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is therefore to provide an electronic timepiece having a metal or alloy case member/back cover assembly and a radio communication function that includes an antenna positioned within the assembly relative to one or more other components to facilitate radio signal reception. According to one aspect of the invention, an electronic timepiece having a radio communication function is provided. Such electronic timepiece comprises a case member, and a back cover integrated with, or attached to, the case member, the case member and the back cover made of metal or alloy, the case member with which the back cover has been integrated or to which the back cover has been attached defining an interior and having an open end; an antenna housed in the interior; a time display unit configured to display the time and housed in the interior; and a movement housed in the interior, the movement including an electromagnetic motor configured to drive the time display unit. Moreover, with respect to an axial direction extending between the open end and the back cover, a distance between a center of the antenna and the open end is less than a distance between a center of the electromagnetic motor and the open end. The center of the antenna is preferably the center of the antenna core, in which case the core is made of metal or alloy. Alternatively, or additionally, the center of the electromagnetic motor is preferably the center of a coil of the electromagnetic motor. With respect to axial direction extending between the open end and the back cover, (i) a distance between the center of the antenna and the time display unit is less than a distance between a center of the movement and the time display unit, (ii) a distance between the center of the electromagnetic motor and the back cover is less than a distance between a center of the movement and the back cover, and/or (iii) a center of the movement is positioned between the center of the antenna and the center of the electromagnetic motor. In one embodiment, the time display unit includes a dial made of a nonconductive and nonmagnetic material. In such embodiment, the electronic timepiece described above preferably further comprises a photoelectric generator that is disposed on, or proximally to, a side of the dial facing in a direction of the back cover. In another aspect of the invention, an electronic timepiece having a radio communication function comprises a case member, and a back cover integrated with, or attached to, the case member, the case member and the back cover made of metal or alloy, the case member with which the back cover has been integrated or to which the back cover has been attached defining an interior and having an open end; an antenna housed in the interior, the antenna including a core made of high permeability material and a coil; and a time display unit configured to display the time and housed in the interior. With respect to an axial direction extending between the open end and the back cover, a distance between a center point of at least one continuous end surface segment of the core of the antenna and the time display unit is less than a distance between a center of the coil and a time display unit. In one embodiment, the coil of the antenna is wound around the core and at least one end of the antenna is bent toward the time display unit. In one embodiment, the time display unit includes a dial made of a nonconductive and nonmagnetic material. In such embodiment, the electronic timepiece described above preferably further comprises a photoelectric generator that is disposed on, or proximally to, a side of the dial facing in a direction of the back cover. In one embodiment, the electronic timepiece described above includes a movement housed in the interior, the movement including an electromagnetic motor configured to drive the time display unit. In such embodiment, with respect to axial direction extending between the open end and the back cover, a distance between the center of the antenna and the time display unit is less than a distance between a center of the electromagnetic motor and the time display unit. In another aspect of the invention, an electronic timepiece having a radio communication function comprises a case member, and a back cover integrated with, or attached to, the case member, the case member and the back cover made of metal or alloy, the case member with which the back cover has been integrated or to which the back cover has been attached defining an interior and having an open end; an antenna housed in the interior; a photoelectric generator disposed in the interior, the photoelectric generator having a support substrate made of a nonconductive and nonmagnetic material and a photoelectric conversion element that is supported on, or proximally to, the support substrate to receive light, the photoelectric conversion element being configured to generate electricity from the received light; a time display unit configured to display the time; and a drive unit configured to drive the time display unit using electricity generated by the photoelectric generator. The antenna is disposed on or under the photoelectric generator or proximally thereto between the photoelectric generator and the back cover, with an axis of the antenna being substantially parallel to the plane of the support substrate, such that the antenna is in a position overlapping the support substrate as seen in a plan view of the electronic timepiece. In still another aspect of the invention, an electronic an electronic timepiece having a radio communication function comprises a case member, and a back cover integrated with, or attached to, the case member, the case member and the back cover made of metal or alloy, the case member with which the back cover has been integrated or to which the back cover has been attached defining an interior and having an open end; an antenna housed in the interior, the antenna having two ends; a photoelectric generator disposed in the interior, the photoelectric generator having a support substrate and a photoelectric conversion element that is supported on, or proximally to, the support substrate to receive light, the photoelectric conversion element being configured to generate electricity from the received light; a time display unit configured to display the time; and a drive unit configured to drive the time display unit using electricity generated by the photoelectric generator. The antenna is disposed on or under the photoelectric generator or proximally thereto between the photoelectric generator and the back cover, with an axis of the antenna being substantially parallel to the plane of the support substrate, with at least both ends of the antenna in positions not overlapping the support substrate as seen in a plan view of the electronic timepiece. One or more of the following additional features may be embodied in either of the above-described aspects: the antenna is disposed between the photoelectric generator and the back cover at a specified distance from the photoelectric generator; the antenna and the photoelectric generator are disposed such that at least portions thereof overlap as seen in a side view of the electronic timepiece; a dial of the time display unit is disposed between the photoelectric generator and a cover member that covers the open end of the case member, in which case both the cover member and the dial are made of a nonconductive and nonmagnetic material; no other component of the electronic timepiece is disposed between the antenna and the photoelectric generator as seen in a side view of the electronic timepiece; no other component of the electronic timepiece is disposed between the antenna and a dial of the time display unit as seen in a side view of the electronic time piece; at least one other component of the electronic timepiece is disposed between the antenna and the back cover as seen in a side view of the electronic timepiece; a center of a core of the antenna is positioned on the open end side of a center of the movement in a height direction extending between the open end and the back cover; and/or a date wheel made of a nonconductive and nonmagnetic material is provided, which has a back cover side that faces in the direction of the back cover, in which case the antenna is disposed proximally to the back cover side between the back cover side and the back cover and overlaps the date wheel as seen in a plan view of the electronic timepiece. In any of the above-described aspects and embodiments thereof, the outer surface of the case member and/or the back cover preferably comprises molded synthetic resin that is coated with a thin film that is metallic or has metallic properties. Such construction further improves the appearance of the electronic timepiece with radio communication function. As the above descriptions indicate, the invention provides various arrangements for positioning the antenna relative to one or more other components within a metal or alloy case member/back cover assembly of the electronic timepiece to facilitate reception of radio waves by the antenna, and/or to reduce negative effects on the signal reception ability of the antenna caused by one or more other components. Thus positioning the antenna improves its reception, while the external appearance of the timepiece can be maintained or enhanced by using metal or alloy for the case member/back cover assembly. In embodiments having a support substrate made of nonconductive and nonmagnetic material, a radio signal, e.g., the standard time signal can travel through without interference from the support substrate. The antenna can therefore send and receive radio signals even when the support substrate is disposed between the antenna and the incoming radio signals. Being able to more freely position the antenna inside the case member while still maintaining good transmission and reception performance, enables improvements to the external appearance of the electronic timepiece to be made without sacrificing performance. For example, the back cover and case member can be made of metal. In some embodiments, the antenna is positioned so that it does not interfere with light reception by the photoelectric conversion unit from the open end of the case member, thereby preventing a drop in photoelectric conversion efficiency. In some arrangements, the photoelectric conversion unit can occupy a relatively large area inside the case member, also preventing a drop in photoelectric conversion efficiency. In one embodiment, no other component of the electronic timepiece with a radio communication function is disposed between the antenna and the photoelectric generator as seen in a side view of the electronic timepiece. With such an arrangement, the antenna can be easily located in closer proximity to the photoelectric generator. In one embodiment, one or more other components of the electronic timepiece with a radio communication function are disposed between the antenna and back cover as seen in a side view of the electronic timepiece. Preferably, the antenna and such other component(s) are located in overlapping positions as seen in a plan view of the electronic timepiece with a radio communication function. In such an arrangement, the antenna can be more easily disposed further from the back cover and thus closer to the open end of the case member. Radio communication with good, reliable reception by the antenna is thus possible through the open end. Note that these other components include, for example, the gears in the gear train for driving the hands, and a switch for driving the gear train manually, when the electronic timepiece with a radio communication function is an analog watch with hands. Rendering the antenna with its axis substantially parallel to the plane of the support substrate means herein that the angle between the direction of the antenna axis and the plane of the support substrate is greater than or equal to 0° and less than or equal to 30°, and is preferably less than or equal to 15°, and even further preferably less than or equal to 10°. A plan view of the electronic timepiece means viewing the electronic timepiece from the direction parallel to the axial direction of the case member. A side view of the electronic timepiece means viewing the electronic timepiece with a radio communication function from a direction perpendicular to the axial direction of the case member. Other objects and attainments together with a fuller understanding of the invention will become apparent and appreciated by referring to the following description and claims taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the drawings like reference symbols refer to like parts. FIG. 1 is a plan view of a radio-controlled timepiece according to a first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a section view through line II-II in FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is a section view through line III-III in FIG. 1 . FIG. 4 is a function block diagram of a radio-controlled timepiece according to this first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a plan view of a radio-controlled timepiece according to a second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a section view through line VI-VI in FIG. 5 . FIG. 7 is a plan view of a radio-controlled timepiece according to a third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 is a partial section view through line VIII-VIII in FIG. 7 . FIG. 9 is a plan view of a radio-controlled timepiece according to the present invention showing a variation of the photoelectric generating means. FIG. 10 is a plan view showing a variation of a radio-controlled timepiece according to the present invention. FIG. 11 is a section view through line XI-XI in FIG. 10 . FIG. 12 is a plan view showing another variation of a radio-controlled timepiece according to the present invention. FIG. 13 is a section view through line XIII-XIII in FIG. 12 . FIG. 14 is a plan viewing showing a variation of the antenna location according to the present invention. FIG. 15 is a section view through line XV-XV in FIG. 14 . FIG. 16 is a side section view showing a variation of the structure for affixing the antenna in the present invention. FIG. 17 is a partial side section view showing a variation of the structure for affixing the antenna in the present invention. FIG. 18 is a partial side section view showing a variation of the structure for affixing the antenna in the present invention. FIG. 19 is a partial side section view showing another variation of the structure for affixing the antenna in the present invention. FIG. 20 is a plan view showing a variation of the arrangement of the antenna and photoelectric generating means of the present invention. FIG. 21 is a partial side section view of FIG. 20 . FIG. 22 is a plan view showing a variation of the shape of the antenna according to the present invention. FIG. 23 is a plan view showing another variation of the antenna arrangement according to the present invention. FIG. 24 is a partial side section view of FIG. 23 . FIG. 25 shows a variation of an electronic timepiece with a radio communication function according to the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Preferred embodiments of the present invention are described below with reference to the accompanying figures. Note that parts in the second and subsequent embodiments that are identical to or have the same function as corresponding parts in the first embodiment are identified by the same reference numeral, and further description thereof is simplified or omitted. First Embodiment FIG. 1 is a plan view of a radio-controlled timepiece 100 as an electronic timepiece with a radio communication function according to a first embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 2 is a section view through line II-II in FIG. 1 , and FIG. 3 is a section view through line III-III in FIG. 1 . This radio-controlled timepiece 100 is a wristwatch, and as shown in FIG. 1 , FIG. 2 , and FIG. 3 has a ring-shaped (a short cylindrical shape of which both ends are open) case member 1 . The case member 1 is a ring-shaped member of which both ends along the cylindrical axis L 1 are open, cylindrical axis L 1 being the axial direction of the gears that drive the hands (such as the axial direction of second wheel 444 ), and is made from metal such as brass, stainless steel, or titanium alloy. The thickness of the case member 1 is less than the diameter of the ring, and is preferably 10 mm or less or 5 mm or less. Lugs 11 , 12 for attaching a wristwatch band are formed at mutually opposite positions on the outside circumference of the case member 1 . As viewed from the center of the case member 1 , the direction in which one of the lugs 11 , 12 is rendered is the 12:00 direction, and the direction in which the other of the lugs 11 , 12 is rendered is the 6:00 direction. In FIG. 1 , the top of the figure (the side at lugs 11 ) is the 12:00 direction, and the bottom (the side at lugs 12 ) is the 6:00 direction. A stem 131 is disposed passing through the body of the case member 1 at approximately the 4:00 position. One end of the stem 131 is on the outside of the case member 1 , and a crown 132 is disposed to this end. The other end of the stem 131 is inside the case member 1 , and the yoke 133 and setting lever 134 are rendered to this end. The yoke 133 engages the clutch wheel 135 so that pulling the stem 131 out causes the clutch wheel 135 to move in the axial direction of the stem 131 by way of the intervening setting lever 134 and yoke 133 , engaging the day wheel (not shown) so that the positions of the hands can be adjusted. A switching unit 13 enabling the positions of the hands to be manually adjusted from outside the case is formed by, for example, the stem 131 , yoke 133 , setting lever 134 , and clutch wheel 135 . As shown in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 , a time display means 2 is disposed on the side of one opening in the case member 1 , and a back cover (cover member) 3 closing the opening is disposed to the other opening (end portion) of the case member 1 . The top as seen in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 is the top of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , and the bottom as seen in the figures is the bottom of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . In addition, the direction along the cylindrical axis L 1 is the thickness direction (height direction) of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . The time display means 2 includes a dial 21 having a time display face 211 substantially perpendicular to the cylindrical axis L 1 (perpendicular to the surface of the paper in FIG. 1 ) of the case member 1 , and hands 221 , 222 that rotate above the dial 21 . The dial 21 is substantially disc-shaped with an area large enough to cover the opening in the case member 1 . The dial 21 is made from a nonconductive, nonmagnetic, optically transparent material such as inorganic glass, plastic, ceramic, paper, or other desirable material. The time display face 211 is rendered facing outward so that the face can be seen from the outside, and numbers, letters, or other indications (not shown) for representing the time are printed in a ring around the outside edge of the time display face 211 . The hands include the minute hand 221 for indicating the minute, and the hour hand 222 for indicating the hour. Both hands 221 , 222 are made of bronze, aluminum, stainless steel, or other metal. The minute hands 221 and 22 rotate over the time display face 211 around substantially the center of the dial 21 as the axis of rotation, and indicate the time by pointing to the numbers, letters, or other markings on the time display face 211 . The hands are thus a 12-hour analog time display means representing a twelve hour period with one revolution of the hour hand 222 . A crystal (cover member) 23 is further disposed opposite the dial 21 with the hands 221 , 222 therebetween. The crystal 23 is disposed covering one opening in the case member 1 , and the area of the crystal 23 is sufficient to cover this opening. The crystal 23 is made from a nonconductive, nonmagnetic, optically transparent material such as inorganic glass or organic glass. A photoelectric generating means 6 is disposed on the crystal 23 side (that is, on the side of one opening) of the case member 1 on the opposite side as the time display face 211 of the dial 21 . The photoelectric generating means 6 includes a photoelectric conversion element (photoelectric conversion unit) 61 for producing electricity by photoelectric conversion, and a support substrate 62 for supporting the photoelectric conversion element 61 . The photoelectric conversion element 61 is a substantially circular panel with substantially the same area as the dial 21 , and is made by building sequentially in order from the dial 21 side a transparent electrode layer (TOC), a semiconductor layer, and another transparent electrode layer (not shown). The transparent electrode layer has a transparent conductor film made of, for example, SnO2, ZnO, or ITO (indium tin oxide). The semiconductor layer is a PIN photodiode made of microcrystalline or amorphous silicon with a pn junction design. A reflective metal coating can be deposited on the transparent electrode layer on the side opposite from the dial 21 . The support substrate 62 is made from polyimide, glass-impregnated epoxy, ceramic, or other nonmagnetic, nonconductive material. The support substrate 62 is a flat member with substantially the same area as the photoelectric conversion element 61 , and is bonded to the photoelectric conversion element 61 on the opposite side as the dial 21 . The photoelectric generating means 6 is secured by bonding the photoelectric conversion element 61 to the dial 21 . The back cover 3 is disposed covering the other open end of the case member 1 opposite the dial 21 with a specific distance therebetween, and the area of the back cover 3 is sufficient to close this opening. The back cover 3 is made from a conductive, nonmagnetic metal such as stainless steel, bronze, or titanium alloy, or a conductive, magnetic metal such as permalloy. A movement 4 with a timekeeping function, a plastic spacer 14 for holding the movement 4 inside the case member 1 , a battery 49 for supplying power to the movement 4 , and an antenna 5 for receiving a standard time signal, are disposed inside the case member 1 between the dial 21 and back cover 3 . The movement 4 includes quartz oscillator unit 41 including a quartz oscillator 411 (see FIG. 4 ), a circuit block (control block) 42 with a control function, drive means including stepping motors (electromagnetic motor) 43 A, 43 B for rotationally moving the hands 221 , 222 , a gear train 44 for conveying the drive power of the stepping motors 43 A, 43 B as rotational movement to the hands 221 , 222 , and a main plate 46 and gear train holder 47 for holding the gear train 44 therebetween in the cylindrical axis L 1 direction of the case member 1 . The quartz oscillator unit 41 has a quartz oscillator 411 for generating a reference clock. A 60-kHz quartz oscillator 412 and a 40-kHz quartz oscillator 413 are also provided as quartz oscillators for generating tuning signals for tuning to the frequency of the standard radio signal (60 kHz and 40 kHz). These quartz oscillators 412 , 413 for generating tuning signals are disposed substantially in the direction of 9:00. The quartz oscillator unit 41 and circuit block 42 are disposed substantially in the direction of 12:00. FIG. 4 is a function block diagram of the circuit block 42 . The circuit block 42 includes a reception circuit 421 for processing the standard radio signal received by the antenna 5 and outputting time information; a storage circuit 422 for storing the time information output by the reception circuit 421 ; a central control circuit 423 for counting the current time based on the clock pulse from the quartz oscillator 411 , and correcting the current time based on the received time information; a motor drive circuit 425 for driving stepping motors 43 A, 43 B; and a hand position detection circuit 426 for detecting the hand positions. The reception circuit 421 includes an amplifier circuit for amplifying the standard radio signal received by the antenna 5 , a filter for extracting a desired frequency component, a demodulation circuit for signal demodulation, and a decoder circuit for decoding the received signals. The storage circuit 422 temporarily stores the time information decoded by the reception circuit 421 , and compares the stored time information decoded from multiple received signals to determine if signal reception was successful. The photoelectric generating means 6 generates power from light incident thereon from the dial 21 side, and the generated power is stored in a battery (secondary cell) 49 . A diode preventing the battery 49 from discharging is rendered between the photoelectric generating means 6 and battery 49 . The various electronic circuits are driven by power from the battery 49 . The central control circuit 423 includes an oscillation circuit, frequency divider, current time counter for counting the current time, and a time correction circuit for adjusting the count of the current time counter according to the received time information. The central control circuit 423 also has a reception control circuit 424 for storing the reception schedule of the reception circuit 421 and controlling the reception operation. The reception schedule is set so that the standard time signal is received from 2:00 a.m. to 2:06 a.m. When the switching unit 13 is manually operated to send a command to the reception control circuit 424 to force time signal reception, an output signal from the reception control circuit 424 causes the reception circuit 421 to receive. The motor drive circuit 425 applies drive pulses to the stepping motors 43 A, 43 B at a timing controlled by the central control circuit 423 . The hand position detection circuit 426 detects the positions of the hands (minute hand 221 , hour hand 222 ), and outputs the result to the central control circuit 423 . The central control circuit 423 then compares the detection result from the hand position detection circuit 426 with the current count of the current time counter. Based on the result of this comparison, motor pulses are output to the motor drive circuit 425 so that the value of the counter matches the positions of the hands. The drive means includes a minute hand stepping motor 43 A for rotationally driving the minute hand 221 , and an hour hand stepping motor 43 B for rotationally driving the hour hand 222 . The stepping motors 43 A, 43 B each have a drive coil 431 A, 431 B for producing magnetic force as a result of drive pulses supplied from the motor drive circuit 425 , a stator 432 A, 432 B excited by the drive coil 431 A, 431 B, and a rotor 433 A, 433 B rotated by the magnetic field excited by the stator 432 A, 432 B. The minute hand stepping motor 43 A is located in approximately the 10:00 direction, and the hour hand stepping motor 43 B is located in approximately the 8:00 direction. The stepping motors 43 A, 43 B are rendered such that when seen from the side (that is, when viewing the radio-controlled timepiece 100 from the direction perpendicular to the cylindrical axis L 1 of the case member 1 ), the drive coils 431 A, 431 B are at a position overlapping the gear train holder 47 , and the drive coils 431 A, 431 B are thus disposed proximally to the back cover 3 . The center M in the thickness direction (height direction) of the drive coil 431 A, 431 B is located closer to the back cover 3 than the center C in the thickness direction (height direction) of the movement 4 , that is, closer to the back cover 3 than a position equidistant to the main plate 46 and gear train holder 47 . As a result, the distance M 1 from the center M in the thickness direction of the drive coil 431 A, 431 B to the bottom side of the gear train holder 47 is less than the distance M 2 from the center M in the thickness direction of the drive coil 431 A, 431 B to the top side of the main plate 46 . The gear train 44 includes minute hand gear train 44 A, which is linked between the minute hand stepping motor 43 A and the second wheel 444 that rotates in unison with the minute hand shaft 442 to which the minute hand 221 is connected, for transferring rotation of the rotor 433 A, 433 B to the hands 221 , 222 ; and hour hand gear train 44 B connecting the hour hand stepping motor 43 B to the center wheel 441 to which the hour hand 222 is connected. The gear train 44 can be made from any material providing sufficient strength, including stainless steel or other metal, or ceramic, plastic, or other nonconductive, nonmagnetic material. The main plate 46 axially supports the gear train 44 on the dial 21 side, and the gear train holder 47 axially supports the gear train 44 on the back cover 3 side. The main plate 46 and gear train holder 47 are made from a nonconductive, nonmagnetic material such as plastic or ceramic. The gear train 44 , stepping motors 43 A, 43 B, and circuit block 42 are integrally rendered between the main plate 46 and gear train holder 47 , forming the movement 4 . Note that the photoelectric generating means 6 could be fastened with screws to the movement 4 , or assembled to the movement 4 by means of a spacer member that is snap-fit to the movement 4 . The spacer 14 is a ring-shaped member around the inside circumference of the case member 1 , surrounding the outside edge of the movement 4 . The spacer 14 holds the movement 4 inside the case member 1 . The spacer 14 is made from a nonconductive, nonmagnetic material such as plastic or ceramic. The battery 49 is a secondary cell for storing power generated by the photoelectric generating means 6 , is connected directly to the photoelectric generating means 6 , and has a metal outside case. The battery 49 is located in approximately the 2:00 direction occupying the space from approximately 1:00 to approximately 3:00. The antenna 5 includes a core 51 made from ferrite, amorphous metal, or other high permeability material, and a coil 52 wound in multiple layers to the core 51 . To reduce core loss, the core 51 is made from multiple foil layers so that the external shape when seen in section is substantially rectangular. The foil layers are bonded together with epoxy or other insulating adhesive. When seen from a side view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , the antenna 5 is rendered with the antenna axis substantially parallel to the plane of the support substrate 62 on the back cover 3 side of the support substrate 62 relative to the photoelectric conversion element 61 , that is, adjacent to the back cover 3 side surface of the support substrate 62 on the opposite side of the support substrate 62 as the photoelectric conversion element 61 . Therefore, when viewed from the direction parallel to the cylindrical axis L 1 of the case member 1 , that is, when seen in the plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , the antenna 5 is substantially completely covered by the support substrate 62 and photoelectric conversion element 61 of the photoelectric generating means 6 . Note that the antenna 5 can be rendered touching the support substrate 62 or within a specific gap to the support substrate 62 . The specified distance between the antenna 5 and support substrate 62 can be appropriately predetermined to assure good signal reception by the antenna 5 with consideration for the shape of the antenna 5 , and the material and size of the support substrate 62 . In this embodiment of the invention the antenna 5 is rendered passing through the main plate 46 and protruding to the photoelectric generating means 6 side with the outside portion of the antenna 5 contacting the bottom of the support substrate 62 . This renders the center N in the thickness direction (height direction) of the core 51 on the dial 21 side of the center C in the thickness direction (height direction) of the movement 4 . The center N in the thickness direction (height direction) of the core 51 is on the dial 21 (that is, photoelectric generating means 6 ) side of the center P in the thickness direction of the metal case member 1 . The distance N 2 from the center N in the thickness direction of the core 51 (antenna 5 ) to the edge of the case member 1 on the opposite side from the back cover 3 (the dial 21 side) is therefore less than the distance N 1 from the center N in the thickness direction of the core 51 (antenna 5 ) to the top of the back cover 3 . The antenna 5 is located in about the 6:00 direction when the radio-controlled timepiece 100 is seen in plan view with the antenna axis substantially parallel to the line between the 3:00 direction and 9:00 direction. Furthermore, when the radio-controlled timepiece 100 is seen in plan view, the antenna 5 is disposed opposite the battery 49 with the switching unit 13 therebetween. The operation of a radio-controlled timepiece 100 thus comprised according to this first embodiment of the present invention is described next. The current time kept by the time counter is updated according to the reference clock generated by frequency dividing oscillations of the quartz oscillator 411 . The hand position detection circuit 426 detects the positions of the hands (minute hand 221 , hour hand 222 ) and outputs the result to the central control circuit 423 . The hand positions and count of the current time counter are then compared, and the stepping motors 43 A, 43 B are driven by means of the motor drive circuit 425 based on the result of this comparison. Rotation of the rotors 433 A, 433 B when the stepping motors 43 A, 43 B are driven is relayed by the gear train 44 to the hands 221 , 222 , and the current time is indicated by the hands 221 , 222 pointing to numbers on the time display face 211 . Standard time signal reception and adjusting the time based on the time information in the standard time signal are described next. The standard radio signal is received by the antenna 5 . Being an electromagnetic wave, the standard radio signal includes electric field fluctuation oscillating perpendicularly to the direction of wave propagation, and magnetic field fluctuation oscillating perpendicularly to the direction of signal propagation and electric field fluctuation. The magnetic field fluctuation passes through the crystal 23 , dial 21 , and photoelectric generating means 6 and passes the core 51 of the antenna 5 and is thereby linked in the axial direction by the coil 52 , producing an induction voltage in the coil 52 whereby the standard radio signal is received. At 2:00 a.m., which is the reception starting time preset in the reception control circuit 424 , the reception control circuit 424 outputs a start reception command to the reception circuit 421 . The reception control circuit 424 also outputs the start reception command to the reception circuit 421 when the switching unit 13 is operated to force reception. When the reception circuit 421 receives the start reception command, power is drawn from the battery 49 and the reception circuit 421 starts decoding the signal (time information) received by the antenna 5 . The decoded time information is temporarily stored to the storage circuit 422 , and the accuracy of the reception is determined by comparing the time information received in multiple signals (such as six signals). The current time of the current time counter is then updated by the time correction circuit according to the accurately received time information. The hand positions are then adjusted according to the time of the current time counter, and the time is indicated according to the received time. When the dial 21 is exposed to light, the light passes through the crystal 23 and dial 21 and is incident on the photoelectric conversion element 61 . Electricity is then produced by photoelectric conversion by the photoelectric conversion element 61 , and the generated power (current) is supplied from the transparent electrodes to the battery 49 and stored. This first embodiment of the present invention thus affords the following benefits. (1) Because the support substrate 62 is made from a nonmagnetic material, external magnetic fields can pass through the photoelectric generating means 6 , and the antenna 5 located directly below the photoelectric generating means 6 can receive signals from the dial 21 side with good reception. The antenna 5 is therefore assured of good reception without being affected by the photoelectric generating means 6 while the back cover 3 and case member 1 can be made from metal materials to improve the appearance of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . In addition, the photoelectric generating means 6 can efficiently receive light and generate power without the antenna 5 interfering with incident light even when the antenna 5 is adjacent to the photoelectric generating means 6 . Furthermore, because the support substrate 62 is made from a nonconductive material, the support substrate 62 will not interfere with electric field components contained in the external standard radio signal. The electric field component of the standard radio signal can therefore efficiently pass through the photoelectric generating means 6 , and the antenna 5 can receive signals from the dial 21 side with good reception. (2) Because the antenna 5 is located on the back cover 3 side of the photoelectric generating means 6 , and the support substrate 62 is rendered completely overlapping the antenna 5 when the radio-controlled timepiece 100 is seen in plan view, the antenna 5 is completely covered by the photoelectric generating means 6 and cannot be seen from the crystal 23 . The appearance of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 is improved as a result. Furthermore, because signals can be received even with the antenna 5 disposed below the photoelectric generating means 6 , the area of the photoelectric conversion element 61 can be maximized to the inside circumference of the case member 1 , thus increasing the area exposed to light and affording good photoelectric conversion efficiency. (3) Because the antenna 5 is disposed in contact with the support substrate 62 on the dial 21 side of the center C of the movement 4 and on the dial 21 side of the center P of the case member 1 in the thickness direction, the antenna 5 can be located proximally to the opening on the dial 21 side (crystal 23 side) of the case member 1 , thus affording good signal reception from this opening and improving the reception sensitivity of the antenna 5 . More specifically, because the distance N 2 from the center N of the antenna 5 to the edge of the case member 1 on the dial 21 side is less than distance N 1 from the center N of the antenna 5 to the back cover 3 , external signals can enter easily from the opening in the case member 1 on the dial 21 side. Furthermore, because the antenna 5 is disposed to a position separated from the back cover 3 , signals entering from outside the timepiece can be prevented from being pulled in by the conductive back cover 3 , and good signal reception by the antenna 5 can be reliably assured. Because other components (parts) of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 are not located between the antenna 5 and support substrate 62 , the antenna 5 can reliably receive signals with good reception without other components interfering with signal reception. Note that this can also be applied to electronic timepieces with a radio communication function in which a photoelectric generating means 6 is not provided. If the center N of the antenna 5 is on the dial 21 side of the center P of the case member 1 , that is, if distance N 2 from the antenna center N to the edge of the case member 1 on the dial 21 side is less than the distance N 1 from the antenna center N to the back cover 3 , the antenna 5 can more easily receive signals from the opening in the case member 1 on the dial 21 side even if the back cover 3 is made from metal or other electrically conductive material. (4) Furthermore, because the drive coils 431 A, 431 B of the stepping motors 43 A, 43 B are rendered proximally to the back cover 3 , the axis of the antenna 5 and the axis of the drive coils 431 A, 431 B can be separated from each other when seen in a side view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . Current flow to the drive coil 431 A, 431 B normally produces a weak field around the drive coil 431 A, 431 B, but because these drive coils 431 A, 431 B are separated from the antenna 5 , the effect of this weak field on the antenna 5 can be reduced. Furthermore, because the drive coils 431 A, 431 B are located adjacent to the back cover 3 , external signals are prevented from being pulled in by the stators 432 A, 432 B, and the antenna 5 can easily receive signals from the opening on the dial 21 side of the case member 1 . (5) Because the switching unit 13 is located between the antenna 5 and battery 49 , the effect of the external metal case of the battery 49 on the magnetic field around the antenna 5 can be minimized, thereby assuring even more reliable, accurate signal reception by the antenna 5 . (6) Because the antenna 5 is disposed with the axis thereof substantially parallel to a line through the 3:00 direction and 9:00 direction, signals can be reliably received with good reception by the antenna 5 without the wristwatch band interfering with the signal field even when a metal wristwatch band is attached to the lugs 11 , 12 because the wristwatch band does not interfere with a line extended along the axis of the antenna 5 . (7) Because the dial 21 and crystal 23 are made from a nonconductive and nonmagnetic material, signals entering from the opening on the crystal 23 side of the case member 1 can pass through the dial 21 and crystal 23 . The antenna 5 can therefore receive signals entering from this opening in the case member 1 with good reception. Second Embodiment A second embodiment of the present invention is described next. This second embodiment differs from the first embodiment in the arrangement of the photoelectric generating means 6 and antenna 5 . FIG. 5 is a plan view of a radio-controlled timepiece 100 according to a second embodiment of the invention, and FIG. 6 is a section view through line VI-VI in FIG. 5 . As shown in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 , the photoelectric generating means 6 is a substantially circular disk with area approximately equal to the dial 21 and an approximately C-shaped notch 63 enclosing the antenna 5 is formed according to the shape of the antenna 5 at approximately 6:00. As a result, the antenna 5 and photoelectric generating means 6 are rendered so as to not overlap when the radio-controlled timepiece 100 is seen in plan view. The support substrate 62 is made from stainless steel or other conductive metal material. The material of the support substrate 62 could be a material that is magnetic, nonmagnetic, or has both properties. When the radio-controlled timepiece 100 is seen in side view, the antenna 5 is disposed passing through and protruding in part from the photoelectric generating means 6 directly below the dial 21 , that is, adjacent to the side opposite from the time display face 211 . The antenna 5 can be rendered contacting the dial 21 or proximally thereto within a specific gap to the dial 21 . With this arrangement the antenna 5 (including the coil 52 ) and the support substrate 62 are mutually overlapping in a side view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . Note that in this second embodiment the center N in the thickness direction (height direction) of the core 51 of the antenna 5 is on the dial 21 side of the center C in the thickness direction (height direction) of the movement 4 . Furthermore, the center N in the thickness direction (height direction) of the core 51 is on the dial 21 side of the center P in the thickness direction of the metal case member 1 . The distance N 2 from the center N in the thickness direction of the core 51 (antenna 5 ) to the edge of the case member 1 on the dial 21 side is thus less than the distance N 1 from the center N in the thickness direction of the core 51 (antenna 5 ) to the back cover 3 . This arrangement facilitates signal reception by the antenna 5 from the opening in case member 1 on the dial 21 side. In addition to the benefits (4), (5), (6), and (7) of the first embodiment described above, this second embodiment of the invention also affords the following benefits. (8) By forming a notch 63 in the photoelectric generating means 6 , the antenna 5 can be rendered overlapping the support substrate 62 in a side view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . The antenna 5 can therefore be located the thickness of the photoelectric generating means 6 closer to the dial 21 , and closer to the crystal 23 than in the first embodiment. Signals can therefore be received more reliably through the case opening because the antenna 5 is located even closer to the opening in the case member 1 . Because other component parts (members) of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 are not located between the antenna 5 and dial 21 in this embodiment, the antenna 5 is assured of good, reliable reception without other component parts interfering with signals entering the case. Furthermore, the antenna 5 is located overlapping the support substrate 62 in a side view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 at a position on the dial 21 side of the center C of the movement 4 and the dial 21 side of the center P in the thickness direction of the case member 1 . That is, the distance N 2 from the center N of the antenna 5 to the edge of the case member 1 on the dial 21 side is less than the distance N 1 from the center N of the antenna 5 to the back cover 3 . Therefore, as in benefit (3) of the first embodiment, signals can be received with good reception from the dial 21 side opening in the case member 1 , and the reception sensitivity of the antenna 5 can be improved. (9) By forming a notch 63 in the photoelectric generating means 6 , the antenna 5 and photoelectric generating means 6 can be rendered without overlapping in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . As a result, the magnetic field entering the antenna 5 will not be obstructed and the antenna 5 is afforded good reception performance even if the support substrate 62 is made from a metal material. The support substrate 62 can therefore be made from either a magnetic or nonmagnetic material, thus providing a wider range of selectable materials, and enabling improving the strength of the photoelectric generating means 6 . Note that because there will be no magnetic materials around the antenna 5 if the support substrate 62 is made from a nonconductive and nonmagnetic material, signal reception by the antenna 5 will be unhindered, and even more reliable, good reception performance can be achieved. Third Embodiment A third embodiment of the invention is described next. This third embodiment differs from the second embodiment in the configuration of the photoelectric generating means 6 and antenna 5 . FIG. 7 is a plan view of a radio-controlled timepiece 100 according to this third embodiment. As shown in FIG. 7 , the photoelectric generating means 6 is divided into three portions ( 6 A, 6 B, 6 C), and the photoelectric conversion elements 61 A, 61 B, 61 C of these three photoelectric generating means 6 A, 6 B, 6 C are connected in series to improve the electromotive force (voltage). As in the second embodiment, the support substrates 62 A, 62 B, 62 C of these can be made from a conductive, high permeability magnetic material such as amorphous metal, permalloy, or stainless steel. Photoelectric generating means 6 B and 6 C are rendered at approximately 4:00 and approximately 8:00 at positions corresponding to the ends of the antenna 5 . These photoelectric generating means 6 B and 6 C are triangularly shaped with substantially the same size as the corresponding photoelectric conversion elements 61 B, 61 C and support substrates 62 B, 62 C. When seen in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , the photoelectric generating means 6 A, 6 B, 6 C do not overlap. The support substrates 62 B, 62 C and photoelectric conversion elements 61 B, 61 C of the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C are mutually insulated, and the photoelectric conversion elements 61 B, 61 C are electrically connected to photoelectric generating means 6 A. The photoelectric generating means 6 A is disposed in the direction of 12:00, having an odd shape with a tab protruding from the flat side of a substantially semicircular plate so as to substantially cover the area enclosed between the inside circumference of the case member 1 , the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C, and the antenna 5 . The photoelectric generating means 6 A therefore covers the larger portion of the opening in the case member 1 , has area greater than the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C, and is a major portion of the photoelectric generating means 6 . When seen in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , these photoelectric generating means 6 A, 6 B, 6 C do not overlap. The number of segments in the photoelectric generating means 6 shall not be limited to three, and the photoelectric generating means 6 can be segmented into two, four, or other desirable number of parts. Furthermore, the multiple photoelectric generating means 6 A, 6 B, 6 C are not necessarily connected with the photoelectric conversion elements 61 A, 61 B, 61 C in series, and the segments could be parallel connected. The antenna 5 is located at approximately 6:00 with the antenna axis substantially parallel to a line through 3:00 and 9:00. The ends of the core 51 have substantially the same triangular shape as the plane shape of the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C, and are electrically connected to the corresponding support substrates 62 B, 62 C by adhesion, welding, or other means. FIG. 8 is a partial section view through line VIII-VIII in FIG. 7 . As shown in FIG. 8 , both end portions of the core 51 outside of the coil 52 are bent to the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C side. As a result, both ends of the core 51 are located in greater proximity to the dial 21 side (the open side of the case member 1 ), and the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C are disposed in contact with the dial 21 . Note that the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C can be magnetically connected to the core 51 without bending the ends of the core 51 , and as a result the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C can be located separated from the dial 21 . In addition to affording the same benefits as benefits (3), (4), (5), (6), and (7) of the first embodiment, this third embodiment of the invention also affords the following benefits. (10) Because the support substrates 62 B, 62 C and both ends of the core 51 of the antenna 5 are magnetically connected, the magnetic field of the standard radio signal can be guided to the antenna 5 by the broad area of both ends of the core 51 and the support substrates 62 B, 62 C. Flux linkage can thus be improved, and the reception sensitivity of the antenna 5 can be improved. Furthermore, by bonding both end portions of the antenna 5 to the support substrates 62 B, 62 C, the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C can be formed to said portions, and the reception sensitivity of the antenna 5 can be improved without reducing the light receiving area of the photoelectric generating means 6 . (11) Unlike the photoelectric generating means 6 B, 6 C guiding the magnetic field to the antenna 5 , the photoelectric generating means 6 A is formed in a shape that does not overlap the antenna 5 when seen in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . As a result, as in benefit (8) of the second embodiment, the support substrate 62 A can be made from a metal or other magnetic material without interfering with signal reception by the antenna 5 . The strength of the photoelectric generating means 6 can therefore be improved. Furthermore, because the support substrates 62 A, 62 B, 62 C do not overlap the coil 52 part of the antenna 5 in the plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , the antenna 5 can be disposed more closely to the crystal 23 , and signals can be dependably received by the antenna 5 as described in benefit (9) of the second embodiment. (12) The electromotive force can also be improved because three photoelectric generating means 6 A, 6 B, 6 C are provided connected together in series. It should be noted that the present invention shall not be limited to the embodiments described above, and various modifications and improvements capable of achieving the object of the invention are included within the scope of this invention. For example, the shape of the photoelectric generating means shall not be limited to the preceding embodiments, and can be desirably determined with consideration for the shape of the outside case and the location of the drive means, for example. FIG. 9 is a plan view of a radio-controlled timepiece 100 showing a variation of the photoelectric generating means according to the present invention. As shown in FIG. 9 , the photoelectric generating means 6 is substantially semicircular in shape with a straight side 64 formed on the 6:00 side of the circle. The straight side 64 is formed parallel to the axis of the antenna 5 along one long side of the antenna 5 exterior, that is, parallel to a line joining 3:00 and 9:00. The antenna 5 and photoelectric generating means 6 therefore do not overlap in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . Because the support substrate of the photoelectric generating means 6 does not overlap the antenna 5 when seen in plan view with a photoelectric generating means 6 thus shaped, the antenna 5 can receive signals from the photoelectric generating means 6 side of the case member with good reception even if the support substrate is made from a magnetic material or conductive material. The photoelectric generating means 6 is also not disposed in the area at both ends of the antenna 5 because the photoelectric generating means 6 has a straight side 64 . Therefore, even if the support substrate of the photoelectric generating means 6 is made from a magnetic material or conductive material, for example, the signal field reaches both ends of the antenna 5 from the photoelectric generating means 6 side opening in the case member 1 easily and signals can be received with good reception. Signals entering from the dial 21 side can also be easily received in this case because the antenna 5 is rendered directly below adjacent to or in contact with the dial 21 . It will thus be apparent that insofar as area sufficient to generate sufficient power to operate the drive means is assured, the shape of the photoelectric conversion means shall not be limited to circular or semicircular, and the photoelectric generating means could be rectangular, triangular, or other desirable shape, including cartoon character shapes, for example. The location of the photoelectric generating means can therefore be determined appropriately with consideration for the location of other components as seen in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece. The shape of the case member shall also not be limited to the cylindrical shape described in the preceding embodiments, and the shape can be determined desirably according to the application and design of the timepiece, including square cylinders and other odd cylindrical shapes. In this case the shape of the photoelectric generating means can be determined according to the internal circumferential shape of the case member, or the photoelectric generating means can be shaped differently than the case member. Note that if the photoelectric generating means is shaped according to the internal circumferential shape of the case member, the area of the photoelectric conversion means can be maximized and good photoelectric conversion efficiency can be achieved. The case member shall also not be limited to having both ends thereof open, and could, for example, be a tubular shape with a bottom. In other words, the case member must simply be open on one end. The case member could also be an assembly of multiple integrally assembled external parts, including a body for holding the movement and a bead for holding the crystal. The case member is also not limited to metal components. For example, the surface of a case member made from molded synthetic resin could be coated with a metallic thin film. The location of the antenna inside the movement can also be determined as desired. For example, other watch components (component members) can be disposed between the antenna and back cover when the electronic timepiece with radio communication function is seen in side view. FIG. 10 is a plan view showing another variation of a radio-controlled timepiece, and FIG. 11 is a section view through line XI-XI in FIG. 10 . As in the above embodiments, in FIG. 10 and FIG. 11 the antenna 5 is proximally disposed to the dial 21 side in the movement 4 . In this embodiment, gears that are part of the hour hand gear train 44 B driven by hour hand stepping motor 43 B are located between the antenna 5 and gear train holder 47 when seen in a side view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . In other words, the hour hand gear train 44 B is located overlapping the antenna 5 when seen in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . A certain amount of space is afforded between the antenna 5 and gear train holder 47 by locating the antenna 5 adjacent to the dial 21 . This space can then be used to hold other component parts of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , and the space efficiency of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 can be improved. This helps reduce the size of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . Furthermore, because the hour hand gear train 44 B is located proximally to the antenna 5 in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , a large space is afforded in the 9:00 direction of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , and the quartz oscillators 412 , 413 , for example, can be increased in size. The space between the antenna 5 and gear train holder 47 can thus be used efficiently by locating the antenna 5 proximally to the dial 21 side. Furthermore, the hour hand gear train 44 B is not the only component that can be located between the antenna 5 and gear train holder 47 , and the switching unit 13 , circuit block 42 , quartz oscillator unit 41 , or other desirable part or member can be located between the antenna 5 and gear train holder 47 as desired. The configuration of a radio-controlled timepiece according to the present invention shall not be limited to the preceding embodiments, and any configuration enabling correcting the displayed time according to a radio signal can be used, including, for example, timepieces having a calendar display function. FIG. 12 is a plan view showing an alternative embodiment of the invention, and FIG. 13 is a section view through line XIII-XIII in FIG. 12 . As shown in FIG. 12 and FIG. 13 , a date wheel 45 is rendered between the movement 4 and photoelectric generating means 6 inside the case member 1 . The date wheel 45 is a ring-shaped gear with an open center portion, and is made of plastic, inorganic glass, paper, or other nonconductive and nonmagnetic material. The date wheel 45 is meshed with the gear train (not shown in the figure) linked from the center wheel 441 , and rotates at a specific speed due to rotation of the center wheel 441 . Letters (not shown in the figure) denoting the date are recorded on the date wheel 45 opposite the dial 21 . A date window 212 enabling the letters on the date wheel 45 to be read from the outside is opened in the 3:00 direction of the dial 21 . The photoelectric generating means 6 is formed in a circle with a radius that is greater than the radius of the inside circumference of the date wheel 45 , and the support substrate 62 covers the top inside circumference portion of the date wheel 45 such that the date wheel 45 is held between the support substrate 62 and movement 4 , thus preventing the position of the date wheel to shift in the sectional direction of the date wheel. The photoelectric generating means 6 thus functions as a date wheel presser. Furthermore, the radius of the photoelectric generating means 6 is smaller than the outside circumference radius of the date wheel 45 , thereby enabling the ring part of the date wheel 45 to be seen from the dial 21 . The support substrate 62 is made of polyimide resin or other nonconductive, nonmagnetic material. The antenna 5 is located on the inside side of the inside circumference of the date wheel 45 with the antenna axis substantially parallel to a line through 3:00 and 9:00. The antenna 5 and date wheel 45 therefore do not overlap in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . Because the support substrate 62 is made from a nonmagnetic material in this embodiment of a radio-controlled timepiece 100 , the antenna 6 can receive signals from the dial 21 with good reception. Furthermore, because the photoelectric generating means 6 also functions as a date wheel presser, the parts count can be reduced, the thickness of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 can be reduced, and the manufacturing cost can be reduced. Furthermore, because the antenna 4 and date wheel 45 are rendered so that they do not overlap in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , the antenna 5 is afforded good reception performance even if the date wheel 45 is made from a metal material that is both conductive and magnetic. As shown in FIG. 14 and FIG. 15 , the antenna 5 could also be located overlapping the date wheel 45 in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . FIG. 14 is a plan view showing an alternative arrangement of an antenna according to the present invention, and FIG. 15 is a section view through line XV-XV in FIG. 14 . As shown in FIG. 14 and FIG. 15 , in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , the antenna 5 is disposed in the 6:00 direction at a position more toward the outside circumference inside the case member 1 when compared with the antenna 5 of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 shown in FIG. 12 and FIG. 13 . With this arrangement, part of the antenna 5 overlaps the date wheel 45 when seen in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . The date wheel 45 is made of polyacetal resin or other plastic material, and the date window 212 is rendered in the 6:00 direction. Because the antenna 5 is located more on the outside circumference side in the movement 4 with this arrangement, space inside the radio-controlled timepiece 100 can be used efficiently, and greater freedom is afforded in the layout of the other component parts. Furthermore, by locating the antenna 5 on the outside circumference side of a case member 1 that has more internal space, the size of the antenna 5 can be increased and the reception sensitivity of the antenna 5 can be improved. Furthermore, in FIG. 12 , FIG. 13 , FIG. 14 , and FIG. 15 , the center N in the thickness direction (height direction) of the 55 core 51 is on the dial 21 side of the center in the thickness direction (height direction) of the movement 4 . In addition, the center N in the thickness direction (height direction) of the core 51 is located on the dial 21 side of the center P in the thickness direction of the case member 1 . The distance N 2 from the center N in the thickness direction of the core 51 (antenna 5 ) to the edge of the case member 1 on the side opposite the back cover 3 is also less than the distance N 1 from the center N in the thickness direction of the core 51 (antenna 5 ) to the back cover 3 . By thus disposing the antenna 5 , the antenna 5 can receive signals from the dial 21 side opening in the case member 1 with good reception. As shown in FIG. 10 and FIG. 11 , the hour hand gear train 44 B and other parts of the movement 4 can be disposed between the antenna 5 and gear train holder 47 . The shape and configuration of the antenna shall not be limited to the embodiments described above, and can be determined appropriately with consideration for the reception performance of the antenna and the space available in the case member. The antenna could, for example, be a so-called coreless antenna having a hollow center and no core. The antenna core shall also not be limited to a laminated assembly of multiple foil layers, and could be a round or square rod. The antenna shall also not be limited to an assembly with the main plate, and could, for example, be mounted on a circuit board. FIG. 16 is a side section view showing a variation of the structure for affixing the antenna in the present invention, and FIG. 17 is an enlargement of the side view in FIG. 16 . As shown in FIG. 16 and FIG. 17 , a circuit board 48 on which the quartz oscillator unit 41 and circuit block 42 are mounted is disposed in the movement 4 . The circuit board 48 is located in contact with the bottom side of the main plate 46 (the side opposite the gear train holder 47 ), and is fastened by screw to the main plate 46 . An aperture 481 is formed in the circuit board 48 at a position corresponding to the location of the antenna 5 ; the coil 52 of the antenna 5 is located inside this aperture 481 , and the core 51 contacts the circuit board 48 . The core 51 is fastened to the circuit board 48 by soldering, adhesion, riveting, or other method. Because the antenna 5 is securely fixed to the circuit board 48 as a result of this method of fastening the antenna 5 , the antenna 5 will not move inside the movement 4 as a result of moving the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , and breaks in the coil 52 and interference with other component parts can be reliably prevented. Note that as shown in FIG. 17 the angle q between the line from the end of the antenna 5 to the top edge portion on the inside of the case member 1 , and the cylindrical axis L 1 of the case member 1 , is preferably 45° or more as this arrangement enables external signals to efficiently reach the core 51 of the antenna 5 and thus affords good reception even when the case member 1 is metal, for example. The antenna could also be shaped with the antenna core bent toward one edge portion of the case member. FIG. 18 and FIG. 19 show variations of the shape of an antenna in the present invention. In the variation shown in FIG. 18 , the core 51 of the antenna 5 is bent toward the dial 21 at both ends of the coil 52 and is thus inclined toward the opening on the crystal 23 side of the metal case member 1 . In the variation shown in FIG. 19 , both the core 51 and coil 52 are curved such that the entire antenna 5 is curved toward the dial 21 , and the ends of the core 51 are thus located closer than the coil 52 to the dial 21 . The bending angle or angle of curvature are preferably set so that a line extended from the ends of the antenna 5 passes through the opening in the case in which the crystal 23 is located without intersecting the metal case member 1 . If at least one of the two ends of the antenna 5 is thus bent or curved towards one opening in the case member, signals entering from the opening in the case member 1 can easily enter the core 51 of the antenna 5 , and good signal reception can thus be achieved. Furthermore, because signal reception performance can be improved by thus curving the antenna towards one opening in the case, the antenna can be assured of good signal reception even if the case member is small. This arrangement thus facilitates reducing the size of the case and affords a greater variety of designs. Regarding the relative plan view positions of the antenna and photoelectric generating means, the entire antenna 5 overlaps the photoelectric generating means 6 in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 in the first embodiment, and in the second embodiment the antenna 5 and photoelectric generating means 6 are positioned so that they do not overlap in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . The invention shall not be so limited, however, and the antenna could be positioned with part of the antenna overlapping the support substrate of the photoelectric generating means. FIG. 20 is a plan view showing an alternative arrangement of the antenna and photoelectric generating means, and FIG. 21 is a partial section view of FIG. 20 . As shown in FIG. 20 and FIG. 21 , an open portion 65 is formed in the photoelectric generating means 6 at the position corresponding to the core 51 portion at both ends of the antenna 5 . In a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 , the ends of the antenna 5 in this arrangement do not overlap the support substrate 62 . External signals can therefore pass through this open portion 65 and reach the antenna 5 even if the support substrate 62 is made of stainless steel or other metal, and signals can be received with good reception. Of course, if the support substrate 62 is made of polyimide or other nonmetallic material, the antenna 5 can receive signals even more dependably. Furthermore, because open portions 65 are formed in the photoelectric generating means 6 only at positions corresponding to the end portions of the antenna 5 , a large light receiving area can be assured. The antenna 5 is thus assured of good reception sensitivity while the generating efficiency of the photoelectric generating means 6 is also good. The core 51 at both ends of the antenna 5 can be curved toward the support substrate 62 as shown in FIG. 21 with this arrangement, and this arrangement affords even more reliable signal reception. Because the antenna receives signals as a result of the magnetic field passing through the ends in the axial direction of the coil 52 , (both) end portions of the antenna 5 in particular are preferably not covered by a magnetic material. The middle portion of the antenna 5 , for example, can therefore be covered by the support substrate. The antenna 5 can still receive signals with good reception when thus disposed because the magnetic field can enter from the ends of the antenna 5 . What is important is that the antenna is located so that at least part of the antenna is not covered by the support substrate when seen in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece. Both ends of the antenna are magnetically connected to the support substrate of the photoelectric generating means in the third embodiment, but the invention shall not be so limited. For example, only one of the two ends of the antenna could be magnetically connected to a support substrate made of a high permeability material. More particularly, it is sufficient if at least one of the ends of the antenna is magnetically connected to a support substrate made of a high permeability material. When the antenna and photoelectric generating means are seen in a side view, the antenna 5 is rendered touching the photoelectric generating means 6 in the first embodiment. The invention shall not be so limited, however, and the relative positions of the antenna 5 and photoelectric generating means 6 can be determined appropriately with consideration for where the component parts of the movement 4 are located and from what materials the components of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 are made. For example, insofar as radio signals can reach both ends of the antenna, the antenna 5 can be located separated from the photoelectric generating means 6 with the gap therebetween maintained to a specific dimension. In the second embodiment and third embodiment the antenna 5 and photoelectric generating means 6 are rendered in a side view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 with a portion of the antenna 5 at a position overlapping the photoelectric generating means 6 . The invention shall not be so limited, however, and the antenna 5 and photoelectric generating means 6 can be positioned with a specific gap therebetween and not overlapping when seen in a side view. Regarding the position of the antenna in a side view of the radio-controlled timepiece, the center of the antenna is offset from the center of the case member in proximity to the cover member side. However, when the back cover 3 protrudes to the outside from the bottom edge of the case member 1 as shown in FIG. 2 , the center of the antenna may be disposed on the support substrate 62 side (the dial 21 side, crystal 23 side) from the center of the distance from the top edge of the case member 1 to the bottom edge of the back cover 3 . Furthermore, when the back cover 3 is shaped curving upward from the bottom edge of the case member 1 , the center of the antenna can be set to the support substrate 62 side relative to the center of the distance from the top edge to the bottom edge of the case member 1 . That is, the center of the antenna must be positioned on the support substrate side from the center of the case member portion including the case member and back cover, in which case the center of this case member portion is the center of the greatest distance in the thickness direction (along the cylindrical axis of the case member) through the case member and the back cover. The shape of the antenna is also not limited to configurations that appear straight when seen in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece. FIG. 22 is a plan view of an antenna with an alternative shape. As shown in FIG. 22 this antenna 5 is shaped in an arc following the inside shape of the case member 1 . The antenna 5 is also disposed along the outside shape of the dial 21 , and is located inside this dial 21 in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . Compared with rendering the antenna 5 in a straight line, this shape of the antenna 5 reduces the amount of dead space inside the case member 1 and thus affords greater freedom in the layout of other components. FIG. 23 and FIG. 24 show a variation in the location of the antenna, FIG. 23 being a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 and FIG. 24 being a partial side section view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 shown in FIG. 23 . In FIG. 23 and FIG. 24 the antenna is substantially arc-shaped conforming to the inside of the case member 1 , and the outside curve of the antenna 5 is housed within a recess 1 A formed in the spacer 14 and case member 1 . This results in part of the antenna 5 overlapping the case member 1 in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 . Note that in this case the area of the portion of the antenna 5 that overlaps the case member 1 (the area in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece 100 ) is preferably less than half of the total area of the antenna 5 . This disposition maintains the good reception sensitivity of the antenna 5 while using space inside the case member 1 efficiently and affording even greater freedom in the layout of other components. The coil of the electromagnetic motors is disposed in proximity to the back cover 3 in these embodiments of the present invention, but the invention shall not be so limited. For example, the center in the thickness direction of the coil could be located on the dial side of the center in the thickness direction of the movement. If the coil and antenna are separated from each other in a plan view of the radio-controlled timepiece, or if signal reception by the antenna is stopped when the motors are operating, the antenna 5 can still receive signals correctly and the object of the invention can be achieved. In the second and third embodiments the support substrate 62 can be made from a nonconductive and nonmagnetic material such as polyimide resin, glass-impregnated epoxy, or ceramic as in the first embodiment, or it could be made from a conductive, magnetic material such as stainless steel. If the support substrate 62 is made from a nonmagnetic material, however, there is less magnetic material around the antenna 5 and reception by the antenna 5 is thus more reliable. It is also possible to make only the photoelectric generating means 6 A in the third embodiment from a nonconductive and nonmagnetic material. The switching unit 13 and gear train 44 are disposed between the battery and antenna in the preceding embodiments, but the invention shall not be so limited. The quartz oscillator unit 41 and circuit block 42 , for example, could also be located between the battery and antenna. The effect of the metal case member of the battery on the magnetic field around the antenna can thus be minimized. More specifically, it is only necessary to dispose at least one of the switching unit, gear train, quartz oscillation unit, and control unit between the battery and antenna. It will also be apparent that if such other component is not disposed between the battery and antenna, signal reception by the antenna can be enabled by changing the orientation of the antenna or the material of the battery case, and the object of the present invention can be achieved. The drive means is also not limited to an electromagnetic motor, and any desirable construction capable of driving the time display means can be used, including, for example, a piezoelectric actuator that operates using the vibrations of a piezoelectric element. In this case a flat piezoelectric element is adhesively bonded to a substantially square reinforcing plate, and a protrusion is formed on the reinforcing plate to form the piezoelectric actuator. A rotor or other rotating body engages the gear train, and the protrusion of the piezoelectric actuator contacts the side of this rotor. When an AC voltage is then applied to the piezoelectric element, the piezoelectric element vibrates, and the repeated pressure of the protrusion tangentially to the rotor causes the rotor to rotate. The gear train then relays this rotary motion to drive the time display means. A piezoelectric actuator does not produce a magnetic field during operation, this drive means therefore has no effect on the magnetic field around the antenna, and signals can therefore be correctly received by the antenna. The time display means is also not limited to having both an hour hand and a minute hand, and could have only an hour hand, or only a minute hand. A second hand could also be provided. The dial can also be rendered with no letters, numbers, or other marks or decoration. The dial itself could also be omitted. If the dial is not provided, the photoelectric generating means could be used as the dial. In this case the photoelectric generating means uses a transparent material such as inorganic glass for the support substrate to form the dial, and the photoelectric conversion unit is rendered on the cover member side of this support substrate. The cover-side surface of this dial and support substrate could also be decorated with letters, markings, or a pattern, for example. If the antenna is located opposite or proximally to the surface on the cover member side of the photoelectric conversion unit in this configuration, the antenna can receive signals with good reception from the opening on one side of the case member, that is, from the photoelectric generating means side. The material of the gear train can be desirably determined with consideration for the location of the antenna and the transfer power, and materials such as stainless steel that are conductive and magnetic, or materials that are nonconductive and nonmagnetic such as plastic or ceramic, could be used. An electronic timepiece with a radio communication function shall also not be limited to analog timepieces having a dial and hands, and as shown in FIG. 25 , for example, could be a digital watch 100 A having a liquid crystal panel 2 A as the time display means for digitally indicating the time, and a parting member 2 B. The electronic timepiece with a radio communication function could also have, in addition to the time display function of the time display means, a chronograph function or alarm function, for example. An electronic timepiece with a radio communication function shall also not be limited to a radio-controlled timepiece that receives an external standard time signal and adjusts the displayed time, and could be a timepiece having a function for externally transmitting radio frequency information, or a function for both receiving and sending radio frequency information. For example, the electronic timepiece with a radio communication function could be a watch having an internal contactless IC card for communicating RF information with an external device via the antenna (contactless data communication). While the various embodiments including a best mode of the present invention have been described in conjunction with the accompanying figures, the invention shall not be so limited. Specific descriptions of shapes, materials, and other aspects of the invention in the foregoing embodiments are offered herein simply by way of example to facilitate understanding the present invention, not to limit the invention. Various modifications to the shape, materials, quantities, and other details of the foregoing embodiments will be apparent to one with ordinary skill in the related art in light of the foregoing description. The present invention is intended to embrace all such modifications as may fall within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.

An antenna is positioned relative to one or more other components within a metal or alloy case member/back cover assembly of an electronic timepiece having a radio communication function to facilitate reception of radio waves by the antenna, and/or to reduce negative effects on the signal reception ability of the antenna caused by one or more other components. Thus positioning the antenna improves its reception, while the external appearance of the timepiece can be maintained or enhanced by using metal or alloy for the case member/back cover assembly.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention relate to computer work stations and to systems for voice messaging that otherwise serve as computer work station input devices. 2. Background of the Invention As an introduction to problems solved by the present invention, consider the conventional computer work station operated by a skilled operator. The user operates such a work station by orienting his or her hand in relation to an input device such as a keyboard, mouse, touch pad, or digitizing pad. The user's gaze is directed toward a computer monitor that displays text and graphics for guiding the user further. While the user is concentrating on what is shown on the display, the user maintains his or her hand poised and positioned for further input without the inconvenience of having to direct his or her gaze toward his or her hand to reorient it. During concentration, the flow of ideas occurring to the user may be interrupted by an idea unrelated to operation of the computer system. Conventional computer operating systems provide means for entering a typed note of the idea for further reference at another time. However, prior to entry of such a typed note, the computer monitor display is necessarily changed to show a context in which the typed note is entered and edited. Such a change in the display upsets the visual context that supported the original work prior to interruption. Returning to the original work display image may leave the user without memory of the position or content of the display which was the subject of prior concentration. Consequently, there is a loss of productivity associated with typing a note. Other manual ways of recording the idea result in physical as well as visual disorientation for the user. Use of a nearby pencil and paper will require movement of the user's hand away from a home position on the keyboard, mouse, touch pad, or digitizing pad. A home position is a position of the user's hand relative to a home surface that provides tactile feedback. Keyboards with tactile feedback are conventionally arranged with keys for "F" and "J" identified, for example, by a different sculpture or a raised bump. Such features distinguish these keys from other keys and so identify a home position for the user's index fingers. Other input devices have home surfaces, too. Operation of a keyboard, as well as other input devices, usually requires directing the gaze toward the input device as the user's hand is placed to recognize the home surface. Thus, time is required to overcome the physical disorientation that precedes returning to a home position. Once in position, returning to the memory of the original work will consume additional time. Time spent away from the original work raises the cost of the work. Beyond a mere lack of convenience is the risk that an analysis associated with the original work may be incomplete or forgotten. And, if the idea that is to be noted is not noted promptly, this idea may be lost as well. In view of the problems described above and related problems that consequently become apparent to those skilled in the applicable arts, the need remains in computer work stations for messaging systems that avoid visual interruption and physical disorientation while recording ideas possibly unrelated to computer system operation. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, a work station in one embodiment of the present invention includes a computer system and an input system. The input system controls operation of the computer system. The input system has a home surface that provides tactile feedback to the user who, in response to the feedback, maintains her hand near the home surface during operation of the input system by her hand. The input system includes a recorder that records speech by the user and a switch that starts the recorder. The switch is operated by the user's hand while the user maintains orientation of the user's hand near the home surface. According to a first aspect of the operation of such a work station, the user avoids visual interruption and physical disorientation while recording speech possibly unrelated to computer system operation. According to another aspect, recording an idea using speech does not require departing from the visual and physiological context of the work on screen. The act of returning to the original work is less likely to result in loss of the original analysis or train of thought. Consequently, productivity improves. These and other embodiments, aspects, advantages, and features of the present invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art by reference to the following description of the invention and referenced drawings or by practice of the invention. The aspects, advantages, and features of the invention are realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities, procedures, and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a work station that illustrates a few embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a top view of the mouse pad shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a top view of the wrist rest shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 4 is a top view of the keyboard shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the mouse shown in FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a work station that illustrates several embodiments of the present invention. Work station 10 includes computer 12, voice messaging keyboard 20, voice messaging wrist rest 22, voice messaging mouse 24, voice messaging mouse pad 26, and table 28. Ordinarily one work station component having voice messaging capability would be sufficient; however, work station 10 is illustrated with four such components (20, 22, 24, and 26) for ease of description. Computer 12 and table 28 are of conventional construction and function. Computer 12 provides display 14 by operation of its conventional operating system and repertoire of conventional application programs. Such programs conventionally provide overlapping display regions in which the context of data entry and control is identified to one particular task. Several tasks may be controllable by user input as indicated by the conventional background dialog box 16 and the conventional foreground dialog box 18. Dialog boxes 16 and 18 represent generally the visually sophisticated computing environment in which the ordinary user works. A user would ordinarily sit in front of table 28 and place his/her right hand in a conventional manner either on keyboard 20, resting the base of the hand on wrist rest 22, or place the right hand on mouse 24. The left hand would be placed in a conventional manner on keyboard 20, resting the base of it on wrist rest 22. Prior to operation the user would find the home surface under each hand and throughout use, attempt to maintain each hand near the respective home surface either touching on it, hovering over it, or stretching within a vicinity of the home surface that permits quick and accurate return to the home surface without visual guidance toward, or confirmation of, its location. According to a method of the present invention, the user, while operating computer system 12 for producing a work product, and having at least one hand near a home surface, realizes an idea possibly unrelated to the control of computer system 12. To assure that the idea receives attention in due course, the user records a voice message by (1) operating a switch that is located within reach from the home surface and (2) speaking a description of the idea so that the description is recorded. With the image of the work product unchanged on computer display 14 and the orientation of his or her hand near the home surface, the user quickly returns to productive work without substantial loss of train of thought or time or both. In another embodiment of the present invention, the method further includes the steps of (1) observing a display indicating that a message has been recorded, and (2) operating a switch that is located within reach from the respective home surface to initiate audible play back of the message. FIG. 2 is a top view of the mouse pad shown in FIG. 1. Voice messaging mouse pad 26 includes home surfaces 27 and 29, base 33, and battery powered module 30. Base 33 is of conventional foam laminate construction having a top surface for operating the rolling ball of a conventional mouse. Home surfaces 27 and 29 provide tactile orientation for quick identification of switches 32, 34, and 36 on module 30. Display 38 in the illustrated embodiment is a light emitting diode that indicates that a message has been recorded. Electret microphone 40 receives the user's speech and provides a corresponding electrical signal to an integrated circuit for recording. The integrated circuit provides a drive signal to speaker 40 so that the recorded message is audible during play back. Module 30 is embedded by conventional techniques in a void in base 33. The top surface of the pad is made uniform so that movement of a conventional mouse over module 30 does not interfere with operation of the mouse or activate module 30. By locating module 30 in a void, the thickness of voice messaging mouse pad 26 does not exceed conventional mouse pad thickness. Access to a battery, not shown, that supplies power to module 30 is provided on the back face of pad 26 in a conventional manner. Module 30 is an electronic subassembly of the type described in "Data Book--Voice Recording & Playback ICs" 1996, by Information Storage Devices, Inc., of San Jose, Calif., U.S.A., incorporated in full herein by this reference. The ISD1100 integrated circuit is used in a preferred embodiment. The integrated circuit (not shown), switch 32 (PLAYL), switch 34 (PLAYE), switch 36 (REC), microphone 42, speaker 40, LED (RECLED) 38, and battery (not shown) form a circuit of the type described by the schematic diagram at page 1-35. The circuit is conventionally assembled on a circuit board, according to layout design practices described on pages 3-75 through 3-80. Preferred component values are described on the schematic, on page 3-21, and pages 3-83 through 3-87. Functionally similar components, known by those of ordinary skill in the art, and component values selected for various conventional specific applications are used in equivalent embodiments. For example, an alternate and equivalent module embodiment includes a circuit of the type described in "MSM6688/6688L ADPCM Solid-State Recorder IC Datasheet" by OKI Semiconductor, Inc., of Sunnyvale, Calif., U.S.A., incorporated herein by this reference. FIG. 3 is a top view of the wrist rest shown in FIG. 1. Voice messaging wrist rest 22 includes base 23, home surface 31, and battery powered module 130. Base 23 is of the conventional type of wrist rest formed of fabric covered foam. Module 130 is structurally and functionally similar to module 30 in FIG. 2. Module 130 is embedded by conventional technique in a void in base 23. Features of module 130 correspond to features of module 30, numbered less one hundred. The switches 132, 134, and 136 on module 130 are accurately located without visual guidance or confirmation and operated, for example, by the user's thumb while the user's index finger remains near home key "J" having home surface 21 on keyboard 20. Home surface 31, where the base of the user's hand or wrist rests during operation of keyboard 20, serves as an alternate home surface for reference during operation of switches 132, 134, and 136. FIG. 4 is a top view of the keyboard shown in FIG. 1. Voice messaging keyboard 20 includes keyboard assembly 35 and battery powered module 230. Module 230 is structurally and functionally identical to module 30 in FIG. 2. Features of module 230 correspond to features of module 30, numbered less two hundred. Keyboard assembly 35 is of the conventional type used with a conventional personal computer. Module 230 is embedded by conventional technique in a void in keyboard assembly 35. Signals responsive to keyboard keys pressed by the user are coupled to computer system 12 by cable 39. Module 230 is located to be within reach of the index finger of the user's right hand without losing orientation with the home key 21 and home surface thereon. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the mouse shown in FIG. 1. Voice messaging mouse 24 includes mouse assembly 37, home surface 23, and battery powered module 50. Mouse assembly 37 is of the conventional type used with a conventional personal computer. An internal ball (not shown) protrudes from the underside of mouse assembly 37 to roll against a conventional mouse pad or equivalent surface. Signals responsive to movement of the ball are coupled to computer system 12 by cable 25. The construction and function of module 50 is identical to battery powered module 30 except that LED 52 and appropriate wiring is substituted for LED 38. By locating LED 52 away from module 50, LED 52 is made more noticeable by the user. The foregoing description discusses preferred embodiments of the present invention, which may be changed or modified without departing from the scope of the present invention. For example, those skilled in the art will understand that in alternate module embodiments power for the module (similar to module 230 or 50) is supplied by power conducted to the work station component wherein the module is located. For example, in an alternate embodiment of voice messaging keyboard 20, the module is powered by signals received from computer 12 on cable 39. In an alternate embodiment of voice messaging mouse 24, the module is powered by signals received from computer 12 on cable 25. Further, those skilled in the art will understand that in alternate embodiments, the location of switches, microphone, speaker, battery, and indicators varies by design choice. Some or all of these components are recessed in various embodiments to reduce the possibility of unintentional activation of module functions or interference with conventional operations and movements. More sophisticated embodiments include additional similar switches for additional functions including, for example, erasing one or more previously recorded messages, activating one or more messages for periodic playback, recording additional messages with or without replacing previously recorded messages, playing back only part of a message, selecting any of several messages for immediate playback, skipping the remainder of a message after playback of that message has begun. Additional further embodiments include additional similar indicators for additional display functions including, for example, modes of operation, status of recorded messages, and the remaining capacity of battery and voice storage memory. These and other changes and modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the present invention. While for the sake of clarity and ease of description, several specific embodiments of the invention have been described; the scope of the invention is intended to be measured by the claims as set forth below. The description is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the form disclosed. Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent in light of the disclosure to one of ordinary skill in the art to which the invention applies. The words and phrases used in the claims are intended to be broadly construed. A "system" refers generally to electrical apparatus and includes but is not limited to electromechanical components in combination with a packaged integrated circuit, an unpackaged integrated circuit, a combination of packaged or unpackaged integrated circuits or both, a microprocessor, a microcontroller, a memory, a register, a flip-flop, a charge-coupled device, combinations thereof, and equivalents. The conventional mouse, joy stick, track ball, touch pad, digitizing tablet, and pen input tablet are but a few examples of equivalent pointing systems. Equivalent pointing systems of the present invention include any of these conventional devices and their functional equivalents combined with battery powered module 30, battery powered module 50, or an equivalent module powered by computer system 12 as discussed above. An input system in a first embodiment includes a pointing system as discussed above. Alternate and equivalent input systems include a conventional keyboard and other conventional switching apparatus designed with varying arrangement of keys for lower operator fatigue and higher accuracy. Equivalent input systems of the present invention include any of these conventional devices and their functional equivalents combined with battery powered module 30, battery powered module 50, or an equivalent module powered by computer system 12 as discussed above. Although this invention has been described above with reference to particular means, materials and embodiments, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to these disclosed particulars, but extends instead to all equivalents within the scope of the following claims.

A computer work station provides voice recording and playback without interruption of the user's working conditions, such as the appearance of the monitor screen, location of the user's hands over home positions, or direction of the user's gaze. A first work station embodiment includes a voice messaging mouse pad having a battery operated voice message module for record and playback using a microphone and speaker within the module. A second work station embodiment includes a voice messaging wrist rest that includes a similar battery operated voice messaging module. A third work station embodiment includes a voice messaging mouse that includes a similar battery powered voice messaging module.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This Application is a Continuation of application Ser. No. 09/898,483 filed on Jul. 5, 2001. Ser. No. 09/898,483 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,165,046 is a Continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 09/573,007 filed on May 18, 2000 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,062,461. Ser. No. 09/898,483 is a non-provisional of provisional application 60/216,338 filed on Jul. 5, 2000. Ser. No. 09/898,483 is a non-provisional of provisional application 60/229,600 filed on Sep. 5, 2000. Ser. No. 09/898,483 is a non-provisional of provisional application 60/293,510 filed on May 29, 2001. Ser. No. 09/898,483 is a non-provisional of provisional application 60/294,246 filed on May 31, 2001. The disclosures of the foregoing applications are incorporated herein by this reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to improving computer-implemented auctions and, more particularly, to computer implementation of an efficient dynamic multi-unit auction. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Auction formats in the art tend generally to be of the sealed-bid or ascending-bid variety. In the standard sealed-bid auction, bidders—in one single bidding round—simultaneously and independently submit bids to the auctioneer, who then determines the auction outcome. In the standard ascending-bid auction, bidders—in a dynamic bidding process—submit bids in real time until no more bids are forthcoming. An ascending-bid format offers the advantage that there is feedback among participants' bids: each bidder is able to infer other bidders' information about the value of the item(s) as the auction progresses and incorporate this information into his subsequent bids. This feedback tends to result in more efficient auction outcomes as well as in more aggressive bidding, resulting in higher expected revenues for the seller. However, standard ascending-bid formats—such as the design used by the Federal Communications Commission for auctioning radio communications spectrum—have the disadvantage that they do not generally lead to outcomes which are efficient in the sense of assigning items to the bidders who value them the most. Most ascending-bid auction formats have the unfortunate property that identical items sell at the uniform price reached at the end of the auction. This creates incentives for bidders to engage in demand reduction: bidders have incentive to understate the values that they place on marginal units in order to reduce the market-clearing price (and, hence, the price they will pay on the inframarginal units that they will win in any case). This has clear negative implications both for efficiency and for revenues. My prior patent, “System and Method for an Efficient Dynamic Auction for Multiple Objects,” (U.S. Pat. No. 6,026,383, issued 15 Feb. 2000) provides an early version of a system and method for a computer-implemented dynamic auction, which may achieve efficiency for situations involving multiple identical objects. The current invention is an improved system and method for a computer-implemented dynamic auction, which improves upon the previous invention both in its efficacy of performance and in the generality of economic environments where it may perform efficiently. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is a system and method for implementing on a computer a dynamic multi-unit auction in which the price paid or received by bidders tends to be independent of their own bids, in which participants may be provided with information concerning their competitors' bids as the auction progresses, and in which the confidentiality of high values is maintained. This provides the advantage of improving the economic efficiency of the auction design over the prior art. The present invention usefully enables a seller or buyer to efficiently auction multiple types of goods or services, and to efficiently auction items with complex possibilities for substitution. The present invention is a computer or computer system that receives bids from a plurality of bidders for a plurality of items in a dynamic bidding process and usually determines an allocation of the items among bidders. The present invention is also a computer-implemented method for receiving bids from a plurality of bidders for a plurality of items in a dynamic bidding process and usually determining an allocation of the items among bidders. The present invention is also a machine-readable medium having stored thereon data representing sequences of instructions, which when executed by a computer or computer system, cause said computer or computer system to receive bids from a plurality of bidders for a plurality of items in a dynamic bidding process and usually to determine an allocation of the items among bidders. In one embodiment, the invention comprises a bidding information processor (BIP) together with an auctioneer terminal (AT) and a plurality of bidder terminals (BT's) which communicate with the bidding information processor via a network. Bidders at the bidder terminals enter bids in multiple rounds, and may observe displayed auction information. The auctioneer at the auctioneer terminal controls the progress of the auction. The BIP, the AT, and the BT's communicate and process information in order to conduct an auction. Suppose that m (m≧1) types of items are being auctioned, and one or more units of each type are being auctioned. An auction in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention proceeds as follows. First, the auctioneer (i.e., the auctioneer terminal) establishes a price vector, (P 1 , . . . ,P m ), which includes a price for each of the m types of items subject to the auction. The auctioneer communicates the price vector to the auction computer (i.e., bidding information processor), which in turn communicates it to bidders (i.e., bidder terminals). Second, plural bidders respond with bid vectors indicating the quantity of each respective type of item that the bidder wishes to transact at the current price vector. Let the bidders be superscripted by i, where i=1, . . . , n. The quantity vector for bidder i is denoted by (Q 1 i , . . . ,Q m i ). Also, let the quantities of the respective types of items being auctioned be denoted by ( Q 1 , . . . , Q m ). The auction computer then determines, based on the received bids, whether the auction should continue. Typically, the starting price vector is selected such that the aggregate quantity of each type of item desired by all the bidders (i.e., Σ i=1 n Q k i ) is greater than the quantity of each type of item being auctioned (i.e., Q k ). In this event, the auction computer determines that the auction will continue, and either the auction computer or the auctioneer will establish a revised price vector (which is typically larger in each of its m components than the initial price vector). The auction computer then sends to one or more bidders the revised price vector. Next, plural bidders respond with bid vectors indicating the quantity of each respective type of item that the bidder wishes to transact at the revised price vector. Again, typically, the aggregate quantity of each type of item desired by all the bidders will not equal the available quantity, and a determination is again made that the auction should continue. Nevertheless, one or more items of a particular type may be credited with a particular bidder. The item(s), if any, will be credited at a price in a closed interval between the price contained in the (previous) price vector and the price contained in the revised price vector. In one embodiment, items are credited at the price contained in the revised price vector; in another embodiment, items are credited at the price contained in the (previous) price vector; and in a third embodiment, items are credited at the average of the price contained in the revised price vector and the price contained in the (previous) price vector. In one preferred embodiment, the determination of whether a particular bidder is credited with a selected type of item is based on whether the sum of the bids of other bidders at the revised price vector is different from the sum of the bids of other bidders at the (previous) price vector. In this embodiment, if the two sums are different, the particular bidder is credited with a number of the selected type of items equal to the change in the sum of the bids of other bidders. This process continues until a determination is made that the auction should not continue. In one preferred embodiment, after the determination to end the auction is made, the items are allocated to bidders according to their final bid vectors, and the payments of bidders are based on the cumulative sequence of credits that occurred during the course of the auction. Certain constraints are desirable in order for this auction to operate optimally and to reach an economically efficient outcome. One exemplary constraint is an activity rule which constrains a bidder not to increase his quantity, summed over the m types of items, from one bid in the auction to the next. Another exemplary constraint is a more stringent activity rule which constrains a bidder not to increase his quantity, summed over a group of types of items, from one bid in the auction to the next. A third exemplary constraint is a more stringent activity rule which constrains a bidder not to increase his quantity, individually on each of the m types of items, from one bid in the auction to the next. A fourth exemplary constraint is a reduction rule which constrains a bidder not to decrease his quantity, for any single type of item, beyond the point where the sum of the quantities bid for this type of item by all bidders equals the sum of the quantities being auctioned. (If, in a given round, two or more bidders simultaneously attempt to decrease their quantities, for any single type of item, having the effect of reducing bids beyond the point where the sum of the quantities bid for this type of item by all bidders equals the sum of the quantities being auctioned, the auction procedure will resolve this discrepancy. For example, the auctioneer may honor these attempts to decrease in order of time priority, or may ration these simultaneous attempts to decrease in proportion to the attempted reductions.) While an auction following these rules could be conducted manually, computerized conduct of the auction allows the auction to be conducted with all bidding information taken into account, while controlling the degree to which the information itself is disclosed to the participants. Computerized conduct of the auction also allows the auction to be conducted swiftly and reliably, even if bidders are not located on-site. The amount of information which is transmitted to the bidder terminals and/or actually displayed to the bidders may be carefully controlled. In one embodiment, all bidding information is displayed to the bidders. In another embodiment, no bidding information is displayed to the bidders; only the results of the auction are displayed. A number of intermediate embodiments are also possible, in which some but not all bidding information is displayed to the bidders. For example, in one preferred embodiment, the auctioneer disclose only the aggregate quantity bid for each type of item in each round, as opposed to disclosing each individual bid. My prior U.S. Pat. No. 6,026,383 treats auctions for multiple, identical objects and close substitutes. The earlier application's efficient auction with one price clock exploited features of the homogeneous-good environment to construct an eminently-simple dynamic procedure. Unfortunately, the cases of multiple types of related items, or items with complex possibilities for substitution, do not lend themselves to quite as simple a procedure. My other prior patents, “Computer Implemented Methods and Apparatus for Auctions,” U.S. Pat. No. 5,905,975, issued 18 May 1999, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,021,398, issued 1 Feb. 2000, describe other auction designs for multiple, dissimilar items. However, the current auction design appears likely in practice to be simpler and to run more swiftly, as well as placing lower computational demands on bidders. The present invention extends my auction design described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,026,383 to treat—in a simple way—the case of auctioning a set of items which includes two (or more) items that are neither identical nor perfect substitutes to one another, so that two or more price clocks are required. Henceforth, this will be described for short as a situation with “multiple types of multiple items,” or simply “heterogeneous items” or “heterogeneous objects.” Often, but not always, the heterogeneous items auctioned together will bear some relationship to one another: for example, they may be licenses or rights to perform essentially the same activity at different geographic locations; or they may be securities issued by the same entity but with different durations to maturity; or they may be related goods with slightly different characteristics that render them only imperfect substitutes. The present invention may also be better suited than previous auction designs for treating the case of identical objects or perfect substitutes which exhibit “increasing returns” for bidders. “Increasing returns” refers to a situation where the extra value that a bidder derives from an (N+1) st unit is greater than the extra value that a bidder derives from an N th unit. For example, this would include a situation where the utility from two units is strictly more than double the utility derived from one unit. The present invention is useful for conducting auctions involving items offered for sale by the bidders, as well as items offered for sale to the bidders. Although terms such as “vector of quantities demanded” (by a bidder) and “demand curve” (of a bidder) are used to describe the present invention, the terms “vector of quantities offered” (by a bidder) and “supply curve” (of a bidder) are equally applicable. In some cases, this is made explicit by the use of both terms, or by the use of the terms “vector of quantities transacted” (by a bidder) and “transaction curve” (of a bidder). The term “quantities transacted” includes both “quantities demanded” and “quantities offered”. The term “bid” includes both offers to sell and offers to buy. The term “transaction curve” includes both “demand curve” and “supply curve”. Moreover, any references to “quantities being offered” includes both “quantities being sold” by the auctioneer, in the case this is an auction for selling items, as well as “quantities being bought or procured” by the auctioneer, in the case this is an auction for buying items or procuring items. Moreover, while standard auctions to sell typically involve ascending prices, the present invention may utilize prices that ascend and/or descend. One useful situation in which the price would be allowed to descend is a procurement auction or “reverse auction,” an auction to buy. Throughout this document, the terms “objects”, “items”, “units” and “goods” are used essentially interchangeably. The inventive system may be used both for tangible objects, such as real or personal property, and intangible items, such as telecommunications licenses or electric power. The inventive system may be used in auctions where the auctioneer is a seller, buyer or broker, the bidders are buyers, sellers or brokers, and for auction-like activities which cannot be interpreted as selling or buying. The inventive system may be used for items including, but not restricted to, the following: public-sector bonds, bills, notes, stocks, and other securities or derivatives; private-sector bonds, bills, notes, stocks, and other securities or derivatives; communication licenses and spectrum rights; clearing, relocation or other rights concerning encumbrances of spectrum licenses; electric power and other commodity items; rights for terminal, entry, exit or transmission capacities or other rights in gas pipeline systems; airport landing rights; emission allowances and pollution permits; and other goods, services, objects, items or other property, tangible or intangible. It may also be used for option contracts on any of the above. It may be used in initial public offerings, secondary offerings, and in secondary or resale markets. The network used, if any, can be any system capable of providing the necessary communication to/from BIP, BT, and AT. The network may be a local or wide area network such as, for example, ethernet, token ring, the Internet, the World Wide Web, the information superhighway, an intranet or a virtual private network, or alternatively a telephone system, either private or public, a facsimile system, an electronic mail system, or a wireless communications system. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a graphical depiction of the architecture of an exemplary client-server computer system in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is another graphical depiction of an exemplary computer system in accordance with an embodiment of the invention; FIG. 3 is a detail of one element of the computer system of FIG. 2 ; FIG. 4 is a flow diagram of an auction process in accordance with one embodiment of the invention; FIG. 5 is a more detailed flow diagram illustrating, in more detail, an element of the diagram of FIG. 4 ; FIGS. 6 a and 6 b are more detailed flow diagrams illustrating, in more detail, elements of the diagram of FIG. 4 ; FIG. 7 is a more detailed flow diagram illustrating, in more detail, an element of the diagram of FIG. 4 ; FIG. 8 is a more detailed flow diagram illustrating, in more detail, an element of the diagram of FIG. 4 ; and FIGS. 9 a , 9 b and 9 c are more detailed flow diagrams illustrating, in more detail, elements of the diagram of FIG. 4 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The drawings of FIGS. 1-4 of my prior U.S. Pat. No. 6,026,383 and of FIGS. 1-12 of my prior U.S. Pat. No. 5,905,975, and the associated text of each, provide a general superstructure for the present auction method and system, especially as it relates to the computer implementation thereof. Moreover, the terminology established in the previous applications will be relied upon as needed. The following description will detail the flow of the novel features of the preferred embodiments of the present method and system for an efficient dynamic multi-unit auction. Before describing the auction process in detail, reference is made to FIG. 1 to describe the architecture of an exemplary computer system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In the graphical depiction of FIG. 1 , the computer system consists of multiple clients 20 a - n and 30 communicating with the server 10 over a network 40 . The clients 20 a - n are the bidders, the client 30 is the auctioneer, and the server 10 is the auction computer. The server 10 consists of a CPU 11 , memory 12 , a data storage device 13 , a communications interface 14 , a clock 15 , an operating system 16 , and an auction program 17 . FIG. 2 is another graphical depiction of an exemplary computer system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The auction system of FIG. 2 includes an auction computer 60 (sometimes also referred to as a Bidding Information Processor or BIP), a plurality of user systems 70 a , 70 b and so on (sometimes also referred to as Bidder Terminal or BT), each user system 70 a - n representing an individual bidder, and a user system 80 (sometimes also referred to as an Auctioneer Terminal or AT). The systems 60 , 70 a - n , and 80 communicate over a network 90 . The network represents any system capable of providing the necessary communication to/from BIP, BT, and AT. The network may be a local or wide area network such as, for example, ethernet, token ring, the Internet, the World Wide Web, the information superhighway, an intranet or a virtual private network, or alternatively a telephone system, either private or public, a facsimile system, an electronic mail system, or a wireless communications system. Each of the systems 60 , 70 a - n , and 80 may include a typical user interface 65 , 75 a - n , 85 for input/output which may include a conventional keyboard, display, and other input/output devices. Within each of the systems, the user interface ( 65 , 75 a - n , 85 ) is coupled to a network interface ( 64 , 74 a - n , 84 ), which in turn communicates via the network 90 . Both the user interface and network interface connect, at each system, to a CPU ( 62 , 72 a - n , 82 ). Each system includes a memory ( 66 , 76 a - n , 86 ). The BIP 60 also includes a clock 61 and a data storage device 63 , which will ordinarily contain a database. (However, in some embodiments the database might instead be stored in memory 66 .) The memory 66 of the BIP 60 can further be broken down into a program 67 , data 68 and an operating system 69 . The memory ( 76 a - n , 86 ) of the BT's 70 a - n and the AT 80 may include a web browser (for example, Internet Explorer or Netscape) ( 79 , 89 ) or other general-purpose software, but not necessarily any computer program specific to the auction process. In each system the CPU ( 62 , 72 a - n , 82 ) represents a source of intelligence when executing instructions from the memory ( 66 , 76 a - n , 86 ) so that appropriate input/output operations via the user interface and the network interface take place as is conventional in the art. The particular steps used in implementing the inventive auction system are described in more detail below. In one embodiment, each of the systems are personal computers or workstations. FIG. 3 is a more detailed illustration of an exemplary BIP 60 showing details of the database. As discussed for FIG. 2 , the database is ordinarily stored on a data storage device 63 , although in some embodiments it might instead be stored in memory 66 . As depicted in FIG. 3 , the database includes provision for creating, storing, and retrieving records representing Items in the Auction 63 - 1 , Status of the Items in the Auction 63 - 2 , Auction Schedule 63 - 3 , Current Price(s) 63 - 4 , List of Bidder ID's 63 - 5 , List of Passwords 63 - 6 , Bidding History 63 - 7 , and Constraints on Bids 63 - 8 . The particular set of data required for any particular auction and the format of that datum or data (such as scalar, vector, list, etc.) is more particularly specified by the detailed description of that auction. Embodiments Concerned with Heterogeneous Commodities Many of the most useful embodiments of the present invention apply in situations where an entity wishes to sell or buy heterogeneous items or commodities. A type of item is defined so that two units of the same type are identical items or close substitutes, while two units of different types exhibit significant differences in time, location or any other product characteristics. Typically, there are multiple units of each type of item. Items or commodities are defined to be heterogeneous when there are two or more types of items. The various embodiments of the present invention tend to be the most useful when the items are heterogeneous (so that the system and method for a dynamic auction of homogeneous commodities, described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,026,383, does not apply), but nevertheless there is some connection or relation between the different types of items (so that there is good reason to sell or buy the different types of commodities in a single auction process). Examples of heterogeneous items for which there may be significant commercial possibilities for embodiments of the present invention include the following: Treasury bonds or other securities: For example, a government or central bank may wish to auction 3-month, 6-month and 12-month Treasury securities together. Thus, there are three types of heterogeneous items. Electricity contracts: An electric generating company may wish to simultaneously auction some forward contracts or options contracts for base-load and peak-load electricity generation, with durations of 2 months, 3 months, 6 months, 12 months, 24 months and 36 months, respectively. Thus, there are 2×6=12 types of heterogeneous commodities. Entry capacity into a gas pipeline system: A gas pipeline company wishes to simultaneously auction the capacity to enter the gas pipeline system at five geographically-dispersed terminals. Thus, there are five types of heterogeneous commodities. Two or more heterogeneous consumer commodities (e.g., oranges and grapefruits). In what follows, we will assume that m (m≧1) types of items are being auctioned, and that there are n (n≧1) bidders participating in the auction. An auction in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention proceeds as follows. First, the auctioneer (i.e., the auctioneer terminal) determines a starting price vector, (P 1 , . . . ,P m ), and transmits it to the bidding information processor, which in turn transmits it to bidders (i.e., bidder terminals). Second, a bidder responds with a bid vector indicating the quantity of each respective type of item that the bidder wishes to transact at the current price vector. Let the bidders be superscripted by i, where (i=1, . . . , n) The bid vector for bidder i is denoted by (Q 1 i , . . . ,Q m i ). The following definitions are helpful in describing the process associated with a first embodiment of the present invention. DEFINITIONS The available quantities ( Q 1 , . . . , Q m ) refer, in the case of an auction to sell, to the quantities of the m respective types of items offered to be sold in the auction or, in the case of an auction to buy (i.e., a procurement auction or a “reverse auction”), to the quantities of the m respective types of items offered to be bought in the auction. Optionally, the available quantities may be allowed to depend on the prices, or otherwise be contingent on the progress of the auction. The current prices comprise a vector, (P 1 , . . . ,P m ), whose components represent the prices for the m respective types of items. The current bid of bidder i comprises a vector, (Q 1 i , . . . ,Q m i ), whose components represent the quantities that bidder i is willing to buy (in the case of an auction to sell) or to sell (in the case of an auction to buy) at the current prices for the m respective types of items. The current bids comprise the collection of vectors, {Q 1 i , . . . ,Q m i } i=1 n , consisting of the current bid of bidder i for every bidder (i=1, . . . , n) in the auction. The bidding history comprises the current prices and the current bids associated with the present time and all earlier times in the current auction. A clock auction is a dynamic auction procedure whereby: the auctioneer announces the current prices to bidders; the bidders respond with current bids; the auctioneer determines whether the auction should continue based on the bidding history; the auctioneer updates the current prices based on the bidding history and the process repeats, if it is determined that the auction should continue; and the auctioneer allocates the items among the bidders and assesses payments among the bidders based on the bidding history, if it is determined that the auction should not continue. Observe that a “clock auction” differs from a standard ascending-bid electronic auction in the following important sense. In standard ascending-bid electronic auctions—such as in the Federal Communications Commission auctions for radio communications spectrum or in eBay auctions—the bidders name prices (and, perhaps also, quantities) that they propose to pay for the items being auctioned, in an iterative process. In a standard clock auction, the auctioneer sets the pace for price increases, and bidders respond only with quantities in an iterative process. (However, in the discussion of Intra-Round Bids, below, it will be seen that there still may be a role for bidders naming prices—to a limited extent—in a clock auction.) FIG. 4 is a flow diagram of a clock auction in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. The process starts with step 102 , in which memory locations of a computer are initialized. In one preferred embodiment, the appropriate memory locations of the bidding information processor (auction computer) are initialized with information such as the items in the auction, the available quantity of each type of item in the auction, the initial price vector, the auction schedule, a list of bidder ID's, and a list of passwords. In step 104 , a computer outputs auction information, including the starting price vector (P 1 , . . . ,P m ). In one preferred embodiment, the bidding information processor outputs the auction information through its network interface and transmits it via the network. The bidder terminals then receive the auction information through their network interfaces and display the information to bidders through their user interfaces. In step 106 , a computer receives bids (Q 1 i , . . . ,Q m i ) from bidders. In one preferred embodiment, a bidder inputs his bids through the user interface of the bidder terminal, which then outputs the auction information through its network interface and transmits it via the network. The bidding information processor then receives the bids through its network interface for use in the next step. In step 108 , a computer applies constraints, if any, to the received bids, and enters only those bids that satisfy said constraints. This process is illustrated in greater detail in FIGS. 6 a and 6 b . In one preferred embodiment, the constraints are applied at the bidding information processor, although they may also easily be applied at the bidder terminals. In step 110 , a computer calculates changes, if any, to bidders' payment accounts, based on the entered bids. This process is shown in more detail in FIG. 5 . In one preferred embodiment, the changes to bidders' payment accounts are calculated at the bidding information processor. In step 112 , a computer determines whether the auction should continue. An exemplary process of step 112 is illustrated in greater detail in FIG. 7 . In one preferred embodiment, this determination occurs at the bidding information processor. If the auction should continue, the process goes to step 114 , in which a computer updates the price vector (P 1 , . . . ,P m ), and step 116 , in which a computer updates other auction information, if any. An exemplary process of step 114 is illustrated in greater detail in FIG. 8 . In one preferred embodiment, the bidding information processor automatically generates a suggested revised price vector, outputs the suggested revised price vector through its network interface, and transmits it via the network. The auctioneer terminal then receives the suggested revised price vector through its network interface and displays it to the auctioneer through its user interface. The auctioneer either approves or modifies the revised price vector through the user interface of the auctioneer terminal, which then outputs the revised price vector through its network interface and transmits it via the network. The bidding information processor then receives the revised price vector through its network interface for use in subsequent steps. The process then loops to step 104 . If the auction should not continue, the process goes to step 118 , in which a computer outputs a final message, including the allocation of items among bidders and the payments of the bidders. In one preferred embodiment, the bidding information processor takes the allocation of items among bidders to be their final bids and takes the payments of the bidders to be the final amounts in their payment accounts, and outputs the allocation and payment outcome through its network interface and transmits it via the network. The bidder terminals and auctioneer terminal then receive the allocation and payment outcome through their network interfaces and display the information to bidders and the auctioneer through their user interfaces. The process then ends. Embodiments Concerned with an Efficient Dynamic Auction for Heterogeneous Commodities FIG. 5 is a flow diagram of the subprocess of step 110 in which a computer calculates changes, if any, to bidders' payment accounts. The embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 5 makes bidders' payments as independent as possible of their own bids, and so a bidder has little incentive to manipulate the auction process even if the bidder possesses market power. An auction that utilizes the process of FIG. 5 will henceforth be referred to as the “Efficient Dynamic Auction for Heterogeneous Commodities.” While the theoretical properties of the Efficient Dynamic Auction for Heterogeneous Commodities are not yet fully developed, and I do not wish to be bound by the result that I now state, it is helpful in pondering its usefulness to consider the following remarkable result, which I have proved elsewhere: T HEOREM . Suppose that bidders have purely private values for the commodities in the auction, and suppose that their utility functions are concave in the commodities and quasilinear in money. For any initial price vector and for any initial value in bidders' payment accounts: (i) sincere bidding by every bidder is a subgame perfect equilibrium of the Efficient Dynamic Auction for Heterogeneous Commodities; and (ii) with sincere bidding, the price vector converges to a Walrasian equilibrium price, and hence the allocation of commodities attains full economic efficiency. Unlike auction procedures in the prior art, the present invention will tend to yield fully-efficient outcomes, if bidders bid optimally. While the previous and following description of the Efficient Dynamic Auction for Heterogeneous Commodities is framed largely in terms of regular auctions to sell (where bidders are buyers), the invention is equally applicable for reverse or procurement auctions to buy (where bidders are sellers). For the sake of brevity, this specification will not run through the process a second time with the roles of selling and buying reversed, but it should be clear to anybody skilled in the art that the technology can be equally used in both situations. FIG. 5 is a flow diagram of a subprocess of step 110 . It begins with step 110 - 1 , in which a bidder i who has not yet been considered is selected. In step 110 - 2 , a “payment-account-calculation indicator” for bidder i is examined. This indicator is set equal to 1 if changes to bidder i's payment account are supposed to be calculated at this step of the auction; and this indicator is set equal to 0, otherwise. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention that yields the theorem stated above, this indicator is always set equal to 1 (and so the steps 110 - 3 and 110 - 4 are always performed). However, in other embodiments of the present invention, the payment-account-calculation indicator is initially set equal to 0 and is changed to 1 only when specific criteria are satisfied, or never at all. If the payment-account-calculation index is already equal to 1, the process goes to step 110 - 3 . In step 110 - 3 , for each k=1, . . . , m, a computer calculates: Δ k i , t = ∑ j ≠ i ⁢ ⁢ ( Q k j , t - Q k j , t - 1 ) That is, Δ k i,t is the change in the aggregate demands of bidder i's opponents for items of type k, between the previous bids and the current bids. Δ k i,t is calculated as follows: for each type k of item in the auction and for each opposing bidder j≠i, the computer takes the difference between bidder j's demand at time t for items of type k and bidder j's demand at time t−1 for items of type k. Summing this, over all opposing bidders j≠i, yields Δ k i,t . The process then proceeds to step 110 - 4 , in which the payment account value for bidder i is updated. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention that yields the theorem stated above, the payment account value for bidder i can initially be set to any arbitrary constant. One initial value that has desirable theoretical properties is: ∑ k = 1 m ⁢ ⁢ P k 0 ( Q _ k - ∑ j ≠ i ⁢ ⁢ Q k j , 0 ) , where P k 0 denotes the initial price for the commodity of type k, and Q k j,0 is opposing bidder j's initial demand for the commodity of type k. After the initial time that step 110 - 4 is executed for bidder i, the previous payment account value, denoted A i,t−1 , is recalled. An updated payment account value, denoted A i,t , is computed by the following equation: A i , t = A i , t - 1 - ∑ k = 1 m ⁢ ⁢ Δ k i , t ⁢ P k t . This equation for updating the payment account value has the following interpretation: bidder i is credited with the quantity −Δ k i,t of items of type k. Effectively, every time bidder i's opponents change their aggregate quantity demanded by −Δ k i,t units, the auction process implicitly assumes that −Δ k i,t units will be awarded to bidder i, and the auction process charges bidder i the current price vector of P k i for each of these units. (Moreover, if ever bidder i's opponents increase their aggregate quantity demanded, so that Δ k i,t is a positive number, then bidder i is debited with the quantity Δ k i,t of items of type k. The auction process implicitly then assumes that Δ k i,t units will be taken away from bidder i, and the auction process pays bidder i the current price vector of P k t for each of these units.) It is not necessary that literally the current price vector, P k t , is used in step 110 - 4 . In other embodiments, the previous price vector, P k t−1 , or some price in the interval between P k t−1 and P k t is used. The process then proceeds to step 110 - 5 , where it is determined whether all bidders have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 110 - 1 . If all bidders have been considered, the process goes to step 112 of FIG. 4 . If the payment-account-calculation indicator for bidder i is not equal to 1, the process goes to step 110 - 6 . In step 110 - 6 , it is determined whether the payment-account-calculation indicator should be set equal to 1. As stated earlier, in the preferred embodiment of the present invention that yields the theorem stated above, this step is never reached, as the indicator is always set equal to 1. However, another exemplary embodiment of the present invention would only have the indicator set equal to 1 for bidder i when the aggregate demand of bidder i's opponents drops to less than the available quantity. Yet another exemplary embodiment of the present invention would only have the indicator set equal to 1 when the aggregate demand of all bidders drops to less than a predetermined percentage of the available quantity, for example when the aggregate demand of all bidders first becomes less than 120% of the available quantity. If the payment-account-calculation indicator for bidder i should be set equal to 1, the process goes to step 110 - 7 , where the indicator for bidder i is set equal to 1. The process then continues with steps 110 - 3 and 110 - 4 , where changes to bidder i's payment account value are calculated. If the payment-account-calculation indicator for bidder i should not be set equal to 1, the process loops directly to step 110 - 5 without changing the payment account value for bidder i. It is useful for understanding the Efficient Dynamic Auction for Heterogeneous Commodities to, at this point, work through an example of the auction process where there are two types of items (i.e., m=2). Real-world examples fitting this description may include the sale of three-month and six-month Treasury bills, or the sale of base-load and peak-load electricity. However, we will generically refer to them as commodity A and commodity B. Suppose that the supply vector is (10,8), i.e., commodities A and B are available in supplies of 10 and 8, respectively, and suppose that there are n=3 bidders. The auctioneer initially announces a price vector of p 1 =(3,4), and subsequently adjusts the price vector to p 2 =(4,5), p 3 =(5,7), p 4 =(6,7), and finally p 5 =(7,8). The bidders' reports of quantities demanded at these price vectors are shown in Table 1: TABLE 1 Price and Quantity Vectors for Illustrative Example with m = 2 Price Vector Bidder 1 Bidder 2 Bidder 3 p 1 = (3, 4) (5, 4) (5, 4) (5, 4) p 2 = (4, 5) (4, 4) (5, 4) (4, 3) p 3 = (5, 7) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 1) p 4 = (6, 7) (4, 3) (4, 4) (3, 2) p 5 = (7, 8) (4, 2) (3, 4) (3, 2) The crediting of units to bidders occurs as follows. First, consider Bidder 1. When the price vector advances from p 1 =(3,4) to p 2 =(4,5), the sum of the quantity vectors demanded by Bidder 1's opponents decreases from (10,8) to (9,7). Thus, 1 unit of commodity A and 1 unit of commodity B can be thought of as becoming available to Bidder 1 at the current price of p 2 =(4,5). The auction algorithm lakes this literally, by crediting 1 unit of commodity A at a price of 4, and 1 unit of commodity B at a price of 5, to Bidder 1. Next, consider Bidder 2. When the price vector advances from p 1 =(3,4) to p 2 =(4,5), the sum of the quantity vectors demanded by Bidder 2's opponents decreases from (10,8) to (8,7). Thus, 2 units of commodity A and 1 unit of commodity B can be thought of as becoming available to Bidder 2 at the current price. The auction algorithm takes this literally, by crediting 2 units of commodity A at a price of 4, and 1 unit of commodity B at a price of 5, to Bidder 2. Finally, consider Bidder 3. When the price vector advances from p 1 =(3,4) to p 2 =(4,5), the sum of the quantity vectors demanded by Bidder 3's opponents decreases from (10,8) to (9,8). Thus, 1 unit of commodity A and 0 units of commodity B can be thought of as becoming available to Bidder 3 at the current price. Again, the auction algorithm takes this literally, by crediting 1 unit of commodity A at a price of 4, and 0 units of commodity B at a price of 5, to Bidder 3. The process continues as the price vector advances. One interesting moment occurs when the price advances from p 3 =(5,7) to p 4 =(6,7). Observe that Bidder 3's demand vector changes from (4,1) to (3,2), while the other bidders' demand vectors remain constant. In particular, Bidder 3's demand for commodity B increases, meaning that 1 fewer unit of commodity B remains available for Bidders 1 and 2. Consequently, the auction algorithm needs to take this literally, by debiting 1 unit of commodity B at the current price of 7 from each of Bidders 2 and 3 . The entire progression of units credited and debited—and the associated progression of changes to the bidders' payment accounts—is summarized for this example in Table 2: TABLE 2 Credits and Debits for Illustrative Example with m = 2 Price Vector Bidder 1 Bidder 2 Bidder 3 P 1 = (3, 4) Initialization Initialization Initialization P 2 = (4, 5) 1 unit of A credited at 4 2 units of A credited at 4 1 unit of A credited at 4 1 unit of B credited at 5 1 unit of B credited at 5 0 units of B credited at 5 Cumulative payment = 9 Cumulative payment = 13 Cumulative payment = 4 P 3 = (5, 7) 1 unit of A credited at 5 0 units of A credited at 5 1 unit of A credited at 5 2 units of B credited at 7 3 units of B credited at 7 1 unit of B credited at 7 Cumulative payment = 28 Cumulative payment = 34 Cumulative payment = 16 P 4 = (6, 7) 1 unit of A credited at 6 1 unit of A credited at 6 0 units of A credited at 6 1 unit of B debited at 7 1 unit of B debited at 7 0 units of B credited at 7 Cumulative payment = 27 Cumulative payment = 33 Cumulative payment = 16 P 5 = (7, 8) 1 unit of A credited at 7 0 units of A credited at 7 1 unit of A credited at 7 0 units of B credited at 8 1 unit of B credited at 8 1 unit of B credited at 8 Cumulative payment = 34 Cumulative payment = 41 Cumulative payment = 31 At p 5 =(7,8), supply and demand are now in balance for both commodities. Thus, p 5 becomes the final price. Bidders 1, 2 and 3 are allocated the quantity vectors of (4,2), (3,4) and (3,2), respectively, that they demanded at the final price. In addition, Bidders 1, 2 and 3 are charged payments of 34, 41 and 31, respectively, the amounts accrued in their payment accounts at the end of the auction. Since many of the credits and debits in the sequence occurred at earlier prices, bidders' payments do not generally equal their final quantity vectors evaluated at the final prices. Rather, if the procedure described above is performed along a continuous price path, the bidders' payments are related to those derived from a Vickrey auction (also known as a Vickrey-Clarke-Groves mechanism). I develop this result elsewhere. Embodiments of the Invention Concerned with Applying Constraints to Bids FIGS. 6 a and 6 b are flow diagrams of two exemplary subprocesses of step 108 . The process of FIG. 6 a begins with step 108 a - 1 , in which a bidder i who has not yet been considered is selected. In step 108 a - 2 , a bid (Q k i,t ) k∈G by bidder i which has not yet been considered is selected. G is defined to be a group of item types. G is a nonempty subset of {1, . . . , m}, the set of all item types. In step 108 a - 3 , it is checked whether each quantity Q k i,t in the selected bid is a nonnegative integer. If each component of the bid is a nonnegative integer, the process goes to step 108 a - 4 . In step 108 a - 4 , it is checked whether the selected bid is consistent with bidder i's initial eligibility, that is, whether: ∑ k ∈ G ⁢ ⁢ Q k i , t ≤ Q _ G i , where bidder i's initial eligibility, Q G i , for group G may, for example, be determined by the level of financial guarantee posted by bidder i. If the selected bid is consistent with bidder i's initial eligibility, the process goes to step 108 a - 5 , where bidder i's most recent previously-processed bid for group G, denoted (Q k i,t−1 ) k∈G , is recalled. In step 108 a - 6 , it is checked whether the selected bid is consistent with the auction's activity rule, that is, whether the constraint: ∑ k ∈ G ⁢ ⁢ Q k i , t ≤ ∑ k ∈ G ⁢ ⁢ Q k i , t - 1 , is satisfied. If it is, the process continues to step 108 a - 7 , where the selected bid (Q k i,t ) k∈G is entered as a valid bid by bidder i on group G. Optionally, bidder i is sent a message confirming to him that the bid is valid. The process then goes to step 108 a - 8 , where it is determined whether all bids by bidder i have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 108 a - 2 . If all bids by bidder i have been considered, the process continues to step 108 a - 9 , where it is determined whether all bidders have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 108 a - 1 . If all bidders have been considered, the process goes to step 110 of FIG. 4 . If the selected bid fails any of the checks at steps 108 a - 3 , 108 a - 4 or 108 a - 6 , the process instead goes to step 108 a - 10 , where a message is outputted to bidder i that the selected bid is invalid. The selected bid then is not entered as a valid bid. The process then goes to step 108 a - 8 , where it is determined whether all bids by bidder i have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 108 a - 2 . If all bids by bidder i have been considered, the process continues to step 108 a - 9 , where it is determined whether all bidders have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 108 a - 1 . If all bidders have been considered, the process goes to step 110 of FIG. 4 . The process of FIG. 6 b begins with step 108 b - 1 , in which a bidder i who has not yet been considered is selected. In step 108 b - 2 , a bid (Q k i,t ) k∈G by bidder i which has not yet been considered is selected. In step 108 b - 3 , it is checked whether each quantity Q k i,t in the selected bid satisfies the constraint: ∑ k ∈ G ⁢ ⁢ C k i , t ⁢ Q k i , t ≤ C _ G i , t , where C k i,t and C G i,t are arbitrary constants. If the constraint of step 108 b - 3 is satisfied, the process goes to step 108 b - 4 . In step 108 b - 4 , it is checked whether each quantity Q k i,t in the selected bid satisfies the constraint: ∑ k ∈ G ⁢ ⁢ C k ′ ⁢ ⁢ i , t ⁢ Q k i , t ≥ C ^ G i , t , where C k′ i,t and Ĉ G i,t are arbitrary constants. If the constraint of step 108 b - 4 is satisfied, the process goes to step 108 b - 5 , where it is checked whether the selected bid was submitted at a time no earlier than the starting time of the current round. If it was, the process goes to step 108 b - 6 , where it is checked whether the selected bid was submitted at a time no later than the ending time of the current round. If it was, the process continues to step 108 b - 7 , where the selected bid (Q k i,t ) k∈G is entered as a valid bid by bidder i on group G. Optionally, bidder i is sent a message confirming to him that the bid is valid. The process then goes to step 108 b - 8 , where it is determined whether all bids by bidder i have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 108 b - 2 . If all bids by bidder i have been considered, the process continues to step 108 b - 9 , where it is determined whether all bidders have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 108 b - 1 . If all bidders have been considered, the process goes to step 110 of FIG. 4 . If the selected bid fails any of the checks at steps 108 b - 3 , 108 b - 4 , 108 b - 5 or 108 b - 6 , the process instead goes to step 108 b - 10 , where a message is outputted to bidder i that the selected bid is invalid. The selected bid then is not entered as a valid bid. The process then goes to step 108 b - 8 , where it is determined whether all bids by bidder i have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 108 b - 2 . If all bids by bidder i have been considered, the process continues to step 108 b - 9 , where it is determined whether all bidders have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 108 b - 1 . If all bidders have been considered, the process goes to step 110 of FIG. 4 . Embodiments Concerned with Continuing the Auction and Price Adjustments FIG. 7 is a flow diagram of a subprocess of step 112 of FIG. 4 . It illustrates an exemplary process by which a computer may determine whether the auction should continue. (Related to this will also be FIG. 9 b , below, which illustrates an exemplary process by which a computer determines whether the auction should continue, in a system where bidders are permitted to submit Intra-Round Bids.) FIG. 7 begins with step 112 a - 1 , in which an item type k not yet considered is selected. In step 112 a - 2 , a computer determines whether the aggregate quantity bid for item type k is within C k of the available quantity, that is, whether:  - Q _ k + ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ Q k i  ≤ C _ k . The constant, C k , has the interpretation that this is the tolerance to which the auctioneer is allowing oversell or undersell to occur. If the auctioneer needs to sell exactly the available quantity of item type k, then C k =0. If this inequality is not satisfied, then item type k has not yet cleared, and so the auction should continue. The process thus jumps immediately to step 114 of FIG. 4 . If the inequality of step 112 a - 2 is satisfied, the process then goes to step 112 a - 3 , where it is determined whether all item types k have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 112 a - 1 . However, if all item types k have already been considered, then it has been found that all item types k have cleared within a tolerance of C k , and so the auction should not continue. The process proceeds to step 118 of FIG. 4 , where the final message is generated. FIG. 8 is a flow diagram of a subprocess of step 114 of FIG. 4 . It illustrates an exemplary process by which a computer may update the current price vector. FIG. 8 begins with step 114 - 1 , in which an item type k not yet considered is selected. In step 114 - 2 , a computer calculates the excess demand, denoted Z k , for item type k: Z k = - Q _ k + ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ Q k i . The excess demand, Z k , has the interpretation of being the amount by which bidders in aggregate are bidding for quantities of item type k, in excess of the available quantity. The process then goes to step 114 - 3 , where the k th component of the price vector is revised by: P k t+1 =P k t +C k Z k . C k is any arbitrary positive constant. Thus, the price for item type k is raised if bidders bid for more than the available quantity, and the price for item type k is reduced if bidders bid for less than the available quantity. The process then continues to step 114 - 4 , where it is determined whether all item types k have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 114 - 1 . However, if all item types k have already been considered, then updated prices for all item types have been generated, and the process proceeds to step 116 of FIG. 4 . Embodiments Concerned with Intra-Round Bids In many of the leading dynamic electronic auctions in the prior art, bidders submit bids in a sequence of discrete rounds. For example, in the Federal Communications Commission auctions for radio communications spectrum or in the recent UMTS auctions held by European nations, the following would be a typical bidding schedule for an auction: Round 1: 9:00-9:45 Round 2: 10:00-10:45 Round 3: 11:00-11:45 Round 4: 12:00-12:45 Round 5: 13:00-13:45 Round 6: 14:00-14:45 Round 7: 15:00-15:45 Round 8: 16:00-16:45 This bidding schedule would have the following interpretation. During the specified time period of each round, a bidder would be required to submit a new bid or new collection of bids (unless this bidder was already the standing high bidder on an item after the bidding of the previous round). If a bidder who was required to submit a new bid failed to submit a new bid, then (except for provisions in the rules concerning automatic waivers) the bidder would be eliminated from the auction. By contrast, some other electronic auctions in the prior art—for example, online auctions at eBay—allow bidding to occur continuously. Rather than adhering to any rigid round schedule, bidders may submit bids at any times that they like up to a specified closing time. Related to this, there is no sense that a bidder is required to bid a certain amount by any particular time in order to retain eligibility to bid at a later time in the auction. Many or most electronic auctions for high-valued items utilize a discrete round structure, rather than allowing bidding to occur continuously. There appear to be several reasons for this. First, a discrete round structure has desirable information properties. The auction can be easily structured so that the results of Round t are disseminated to bidders before the bids of Round t+1 need to be submitted. Second, a discrete round structure is especially conducive to enforcing “activity rules,” in which a bidder is required to be active (i.e., either be the standing high bidder or place a new high bid) on a given number of items in an earlier round of the auction in order to continue to bid on a given number of items in a later round of the auction. This forces bidders to effectively disclose to their opponents (through their bidding) the values that they attach to the items, helping to mitigate the well-known “Winner's Curse” present in auctions. Third, a discrete round structure requires a bidder to repeatedly affirm, in successive rounds, his willingness to pay a given price for an item in the auction—which may be especially desirable when items such as communications licenses may sell for millions or billions of dollars or euros. At the same time, the desirable properties of a discrete round structure may come at some considerable cost. It will typically be reasonable to hold only something like 8 to 12 rounds of bidding in a given day. As a result, the auctioneer must accept at least one of several problems: (1) The auction may be required to last a very long time: in some North American and European spectrum auctions, the bidding extended more than 20 business days. Such a lengthy auction may be rather onerous for bidders and for the seller. In particular, it may discourage bidder participation, causing the seller to forgo substantial revenues. (2) The bid increment between successive rounds may be required to be rather substantial: in some North American and European spectrum auctions, the bid increment between successive rounds never was allowed to drop below five percent of the previous bid. It can be argued that a seller suffers an expected revenue loss which is directly proportional to the minimum bid increment, so this may cost a seller millions of dollars or euros. (3) The starting price may be required to be very near to the expected closing price. This may discourage bidder participation, as well as potentially eliminating the possibility of bidders getting caught up in the excitement of the auction and bidding very high prices (which is one of the advantages of conducting a dynamic auction). This also runs the risk that the auction will fail: that is, quantities bid at the starting price being less than the available quantity at the auction. Moreover, in a clock auction, problem (2) above, a large bid increment, may lead to a heightened risk of “undersell”. Consider an auction with an available quantity of 100 units of an item, and suppose a bid increment of five percent. It is quite plausible that, at a price of $1,000,000 per unit, the aggregate quantity bid by all bidders would equal 110 units, but at the next price of $1,050,000 per unit, the aggregate quantity bid by all bidders would decline to only 60 units. The auctioneer then faces the unattractive alternatives of: selling only 60 units out of the available quantity of 100 units at a price of $1,050,000 each; rationing bidders so that only 100 units, out of the 110 demanded, are sold at $1,000,000; or restarting the auction at $1,000,000. Observe however that the “undersell” problem would in all likelihood have been substantially avoided, had a much smaller bid increment been possible. One embodiment of the present invention is a system and method for “Intra-Round Bids.” A discrete round structure—with all of its many advantages—is preserved. However, in Round t+1 of the auction, the auction system and method permits bidders to submit bids at prices between the price associated with Round t and the price associated with Round t+1. Bidders have every incentive to utilize Intra-Round Bids, and to the extent that bidders utilize them, the seller should be expected to attain higher auction revenues and to reduce the probability of undersell. Thus, a system and method for Intra-Round Bids improves upon the prior art for auction systems and methods, and has immediate practical application for dynamic auctions of radio communications spectrum, securities and other financial products, electric power, etc. While the previous and following description of Intra-Round Bids is framed largely in terms of regular auctions to sell (where bidders are buyers), the invention is equally applicable for reverse or procurement auctions to buy (where bidders are sellers). For the sake of brevity, this specification will not run through the process a second time with the roles of selling and buying reversed, but it should be clear to anybody skilled in the art that the technology can be equally used in both situations. Here is an example illustrating the usefulness and exact meaning of Intra-Round Bids. Suppose that, in a clock auction with an available quantity of 100 units, the (end) price per unit associated with Round 4 is $1,000,000, and the (end) price per unit associated with Round 5 is $1,050,000. In an auction with discrete bidding rounds, Bidder 1 might submit a bid quantity of 55 units for Round 4 and a bid quantity of 30 units for Round 5. If there also exists a Bidder 2who submits the same bid quantities, then we would have exactly the “undersell” problem described above: an aggregate quantity bid by all bidders of 110 units in Round 4 but only 60 units in Round 5 (with available quantity of 100 units). With an auction system and method for Intra-Round Bids, here is an example of the bids that Bidder 1 might submit for Auction Round 5: 53 units at $1,010,000 per unit; 51 units at $1,020,000 per unit; 49 units at $1,030,000 per unit; 45 units at $1,035,000 per unit; 40 units at $1,040,000 per unit; and 30 units at $1,045,000 per unit. These bids have the following exact meaning: the parameters corresponding to price indicate the price at which Bidder 1 wishes to change his quantity demanded as compared to his “previous” (that is, next lower price) bid. Thus, in this example: Bidder 1 is willing to purchase 55 units (his previous bid from Round 4) at prices of $1,000,001-$1,009,999; Bidder 1 is willing to purchase 53 units at prices of $1,010,000-$1,019,999; Bidder 1 is willing to purchase 51 units at prices of $1,020,000-$1,029,999; Bidder 1 is willing to purchase 49 units at prices of $1,030,000-$1,034,999; Bidder 1 is willing to purchase 45 units at prices of $1,035,000-$1,039,999; Bidder 1 is willing to purchase 40 units at prices of $1,040,000-$1,044,999; and Bidder 1 is willing to purchase 30 units at prices of $1,045,000-$1,049,999. If there also exists a Bidder 2 who submits the same bid quantities, then the auctioneer would be able to declare the auction over at a price between $1,030,000 and $1,034,999, with 98 out of the 100 available units sold. The auction revenues are improved, and the undersell problem is greatly reduced. FIG. 9 a is a flow diagram of a subprocess of step 106 of FIG. 4 . It illustrates an exemplary process by which a particular bidder i may submit Intra-Round Bids. FIG. 9 a begins with step 106 - 1 , in which bidder i selects a group, G, of item types on which he wishes to place a bid. G is a nonempty subset of {1, . . . , m}, the set of all item types. In step 106 - 2 , bidder i selects price parameters for group G representing a price vector between the previous round's price vector for group G and the current round's price vector for group G. In step 106 - 3 , bidder i selects quantities of the item types of group G that he would like to take effect as bids at the selected price parameters. In step 106 - 4 , bidder i expresses whether he wishes to enter more bids. If so, the process loops back to step 106 - 1 . If not, the process continues to step 106 - 5 . In step 106 - 5 , the computer determines whether bidder i has submitted at least one bid for each group G of item types. If not, the process loops back to step 106 - 1 , and optionally the computer prompts bidder i to submit bids on the groups G of item types on which bidder i has not submitted at least one valid bid in the current round. If so, the process goes to step 108 of FIG. 4 . FIG. 9 b is a flow diagram of a subprocess of step 112 of FIG. 4 . It illustrates an exemplary process by which a computer determines whether the auction should continue, in a system where bidders are permitted to submit Intra-Round Bids. FIG. 9 b begins with step 112 b - 1 , in which a group G of item types not yet considered is selected. G is a nonempty subset of {1, . . . , m}, the set of all item types. In step 112 b - 2 , a computer sorts all bids entered for group G in the current round. The sorting is done: first, by bidder ID; second, by price parameter in the entered bid (in descending order); and third, by time stamp of submission (in descending order). In step 112 b - 3 , a computer selects, for each bidder i, the bid, Q G i , for group G with the highest price parameter (and then the latest time stamp). In step 112 b - 4 , a computer determines whether the aggregate quantity bid for group G is no greater than the available quantity, that is, whether: ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ⁢ ∑ k ∈ G ⁢ ⁢ Q k i ≤ Q _ G . If this inequality is not satisfied, then group G of item types has not yet cleared, and so the auction should continue. The process thus jumps immediately to step 114 of FIG. 4 . If the inequality of step 112 b - 4 is satisfied, the process then goes to step 112 b - 5 , where it is determined whether all groups G of item types have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 112 b - 1 . However, if all groups G of item types have already been considered, then it has been found that all groups G of item types have cleared, and so the auction should not continue. The process proceeds to step 118 of FIG. 4 , where the final message is generated. FIG. 9 c is a flow diagram of a subprocess of step 118 of FIG. 4 . It illustrates an exemplary process by which a computer determines final allocations and payments, in a system where bidders are permitted to submit Intra-Round Bids. FIG. 9 c begins with step 118 b - 1 , in which for each bid entered in the current round, a computer expresses the price parameter as a percentage of the distance from the previous round's price vector to the current round's price vector. For example, in the example discussed above, where the (end) price per unit associated with Round 4 was $1,000,000, and the (end) price per unit associated with Round 5 was $1,050,000, a bid with a price parameter corresponding to $1,020,000 would imply a percentage distance parameter of 40%. In step 118 b - 2 , a computer sorts the percentage distance parameters from smallest to largest, and denotes them π 1 <π 2 < . . . <π N . In step 118 b - 3 , a computer initializes the percentage distance parameter under consideration, denoted π, to be the smallest value, π 1 . In step 118 b - 4 , a group G of item types not yet considered is selected. In step 118 b - 5 , a computer sorts all bids entered for group G in the current round. The sorting is done: first, by bidder ID; second, by percentage distance parameter in the entered bid (in descending order); and third, by time stamp of submission (in descending order). In step 118 b - 6 , a computer selects, for each bidder i, the bid, Q G i , for group G with the highest percentage distance parameter that is less than or equal to π (and then the latest time stamp). In step 118 b - 7 , a computer determines whether the aggregate quantity bid for group G is no greater than the available quantity, that is, whether: ∑ i = 1 n ⁢ ∑ k ∈ G ⁢ Q k i ≤ Q _ G . If this inequality is not satisfied, then group G of item types has not yet cleared at percentage distance parameter π, and so π needs to be incremented. The process thus goes to step 118 b - 9 , where π is advanced to the next percentage distance parameter among π 1 <π 2 < . . . <π N . The process then loops back to step 118 b - 4 , using the new higher value for π and starting over for groups G of item types. If the inequality of step 118 b - 7 is satisfied, the process continues to step 118 b - 8 , where it is determined whether all groups G of item types have been considered. If not, the process loops back to step 118 b - 4 . However, if all groups G of item types have already been considered, then it has been found that all groups G of item types have cleared at percentage distance parameter π. Thus, the percentage distance parameter π implies market-clearing prices for the auction. The process proceeds to calculate the price vector implied by percentage distance parameter π, to note the quantities bid by all bidders at this price vector, and to incorporate these computations into a final message that is outputted from a machine. Observe that if the system and method for a dynamic clock auction with Intra-Round Bids is operated—but if the payment-account-calculation indicator of FIG. 5 is fixed at 0—this yields an embodiment of the present invention where bidders' payments are simply the dot products of their final bid vectors and the final price vector. Thus, the present invention also provides a fast and effective way to run a dynamic clock auction with a discrete round structure and uniform prices, practical use of the present invention.

The present invention implements an auction in which multiple types of goods may be auctioned in a dynamic process. In a preferred embodiment, the present invention is a system and method for a computer implemented dynamic multi-unit auction in which the price paid or received by bidders tends to be independent of their own bids, in which participants may be provided with information concerning their competitors' bids as the auction progresses, and in which the confidentiality of high values may be maintained. Participants' quantities bid at a given time may be restricted to be less than or equal to the quantities bid at an earlier time. These features provide the advantage of improving economic efficiency of the auction design over the prior art.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a musical tone generating apparatus used for generating musical tones in an electronic musical instrument, electronic music box or similar apparatus. Hitherto, a large number of electronic musical instruments utilizing digital technologies to reproduce musical tones have been proposed. Conventionally, such instruments generate a waveform amplitude value at each sample point of a musical tone waveform by various means. The amplitude waveform values are generated or read at a rate corresponding to a pitch frequency of the desired tone to be reproduced and applied to a DAC driving an audio transducer. One of the simplest methods employed is one which stores an amplitude value at each sample point for a whole waveform of a musical tone, from the beginning to the end, in a waveform memory and generates a musical tone waveform by sequentially reading out the amplitude values. Such a method is discussed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 52-121313. The merit of the method is that sound of a natural musical instrument can be reproduced by sampling at an adequate bit rate. Another known method stores only a fundamental waveform for parts of the whole musical tone waveform where there is little change in timbre. The values of the fundamental waveform are then repeatedly read to reproduce the desired tone. This method reduces a capacity of the waveform memory required by repeatedly reading out the stored values. Such a method is disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 59-30599. A drawback of the first method is that the required memory capacity for storing the waveform data becomes enormous, presenting a significant obstacle to miniaturizing the apparatus and lowering the cost thereof. The second method has a drawback in that it requires a large memory capacity to reproduce a so-called attack section where the change of the waveform is intense, similarly presenting an obstacle to miniaturizing the apparatus and lowering the cost thereof. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a musical tone generating apparatus capable of generating natural musical tones using a waveform memory having a relatively small capacity. Briefly stated, the present invention provides a musical tone generating apparatus capable of reproducing natural musical tones while having waveform memories of a nominal capacity. The apparatus comprises a first waveform memory 1a for storing first waveform data of one period of a stationary first waveform existing after an elapse of a certain period from the beginning of generation of a musical tone and a second waveform memory 1b for storing second waveform data of one period of a second waveform representing differential spectral components derived from spectral differences between a fundamental wave component and harmonic components of the non-stationary waveform determined immediately after the beginning of generation of the musical tone and a fundamental wave component and harmonic components of the first waveform. A first multiplier generates first multiplication data by multiplying the first waveform data with a first level coefficient which varies as a function of time and a second multiplier generates second multiplication data by multiplying the second waveform data with a second level coefficient which varies as a function of time. A level coefficient generator provides the first level coefficient and the second level coefficient while an adder sums the first multiplication data and the second multiplication data. The above, and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following description read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals designate the same elements. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a graph of musical tone waveforms; FIG. 3. is a graph of a spectrum related to musical tone waveforms; FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a graph of musical tone waveforms; FIG. 6 is a graph of other musical tone waveforms; and FIG. 7 is a graph of still other musical tone waveforms. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to FIGS. 2A, 2B and 3 the principle of a first embodiment of the present invention is presented as follows. A waveform "a" in FIG. 2A illustrates a level change of a waveform of a musical tone from an audible beginning until an attenuated ending thereof. FIG. 2B shows a waveform of one period of the musical waveform after an elapse of a sufficient time (at time t2) from the beginning of the musical waveform. FIG. 2C shows one period of a waveform starting at a beginning of the musical waveform (at time t1). While an initial portion of the musical waveform of a natural musical instrument having an attenuation, or decaying system characteristic, such as that of a music box, is complicated, containing a number of harmonic components, the harmonic components eventually decay and the waveform transforms to a monotonous waveform having a waveform shape close to that of a sine wave at the desired pitch as time elapses. Further, although a degree of change of the waveform is large immediately after the sounding, the degree of change of the waveform becomes small and the waveform itself becomes stable as time elapses. In other words, the waveform is non-stationary, or changing, immediately after the beginning of the musical tone and becomes stationary, or constant in shape, as a certain period elapses from the beginning of the musical tone. Referring to FIG. 3A, an average (stationary) spectrum at time t2 of the waveform of FIG. 2A is shown (illustrated by solid lines; hereinafter called "fundamental spectrum" for convenience) and a characteristic (non-stationary) spectrum at time t1 of the waveform of FIG. 2A is shown ( illustrated by dotted lines; hereinafter called "initial spectrum" for convenience). When the level change characteristic "a" of FIG. 2A is given to the waveform having the above-mentioned fundamental spectrum, differences d1, d2, d3, . . . etc. are produced at t1 with respect to the initial spectrum as shown in FIG. 3A. the difference d1 is a difference in level of the fundamental frequency component, or the fundamental wave f1, and dn is a difference in level of the frequency component at an nth order harmonic fn of the fundamental frequency. A relative difference between the differences d2, d3, . . . in each harmonic and the difference d1 in the fundamental wave is designated Dn, where Dn=dn-d1, and relative differential spectrum shown in FIG. 3B is obtained. A desired musical tone, produced by a music box, for example, is generated from stored waveform data of one period having the above-mentioned fundamental spectrum and waveform data of one period having the above-mentioned relative differential spectrum. The musical tone is generated by reading the data repeatedly and applying the level change characteristic "a", shown in FIG. 2A, to the former waveform data and the level change characteristic "b", also shown in FIG. 2A, to the latter waveform data, and adding them to each other. Referring to FIG. 1A, the first embodiment of the present invention has a waveform memory 1a into which is stored one period of waveform data having the above-mentioned fundamental spectrum (solid lines in FIG. 3A) and a waveform memory 1b into which is stored one period of waveform data having the above-mentioned relative differential spectrum Dn of FIG. 3B. Address counters 2a and 2b generate addresses for reading the waveform data out of the waveform memories 1a and 1b at a fixed rate corresponding to the frequency pitch. A level coefficient generating means 3a generates level coefficient data corresponding to level characteristic "a" in FIG. 2A for the waveform data read out of the waveform memory 1a. A level coefficient generating means 3b generates level coefficient data corresponding to level characteristic "b" in FIG. 2A for the waveform data readout of the waveform memory 1b. A multiplier 4a multiplies the waveform data from the waveform memory 1a with the level coefficient data from the level coefficient generating means 3a. A multiplier 4b multiplies the waveform data from the waveform memory 1b with the level coefficient data from the level coefficient generating means 3b. An adder 5 adds the multiplication data produced by the multipliers 4a and 4b. A D/A converter 6 converts the digital data from the adder 5 into analog data. Operation of the first embodiment of FIG. 1 entails storing musical tone data corresponding to desired musical tone needs in the waveform memories 1a and 1b as well as in the level coefficient generating means 3a and 3b prior to operating. The storage of the musical tone data requires execution of the following a method for forming the waveform data to be stored in the waveform memories 1a and 1b. Generally, the waveform data is formed based on the principle of Fourier transformation and inverse Fourier transformation. Initially, spectrum analysis is carried out on a certain section of waveform immediately after the beginning of the musical tone and on a certain section of waveform after an elapse of a predetermined time period from the beginning of the musical tone to find the fundamental wave components and the harmonic components for each portion of the waveform. The fundamental spectrum indicated by the solid lines in FIG. 3A and the initial spectrum indicated by the dotted lines in FIG. 3A are thus determined. Then, the relative differential spectrum shown in FIG. 3B is determined from the fundamental spectrum and the initial spectrum. When the fundamental wave component and each harmonic wave component are represented as Cn (where n is an integer 1 or more than 1) corresponding to the order thereof, the waveform data of one period Dm is represented as follows: ##EQU1## Where, q is a coefficient for optimizing an amplitude value, n is an order of the fundamental wave and each harmonic, N is the highest order, S is a number of data in the waveform memory, m is an integer from 0 to S-1 and φ n is a phase of the fundamental wave and nth order harmonic. Waveform data of one period corresponding respectively to the fundamental spectrum and the relative differential spectrum is thus found and is stored in the waveform memories 1a and 1b. Level coefficient data corresponding to characteristic "a" in FIG. 2A is stored in the level coefficient generating means 3a and level coefficient data corresponding to characteristic "b" in FIG. 2A is stored in the level coefficient generating means 3b, respectively, prior to musical tone generation. Generation of a musical tone begins with the waveform data stored in the waveform memories 1a and 1b being read at the fixed rate corresponding to the pitch frequency f by use of address signals from the address counters 2a and 2b. The reading rate is defined by a clock signal φ, where φ=f·S, which drives the address counters 2a and 2b. The multiplier 4a multiplies the waveform data form the waveform memory 1a by the level coefficient data (data corresponding to "a" in FIG. 2A) from the level coefficient generating means 3a and the multiplier 4b multiplies the waveform data from the waveform memory 1b by the level coefficient data (data corresponding to "b" in FIG. 2A) from the level coefficient generating means 3b. The adder 5 adds the multiplication data obtained by the multipliers 4a and 4b. The sum data from the adder 5 is then converted from digital to analog by the D/A converter 6. Thus, the desired musical tone output is produced. Note that although the above explanation has been made assuming the musical tone of the attenuation system such as the music box, it is of course possible to obtain not only the musical tone of the attenuation system but also various musical tones of trumpet, organ or the like. Further, it is also possible to store multiple types of data respectively in the waveform memories 1a and 1b and the level coefficient generation means 3a and 3b. Thereby, multiple types of musical tones are producible such as that of a piano, trumpet and pipe organ. Furthermore, if one type of waveform data is stored in the waveform memories 1a and 1b (e.g. piano data) and multiple types of data are stored in the level coefficient generating means 3a and 3b, sounds of pianos having a plurality of different tonal qualities are optionally generated. Referring to FIGS. 5A-5E, another method of the present invention uses various characteristics of a waveform of a musical tone from the beginning of sounding musical tones of a music box, or similar device, until the waveform attenuates. FIG. 5B shows one period of the waveform after an elapse of sufficient time from the beginning of the musical tone while FIG. 5C shows another single period of the waveform immediately after the beginning of the musical tone. While the initial waveform of the natural musical instrument of an attenuation system, such as a music box, is complicated, containing a number of harmonic components, the harmonic components attenuate and the waveform transforms to a monotonous waveform close in shape to a sine wave as time elapses. Further, although a degree of change of the waveform is large immediately after the sounding of the musical tone, the degree of change of the waveform becomes small and the waveform itself becomes stable as time elapses. That is, the waveform is non-stationary immediately after the beginning of the musical tone and becomes stationary as a certain period elapses since the beginning of generation of the musical tone. A desired musical tone, of a music box for example, is generated by storing waveform data representing the waveform periods of FIGS. 5B and 5C in advance, and then by reading the waveform data repeatedly, multiplying the waveform data represented in FIG. 5B by data representing the characteristic 1-k(t) in FIG. 5D, multiply the waveform data represented in FIG. 5C by data representing the characteristic k(t) in FIG. 6, and by multiplying a value, obtained by adding the both the above multiplication results, by data representing an envelope E(t) shown in FIG. 5E. Referring to FIG. 4, another embodiment of the present invention has a waveform memory 1a for storing the waveform data in FIG. 5B, data representing one period of the waveform data when the certain time has elapsed since the beginning of the sounding of the musical tone and a waveform memory 1b stores the waveform data in FIG. 5C, data representing the other single period of the waveform data immediately after the beginning of the sounding of the musical tone. Address counters 2a and 2b generate addresses for reading the waveform data out of the waveform memories 1a and 1b with a fixed rate corresponding to a pitch frequency. Level coefficient generating means 3 generates level coefficient data (data corresponding to the characteristics 1-k(t) and k(t) in FIG. 5D) for changing a synthesizing ratio of the waveform data read out of the waveform memories 1a and 1b. A multiplier 4a multiplies the waveform data from the waveform memory 1a with the level coefficient data (data corresponding to k(t) in FIG. 5D) from the level coefficient generating means 3. An adder 5 adds the multiplication data obtained by the multipliers 4a and 4b. Envelope generating means 6 generates the envelope data (data corresponding to E(t) in FIG. 5E) for providing a time-wise change of sound volume to the addition data obtained by the adder 5. A multiplier 7 multiplies the addition data from the adder 5 with the envelope data from the envelope generating means 6. A D/A converter 8 converts the digital data from the multiplier 7 into analog data. Prior to operation, data corresponding to a desired musical tone is stored in the waveform memories 1a and 1b as well as in the level coefficient generating means 3. A method for forming the waveform data (data corresponding to FIGS. 5B and 5C) to be stored in the waveform memories 1a ad 1b generally involves the use of Fourier transformations and inverse Fourier transformations. At first, spectrum analysis is carried out on the period of the waveform occurring immediately after the beginning of the sounding and on the other period of the waveform occurring after an elapse of the sufficient period since the beginning of the sounding of the musical tone to find fundamental wave components and harmonic components thereof for each. When the fundamental wave component and each of the harmonic components are represented as Cn (where n is an integer 1 or more than 1) corresponding to the order thereof, the waveform data of one period Dm is represented as follows: ##EQU2## where, q is a coefficient for optimizing an amplitude value, n is an order of the fundamental wave and each harmonic, N is the highest order, S is a number of data in the waveform memory, m is an integer from 0 to S-1 and φ n is a phase of the fundamental wave and nth order harmonic. Waveform data of one period corresponding respectively to FIGS. 5B and 5C is thus found and stored in the waveform memories 1a and 1b in advance. Level coefficient data (data corresponding to 1-k(t) and k(t) in FIG. 5D) is stored in the level coefficient generating means 3 in advance. The waveform data stored in the waveform memories 1a and 1b is read at the fixed rate corresponding to the pitch frequency f based on address signals from the address counters 2a and 2b. The reading rate is defined by a clock signal φ, where φ=f·S, which is input to the address counters 2a and 2b. The multiplier 4a multiplies the waveform data from the waveform memory 1a by the level coefficient data (data corresponding to 1-k(t) in FIG. 5D) from the level coefficient generating means 3 and the multiplier 4b multiplies the waveform data from the waveform memory 1b by the level coefficient data (data corresponding to k(t) in FIG. 5D) from the level coefficient generating means 3. The adder 5 adds the multiplication data obtained by the multipliers 4a and 4b. When the waveform data read out of the waveform memories 1a and 1b are da (φ, t) and db(φ,t), the addition data d output from the adder 5 is represented as follows: d=da(φ, t)·{1-k(t)}+db(φ, t)·k(t) where, k(t) is in the range 0 <k(t)<1. The multiplier 7 multiplies the addition data d from the adder 5 with the envelope data (data corresponding to E(t) in FIG. 5E) from the envelope generating means 6. The multiplication data d' output from the multiplier 7 is represented as follows: d'= da(φ, t)·{1-k(t)}+db(φ, t)·k(t)·E(t) The multiplication data d' is converted from digital to analog by the D/A converter 8. The desired musical tone output is obtained by the above method and apparatus. Note that although the above explanation has been made assuming mainly the musical tone of the attenuation system such as the music box, it is of course possible to obtain not only the musical tone of the attenuation system but also various musical tones such as those of a trumpet, an organ or other instruments. FIGS. 6A through 6E show waveforms of a trumpet and FIGS. 7A through 7E show waveforms of a pipe organ in correspondence with FIGS. 5A and 5E, respectively. Further, it is also possible to store multiple types of data respectively in the waveform memories 1a and 1b and in the level coefficient generating means 3. For example, if the waveform data corresponding respectively to FIG. 5B, FIG. 6B and FIG. 7B is stored in the waveform memory 1a, the waveform data corresponding respectively to FIG. 5C, FIG. 6C and FIG. 7C is stored in the waveform memory 1b, and the data corresponding respectively to FIG. 5D, FIG. 6D and FIG. 7D is stored in the level coefficient generating means 3 and the corresponding envelope is generated from the envelope generating means 6, three types of musical tones are optionally generated. Furthermore, if one type of waveform data is stored in the waveform memories 1a and 1b (e.g. "piano" data) and multiple types of data is stored in the level coefficient generating means 3, a sound of piano having a plurality of different tones, for example, are optionally generated. According to the present invention, it is possible to generate natural musical tones using waveform memories having a small capacity relative to those of other prior systems. As a result, the simple structure of the present invention can effectively simulate tones of a natural musical instrument. Having described preferred embodiments of the invention with reference to the accompanying drawings, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to those precise embodiments, and that various changes and modifications may be effected therein by one skilled in the art without departing from the scope or spirit of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

A musical tone generating apparatus is capable of reproducing natural musical tones while waveform memories of a nominal capacity. The apparatus comprises a first waveform memory 1a for storing first waveform data of one period of a stationary first waveform existing after an elapse of a certain period from the beginning of generation of a musical tone and a second waveform memory 1b for storing second waveform data of one period of a second waveform representing differential spectral components derived from spectral differences between a fundamental wave component and harmonic components of the non-stationary waveform determined immediately after the beginning of generation of the musical tone and a fundamental wave component and harmonic components of the first waveform. A first multiplier generates first multiplication data by multiplying the first waveform data with a first level coefficient which varies as a function of time and a second multiplier generates second multiplication data by multiplying the second waveform data with a second level coefficient which varies as a function of time. A level coefficient generator provides the first level coefficient and the second level coefficient while an adder sums the first multiplication data and the second multiplication data.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the priority benefit of provisional patent 61/615,884, “SIGNAL MODULATION METHOD RESISTANT TO ECHO REFLECTIONS AND FREQUENCY OFFSETS”, inventors Ronny Hadani and Shlomo Selim Rakib, filed Mar. 26, 2012; this application is also a continuation in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/117,119, ORTHONORMAL TIME-FREQUENCY SHIFTING AND SPECTRAL SHAPING COMMUNICATIONS METHOD, inventors Selim Shlomo Rakib and Ronny Hadani, filed May 26, 2011; Ser. No. 13/117,119 in turn claimed the priority benefit of US provisional application 61/349,619, “ORTHONORMAL TIME-FREQUENCY SHIFTING AND SPECTRAL SHAPING COMMUNICATIONS METHOD”, Inventors Selim Shlomo Rakib and Ronny Hadani, filed May 28, 2010; the contents of both applications are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention is in the general field of communications protocols and methods, and more specifically in methods of modulating communication signals that are resistant to echo reflections, frequency offsets, and other communications channel impairments. 2. Description of the Related Art Modern electronics communications, such as optical fiber communications, electronic wire or cable based communications, and wireless communications all operate by modulating signals and sending these signals over their respective optical fiber, wire/cable, or wireless mediums. These signals, which generally travel at or near the speed of light, can be subjected to various types of degradation or channel impairments. For example, echo signals can potentially be generated by optical fiber or wire/cable medium whenever the modulated signal encounters junctions in the optical fiber or wire/cable. Echo signals can also potentially be generated when wireless signals bounce off of wireless reflecting surfaces, such as the sides of buildings, and other structures. Similarly frequency shifts can occur when the optical fiber or wire/cable pass through different regions of fiber or cable with somewhat different signal propagating properties or different ambient temperatures; for wireless signals, signals transmitted to or from a moving vehicle can encounter Doppler effects that also result in frequency shifts. Additionally, the underlying equipment (i.e. transmitters and receivers) themselves do not always operate perfectly, and can produce frequency shifts as well. These echo effects and frequency shifts are unwanted, and if such shifts become too large, can result in lower rates of signal transmission, as well as higher error rates. Thus methods to reduce such echo effects and frequency shifts are of high utility in the communications field. In parent application Ser. No. 13/117,119, a novel method of wireless signal modulation was proposed operated by spreading data symbols over a larger range of times, frequencies, and spectral shapes (waveforms) than was previously employed by prior art methods (e.g. greater than such methods as Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM), or other methods). This newer method, which in Ser. No. 13/117,119 was termed “Orthonormal Time-Frequency Shifting and Spectral Shaping (OTFSSS)”, and which here will be referred to by the simpler “OTFS” abbreviation, operated by sending data in larger “chunks” or frames than previous methods. That is, while a prior art CDMA or OFDM method might encode and send units or frames of “N” symbols over a communications link over a set interval of time, the Ser. No. 13/117,119 invention would typically be based on a minimum unit or frame of N 2 symbols, and often transmit these N 2 symbols over longer periods of time. With OTFS modulation, each data symbol or element that is transmitted is spread out to a much greater extent in time, frequency, and spectral shape space than was the case for prior art methods. As a result, at the receiver end, it will generally would take longer to start to resolve the value of any given data symbol because this symbol must be gradually built-up or accumulated as the full frame of N 2 symbols are received. Put alternatively, parent application Ser. No. 13/117,119 taught a wireless combination time, frequency and spectral shaping communications method that transmitted data in convolution unit matrices (data frames) of N×N (N 2 ), where generally either all N 2 data symbols are received over N spreading time intervals (each composed of N time slices), or none are. To determine the times, waveforms, and data symbol distribution for the transmission process, the N 2 sized data frame matrix would be multiplied by a first N×N time-frequency shifting matrix, permuted, and then multiplied by a second N×N spectral shaping matrix, thereby mixing each data symbol across the entire resulting N×N matrix (termed the TFSSS data matrix in '119). Columns from this N 2 TFSSS data matrix were then selected, modulated, and transmitted, on a one element per time slice basis. At the receiver, the replica TFSSS matrix was reconstructed and deconvoluted, revealing the data. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In the present application, we have both revised and extended the earlier OTFS modulation scheme testing to more fully cover additional types of communications media (i.e. optical, electronic wire/cable, as well as wireless). Additionally, we have also expanded upon the earlier OTFS concepts, and have explored in additional detail how advanced signal modulation schemes utilizing cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms can be quite useful for correcting channel impairments in a broad range of situations. According to the present extension of the earlier '119 OTFS concept, in some embodiments, the invention may be a method of transferring a plurality of data symbols using a signal modulated to allow automatic compensation for the signal impairment effects of echo reflections and frequency offsets. This method will generally comprise distributing this plurality of data symbols into one or more N×N symbol matrices, and using these one or more N×N symbol matrices to control the signal modulation of a transmitter. Here, at the transmitter, for each N×N symbol matrix, the transmitter uses each data symbol to weight N waveforms. These N waveforms are selected from a N 2 sized set of all permutations of N cyclically time shifted and N cyclically frequency shifted waveforms determined according to an encoding matrix U. The net result produces, for each data symbol, N symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms. Generally this encoding matrix U is chosen to be an N×N unitary matrix that has a corresponding inverse decoding matrix U H . Essentially this constraint means that the encoding matrix U produces results that can ultimately be decoded. Again at the transmitter, for each data symbol in the N×N symbol matrix, the transmitter will sum the corresponding N symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms, and by the time that the entire N×N symbol matrix is so encoded, produce N 2 summation-symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms. The transmitter will then transmit these N 2 summation-symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms, structured as N composite waveforms, over any combination of N time blocks or frequency blocks. To receive and decode this transmission, the transmitted N 2 summation-symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms are subsequently received by a receiver which is controlled by the corresponding decoding matrix U H . The receiver will then use this decoding matrix U H to reconstruct the original symbols in the various N×N symbol matrices. This process of transmission and reception will normally be done by various electronic devices, such as a microprocessor equipped, digital signal processor equipped, or other electronic circuit that controls the convolution and modulation parts of the signal transmitter. Similarly the process of receiving and demodulation will also generally rely upon a microprocessor equipped, digital signal processor equipped, or other electronic circuit that controls the demodulation, accumulation, and deconvolution parts of the signal receiver. Although, because often wireless transmitters and receivers lend themselves to discussion, in this specification often wireless examples will be used, it should be understood that these examples are not intended to be limiting. In alternative embodiments, the transmitter and receiver may be optical/optical-fiber transmitters and receivers, electronic wire or cable transmitters and receivers, or other types of transmitters in receivers. In principle, more exotic signal transmission media, such as acoustic signals and the like, may also be done using the present methods. As previously discussed, regardless of the media (e.g. optical, electrical signals, or wireless signals) used to transmit the various waveforms, these waveforms can be distorted or impaired by various signal impairments such as various echo reflections and frequency shifts. As a result, the receiver will often receive a distorted form of the original signal. Here, the invention makes use of the insight that cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms are particularly useful for detecting and correcting for such distortions. Because the communications signal propagates trough its respective communications media at a finite speed (often at or near the speed of light), and because the distance from the original transmitter to the receiver is usually substantially different than the distance between the transmitter, the place(s) where the echo is generated, and the distance between the place(s) where the echo is generated and the receiver, the net effect of echo reflections is that at the receiver, both the original transmitted waveforms, and a time-shifted version of the original waveforms, are received, resulting in a distorted composite signal. By using cyclically time shifted waveforms, however, a time deconvolution device at the receiver can analyze the cyclically time varying patterns of the waveforms, determine the repeating patterns, and use these repeating patterns to help decompose the echo distorted signal back into various time-shifted version of the various signals. The time deconvolution device can also determine how much of a time-offset (or multiple time offsets) is or are required to enable the time delayed echo signal(s) to match up with the original or direct signal. This time offset value, here called a time deconvolution parameter, can both give useful information as to the relative position of the echo location(s) relative to the transmitter and receiver, and can also help the system characterize some of the signal impairments that occur between the transmitter and receiver. This can help the communications system automatically optimize itself for better performance. In addition to echo reflections, other signal distortions occur that can result in one or more frequency shifts. Here, an easy to understand example is the phenomenon of Doppler shifts. Doppler shift or Doppler effects are the change in wave frequency that occurs when a wave transmitter moves closer or further away from a wave receiver. These frequency shifts can occur, for example, when a wireless mobile transmitter moves towards or away from a stationary receiver. If the wireless mobile transmitter is moving towards the stationary receiver, the wireless waveforms that it transmits will be offset to higher frequencies, which can cause confusion if the receiver is expecting signals modulated at a lower frequency. An even more confusing result can occur if the wireless mobile transmitter is moving perpendicular to the receiver, and there is also an echo source (such as a building) in the path of the wireless mobile transmitter. Due to Doppler effects, the echo source receives a blue shifted (higher frequency) version of the original signal, and reflects this blue shifted (higher frequency) version of the original signal to the receiver. As a result, the receiver will receive both the direct wireless waveforms at the original lower frequency, and also a time-delayed higher frequency version of the original wireless waveforms, causing considerable confusion. Here the use of cyclically time shifted waveforms and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms can also help solve this type of problem, because the cyclic variation provides important pattern matching information that can allow the receiver to determine what portions of the received signal were distorted, as well as how much distortion was involved. Here, these cyclically varying signals allow the receiver to do a two-dimensional (e.g. time and frequency) deconvolution of the received signal. For example, the frequency deconvolution portion of the receiver can analyze the cyclically frequency varying patterns of the waveforms, essentially do frequency pattern matching, and decompose the distorted signal into various frequency shifted versions of the various signals. At the same time, this portion of the receiver can also determine how much of a frequency offset is required to cause the frequency distorted signal match up with the original or direct signal. This frequency offset value, here called a “frequency deconvolution parameter”, can give useful information as to the transmitter's velocity relative to the receiver. It can help the system characterize some of the frequency shift signal impairments that occur between the transmitter and receiver. As before, the time deconvolution part of the receiver can analyze the cyclically time varying patterns of the waveforms, again do time pattern matching, and decompose the echo distorted signal back into various time-shifted versions of the original signal. The time deconvolution portion of the receiver can also determine how much of a time-offset is required to cause the time delayed echo signal to match up with the original or direct signal. This time offset value, again called a “time deconvolution parameter”, can also give useful information as to the relative positions of the echo location(s), and can also help the system characterize some of the signal impairments that occur between the transmitter and receiver. The net effect of both the time and frequency deconvolution, when applied to transmitters, receivers, and echo sources that potentially exist at different distances and velocities relative to each other, is to allow the receiver to properly interpret the impaired echo and frequency shifted communications signals. Further, even if, at the receiver, the energy received from the un-distorted form of the original transmitted signal is so low as to have a undesirable signal to noise ratio, by applying the appropriate, appropriate time and frequency offsets or deconvolution parameters, the energy from the time and/or frequency shifted versions of the signals, which would otherwise be contributing to noise, can instead be harnessed to contribute to the signal instead. As before, the time and frequency deconvolution parameters can also provide useful information as to the relative positions and velocities of the echo location(s) relative to the transmitter and receiver, as well as the various velocities between the transmitter and receiver. These in turn can help the system characterize some of the signal impairments that occur between the transmitter and receiver, as well as assist in automatic system optimization methods. Thus in some embodiments, the invention may also provide a method for an improved communication signal receiver where, due to either one or the combination of echo reflections and frequency offsets, multiple signals due to echo reflections and frequency offsets result in the receiver receiving a time and/or frequency convoluted signal representing time and/or frequency shifted versions of the N 2 summation-symbol-weighed cyclically time shifted and frequency shifted waveforms previously sent by the transmitter. Here, the improved receiver will further perform a time and/or frequency deconvolution of the impaired signal to correct for various echo reflections and frequency offsets. This improved receiver method will result in both time and frequency deconvoluted results (i.e. signals with higher quality and lower signal to noise ratios), as well as various time and frequency deconvolution parameters that, in addition to automatic communications channel optimization, are also useful for other purposes as well. These other purposes can include channel sounding (i.e. better characterizing the various communication system signal impairments), adaptively selecting modulation methods according to the various signal impairments, and even improvements in radar systems. Other extensions of the '119 OTFS methods, such as alternate methods of sending blocks of waveforms, will also be discussed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows an example of how transmitting cyclically time shifted waveforms can be useful to help a receiver perform time deconvolution of the received signal in order to compensate for various types of echo reflections. FIG. 2 shows an example of how transmitting both cyclically time shifted waveforms and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms can be useful to help a receiver to perform both time and frequency of the received signal to compensate for both echo reflections and frequency shifts—in this example Doppler effect frequency shifts. FIG. 3 shows an example of some of the basic building blocks (base vector, data vectors, Fourier Vector and Transmit vectors) that may be used to generate the cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms. FIG. 4 shows a diagram of a cyclic time and frequency shifting transmitting method that may be used to encode and transmit data. FIG. 5 shows a diagram of a cyclic time and frequency shifting receiving method that may be used to receive data. FIG. 6A shows that the various composite waveform blocks transmitted by the transmitter can be either transmitted as a series of N consecutive time blocks (i.e. no other blocks in-between) or alternatively can be transmitted either time-interleaved with the blocks from a different symbol matrix (which in some cases may be from a different transmitter). Alternatively these waveform blocks may be frequency transposed to a one or more very different frequency ranges, and transmitted in parallel at the same time. FIG. 6B shows that the various composite waveform blocks transmitted by the transmitter can be either transmitted as shorter duration time blocks over one or more wider frequency ranges, or as longer duration time blocks over one or more narrower frequency ranges. FIG. 7 shows an example of a transmitter transmitting a series of N consecutive time blocks. In some embodiments, the transmitter may further incorporate a pre-equalization step to pre-compensate for various communications channel impairments such as echo reflections and frequency shifts. FIG. 8A shows an example of improved receiver that mathematically compensates for the effects of echo reflections and frequency shifts. This time and frequency deconvolution series of math operations can additionally output deconvolution parameters that can also give information pertaining to the extent to which the echo reflections and frequency shifts distorted the underlying signal. FIG. 8B shows an example of an improved receiver that utilizes a time and frequency deconvolution device to correct for the effects of echo reflections and frequency shifts. This time and frequency deconvolution device can additionally output deconvolution parameters that can also give information pertaining to the extent to which the echo reflections and frequency shifts distorted the underlying signal. FIG. 9A shows an example of how echo reflections and frequency shifts can blur or impair or distort the transmitted signal. FIG. 9B shows an example of an adaptive linear equalizer that may be used to correct for such distortions. FIG. 9C shows an example of an adaptive decision feedback equalizer that may be used to correct for such distortions. FIG. 10 shows a time-frequency graph giving a visualization of the various echo (time shifts) and frequency shifts that a signal may encounter during transmission. This can also be called the channel impulse response. FIG. 11 shows an example of the functions that the feed forward (FF) portion of the adaptive decision feedback equalizer performs. FIG. 12 shows an example of the functions of the Feedback (FB) portion of the adaptive decision feedback equalizer in action. FIG. 13 shows that it may be useful to transmit various different time blocks in an interleaved scheme where the time needed to transmit all N blocks may vary between different data matrices D, and wherein the interleaving scheme is such as to take the latency, that is the time needed to transmit all N blocks, into account according to various optimization schemes. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Matrix notation: In certain places, to better convey the fact that a number of the software controlled transmitter and receiver functions can be more precisely expressed using matrix mathematics notation, often the N×N matrices such as “D”, “U”, and the like will be expressed using matrix bracket notation such as [D] or [U]. Note however that, in general, if the text refers a particular N×N matrix either with or without the bracket notation, the intent and results are the same. The use of brackets is intended only as a way to make the underlying N×N matrix nature of that particular matrix (e.g. D or [D]) more apparent on initial reading. As previously discussed in parent application Ser. No. 13/117,119, in one embodiment, the OTFS methods may be viewed as being a method of transmitting at least one N×N matrix of data symbols (i.e. one frame of data [D]) over a communications link, where each frame of data is a matrix of up to N 2 data elements or symbols, and N would be greater than 1. This method would generally comprise obtaining a hybrid analog and digital wireless transmitter, both usually microprocessor controlled, and assigning each data element to a unique waveform (corresponding waveform) which is derived from a basic waveform of duration N time slices over one spreading time interval (i.e. the time needed to send one block of data), with a data element specific combination of a time and frequency cyclic shift of this basic waveform. According to this method, each data element in the frame of data [D] would be multiplied by its corresponding waveform producing N 2 weighted unique waveforms. Here, over one spreading time interval, all N 2 weighted unique waveforms corresponding to each data element in the fame of data [D] are then simultaneously combined, and a different unique basic waveform of duration N time slices may be used for each consecutive time-spreading interval. Here, the notion of a time-slice will be somewhat deemphasized. Here, the main criteria is that depending on the waveforms used, the time expended to transmit the waveforms (previously termed N time slices) should be long enough, with respect to the waveform(s) to allow the waveforms to be fully transmitted. The '119 concept of a time spreading interval can be understood as the length of time needed to adequately transmit these waveforms. This was previously also termed equivalent to N time slices. In the present terminology, this may be understood a corresponding to the time needed to transmit a time block of data. '119 taught that typically, for each consecutive time spreading interval, a set of N unique waveforms would be used, and this set of N unique waveforms would generally form an orthonormal basis. '119 also taught that to receive this data, the receiver would receive at least one frame of data [D] over the communications link, said frame of data comprising a matrix of up to N 2 data elements, again N being greater than 1. The receiver would in turn correlate the received signal with the set of all N 2 waveforms previously assigned to each data element by the transmitter for that specific time spreading interval, and produce a unique correlation score for each one of the N 2 data elements. Then for each data element, the receiver would sum these correlation scores over N time-spreading intervals. The summation of these correlation scores would then reproduce the N 2 data elements of the at least one frame of data [D]. More specifically Ser. No. 13/117,119 taught a method of transmitting and receiving at least one N×N frame of data ([D]) over a wireless communications link; where the frame of data comprising a matrix of up to N 2 data elements, N being greater than 1. Here, the data elements of the frame of data ([D]) were convoluted (in the present application, the alternate term “encoded” is generally used instead for this to avoid confusion with the present teaching of time and frequency deconvolution methods) so that the value of each data element, when transmitted, would be spread over a plurality of wireless waveforms, each waveform having a characteristic frequency, and each waveform carrying the convoluted (encoded) results from a plurality of data elements from the data frame. The '119 method would transmit the convoluted (encoded) results by cyclically shifting the frequency of this plurality of wireless waveforms over a plurality of times so that the value of each data element is transmitted as a plurality of cyclically frequency shifted waveforms sent over a plurality of times. The method would also receive and deconvolute (decode) this plurality of cyclically frequency shifted waveforms sent over a plurality of times, thereby reconstructing a replica of said at least one frame of data ([D]). '119 also taught the constraint that this convolution and deconvolution would be such that an arbitrary data element of an arbitrary frame of data ([D]) could not be guaranteed to be reconstructed with full accuracy until substantially all of said plurality of cyclically frequency shifted waveforms have been transmitted and received. Here this constraint is somewhat relaxed since error correction methods can, in principle, supply some missing data. However the general thought that a substantial majority of the waveforms should be transmitted and received still remains. '119 also taught that generally each data element (symbol) would be assigned a unique waveform, often derived from a basic waveform of duration N time slices over one spreading time interval, with a data element specific combination of a time and frequency cyclic shift of said basic waveform. '119 also taught further multiplying this data element from the frame of data [D] by its corresponding waveform, producing N 2 weighted unique waveforms. In some embodiments of '119, over one spreading time interval, all N 2 weighted unique waveforms corresponding to each data element in the fame of data [D] would be simultaneously combined. '119 also taught as well that often a different unique basic waveform of duration N time slices could be used for each consecutive time-spreading interval. Generally a set of N unique waveforms could be used for each consecutive time-spreading interval (e.g. a time block according to present nomenclature), and this set of N unique waveforms would form an orthonormal basis. In the present application, the basic '119 OTFS concept is generalized and extended, with particular emphasis to showing, in more detail, the advantages and applications of using cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms. To do this, it is useful to focus less on the matrix math used to generate the complex waveforms, and more on the underlying cyclic time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted nature of the waveforms. As a result, in the present application, the matrix math discussion of '119, although still useful as one specific method of producing the cyclic time shifted and cyclic frequency shifted waveforms, will be deemphasized, although parts of the earlier discussion will be reiterated. For a more complete discussion of various exemplary matrix math methods potentially suitable for some embodiments of the present invention, please refer to Ser. No. 13/117,119, incorporated herein by reference. FIG. 1 shows an example of how transmitting cyclically time shifted waveforms can be useful to help a receiver perform time deconvolution of the received signal in order to compensate for various types of echo reflections. Here, remember that the various signals all travel at a finite speed (often at or near the speed of light). In FIG. 1 , a wireless transmitter ( 100 ) is transmitting a complex cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted wireless waveform ( 102 ) in multiple directions. Some of these signals ( 104 ) go directly to the receiver ( 106 ). Other signals ( 108 ) bounce off of a wireless reflector, such as a building ( 107 ). These “echo” reflections ( 110 ) have to travel a longer distance to reach receiver ( 106 ), and thus end up being time delayed. As a result, receiver ( 106 ) receives a distorted signal ( 112 ) that is the summation of both the original ( 104 ) and the echo waveforms ( 110 ). However since the invention relies on the transmission of cyclically time shifted waveforms, a time deconvolution device at the receiver (alternatively a time equalizer) ( 114 ) can analyze the cyclically time varying patterns of the waveforms, essentially do pattern matching, and decompose the rather complex and distorted signal back into various time-shifted versions ( 116 ) corresponding to ( 104 ), and ( 118 ) corresponding to ( 110 ) of the various signals. At the same time, the time deconvolution device ( 114 ) can also determine how much of a time-offset ( 120 ) is required to cause the time delayed echo signal ( 118 ), ( 110 ) to match up with the original or direct signal ( 116 ), ( 104 ). This time offset value ( 120 ), here called a time deconvolution parameter, can give useful information as to the relative position of the echo location(s) relative to the transmitter and receiver, and can also help the system characterize some of the signal impairments that occur between the transmitter and receiver. FIG. 2 shows an example of how transmitting both cyclically time shifted waveforms and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms can be useful to help a receiver to perform both time and frequency of the received signal to compensate for both echo reflections and frequency shifts—in this example Doppler effect frequency shifts. In FIG. 2 , a moving wireless transmitter ( 200 ) is again transmitting a complex cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted wireless waveform ( 202 ) in multiple directions. Here, for simplicity, assume that transmitter ( 200 ) is moving perpendicular to receiver ( 206 ) so that it is neither moving towards nor away from the receiver, and thus there are no Doppler frequency shifts relative to the receiver ( 206 ). Here also assume that the transmitter ( 200 ) is moving towards a wireless reflector, such as a building ( 207 ), and thus the original wireless waveform ( 202 ) will be, by Doppler effects, shifted towards a higher frequency (blue shifted) relative to the reflector ( 207 ). Thus those these signals ( 204 ) that go directly to the receiver ( 206 ) will, in this example, not be frequency shifted. However the Doppler shifted wireless signals ( 208 ) that bounce off of the wireless reflector, here again building ( 207 ), will echo off in a higher frequency shifted form. These higher frequency shifted “echo” reflections ( 210 ) also still have to travel a longer distance to reach receiver ( 206 ), and thus also end up being time delayed as well. As a result, receiver ( 206 ) receives a doubly distorted signal ( 212 ) that is the summation of both the original ( 204 ) and the time and frequency shifted echo waveforms ( 210 ). However since, as before, the invention relies on the transmission of cyclically time shifted waveforms, a time and frequency deconvolution device (alternatively a time and frequency adaptive equalizer) at the receiver ( 214 ) can analyze the cyclically time varying and frequency varying patterns of the waveforms, essentially do pattern matching, and decompose the very complex and distorted signal back into various time-shifted and frequency shifted versions ( 216 ) corresponding to ( 204 ), and ( 218 ) corresponding to ( 210 ) of the various signals. At the same time, the time and frequency deconvolution device ( 214 ) can also determine how much of a time-offset ( 220 ) and frequency offset ( 222 ) is required to cause the time delayed and frequency shifted echo signal ( 218 ), ( 210 ) to match up with the original or direct signal ( 216 ), ( 204 ). This time offset value ( 220 ), here called a time deconvolution parameter, and frequency offset value ( 222 ), here called a frequency deconvolution parameter, can give useful information as to the relative position of the echo location(s) relative to the transmitter and receiver, and can also help the system characterize some of the signal impairments that occur between the transmitter and receiver. The net effect of both time and frequency deconvolutions, when applied to transmitters, receivers, and echo sources that potentially exist at different distances and velocities relative to each other, is to allow the receiver to properly interpret the impaired signal. Here, even if the energy received in the primary signal is too low, with the application of appropriate time and frequency offsets or deconvolution parameters, the energy from the time and/or frequency shifted versions of the signals can be added to the primary signal, resulting in a less noisy and more reliable signal at the receiver. Additionally, the time and frequency deconvolution parameters can useful information as to the relative positions and velocities of the echo location(s) relative to the transmitter and receiver, as well as the various velocities between the transmitter and receiver, and can also help the system characterize some of the signal impairments that occur between the transmitter and receiver. Thus in some embodiments, the invention may also be a method to provide an improved receiver where, due to either one or the combination of echo reflections and frequency offsets, multiple signals due to echo reflections and frequency offsets result in the receiver receiving a time and/or frequency convoluted signal representing time and/or frequency shifted versions of the N 2 summation-symbol-weighed cyclically time shifted and frequency shifted waveforms. Here, the improved receiver will further time and/or frequency deconvolute the time and/or frequency convoluted signal to correct for said echo reflections and frequency offsets. This will result in both time and frequency deconvoluted results (i.e. signals, typically of much higher quality and lower signal to noise ratio), as well as various time and frequency deconvolution parameters that, as will be discussed, are useful for a number of other purposes. Before going into a more detailed discussion of other applications, however, it is useful to first discuss the various waveforms in more detail. The invention generally utilizes waveforms produced by distributing plurality of data symbols into one or more N×N symbol matrices, and using these one or more N×N symbol matrices to control the signal modulation of a transmitter. Here, for each N×N symbol matrix, the transmitter may use each data symbol to weight N waveforms, selected from a N 2 sized set of all permutations of N cyclically time shifted and N cyclically frequency shifted waveforms determined according to an encoding matrix U, thus producing N symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms for each data symbol. This encoding matrix U is chosen to be an N×N unitary matrix that has a corresponding inverse decoding matrix U H . The method will further, for each data symbol in the N×N symbol matrix, sum the N symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms, producing N 2 summation-symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms. According to the invention, the transmitter will transmit these N 2 summation-symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms, structured as N composite waveforms, over any combination of N time blocks or frequency blocks. Although a number of different schemes may be used to implement this method, here it is useful to briefly review some of the methods previously discussed in '119. Although not intended to be limiting, the method's and schemes of '119 provide one way to implement the present invention's modulation scheme. As previously discussed, in parent application Ser. No. 13/117,119, again incorporated herein by reference, various waveforms can be used to transmit and receive at least one frame of data [D] (composed of a matrix of up to N 2 data symbols or elements) over a communications link. Here each data symbol may be assigned a unique waveform (designated a corresponding waveform), which is derived from a basic waveform. For example, the data symbols of the data matrix [D] may be spread over a range of cyclically varying time and frequency shifts by assigning each data symbol to a unique waveform (corresponding waveform) which is derived from a basic waveform of length N time slices (in the present application the preferred terminology would be the time required to transmit this waveform, such as a time block), with a data symbol specific combination of a time and frequency cyclic shift of this basic waveform. In '119, each symbol in the frame of data [D] is multiplied by its corresponding waveform, producing a series of N 2 weighted unique waveforms. Over one spreading time interval (or time block interval), all N 2 weighted unique waveforms corresponding to each data symbol in the fame of data [D] are simultaneously combined and transmitted. Further, a different unique basic waveform of length (or duration) of one time block (N time slices) may be used for each consecutive time-spreading interval (consecutive time block). Thus a different unique basic waveform corresponding to one time block may be used for each consecutive time-spreading interval, and this set of N unique waveforms generally forms an orthonormal basis. Essentially, each symbol of [D] is transmitted (in part) again and again either over all N time blocks, or alternatively over some combination of time blocks and frequency blocks (e.g. assigned frequency ranges). In '119, to receive data over each time block of time, the received signal is correlated with the set of all N 2 waveforms previously assigned to each data symbol by the transmitter for that specific time block. (Thus just like other encoding/decoding methods, where the receiver has knowledge of the set of N 2 waveforms that the transmitter will assign to each data symbol). Upon performing this correlation, the receiver may produce a unique correlation score for each one of the N 2 data symbols. This process will be repeated over some combination of time blocks and frequency blocks until all N blocks are received. The original data matrix [D] can thus be reconstructed by the receiver by, for each data symbol, summing the correlation scores over N time blocks or frequency blocks, and this summation of the correlation scores will reproduce the N 2 data symbols of the frame of data [D]. '119 FIG. 3 shows an example of some of the basic building blocks (base vector, data vectors, Fourier Vector and Transmit vectors) that may be used to encode and decode data according to the invention. Here the data vector ( 300 ) can be understood as being N symbols (often one row, column, or diagonal) of the N×N [D] matrix, the base vector ( 302 ) can be understood as being N symbols (often one row, column, or diagonal) of an N×N [U 1 ] matrix, the Fourier vector ( 304 ) can be understood as being N symbols (often one row, column, or diagonal) of an N×N [U 2 ] matrix, which will often be a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) or Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT) matrix. The transmit vector ( 306 ) can be understood as controlling the transmitter's scanning or selection process, and the transmit frame ( 308 ) is composed of units Tm ( 310 ) each of which is essentially a time block or spreading time interval, which itself may be viewed as composed of a plurality of time slices. Thus the transmit vector can be understood as containing N single time-spreading intervals or N time blocks ( 122 ) ( 310 ), which in turn are composed of multiple (such as N) time slices. Note that in contrast to '119, in some embodiments of the present invention, some of these N time blocks may be transmitted non-consecutively, or alternatively some of these N time blocks may be frequency shifted to an entirely different frequency range, and transmitted in parallel with other time blocks from the original set of N time blocks in order to speed up transmission time. This is discussed later and in more detail in FIG. 6 . Here, as previously discussed, to allow us to focus more on the underlying cyclically time shifted and cyclically shifted waveforms, the detailed aspects of one embodiment of a suitable modulation scheme, such as those previously discussed in more detail in parent application Ser. No. 13/117,119, will often be generalized and also discussed in simplified form. Thus here, for example, one way to implement the present method of “selecting from an N 2 set of all permutations of N cyclically time shifted and N cyclically frequency shifted waveforms” may correspond, at least in part, to an optional permutation operation P as well as to the other steps discussed in '119 and briefly reviewed here in FIGS. 3-5 . Additionally, the N 2 set of all permutations of N cyclically time shifted and N cyclically frequency shifted waveforms may be understood, for example, to be at least partially described by a Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) matrix or an Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform matrix (IDFT). This DFT and IDFT matrix can be used by the transmitter, for example, to take a sequence of real or complex numbers and modulate them into a series of different waveforms. As one example, the individual rows for the DFT and IDFT matrix that can be used to generate these N cyclically time shifted and N cyclically frequency shifted waveforms can be understood as Fourier Vectors. In general, the Fourier vectors may create complex sinusoidal waveforms of the type: X j k = ⅇ ( - ⅈ * 2 * π * j * k ) N where, for an N×N DFT matrix, X is the coefficient of the Fourier vector in row k column N of the DFT matrix, and j is the column number. The products of this Fourier vector can be considered to be one example of the how the various time shifted and frequency shifted waveforms suitable for use in the present invention may be generated, but again this specific example is not intended to be limiting. In FIG. 3 , the lines ( 312 ) indicate that each Fourier vector waveform ( 304 ) is manifested over the spreading time interval T m ( 310 ), which here corresponds to one time block. FIG. 4 shows a diagram of one example of a cyclic convolution method that a transmitter can use to encode data and transmit data. As previously discussed in '119, particularly in the case where [U 1 ] is composed of a cyclically permuted Legendre number of length N, then on a matrix math level, the process of convoluting the data and scanning the data can be understood alternatively as being a cyclic convolution of the underlying data. Here the d 0 , d k , d N−1 can be understood as being the symbols or symbols of the data vector ( 300 ) component of the [D] matrix, the b m coefficients can be understood as representing the base vector ( 302 ) components of the [U 1 ] matrix, and the X coefficients can be understood as representing the Fourier vector ( 304 ) components of the [U 2 ] matrix. In FIG. 4 , the sum of the various [b m *X k ] can also be termed a “composite waveform”. Thus the full [D] matrix of symbols will ultimately be transmitted as N composite waveforms. FIG. 5 shows a diagram of a cyclic deconvolution method that a receiver may use to decode the received data according to the second form of the invention. Again, as previously discussed in '119, particularly in the case where [U 1 ] is composed of a cyclically permuted Legendre number of length N, then the matrix math process of deconvoluting the data and reconstructing the data, that represents some of the methods used by the receiver, can be understood alternatively as being a cyclic deconvolution (cyclic decoding) of the transmitted data previously convoluted (encoded) in FIG. 4 . Here the ˜d 0 , ˜d k , ˜d N−1 can be understood as being the reconstructed symbols (symbols) of the data vector ( 400 ) component of the [D] matrix, the b m coefficients again can be understood as representing the base vector ( 302 ) components of the [U 1 ] matrix, and the X coefficients can again be understood as representing the Fourier vector ( 304 ) components of the [U 2 ] matrix. Here (R m ) ( 402 ) is a portion of the accumulated signal ( 230 ) received and demodulated by the receiver. Although '119 mainly focused on the example where the various waveforms were sent in a time sequential manner, here other possibilities will be discussed in more detail. FIG. 6A shows that the various waveform blocks transmitted by the transmitter ( 600 ) can be transmitted as a series of N consecutive time blocks (i.e. no other blocks inbetween). These consecutive time blocks can either be contiguous (i.e. with minimal or no time gaps inbetween various waveform blocks) ( 602 ) or they can be sparsely contiguous ( 604 ) (i.e. with time gaps between the various waveform bocks, which may in some embodiments be used for synchronization, hand shaking, listening for other transmitters, channel assessment and other purposes. Alternatively, the various waveform time blocks can be transmitted either time-interleaved with the blocks from one or more different symbol matrices ( 606 , 608 ) (which in some cases may be from a different transmitter) in a contiguous or sparse interleaved manner ( 610 ). As yet another alternative, some of the various waveform time blocks may be frequency transposed to entirely different frequency bands or ranges ( 612 ), ( 614 ), ( 616 ). This can speed up transmission time, because now multiple waveform time blocks can now be transmitted at the same time as different frequency blocks. As shown in ( 618 ) and ( 620 ), such multiple frequency band transmissions can also be done on a contiguous, sparse contiguous, contiguous interleaved, or sparse contiguous interleaved manner. Here ( 622 ) and ( 628 ) represents one time block, and ( 624 ) and ( 630 ) represents the next time block. Here the various frequency ranges ( 612 ), ( 614 ), ( 616 ) can be formed, as will be described shortly, by modulating the signal according to different frequency carrier waves. Thus, for example, frequency range or band ( 612 ) might be transmitted by modulating a 1 GHz frequency carrier wave, frequency range or band ( 614 ) might be transmitted by modulating a 1.3 GHz frequency carrier wave, and band ( 615 ) might be transmitted by modulating a 1.6 GHz frequency carrier wave, and so on. Put alternatively, the N composite waveforms, themselves derived from the previously discussed N 2 summation-symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms, may be are transmitted over at least N time blocks. These N time blocks may be either transmitted consecutively in time (e.g. 602 , 604 ) or alternatively transmitted time-interleaved with the N time blocks from a second and different N×N symbol matrix. FIG. 6B shows that the various composite waveform blocks transmitted by the transmitter can be either transmitted as shorter duration time blocks over one or more wider frequency ranges, or as longer duration time blocks over one or more narrower frequency ranges. Note that the differences from FIG. 6A . FIG. 6B shows the tradeoffs between frequency bandwidth and time. Whereas in ( 640 ), the available bandwidth for each frequency range ( 612 ), ( 614 ), and ( 616 ) is relatively large, in ( 642 ), the available bandwidth for each frequency range ( 632 ), ( 634 ) and ( 636 ) is considerably less. Here, the invention can compensate by allowing more time per time block. Thus where as for ( 640 ), with high bandwidth available, the time blocks ( 622 ) and ( 624 ) can be shorter, in ( 642 ), with lower bandwidth available, the time blocks ( 626 ) needed to transmit the composite waveforms must be made correspondingly longer. For both FIGS. 6A and 6B then, if there is only one fundamental carrier frequency, then all N blocks must be transmitted consecutively in time as N time blocks. If there are less than N multiple fundamental carrier frequencies available, then all N blocks can be transmitted as some combination of N time blocks and N frequency blocks. If there are N or more fundamental frequencies available, then all N blocks can be transmitted over the duration of 1 time block as N frequency blocks. FIG. 7 shows an example of a transmitter, similar to those previously discussed in '119, transmitting a series of N consecutive waveform time blocks. Here, again, the length of the time block corresponds to the N time slices previously discussed in '119. Note that this example is not intended to be limiting. This transmitter can comprise a more digitally oriented computation end ( 701 ) and a more analog signal oriented modulation end ( 702 ). At the digital end ( 701 ), a electronic circuit, which may be a microprocessor, digital signal processor, or other similar device will accept as input the data matrix [D] ( 703 ) and may either generate or accept as inputs the [U 1 ] ( 704 ) (e.g. a DFT/IDFT matrix) and [U 2 ] ( 705 ) (e.g. the encoding matrix U as discussed elsewhere) matrices as well as the permutation scheme P, previously described here and in parent application Ser. No. 13/117,119, again incorporated herein by reference, as well as in the example later on in the document. The digital section will then generate what was referred to in '119 as the TFSSS matrix, and what can alternatively be termed the OTFS(time/frequency shift) matrix. Once generated, individual elements from this matrix may be selected, often by first selecting one column of N elements from the TFSSS matrix, and then scanning down this column and picking out individual elements at a time ( 706 ). Generally one new element will be selected every time block. Thus every successive time slice, one element from the TFSSS matrix ( 708 ) can be used to control the modulation circuit ( 702 ). In one embodiment of the invention, the modulation scheme will be one where the element will be separated into its real and imaginary components, chopped and filtered, and then used to control the operation of a sin and cosine generator, producing a composite analog waveform ( 720 ). The net, effect, by the time that the entire original N×N data symbol matrix [D] is transmitted, is to transmit the data in the form of N 2 summation-symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms, structured as N composite waveforms. In the example shown in FIG. 7 , the data is transmitted over N consecutive waveforms over N time blocks. However as discussed elsewhere, other schemes are also possible, such as schemes in which some of composite waveforms are transposed to a different frequency range, and transmitted in parallel at the same time. In general the composite waveforms may be transmitted over any combination of N time blocks or frequency blocks. Thus in this scheme (again neglecting overhead effects), elements t 1,1 through t n,1 from the first column of matrix ( 708 ) can be sent as a composite waveform in the first time block. The next elements t 1,2 through t n,2 from the second column of matrix ( 708 ) can be sent as a composite waveform in the next time block, and so on. The various waveforms then travel to the receiver, where they may be demodulated and the data then reconstructed. In some embodiments, the transmitter may further incorporate a pre-equalization step ( 703 ), and the output can be either regular OTFS signals ( 720 ) or pre-equalized OTFS signals ( 730 ). Thus if the receiver detects, for example that the transmitter's un-compensated for signal is subjected to specific echo reflections and frequency shifts, then the receiver can transmit corrective information to the transmitter pertaining to these echo reflections and frequency shifts, and the transmitter, at pre-equalization step ( 703 ), can then shape the signal so to compensate. Thus for example, if there is an echo delay, the transmitter can send the signal with an anti-echo cancellation waveform. Similarly if there is a frequency shift, the transmitter can perform the reverse frequency shift to compensate. FIG. 8A shows an example of improved receiver that mathematically compensates for the effects of echo reflections and frequency shifts. This time and frequency deconvolution series of math operations can additionally output deconvolution parameters that can also give information pertaining to the extent to which the echo reflections and frequency shifts distorted the underlying signal. This can be done by a deconvolution device or adaptive equalizer operating at step ( 802 A). FIG. 8B shows an example of an improved receiver that utilizes a time and frequency deconvolution device ( 802 B) (similar to devices ( 114 ) and ( 224 ) previously discussed in FIGS. 1 and 2 ) to correct for the effects of echo reflections and frequency shifts. This time and frequency deconvolution device can additionally output deconvolution parameters ( 808 ) (similar to deconvolution parameters ( 120 ), ( 220 ), and ( 2220 previously discussed in FIGS. 1 and 2 ) that can give information pertaining to the extent to which the echo reflections and frequency shifts distorted the underlying signal ( 720 ). In FIGS. 8A and 8B , assume that composite waveform ( 720 ) has, since transmission, been distorted by various echo reflections and/or frequency shifts as previously shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 , producing a distorted waveform ( 800 ) (here for simplicity a simple echo reflection delayed distortion is drawn). Whereas in FIG. 8A , this effect is corrected for mathematically, in FIG. 8 B, in order to clean up the signal, a time and frequency deconvolution device ( 802 A or 802 B) (e.g. an adaptive equalizer) can analyze the distorted waveform ( 800 ) and, assisted by the knowledge that the original composite waveform was made up of N cyclically time shifted and N cyclically frequency shifted waveforms, determine what sort of time offsets and frequency offsets will best deconvolute distorted waveform ( 802 A or 802 B) back into a close representation of the original waveform ( 720 ), where here the deconvoluted waveform is represented as waveform ( 804 ). In the FIG. 8B scheme or embodiment, this deconvoluted waveform is then fed into the receiver previously shown in FIG. 5 ( 806 ) where the signal can then be further processed as previously described. In FIG. 8A embodiment, the time and frequency deconvolution can be done inside receiver ( 806 ). In the process of doing this deconvolution, either the time and frequency deconvolution device ( 802 A or 802 B) or the mathematical deconvolution process will produce a set of deconvolution parameters ( 808 ). For example, in the simple case where the original waveform ( 720 ) was distorted by only a single echo reflection offset by time t offset , and by the time the original waveform ( 720 ) and the t offset echo waveform reach the receiver, the resulting distorted signal ( 800 ) is 90% original waveform and 10% t offset echo waveform, then the deconvolution parameters ( 808 ) can output both the 90% 10% signal mix, as well as the t offset value. Typically, of course, the actual distorted signal ( 800 ) will typically consist of a number of various time and frequency offset components, and here again, in addition to cleaning this up, the time and frequency deconvolution device ( 802 ) can also report the various time offsets, frequency offsets, and percentage mix of the various components of signal ( 800 ). As previously discussed in FIGS. 6A and 6B , the various composite waveforms in the N time blocks can be transmitted in various ways. In addition to time consecutive transmission, i.e. a first block, followed (often by a time gap which may optionally be used for handshaking or other control signals) by a second time block and then a third time block, the various blocks of composite waveforms can be transmitted by other schemes. In some embodiments, for example in network systems where there may be multiple transmitters and potentially also multiple receivers, it may be useful to transmit the data from the various transmitters using more than one encoding method. Here, for example, a first set of N time blocks may transmit data symbols originating from a first N×N symbol matrix, and from a first transmitter using a first unitary matrix [U 1 ]. A second set of N time blocks may transmit data symbols originating from a second N×N symbol matrix, and from a second transmitter using a second unitary matrix [U 2 ]. Here depending on the embodiment, [U 1 ] and [U 2 ] may be identical or different. Because the signals originating from the first transmitter may encounter different impairments (e.g. different echo reflections, different frequency shifts), some schemes of cyclically time shifted and cyclically shifted waveforms may operate better than others. Here these waveforms, as well as the previously discussed unitary matrices [U 1 ] and [U 2 ], may be selected based on the characteristics of these particular echo reflections, frequency offsets, and other signal impairments of the system and environment of said first transmitter, said second transmitter and said receiver. Here, for example, a receiver operating according to FIG. 8 may, for example, use its particular deconvolution parameters ( 808 ) to propose an alternative set of cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms that might give superior operation in that environment. The receiver might then and transmit this suggestion (or command) to that corresponding transmitter. This type of “handshaking” can be done using any type of signal transmission and encoding scheme desired. Thus in a multiple transmitter and receiver environment, each transmitter may attempt to optimize its signal so that its intended receiver is best able to cope with the unique impairments of that particular transmitter-receiver-communications-media situation. In some cases, before transmitting large amounts of data, or any time as desired, a given transmitter and receiver may choose to more directly test the various echo reflections, frequency shifts, and other impairments of the transmitter and receiver's system and environment. This can be done, by, for example having the transmitter send a test signal where the plurality of data symbols are selected to be known test symbols, and the receiver knows (i.e. has a record of these particular test symbols). Since the receiver knows exactly what sort of signal it will receive, the receiver will generally have a better ability to use its time and frequency deconvolution device ( 802 ) and obtain even more accurate time and frequency deconvolution parameters ( 808 ). This will allow the system to determine the characteristics of the echo reflections, frequency offsets, and other signal impairments of the said transmitter and said receiver's system and environment even more accurately. This in turn can be used to command the transmitter to shift to more optimal communications schemes (e.g. various U matrices) suitable to the situation. In some embodiments, when the transmitter is a wireless transmitter and the receiver is a wireless receiver, and the frequency offsets are caused by Doppler effects, the more accurate determination of the deconvolution parameters, i.e. the characteristics of the echo reflections and frequency offsets can be used in a radar system to determine the location and velocity of at least one object in said environment of said transmitter and receiver. EXAMPLES A microprocessor controlled transmitter may package a series of different symbols “d” (e.g. d 1 , d 2 , d 3 . . . ) for transmission by repackaging or distributing the symbols into various elements of various N×N matrices [D] by, for example assigning d 1 to the first row and first column of the [D] matrix (e.g. d 1 =d 0,0 ), d 2 to the first row second column of the [D] matrix (e.g. d 2 =d 0,1 ) and so on until all N×N symbols of the [D] matrix are full. Here, once we run out of d symbols to transmit, the remaining [D] matrix elements can be set to be 0 or other value indicative of a null entry. The various primary waveforms used as the primary basis for transmitting data, which here will be called “tones” to show that these waveforms have a characteristic sinusoid shape, can be described by an N×N Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT) matrix [W], where for each element w in [W], w j , k = ⅇ ⅈ ⁢ ⁢ 2 ⁢ ⁢ π ⁢ ⁢ j ⁢ ⁢ k N or alternatively w j,k =e ijθ k or w j,k =[e iθ k] j . Thus the individual data elements d in [D] are transformed and distributed as a combination of various fundamental tones w by a matrix multiplication operation [W]*[D], producing a tone transformed and distributed form of the data matrix, here described by the N×N matrix [A], where [A]=[W]*[D]. To produce the invention's N cyclically time shifted and N cyclically frequency shifted waveforms, the tone transformed and distributed data matrix [A] is then itself further permuted by by modular arithmetic or “clock” arithmetic, creating an N×N matrix [B], where for each element of b of [B], b i,j =a i,(i+j)mod N . This can alternatively be expressed as [B]=Permute([A])=P(IDFT*[D]). Thus the clock arithmetic controls the pattern of cyclic time and frequency shifts. The previously described unitary matrix [U] can then be used to operate on [B], producing an N×N transmit matrix [T], where [T]=[U]*[B], thus producing a N 2 sized set of all permutations of N cyclically time shifted and N cyclically frequency shifted waveforms determined according to an encoding matrix [U]. Put alternatively, the N×N transmit matrix [T]=[U]*P(IDFT*[D]). Then, typically on a per column basis, each individual column of N is used to further modulate a frequency carrier wave (e.g. if we are transmitting in a range of frequencies around 1 GHz, the carrier wave will be set at 1 GHz), and each column the N×N matrix [T] which has N elements, thus produces N symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms for each data symbol. Effectively then, the transmitter is transmitting the sum of the N symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms from one column of [T] at a time as, for example, a composite waveform over a time block of data. Alternatively the transmitter could instead use a different frequency carrier wave for the different columns of [T], and thus for example transmit one column of [T] over one frequency carrier wave, and simultaneously transmit a different column of [T] over a different frequency carrier wave, thus transmitting more data at the same time, although of course using more bandwidth to do so. This alternative method of using different frequency carrier waves to transmit more than one column of [T] at the same time will be referred to as frequency blocks, where each frequency carrier wave is considered its own frequency block. Thus, since the N×N matrix [T] has N columns, the transmitter will transmit the N 2 summation-symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms, structured as N composite waveforms, over any combination of N time blocks or frequency blocks, as previously shown in FIG. 6A or 6 B. On the receiver side, the transmit process is essentially reversed. Here, for example, a microprocessor controlled receiver would of course receive the various columns [T] (e.g. receive the N composite waveforms, also known as the N symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms) over various time blocks or frequency blocks as desired for that particular application. If for example there is a lot of available bandwidth and time is of the essence, then the transmitter will transmit, and the receiver will receive, the data as multiple frequency blocks over multiple frequency carrier waves. On the other hand, if available bandwidth is more limited, and/or time (latency) is less critical, then the transmit will transmit and the receiver will receive over multiple time blocks instead. So effectively the receiver tunes into the one or more frequency carrier waves, and over the number of time and frequency blocks set for that particular application eventually receives the data or coefficients from original N×N transmitted matrix [T] as an N×N receive matrix [R] where [R] is similar to [T], but may not be identical due to various communications impairments. The microprocessor controlled receiver then reverses the transmit process as a series of steps that mimic, in reverse, the original transmission process. The N×N receive matrix [R] is first decoded by inverse decoding matrix [U H ], producing an approximate version of the original permutation matrix [B], here called [B R ], where [B R ]=([U H ]*[R]). The receiver then does an inverse clock operation to back out the data from the cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms (or tones) by doing an inverse modular mathematics or inverse clock arithmetic operation on the elements of the N×N [B R ] matrix, producing, for each element b R of the N×N [B R ] matrix, a i,j R =b i,(j−i)mod N R . This produces a “de-cyclically time shifted and de-cyclically frequency shifted” version of the tone transformed and distributed form of the data matrix [A], here called [A R ]. Put alternatively, [A R ]=Inverse Permute ([B R ]), or [A R ]=P −1 ([U H ]*[R]). The receiver then further extracts at least an approximation of the original data symbols d from the [A R ] matrix by analyzing the [A] matrix using an N×N Discrete Fourier Transform matrix DFT of the original Inverse Fourier Transform matrix (IDFT). Here, for each received symbol d R , the d R are elements of the N×N received data matrix [D R ] where [D R ]=DFT*A R , or alternatively [D R ]=DFT*p −1 ([U H ]*[R]). Thus the original N 2 summation-symbol-weighted cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms are subsequently received by a receiver which is controlled by the corresponding decoding matrix U H (also represented as [U H ]) The receiver (e.g. the receiver's microprocessor and associated software) uses this decoding matrix [U H ] to reconstruct the various transmitted symbols “d” in the one or more originally transmitted N×N symbol matrices [D] (or at least an approximation of these transmitted symbols). As previously discussed, there are several ways to correct for distortions caused by the signal impairment effects of echo reflections and frequency shifts. One way is, at the receiver front end, utilize the fact that the cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms or “tones” form a predictable time-frequency pattern, and a “dumb” deconvolution device situated at the receiver's front end can recognize these patterns, as well as the echo reflected and frequency shifted versions of these patterns, and perform the appropriate deconvolutions by a pattern recognition process. Alternatively the distortions may be mathematically corrected by the receiver's software, here by doing suitable mathematical transformations to essentially determine the echo reflected and frequency shifting effects, and solve for these effects. As a third alternative, once, by either process, the receiver determines the time and frequency deconvolution parameters of the communication media's particular time and frequency distortions, the receiver may transmit a command to the transmitter to instruct the transmitter to essentially pre-compensate or pre-encode for these effects. That is, if for example the receiver detects an echo, the transmitter can be instructed to transmit in a manner that offsets this echo, and so on. FIG. 9A shows an example of how echo reflections and frequency shifts can blur or impair or distort the transmitted signal ( 900 ) by inducing additive noise ( 902 ). These distortions can be modeled as a 2-dimensional filter acting on the data array. This filter represents, for example, the presence of multiple echoes with time delays and Doppler shifts. To reduce these distortions, the signal can either be pre-equalized before receiver subsequent receiver processing ( 904 ), or alternatively post-equalized after the D R matrix has been recovered at ( 906 ). This equalization process may be done either by analog or digital methods. The equalized form of the received D matrix, which ideally will completely reproduce the original D matrix, is termed D eq . FIG. 9B shows an example of an adaptive linear equalizer that may be used to correct for such distortions. This adaptive linear equalizer can function at either step ( 904 ), optionally as a more analog method or step ( 906 ), generally as a more digital and mathematical process. The equalizer may, in some embodiments, described in more detail in copending provisional patent 61/615,884, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, operate according to the function: Y ⁡ ( k ) = ∑ L = Lc Rc ⁢ ⁢ C ⁡ ( l ) * X ⁡ ( k - l ) + η ⁡ ( k ) . Please see application 61/615,884 for term definitions and further discussion. FIG. 9C shows an example of an adaptive decision feedback equalizer that may be used to correct for such distortions. This equalizer both shifts the echo and frequency shifted signals on top of the main signal in a forward feedback process ( 910 ), and also then uses feedback signal cancelation methods to further remove any residual echo and frequency shifted signals in ( 912 ). The method then effectively rounds the resulting signals to discrete values. The equalizer may, in some embodiments, also described in more detail in copending provisional application 61/615,884, operate according to the function: X s ⁡ ( k ) = ∑ l = L F R F ⁢ ⁢ F ⁡ ( l ) * Y ⁡ ( k + l ) - ∑ l - L B - 1 ⁢ ⁢ B ⁡ ( l ) * X h ⁡ ( k + l ) Where X H (k)=Q(X s (k)) As before, please see application 61/615,884 for term definitions and further discussion. FIG. 10 shows a time-frequency graph giving a visualization of the various echo (time shifts) and frequency shifts that a signal may encounter during transmission. This can also be called the channel impulse response. If there were no echo (time shift) or frequency shifts at all, then graph 10 would show up as a single spike at a defined time and frequency. However due to various echos and frequency shifts, the original signal which could be represented as a spike at ( 1000 ) is instead spread over both time ( 1002 ) and frequency ( 1004 ), and here the problem is to correct for these effects, either before further processing at the receiver ( 904 ), or later after the receiver has taken the processing to the D R stage ( 906 ). The other alternative, pre-equalizing at the transmitter stage by pre-equalizing the signal ( 908 ) prior to transmission, can be handled by a related process. FIG. 11 shows an example of the functions that the feed forward (FF) portion ( 910 ) of the adaptive decision feedback equalizer ( FIG. 9C ) performs. To simplify, this portion ( 910 ) of the equalizer works to shift the echo or frequency shifted signals to once again coincide with the main signal, and thus enhances the intensity of the main signal while diminishing the intensity of the echo or frequency shifted signals. FIG. 12 shows an example of the functions of the Feedback (FB) portion ( 912 ) of the adaptive decision feedback equalizer ( FIG. 9C ) in action. After the Feed forward (FF) portion ( 910 ) of the equalizer has acted to mostly offset and the echo and frequency shifted signals, there will still be some residual echo and frequency signals remaining. The Feedback (FB) portion ( 912 ) essentially acts to cancel out those trace remaining echo signals, essentially acting like an adaptive canceller for this portion of the system. The quantizer portion of the adaptive decision feedback equalizer ( 914 ) then acts to “round” the resulting signal to the nearest quantized value so that, for example, the symbol “1” after transmission, once more appears on the receiving end as “1” rather than “0.999”. As previously discussed, an alternative mathematical discussion of the equalization method, particularly suitable for step 802 B, is described in provisional application 61/615,884, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Final interleaving discussion: Returning to the interleaving concepts, FIG. 13 shows that it may be useful to transmit various different time blocks in an interleaved scheme where the time needed to transmit all N blocks may vary between different data matrices D, and wherein the interleaving scheme is such as to take the latency, that is the time needed to transmit all N blocks, into account according to various optimization schemes.

A method of modulating communications signals, such as optical fiber, wired electronic, or wireless signals in a manner that facilitates automatic correction for the signal distortion effects of echoes and frequency shifts, while still allowing high rates of data transmission. Data symbols intended for transmission are distributed into N×N matrices, and used to weigh or modulate a family of cyclically time shifted and cyclically frequency shifted waveforms. Although these waveforms may then be distorted during transmission, their basic cyclic time and frequency repeating structure facilitates use of improved receivers with deconvolution devices that can utilize the repeating patterns to correct for these distortions. The various waveforms may be sent in N time blocks at various time spacing and frequency spacing combinations in a manner that can allow interleaving of blocks from different transmitters. Applications to channel sounding/characterization, system optimization, and also radar are also discussed.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a system for driving a non rigid exploration device into wellbores where its progression by gravity is difficult. In a general way, the system according to the invention is suitable each time the friction forces are sufficient to prevent the progression of an exploration device along a borehole. This may happen because of a restriction of the section of a well and/or because of its substantial inclination in relation to the vertical. The system according to the invention can for example be used for driving up to horizontal areas of a well an emission-reception device for acoustic, electric, electromagnetic signals, etc, of any type. In the field of acoustic waves for example, the design of an emission-reception system is different depending on whether a more or less long-range exploration of the land areas crossed by a well by means of low frequency acoustic waves is favoured, in order to study the limits of a possible reservoir, or a more localized study of the formations around such a well. It is well-known that the most interesting results, when low frequency acoustic waves are used, are obtained by substantially moving away the emitters and the receivers. This can be achieved by arranging a seismic source at the surface and by displacing a reception set in a deflected well zone at a given depth under the surface. French Patent 2,609,105 corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 4,945,987, describes a method for carrying out measurings in a well zone that is strongly inclined in relation to the vertical by means of a sonde for wells containing appropriate sensors and fitted with one or several retractable arms whose opening allows to press it against the walls. The sonde is fastened to the end of a tubing and linked to the latter by retractable locking means. It is taken down and pushed up to the area of action by a tubular column progressively formed by the successive interconnecting to the first one of a series of additional tubing sections. The sonde is linked with a surface installation by a multifunction cable. Interconnecting the cable with the sonde is preferably achieved when the latter has reached a certain depth. The cable, fitted with a socket connector that can be plugged in in a liquid medium, is introduced into the column through a lateral window in a special connection sub (side-entry sub). The connector is pushed until it plugs into a contact plug fastened to the locking means and linked to the sonde by a linking cable. When the sonde has been pushed up to the intervention area, the opening of the locking means which fasten it to the bottom of the column and the opening of its fastening arms are remote controlled through the cable. The sonde can then be detached from the column by moving the latter back and the waves emitted at the surface can then be received. Emission-reception systems where the emission means are also taken down into a wellbore are well-known. The emission means and the reception means can be contained in the same well tool or in different tools hanging one under another. A sizeable space between the emitters and the receivers can be obtained quite easily in the wells or in portions of vertical wells by lengthening the cables linking the sonde or the main tool with the satellites hanging below. A system suitable for substantially vertical wells is for example described in French Patent 2,616,230. Nevertheless, such a device emitting and receiving acoustic waves with multiple, very spaced out sondes, becomes totally ineffective in cases where the progression by gravity cannot be achieved normally because of excessive friction forces, as it happens in well zones with a limited section or too much inclined in relation to the vertical. French Patent EN. 89/04,554 corresponding to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 505,902, filed Apr. 6, 1990 describes a seismic prospecting method in deflected wells by means of an emission-reception set of acoustic waves displaceable in relation to the lower back end of a tubular column taken down in a well. The emission-reception set comprises a receiving sonde with retractable fastening arms arranged at the bottom of the column and linked to a moving element displaceable within the latter. It also comprises an acoustic source inserted on the column. The source can be fixed in relation to the column or displaceable in relation to the latter by means of the moving element. The wall of the column is fitted with lateral openings allowing the emission of acoustic waves towards the formations around the well. A multifunction cable fitted with a socket plug that can be plugged in in a liquid medium allows a delayed connection of the emission-reception set with a surface control and recording installation. The system is operating by fastening the sonde and by drawing it apart from the lower end of the column. This prior system is suitable for prospecting operations utilizing sources that can be seated within the relatively narrow tubular columns which are generally used in wellbores. Sparkers can for example be utilized as sources. Besides, the source being inserted on the tubular column, it emits its energy through slits in the wall. Part of the emitted energy tends to be transmitted along the column. Absorbing means must therefore be interposed in the portion of the tube between the source and the receiving sonde, in order to avoid direct transmissions towards the pickups. It is also well-known that, in the field of acoustic or seismic wave prospecting, there are numerous treatment methods allowing to make the subsoil cross-sections obtained from the picked up and recorded signals more legible, by combining recordings of signals picked up in several different reception locations spaced out from one another along the well. This is not possible with the systems utilizing only one receiving sonde that are currently used, because of operating difficulties in the deflected wells. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The guiding system according to the invention avoids the drawbacks mentioned above. It allows to easily drive and operate, in wells where its progression by gravity is hampered, and notably in deflected wells, a non rigid exploration device of sizeable length including means for emitting signals in the formations around the well and means for receiving signals. The guiding system comprises a tubular column, a moving set displaceable in relation to the tubular column, a fastening part element for immobilizing the moving set in the well, and linking means for connecting the moving set with a control and recording laboratory. It is characterized in that the moving set comprises at least one supple part linked to the anchoring means, the moving set being displaceable between a recess (or backward) position where at least said supple part is totally contained in the back end of the tubular column and a withdrawal position where the moving element is totally outside the tubular column. According to a first embodiment procedure, the moving set comprises a first sonde provided with anchoring means for coupling the sonde against the wall of a well and at least one second sonde linked to the first sonde by a portion of a multifunction cable. According to a second embodiment procedure, the moving set comprises an extended supple element (supple sheath for example) linked to the linking means at a first end and to the fastening element at the opposite end thereof. According to a first variant of the first embodiment procedure, the section of the first sonde is wider than that of the tubular column which is adapted for serving as a support for the first sonde, in said recess position of the set of sondes. According to a second variant, the section of the first sonde and of at least one second sonde is wider than that of the tubular column. The system according to the invention can comprise a moving set adapted for totally entering the tubular column in the recess position thereof. According to an embodiment example, the signal emitting means is arranged in the sonde with a wider section. The system can comprise for example a protective housing mounted on the lower end of the tubular column which can contain said sonde with a wider section. According to another embodiment example, the tubular column comprises for example a string of hollow tubing sections and a tubular element fastened on the end of the string of pipes. A tubular element and a housing which are long enough to contain the total moving element in its recess position are for example selected. In an embodiment procedure of the system, the set of sondes can be directly linked to the surface control and recording laboratory by a multifunction cable and fitted with a support, the tubular column being fitted with a side-entry sub for the passage of said cable and with a section narrowing serving as a thrust for said support, in order to hold the moving element in a withdrawal position. According to another embodiment procedure, the system comprises a guiding set displaceable within the tubular column and linked by the multifunction cable to the moving set, as well as means for locking the guiding element in order to immobilize the guiding element in relation to the tubular column in a recess position of the moving set. The system can be fitted with means for the delayed connection of the moving set to the multifunction cable. According to another embodiment procedure, the system comprises several sondes spaced out along the multifunction cable and containing the signal reception means. The emitting means, in the first embodiment procedure, are for example arranged at the top of the moving set. According to another embodiment procedure, the multifunction cable ends in a socket connector that can be plugged in a liquid medium in a contact connector borne by the guiding element, and electrically linked to the moving element. According to another embodiment procedure, the exploration device guided by the system according to the invention comprises a multiplicity of well sondes containing the signal reception means and the signal emitting means is arranged at the surface. The exploration device guided by the system according to the invention can also comprise emitting means arranged at the same time at the surface and in the moving set. The emission and/or reception means of the exploration device guided by the system according to the invention can be acoustic, electric, electromagnetic, etc. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Other features and advantages of the system according to the invention will be clear from reading the description hereafter of the embodiment procedures described by way of non limitative examples, with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 shows a first variant of the first embodiment procedure of the guiding system where the moving set is within a tubular column used for directing it towards an intervention zone at the bottom of a deflected well; FIG. 2 shows the emission-reception system of FIG. 1 where the moving set is led, in a recess position, towards an operation zone in a well; FIG. 3 is a view identical to FIG. 2 which shows the setting of the device for the delayed electric connection of the displaceable set of the emission-reception system with a surface control and recording laboratory; FIG. 4 shows the emission-reception system of FIG. 1 where the moving set is at the beginning of its withdrawal stage, outside the routing tubular column; FIG. 5 shows the end stage of the withdrawal of the moving set of FIG. 1; FIG. 6 shows a second variant of the first embodiment procedure of the guiding system where the moving set is totally contained, in a recess position, in a tubular element with a section wider than that of the tubular column and fastened to the end of the latter; FIG. 7 shows the previous embodiment variant with the moving set in an withdrawal position, outside the attached tubular element; FIG. 8 shows another variant of the first embodiment procedure of the guiding system where the displaceable set is adapted for being pumped up to the end of the tubular column; FIG. 9 shows the same embodiment variant in the withdrawal position of the moving set; and FIG. 10 shows another embodiment procedure of the system where the supple part of the moving set is an extended sheath containing transducers. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The guiding system shown in FIG. 1 is suitable for driving into a well a multisonde exploration device. It comprises a guiding tubular column 2 consisting for example of a string of interconnected drill pipes 3. The system comprises a moving set (displaceable set) which can be moved in relation to the tubular column 2 between a recess or backward position shown in FIG. 1 and a withdrawal (or forward) position shown for example in FIG. 5. This displaceable set comprises a first sonde 4 with a section wider than the inner section of the pipes 3 of column 2. In order to protect this first sonde during the running-in operations, a housing 5 that can house the first sonde is fastened at the lower end of the tubular column. The first sonde 4 is fitted with fastening or anchoring arms 6 which can rotate between a folded up position along the body (FIG. 1) and a fastening position against the walls of the well (FIG. 4 or 5). The arms 6 are driven by electrohydraulic control means of the type described for example in French Patent 2,501,380 corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 4,428,422. The first sonde 4 can for example contain a well source of a known type such as a vibratory source or a pulse source. The first sonde can also contain, depending on the cases, acoustic or seimic wave sensors. The first sonde 4 is linked by an electric-carrying cable 7 to at least one second sonde 8 with a section narrower than that of pipes 3 of the tubular column 2, which can slide freely within the latter. The displaceable set preferably comprises a string of sondes consisting of a series of narrower sondes 8 arranged at a distance from one another along electric-carrying cable 7, ending in the biggest sonde 4 which is located at the lower end of the tubular column, in the attached housing 5. The string of sondes (8, 4) is linked to a guide block 9 analogous to those which have already been described in French Patent Applications 2,609,105 or EN. 89/04,554. This block 9 is inserted between two tubing sections 3 of column 2 and comprises a tubular body 10 with an inner section substantially equal to that of pipes 3 and a displaceable guide element 11. Locking means that can be remote controlled lock guide element 11 in a recess position of the string of sondes. They can for example be formed by electric or electrohydraulic-controlled locks 12 which can fit into grooves 13 of the tubular body 10. An element of an electric-carrying cable 14 links the guide element 11 to the first sonde 8 which is narrower. Opposite to the latter, the guide element 11 comprises a multipin contact plug 15 positioned following the axis of body 10 and a tubular extension 11A with a section smaller than that of body 10 and extended by a collar 16. An inner shoulder 17 of the body serves as a thrust for collar 16 and limits the recess of the displaceable set within the tubular column. Collar 16 and the tubular extension 11A are used for guiding a socket plug 18 towards the contact plug 15. Plug 18 is topped by a tubular weighting bar 19 with a substantially equal section. It is electrically connected with a multiconductor cable 20 which links it to a surface control and recording laboratory 21 (FIG. 2). Blocking means analogous to locks 12, which are not shown, allow to block the contact plug 15 in a fitting-in position. Examples of multicontact electric connectors are described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,500,155. Openings (not shown) in collar 16 and across guide element 11 allow to establish a propelling fluid current all along tubular column 2 up to the end housing 5. The inner section of the latter is selected in such a way that a drilling fluid current can push out the sonde 4, whatever the deflection of the well where the set of sondes is taken down may be. The system comprises means for the delayed connection of plug 18 to plug 15, already described in French Patent 2,547,861 corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 4,664,189. Cable 20, unwound from a reel 22 (FIG. 3 for example), is introduced within tubular column 2 by a special sub fitted with a lateral window 23 (side-entry sub). By means of a fluid current, plug 18 is propelled until it fits onto contact plug 15. At the end part of its connection with tubular column 2, housing 5 comprises a shoulder 24 with a section smaller than that of guide element 11, to which a magnetized ring 25 is added (FIG. 1). An electromagnetic sensor connected with multiconductor cables 7, 14, 20, which are not shown, is arranged in the head 4A of sonde 4 and allows an operator to detect the latter's coming out of the sonde 4 from the housing 5 (higher position of the moving set). Another sensor can also be included in guide element 11 for detecting the withdrawal position or lower position of the moving set, as we shall see in the following description of the setting of the system. The guiding system is set up as follows: The emission-reception device (4, 8) is taken down into the well, hanging on cable 7. Housing 5 is then introduced and guide element 11 is fastened to cable 7. The guide element resting on the lower shoulder 24, the lower part where the moving set is to take its recess position is completed by adding pipes and guide block 9. Through successive connections of new tubing sections 3, the displaceable set is brought to the deflected well zone where prospecting operations are to be carried out (FIG. 2). A special side-entry sub 23 (FIG. 3) is added to the column formed thereby. The multiconductor cable 20 unwound from reel 22 is introduced into column 2 that is then connected with pumping means (not shown) that can set up a fluid current and push weighting bar 19 and plug 18 up to plug 15 of the guide element 11 and lock the latter in its fitting-in position (FIG. 3). When the electric connection is set up, the cable is pulled on from the surface in order to displace the moving set towards its recess position where guide element 11 enters block 9 and where it can be locked. Column 2 is then pushed to the starting position where recordings are to be performed. The tubular column is again connected by pumping in order to push the first sonde 4 out of its protective housing 5 and to release the fastening arms (FIG. 4). The electromagnetic sensor included in head 4A of the sonde 4 detects its coming out. The opening of arms 6 that are fastened onto the walls of well 1 (FIG. 4) and immobilize sonde 4 is remote controlled from the surface. The sonde 4 being fastened, a traction is exerted on tubular column 2 from the surface installation in order to make its lower end go backwards and thereby totally withdraw the set of sondes (FIG. 5). The collar of guide element 11 then rests against shoulder 24 at the lower end of tubular column 2. The electromagnetic sensor included in the guide element detects the magnetized ring 25 (FIG. 1). Signal emission-reception cycles can then be performed. According to a first service procedure, the first sonde 4, because of its relatively sizeable section, can contain a bigger seismic well source. A vibrator of any type can for example be installed there, notably a vibrator made from piezoelectric or magnetostrictive transducers, or else possibly a pulse source. A well source emitting within the 1-2 KHz frequency range and controlled to emit vibrations of a sliding frequency can for example be selected. The secondary sondes 8 contain adapted sensors. Since the system is adapted for working in well portions that are little inclined on the horizontal, secondary sondes 8 rest on the wall of the well, which ensures a certain mechanical connection with the surrounding formations. In order to improve the coupling with the walls of the well, it is possible to use secondary sondes 8 also fitted with a anchoring arm and appropriate motor means which can also be remote controlled from the surface. At least one steerable triaxial sensor (accelerometer or geophone or both) combined with an orientation detector, analogous to those described in the previously cited Patent Application EN. 89/04,554, and possibly a hydrophone are for example arranged in each secondary sonde. With such an equipment, it is for example possible to carry out a local study of the grounds within a radius of several meters to several hundred meters around a well, according to the emission frequency, in order to locate the position of reflectors, that of the top or the basis of a reservoir crossed by a well, geologic anomalies, etc. The set of sondes being in a withdrawal position, it can be displaced from it starting position to the well portion to be studied, and emission, reception and recording cycles can be carried out. The displacing can be continuous or discontinuous. It is achieved by exerting a joined traction on column 2 and on multifunction cable 20. When the displacements are discontinuous, the traction on the column is slightly loosened in order to make it go down and thereby release the portions of cable (7, 14) linking the different sondes together. The direct propagation of acoustic energy along the cables towards the receivers is thus avoided. Another possible service procedure consists in achieving seismic prospecting operations by means of a seismic source arranged at the surface and of receivers arranged in the different sondes 4, 8. It is also possible to combine the two procedures by arranging a source in the moving set and another one at the surface, in order to achieve two different recording sets during the same pull-out. According to a second variant of the first embodiment procedure (FIG. 6), the displaceable set comprises a set or string of sondes, all or at least two of them having a section larger than that of the pipes of the tubular column 2. One of them is the first sonde 4. The other sonde, 26, is arranged for example at the other end of the string of sondes and contains a source of acoustic or seismic waves. A protective housing 27 with a section and a length sufficient to contain the set of sondes 4, 26 and the sondes 8 inserted in a recess position of the moving set is fastened at the lower end of tubular column 2. The length of this protective housing is about several ten meters for example. In some cases, its section can be intermediate between that of housing 5 and that of the tubular column (FIG. 6) or equal to that of housing 5. According to a preferred service procedure, the acoustic or seismic source can be housed in the first sonde 4. In this way, by bringing the set of sondes back to its recess position in relation to the tubular column stationary in the well, it is possible to carry out emission-reception cycles until the coming in, which happens last, of sonde 4 containing the source, into the protective housing 27. The source is preferably arranged in the first sonde 4, towards the end of the latter which is furthest from the other sondes, which facilitates its radiation. In the second embodiment variant also, the set of sondes is combined with a guide element 11 fitted with delayed connection means for a multifunction cable 20 fitted with plug 18. As in the previous embodiment procedure, this one also lends itself well to seismic prospecting operations with a surface source, sondes 4 to 26 only containing wave receivers. According to another embodiment variant (FIG. 8, 9), a string of sondes with substantially identical sections is used, which can all be displaced within a tubular column (a drilling string for example). The first to be introduced into the column is a sonde 28 equipped with at least one retractable fastening arm. A wave emitter of any type likely to be taken down into the column, for example a sparker, is added into sonde 29 at the other end of the set of sondes. All the sondes are connected with the same multifunction cable 30 which links them to a control and recording laboratory 31. Cable 30 enters the column through a side-entry sub 32. After sonde 29, a stopping element 33 is installed on the cable. Column 2 is fitted at its deepest end with a thrust 34 tightened around the cable, against which element 33 is blocked in a withdrawal position of the set of sondes. As in the previous embodiment variants, the system comprises a magnetized ring included in thrust 34 and electromagnetic sensors (not shown) are included in the head of sonde 27 and of sonde 29, in order to detect the coming out of one and the contacting of the other one against thrust 34 at the end of the withdrawal stroke of the string of sondes. According to the cases, a piezoelectric, a magnetostrictive source or a sparker that can emit waves in the frequency range between 1 and 2 KHz are used, and the receivers (geophones or accelerometers) are contacted with geologic formations by applying receiving sondes against the wall under the effect of their own weight in the horizontal well portions or possibly by the opening of retractable arms analogous to those of sonde 27 for example. This system works as follows: By adding tubing sections, a column part that is long enough to reach the upper limit Cs of the zone to be prospected is formed and taken down into the well (FIG. 8). The set of sondes is introduced into the column part constituted thereby with its cable 30. It passes outside column 2 through side-entry sub 32. The column is extended until its lower end reaches the lower limit Ci of the recording zone (FIG. 9). A fluid current is then established in column 2 in order to propel the set of sondes to the bottom and to make the front sonde 28 come outside. The sonde 28 being fastened in the well through the opening of its fastening arms (FIG. 9), a traction is exerted on the tubing string from the surface installation, so that the string of sondes is pulled out of column 2, and the stopping element 33 is led to rest against thrust 34. The fastening arms are then closed again. The column and the cable are taken up to the surface at the same speed by exerting a constant mechanical stress. According to the type of receivers that are utilized, loggings can be made continuously on all the successive well portions depending on the height of the surface operating mast, or discontinuously within time intervals corresponding to progression stops. Seismic emission-reception cycles can also be performed during successive pulling stops. In the previous embodiment variants, the withdrawal position of the moving set is characterized by a lower shoulder at the lower end of the tubular column. It would nevertheless remain within the scope of the invention to suppress this lower thrust, in order to be able, after the delayed connection of the multiconductor cable, to make the moving set come out of the tubular column and to take the latter up after fastening the sonde 4 until the side-entry sub 23 comes close to the surface again. In this case, it is for example possible to achieve continuous loggings over a very great well length, after closing the fastening arms 27, by exerting a traction on the cable without displacing the tubular column 4. According to another embodiment procedure of the system (FIG. 10), the supple part of the moving set consists in a deformable extended sheath 35 comprising sensors. At a first end, this sheath is connected with multiconductor cable 30, either directly, or through a delayed connection device such as device (11, 15) described above. At its opposite end, sheath 35 is linked to a fastening part such as a sonde 36 fitted with a moving arm, analogous to the previous sonde 4. The system according to the invention has been described in relation to an exploration device with acoustic or seismic signals. It is nevertheless obvious that it might as well be utilized for driving an exploration device of any type, electric, electromagnetic, nuclear, etc, along a well.

A guiding system for driving a non rigid exploration device in wells where progression by gravity is difficult includes a tubular column for guiding the displacement of the device which includes a plurality or set of sondes joined together by non-rigid connecting means into a deflected well zone. A first sonde of the set is at least fitted with anchoring arms and its cross-section and possibly that of all the remaining sondes of the set can be larger than the cross-section of the tubular column. In this case, a more or less long protective housing is provided at the end of the column. A delayed electric connection device for the set of sondes linked to a surface laboratory is utilized. The first sonde is pushed out of the column by a fluid pressure and anchoring arms of the first sonde are opened. The tubular column is pulled backward and upward in order to make the plurality of sondes to come out of the column and to be positioned in the well and, thereafter, measuring cycles are carried out.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a device for controlling a steering force in a power steering apparatus provided with a hydraulic pressure reaction mechanism, and more specifically to a steering force control device for controlling the function of a power steering apparatus in response to the speed and steering angle of a vehicle. It has been widely known, for example, from U.S. Pat. No. 4,034,825 entitled POWER ASSISTED VEHICLE STEERING issued on July 12, 1977 to Frederick John Adams, that a rotational torque from a steering wheel is increased by a power steering apparatus provided with a resilient torsion bar and then transmitted to a travelling wheel. In this patent, the operation of the power steering apparatus is controlled according to the speed of an automobile. More specifically, the aforesaid patent discloses that at the time of high speed drive, the operation of the power steering apparatus is weakened whereas at the time of low speed drive, the operation thereof is intensified. In the power steering apparatus as described above, for example, the rotation of the rotating shaft of the engine is transmitted to an oil pump by a pulley and an endless belt passed over the pulley, and oil within an oil tank is supplied by the oil pump to the power steering apparatus to strengthen the steering force. Furthermore, the rotation of a countershaft of a transmission of the vehicle is transmitted to a separate auxiliary oil pump, and oil from the oil tank is sucked into the auxiliary oil pump. A throttle valve is provided on a discharge port of the auxiliary oil pump. Oil having passed through the throttle valve is again returned to the oil tank, and pressurized oil is introduced from a middle portion between the discharge port of the auxiliary oil pump and the throttle valve into a hydraulic pressure reaction chamber for controlling the torsion of the torsion bar to control the operation of the power steering apparatus. More specifically, the auxiliary pump is driven to increase the number of revolutions thereof proportional to the vehicle speed as the countershaft of the transmission of the vehicle rotates rapidly, and the amount of discharge of the pump increases. Accordingly, at the time of high speed drive, high oil pressure is applied to the throttle valve, which results in application of the high pressure to the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber to weaken the operation of the power steering apparatus to render the operation of a steering wheel heavy. However, the dependence to the countershaft leads to a drawback that the amount of discharge of the auxiliary pump is too small to obtain a great hydraulic pressure reaction. With respect to the characteristics of vehicle speed (V)--steering force (T), it has been assured from experiments that as shown in FIG. 7, at the low speed travelling of the vehicle, the steering force does not change so much; at the time of medium speed travelling of the vehicle, the force abruptly changes; at the high speed travelling of the vehicle, the force does not again change so much, which are preferable. It is not possible for a simple combination of a vehicle speed responsive pump and a fixed throttle valve as in the prior art to suitably obtain the desirable characteristic of vehicle speed (V)--steering force (T). Namely, it is impossible to suitably realize the characteristics of vehicle speed (V)--steering force (T) of various forms as shown in A, B and C of FIG. 9. It has been further assured from experiments that even if the vehicle speed is the same, the value of the steering output (P) is varied according to a variation in steering angle as shown in the characteristic of steering angle (α)--steering force (T) of FIG. 8, whereby the safety and maneuverability of the vehicle may be further enhanced. FIG. 8(a) shows the ideal characteristic assured by the experiments and FIG. 8(b) shows the prior art characteristic. However, such an ideal characteristic cannot be expected as far as the well-known hydrualic pressure control is used. Moreover, in the auxiliary oil pump driven by the transmission of the vehicle, at the time of low speed rotation, namely, at the time of low speed travel of the vehicle, there exists a problem that the amount of discharage of the oil pump is insufficient, and pulsation and pressure variation occur. Furthermore, in the control of the prior art structure, the condition of the road surface cannot be fed back as information to the control of steering force, and therefore even if there is less friction in road surface such as snow roads, road surfaces at rainy days, etc., variation in steering force as required is not transmitted to the operator, and in addition, even if the road surface is uneven, it is not transmitted as variation in steering force to the operator. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide a steering force control device in a power steering apparatus for a vehicle in which pressurized oil supplied to a hydraulic pressure reaction chamber within a main valve of the steering force control device according to vehicle speed information and steering angle information obtained by detecting a speed (V) of a travelling vehicle and a steering angle (α) of a steering wheel may be suitably controlled to always obtain an adequate steering force. The present invention is intended to overcome the aforementioned technical problem by the provision of a stepping valve subjected to numerical control in accordance with information of a vehicle speed (V) and information of a steering angle (α) and a pressure responsive valve adapted to be actuated under analog control by introducing therein hydraulic pressure which always transmits a variation of a frictional force between the road surface and the driving wheel as a variation of a reaction from the road surface to a hydraulic pressure cylinder of a power steering apparatus the pressure responsive valve being disposed, in a hydraulic circuit in communication with the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber. For achieving the aforesaid object, according to the present invention, there is provided a power steering apparatus having a hydraulic pressure reaction chamber for controlling by hydraulic pressure a relative torsional angle between an input shaft and an output shaft, characterized in that there are provided a main pump and a sub-pump driven by the engine, pressurized oil from the main pump is introduced into a hydraulic cylinder of a power steering apparatus via a main valve, and another pressurized oil from the sub-pump is supplied to the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber. In an oil passage between the sub-pump and the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber a first throttle means is disposed and actuated by a pressure of a circuit from the main pump to the main valve and a second throttle means actuated by a stepping motor to form a construction in which oil is recirculated into a tank. The stepping motor is rotated and displaced by a pulse signal output from a controller having data arranged in a matrix form by a combination of a range of vehicle speed and a range of steering angle preset by use of signals of a vehicle speed sensor and a steering angle sensor, whereby an opening of the second throttle means is controlled and in the case where no vehicle speed signal is produced by the vehicle speed sensor despite the fact that the signal of revolutions of the engine indicates that the revolutions in excess of a predetermined value continues for more than a predetermined period of time, a preset pulse signal at the time of travelling at a high speed is generated; when a variation in signal of the steering angle is not produced by the steering angle sensor for a predetermined time, control according to the steering angle is not carried out or a pulse signal at the time of travelling at a preset high speed is generated in a similar manner as that described above; and when wiring of electric circuits is broken or control of the controller does not work properly, a current to the stepping motor is cut off so as to close the opening of the second throttle means thereby controlling the pressure acting on the reaction chamber. The above and other objects and features of the present invention will be more understood from the reading of the following description in connection with the accompanying drawings which illustrate one embodiment. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 diagrammatically illustrates constructions of various parts and an oil passage system with essential parts sectioned in one embodiment according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a sectional view of a main valve of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a sectional view taken along line III--III of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a sectional view taken on line IV--IV of FIG. 2; FIG. 5 illustrates the operation showing the failsafe function of the controller; FIG. 6 is a memory map inputted in the controller; FIG. 7 is a graph showing the relation between the vehicle speed (V) and the steering force (T); FIG. 8 is a graph showing the relation between the steering output (P) and the steering angle (α); FIG. 9 is a graph showing various characteristics of the vehicle speed (V) and steering force (T); and FIG. 10 is a showing the characteristics of the steering output (P) (reaction pressure) and the steering torque (M) obtained from the embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to FIGS. 1 through 6, the embodiment shown therein will be described in detail. In these figures, a reference character A designates a main valve, B a power steering apparatus, C a two-throw pump operated by the engine, G a front axle and H a king pin. A reference numeral 1 designates an input shaft connected to a steering wheel 2, 3 a rack connected to and driven by the steering wheel, 4 a pinion meshed with the rack 3, and 5 a pinion shaft of the pinion 4, the pinion shaft being an output shaft (See FIGS. 1 and 2) connected to the power steering apparatus B. The pinion shaft 5 is formed with a hydraulic pressure reaction chamber 9 sealed from the inner surface of a housing 6 by O rings 7 and 8. Plungers 11 are respectively slidably fitted within four throughholes 10 bored radially from the central portion of the output shaft 5. A raised portion 11a at the end of the plunger 11 is pressed by pressurized oil supplied to the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber 9 against a V-groove 1a formed in the outer peripheral surface of the input shaft 1. The reference character C designates the two-throw pump actuated by the engine 13, in which a main pump 14 and sub-pump 15 are formed so as to have a common rotational shaft 16. The discharge amount of the sub-pump 15 is set to be smaller than that of the main pump 14. A reference numeral 17 designates a tank for the two-throw pump C. The first pressurized fluid or oil from a discharge opening 18 of the main pump 14 is supplied through a first oil passage 201 to a port 20 of the main valve A, and thereafter supplied from ports 21 or 22 of the main valve A to left and right cylinder chambers E, F of a hydraulic cylinder 23 of the power steering apparatus B via a second oil passage 211 or a third oil passage 221 to actuate a piston (not shown) of the power steering apparatus B so as to assist in the steering. The first oil discharged from the cylinder chamber E or F is circulated to the port 22 or 21 of the main valve A via the third or second oil passage 221 or 211, and thereafter returned from a port 24 of the main valve to the tank 17 through a fourth oil passage 241. The second pressurized fluid or oil from a discharge opening 25 of the sub-pump 15 is supplied to the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber 9 via a fifth oil passage 26. The fifth oil passage 26 has two branch points halfway thereof. A first branch oil passage 27 is connected to one of the branch points to return the second oil to the tank 17 through a first control or throttle valve 28 controlled by a circuit pressure transmitted by a third branch oil passage 37 connected between the port 18 of the main pump 14 and the first control valve 28. A second oil passage 29 is connected to the other branch point to return the second oil to the tank 17 through a second control or throttle valve 35 whose throttle opening is varied according to a rotational angle of a stepping motor 34 which is actuated by a controller 33 provided with a microcomputer (hereinafter merely referred to as CPU) which, upon receiving signals from a vehicle speed sensor 30, a steering angle sensor 31 and an engine revolution sensor 32, selects a desired element among a group of elements arranged in a matrix-like form in which each element is shown as a square having an area Δv×Δα in FIG. 6 according to the content of the aforesaid signals and releases a pulse signal based on a data distributed in advance to the aforesaid element. Besides, the controller 33 is provided with fail-safe means. In FIG. 6, Δv and Δα are discrete amounts representative of the preset change in the vehicle speed and the set change in steering angle, respectively, which vary according to the magnitude of the speed v of the vehicle and the magnitude of the steering angle α and are not constant. The Δv and Δα are determined corresponding to a certain range of the vehicle speed and a certain range of the steering angle to form a matrix of Δv×Δα and the numeral to be indicated by every element of the matrix is predetermined. The signal of the vehicle speed enters as numeral information (for example, 4 pulse/r.p.m "7.07 hertz/10 km" from a lead switch mounted on the axle) into the controller 33. On the other hand, since information of the steering angle (α) is produced as the analog amount, it is converted into numeral information by an A/D convertor within the controller 33. One element of the Δv×Δα matrix is selected according to the input information of the input signal of the vehicle speed (V) and the steering angle (α) to apply a numeral signal determined in accordance with that selected element to the stepping motor to program control the same, and a control system thereof comprises an open loop. A spool 36 is disposed in a internal pass age of the first control valve 28, the spool 36 having one end face being communicated with the third branch passage 37 from the discharge opening 18 of the main pump 14, and the circuit pressure from the main pump 14 is transmitted to the end face of the spool 36. The other end face of the spool 36 is pressed by means of a spring 38. The spool 36 is displaced till the circuit pressure and the spring force of the spring 38 are balanced due to the rise in the circuit pressure to vary an open area of the passage of the control valve 28, which serves as a throttle valve. A rotary shaft 39 is arranged in the internal passage of the second control valve 35, and the open area thereof is varied by rotation of the stepping motor 34. The return function of the spiral spring is incorporated in the upper surface of the stepping motor 34 so that at the time of trouble of the controller 33, and trouble in wiring of the stepping motor 34, the opening of the second control valve 35 is automatically shifted to the opening in the state of the high speed travelling. The fail-safe function of the controller 33 is such that when the vehicle speed sensor 30 is in trouble and fails to provide the vehicle speed signal despite the fact that there exists a signal indicative of the revolution of the engine in excess of a predetermined number of revolutions of the engine, CPU gives the judgement of abnormality to apply the number of pulses indicative of the high speed travelling to the stepping motor 34 whereby the stepping motor 34 is shifted to the rotational angular position in the high speed travelling state. Also, in the case where the steering angle sensor 31 is in trouble and the signal than the sensor 31 is not changed for more than a given time, CPU gives the judgement of abnormality to effect similar control to the stepping motor. Alternatively, the control according to the steering angle can be stopped and instead the control according to only the vehicle speed can be effected. In the case of abnormality of CPU of the controller 33 and trouble such as burn-out of the stepping motor 34, a current flowing through the stepping motor 34 is cut off, and the motor shaft is driven by the force of a spring provided on the stepping motor 34 to cause the motor to shift to the rotational angular position in the high speed travelling state. FIG. 5 is a flow chart showing the aforementioned fail-safe control logic. Symbols used in FIG. 5 are as follows: Q: Is vehicle speed sensor wrong? R: Is steering angle sensor wrong? S: Is wiring of the stepping motor wrong? U: Is CPU wrong? W: Shift the step motor to the high speed travelling state. Z: Disconnect a power supply to the step motor. By the fail-safe operation, the presence of abnormal condition of the CPU is checked when the controller 33 is turned ON, and if it has something wrong, a power supply to the stepping motor 34 is cut off. If no abnormal condition is present, burn-out check is made, and if there is something wrong, a power supply to the stepping motor 34 is likewise cut off. P The vehicle speed sensor 30 and the steering angle sensor 31 are checked after the actual travelling of the vehicle has been carried out, and if there is something wrong, the stepping motor 34 is shifted to the rotational angular position in the high speed travelling state, and the successive checks are conducted. Next, the operation of the device will be described. FIG. 10 shows the relationship between the steering output (P) (reaction pressure) and the steering torque (M) according to the present invention. State where the vehicle speed is 0 or at an extremely low speed: Since a signal from the vehicle speed sensor 30 is very small, a data signal from the controller 33 is also small, and the rotational angle of the stepping motor 34 is 0 or extremely small. Therefore, the second control valve 35 has a sufficient open area, and no throttle pressure is generated in the hydraulic pressure circuit. Accordingly, no pressure rise occurs in the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber 9, and the V-groove 1a of the input shaft 1 is in light sliding contact with the end of the raised portion 11a of the plunger 11 incorporated in the output shaft 5 and relative displacement between the input and output shafts is not restricted. Therefore, the power steering apparatus may exhibit a sufficient power assist force similar to the prior art structure. Under that state when, the steering wheel is operated, the signal of the steering angle sensor 31 is transmitted to the controller 33. In this case, however, as can be understood from FIG. 6, when the vehicle speed is 0 km/sec. or extremely low, the output signal from the steering angle sensor 31 is ignored and the data signal is not fed from the controller 33. Thus, even if the steering angle is varied, the relative displacement between the V-groove 1a and the end of the raised portion 11a of the plunger 11 is not restricted. On the other hand, the hydraulic circuit pressure is increased by the operation of the power steering apparatus, and the first control valve 28 keeps the balance with the spring 38 and starts linear throttling. Accordingly, under this condition, the hydraulic pressure acting on the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber 9 also rises as the hydraulic circuit pressure rises. However, the second control valve 35 is set to have a large throttle opening as compared with that of the first control valve 28 to ensure the state wherein even if the first control valve 28 is operated to be closed, the throttle pressure is not risen. Therefore, even if the hydraulic circuit pressure is risen, the hydraulic pressure acting on the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber 9 is not risen and a sufficient power assist force is obtained similar to the prior art structure, thus rendering possible steering with a light steering torque. State where the vehicle is travelling at medium speed: The stepping motor 34 is further rotated than the state as previously mentioned through the controller 33 by the signal from the vehicle speed sensor 30 to reduce an open area of the second control valve 35. Because of this, the throttle pressure somewhat rises and the larger hydraulic pressure acts on the hydraulic reaction chamber 9. This hydraulic pressure produces engaging pressure to act on the V-groove 1a and the plunger 11 when the vehicle travels straight on whereby the rigid feeling in the vicinity of neutral of the steering wheel is enhanced, and the resistance or reaction torque increases when the steering wheel begins to be operated, resulting in a heavier steering torque than that of the steering wheel operation at a fixed state. Under this state when the steering wheel is turned, the stepping motor 34 is further rotated to the angular position corresponding to the rotational angle of the steering wheel by the signal from the steering angle sensor 31. Thereby, the throttle pressure gradually increases according to the rotational angle of the steering wheel, and the heavier steering torque may be obtained as the steering wheel is turned. When the power assisting force is increased by the road resistance to increase the hydraulic circuit pressure, the first control valve 28 works. At that time, the open area of the second control valve 35 is smaller than that of the steering wheel operation at a neutral state, and therefore the throttle effect of the first control valve 28 is provided to obtain a response feeling or reaction torque according to the load. Namely, the response feeling of the steering wheel operation is sufficiently controlled by both of the throttle means 28 and 35 according to the steering angle and load, and the condition of the road surface may also be detected as a response feeling. State where the vehicle is travelling at high speeds When the stepping motor 34 is further rotated by the controller 33 according to the signal from the vehicle speed sensor 30, the open area of the control valve 35 is further reduced. Therefore, the throttle pressure further rises to increase the engaging pressure between the V-groove 1a and the plunger 11 and to reduce the relative torsional displacement between the input shaft 1 and the output shaft 5 to the minimum level to strongly couple the input and output shafts with each other, thus increasing the rigid feeling of the steering wheel when the vehicle travels straight on. Under this condition, when the steering wheel is operated, the stepping motor is further rotated according to the signal from the steering angle sensor 31 to reduce the relative torsional displacement between the input shaft 1 and the output shaft 5, thus increasing the steering torque and lowering the power assisting force. The power assisting force is rarely generated during the high speed travelling but the first control valve 28 is operated under the state where the second control valvue 35 is extremely throttled. Therefore, the function and effect of the control valve 28 increases so that a sufficient response feeling may be obtained in response to even a slight variation in the road resistance. Further, a discharge amount of the sub-pump 15 at the time of high speed travel can be small in order to increase the throttle pressure as described above. The controller 33 has the function as shown in FIG. 5. When an abnormal condition occurs such as absence of detection signal due to the trouble of the vehicle speed sensor 30 and trouble of the steering angle sensor 31, the controller 33 judges the state of the vehicle travelling and shifts the second control valve 35 to the high speed travelling state, and at the time of abnormal conditions such as burn-out and short-circuit of wiring, wave trouble in CPU, etc., a power supply to the stepping motor 34 is cut off, and the stepping motor is automatically rotated to the rotational position in the high speed travelling state by the force of a spring set in the stepping motor. FIG. 5 is a flow chart showing the fail-safe program. For judgement of the vehicle travelling state, the number of revolutions of the engine is input in the controller 33. The data of the vehicle speed (V) and steering angle (α) is input to and stored in the controller 33 so that, as shown in FIG. 6, the aforementioned matrix is divided in the map-like form and a single specific numeral is allotted to each domain or area of the matrix indicated by the variation of set speed (ΔV)×the variation of set steering angle (Δα). Necessary data is selected from these data according to the input signal from the vehicle speed sensor 30 and the input signal from the steering angle sensor 31, and the data is released by which the rotation of the stepping motor 34 is controlled. The power steering apparatus according to the present invention has a hydraulic pressure reaction chamber for controlling in response to hydraulic pressure a relative torsional angle between an input shaft and an output shaft, wherein there are provided a main pump and a sub-pump driven by the engine. A pressurized oil from the main pump is introduced into a hydraulic cylinder of a power steering apparatus via a main valve, and another pressurized oil from the sub-pump is supplied to the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber. In an oil passage between the sub-pump and the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber, a first throttle means is provided and actuated by a pressure of a circuit from the main pump to the main valve and a second throttle means is also provided and actuated by a stepping motor to form a construction in which the oil is recicirculated into a tank, said stepping motor being rotated and displaced by a pulse signal output from a controller having data arranged in a matrix form by a combination of a preset range of the vehicle speed and a preset range of the steering angle upon receiving signals of a vehicle speed sensor and a steering angle sensor, whereby an opening of the second throttle means is a controlled. In case where no vehicle speed signal is present despite the fact that the signal of revolutions of the engine indicates that the revolutions of the engine in excess of a predetermined value continues for more than a predetermined period of time, a pulse signal at the time of travelling at a preset high speed is produced by the controller; when a variation in the signal of the steering angle is not present for a predetermined time, the control of the second control valve according to the steering angle is not carried out or a pulse signal at the time of travelling at a preset high speed is generated by the controller in a similar manner as that described above; when wiring of the stepping motor is broken or the control of the controller is not properly carried out, a current to the stepping motor is cut off so as to close the opening of the second control valve and the pressure acting on the reaction chamber is controlled. Therefore, the steering characteristic may be freely varied, a response feeling in response to even a minor road resistance may be obtained, the basic discharge amount of the sub-pump may be reduced to save energy, and the vehicle may be travelled safely even at the time of trouble in the steering angle sensor and the vehicle speed sensor, trouble in wiring, and abnormal CPU. While the present invention has been described and illustrated by way of specific embodiments, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications may be made to the invention without departing from the subject matter and scope thereof.

An apparatus for controlling a steering force of a vehicle which uses a power steering apparatus in which a driving shaft for a sub-pump for feeding pressure oil into a hydraulic pressure reaction chamber provided internally of a main valve and a main pump for supplying pressure oil for the power steering apparatus is made common to both said pumps to increase an discharge amount and hydraulic pressure of the sub-pump. When speed information and steering angle information of the vehicle are obtained, the hydraulic pressure fed to the hydraulic pressure reaction chamber is controlled by a throttle means subjected to numerical control by output signal of the controller which is provided with predetermined data according to the travelling state of the vehicle and the other throttle means by way of analog control wherein a variation of road resistance is sensitively transmitted as a variation of hydraulic pressure to vary an opening in response thereto, thus always obtaining a proper steering force. The controller further processes an engine revolution information in addition to the foregoing informations to thereby provide a failsafe function for the steering force control device according to the present invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to magnetic recording apparatus and particularly to apparatus for recording on magnetic disks. It has previously been common practice to record only on one side of a flexible magnetic disk at a time. Such recording, of course, limits the capacity of the apparatus with respect to the total amount of information that may be recorded and the speed with which the information may be recorded. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide improved recording apparatus by means of which two-sided recording may be accomplished on a moving magnetic medium and particularly on a flexible magnetic disk for thereby providing increased capacity and speed of recording. In this connection, it is an object of the invention to provide a pair of magnetic transducers effective on the opposite sides of a magnetic disk and means for holdiing the transducers in simultaneous contact with the disk so that simultaneous data transfer may take place on the two sides of the disk. It is a further object of the invention to provide improved means for carrying such a pair of transducers so that the two transducers are moved simultaneously into recording engagement with the opposite sides of a magnetic disk and are moved simultaneously out of contact with the disk when it is desired to remove the disk from between the transducers. More specifically, it is an object of the invention to provide a pair of arms on which the two transducers are mounted and to interconnect the arms so that the movement of one arm automatically causes the other arm to move, so that the two transducers are simultaneously moved with respect to the disk. In this connection, it is an object of the invention to provide power mechanism operative on one of the arms to thereby simultaneously move both of the arms and their magnetic transducers. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side elevational view, partially schematic, of magnetic disk recording apparatus including a pair of magnetic transducers positioned on opposite sides of a magnetic disk by means of a pair of swing arms carrying the transducers; FIG. 2 is a sectional view taken on line 2--2 of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a sectional view on an enlarged scale taken on line 3--3 of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a view similar to FIG. 1 of another form of the invention; FIG. 5 is a view similar to FIGS. 1 and 4 of still another form of the invention including a pair of transducer carrying swing arms that are connected by means of a flexure integrally molded with the swing arms; and FIG. 6 is a fragmentary view in side elevation of the two swing arms of the FIG. 5 form of the invention, with the swing arms being in different positions than those shown in FIG. 5 and being swung outwardly to disengage the magnetic transducers carried thereby with respect to the associated magnetic disk. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring to FIG. 1 in particular, the magnetic head load mechanism shown therein may be seen to comprise a pair of arms 10 and 12 on opposite sides of a magnetic disk 14. The magnetic disk 14 at its center is fixed on a rotatable drive shaft 16 and may be of a thin flexible material, such as polyethylene terephthalate of about .003 inch thickness, for example. The disk 14 is coated on both sides with a magnetic material, such as iron oxide. The arms 10 and 12 are respectively mounted on a carriage 18 by means of cantilever leaf springs 20 and 22. The carriage 18 is slideably disposed on fixed guide rods 23 extending through the carriage 18. The springs 20 and 22 may have their upper ends embedded in the arms 10 and 12, and the lower ends of the springs 20 and 22 may be fixed with respect to the carriage 18 by means of screws 24. A pair of loading leaf springs 26 and 28 are fixed with respect to the carriage 18 by means of the screws 24 and bear respectively on rounded protrusions 30 and 32 on the arms 10 and 12. The arm 10 is provided with a slider portion 34 which underlies a slider portion 36 of the arm 12 whereby the portion 34 may cause a swinging movement of the portion 36 and thereby of the arm 12 as will be described in greater detail hereinafter. The springs 26 and 28 urge the arms 10 and 12 toward each other, and the carriage 18 carries a pair of stops 38 and 40 for limiting the motion of the arms 10 and 12 toward each other. The arms 10 and 12 respectively carry magnetic transducers 42 and 44 of similar construction. The transducer 42 is shown in section in FIG. 3, and it will be observed that the transducer 42 is hollow and fits over a head guide 46 integral with the arm 10. A spring 48 is disposed between the head guide 46 and an opposite internal surface of the transducer 42 and urges a magnetic head 50 on the end of the transducer 42 into forceful engagement with the disk 14. A plurality of headed studs 52 extend through the arm 10 and into the transducer 42 for the purpose of limiting the movement of the transducer 42 under the action of the spring 48 under the conditions in which the transducer 42 is separated from the disk 14 as will be described. The carriage 18 is carried by and is fixed with respect to a flexible belt 54 that extends around spaced pulleys 56 and 58. The pulley 56 is rotatably mounted on an axle 60 having a spring 62 effective on the axle. The pulley 58 is fixed on the output shaft 64 of a motor 66 which is preferably of the electrical stepping type. The belt 54 is fixed by any suitable means with respect to the pulley 58. An electric solenoid 68 (see FIG. 2) is mounted on a stationary part 70 and is effective on an armature portion 72 of a lever 74. The lever 74 pivots about an edge 70a of the stationary part 70. A spring 76 is effective between the lever 74 and the stationary part 70, and the part 70 has an abutment edge 70b which limits the pivoting movement of the lever 74 about the edge 70a under the action of the spring 76. The arm 10 carries a hook 78 that encompasses the lever end 74a. The lever end 74a has an increased width with respect to the rest of the lever 74 to function as a lost motion connection between lever 74 and arm 10 and allow for a substantial movement of the carriage 18 along the stationary guide rods 23. In operation, the transducers 42 and 44 are normally held in contact with opposite sides of the flexible disk 14 as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, and the disk 14 is rotated by means of its drive shaft 16 on which the disk 14 is mounted. The arms 10 and 12 are held against the stops 38 and 40 by means of the springs 26 and 28, and the springs 48 maintain the transducers 42 and 44 in engagement with the disk 14 under a pressure as determined by the springs 48. The transducers 42 and 44 may thus be used for reading and writing magnetically on the surfaces of the disk 14 by means of the magnetic heads 50 in the transducers 42 and 44 which describe circular tracks or paths on the opposite sides of the disk 14 as it rotates. The carriage 18 is moved along the guide rods 23 by means of the motor 66, so that the transducers 42 and 44 move to different concentric tracks on the surfaces of the disk 14. The motor 66 drives the belt 54 about the pulleys 56 and 58; and, since the carriage 18 is fixed with respect to the belt 54, the carriage 18 and the transducers 42 and 44 likewise move, this movement being in a direction toward or away from the center of the drive shaft 16 for the disk 14. When it is desired to disengage the transducers 42 and 44 from the disk 14, such as for the purpose of releasing the disk 14 for replacement by another similar disk having different information on it, the electromagnet 68 is de-energized. The lever 78 is thus swung about the pivot edge 70a by the action of the spring 76, and the lever 74 in this swinging movement likewise moves the arm 10 against the action of the spring 26. The spring 20 acts as a flexure joint and allows this movement of the arm 10, which is counterclockwise as seen in FIG. 1 about the spring 20 acting as a joint. The slider portion 34 of the arm 10 underlies the slider portion 36 of the arm 12, and the slider portion 34 in pivoting with the rest of the arm 10 acts on the slider portion 36 of the arm 12 and causes a similar pivoting action of the arm 12. The arm 12 pivots about the spring 22, which functions also as a flexure joint similarly to the spring 20 for the arm 10; and the arm 12 pivots in a clockwise direction as seen in FIG. 1 about the spring 22 acting as a flexure joint. The transducers 42 and 44 move along with the arms 10 and 12 and thus respectively pivot in the counterclockwise and clockwise directions to separate from the disk 14. The disk 14 may then be replaced as desired. The electromagnet 68 is energized to swing the lever 74 about the pivot edge 70a back into its FIG. 2 position in order to allow the spring 26 and 28 to return the arms 10 and 12 and the transducers 42 and 44 back into their positions of FIGS. 1 and 2 in which the transducers 42 and 44 engage the disk 14. The form of the invention illustrated in FIG. 4 is basically the same as that illustrated in the preceding figures, but the arms 10a and 12a corresponding to the arms 10 and 12 are pivotally mounted on the carriage 18a corresponding to the carriage 18 instead of being mounted by means of cantilever leaf springs. More specifically, the arms 10a and 12a are pivotally mounted on the carriage 18a by means of pivot shafts 80 and 82. Torsion springs 84 and 86 extend around the shafts 80 and 82 and bear against the arms 10a and 12a for the purpose of forcing the arms 10a and 12a together. The torsion springs 84 and 86 are used in lieu of the leaf springs 26 and 28 in the first embodiment. The embodiment shown in FIGS. 5 and 6 is basically the same as that shown in FIGS. 1-3, the principal difference between the FIGS. 5 and 6 embodiment and the first described embodiment being that a thin section flexure 90 is substituted for the slider portions 34 and 36. The arms 10b and 12b corresponding to the arms 10 and 12 in the first described embodiment are molded along with the flexure 90 in one piece, being of a plastic which at least in thin sections is quite flexible. It will be noted that the flexure 90 as seen in FIG. 5 simply constitutes a relatively thin upwardly bowed portion which is integral with the arms 10b and 12b and connects with these arms at points 90a and 90b. The carriage 18b which is slideably mounted on the guide rods 23 and which corresponds with the carriage 18 in the first described embodiment has a pair of upstanding rails 92 and 94 molded on it, and the arms 10b and 12b have grooves 96 and 97 molded into them which fit on the rails 92 and 94. The rails 92 and 94 and the grooves 96 and 97 are semicircular in cross sectional shape so that the arms 10b and 12b may easily swing on the rails 92 and 94. The centers of these rails and grooves are substantially equidistant from the attachment points 90a and 90b. The arms 10b and 12b may together be slid onto the rails 92 and 94 in assembling the FIG. 5 form of the invention, and the arms 10b and 12b may be held by any suitable means, such as "C" clips (not shown), from sliding off of the rails 92 and 94. A pair of leaf springs 98 and 100 are fixed with respect to the carriage 18b and bear on the arms 10b and 12b for the purpose of holding the arms 10b and 12b against the stops 38 and 40 so that the transducers 42 and 44 bear with pressure on the disk 14. The embodiment of FIGS. 5 and 6 operates basically the same as the first described embodiment. The springs 98 and 100 hold the transducers 42 and 44 against the surfaces of the disk 14 for a magnetic reading or writing action. When the electromagnet 68 is de-energized, the lever 74 pulls the arm 10b so as to rotate the arm 10b in the counterclockwise direction as seen in FIG. 5 about the rail 92, moving the transducer 42 away from the disk 14. The flexure 90 transmits a force in the upward direction as the parts are shown in FIGS. 5 and 6 from the arm 10b to the arm 12b, causing the arm 12b to rotate in the clockwise direction and moving the transducer 44 away from the disk 14 at the same time as the transducer 42 is moved away from the disk 14. The arms 10b and 12b are shown fragmentarily in FIG. 6 in their positions in which the transducers 42 and 44 are separated from the disk 14, and it will be observed that under these conditions the flexure 90 not only transmits an upward force to the arm 12b at the attachment point 90b; but the flexure 90 has also elongated in order to compensate for the increased dimension A measured between the attachment points 90a and 90b. The various forms of the invention above described provide two-sided recording on the magnetic disk 14 for increased capacity. They load both of the transducers 42 and 44 on the disk 14 at the same time so that both of the transducers 42 and 44 may be simultaneously effective for reading or writing magnetically on the disk 14. In all forms of the invention, the two arms, the arms 10 and 12 in the first described form and the corresponding arms in the other forms of the invention, move simultaneously due to the connection from one arm to the other arm; and, therefore, only the single electromagnet 68 is necessary in order to cause movement of the two arms in each form of the invention. All forms of the invention are relatively simple and may be manufactured at relatively low cost. No particular pivots are needed for the arms 10 and 12 in the first described embodiment, since the cantilever leaf spring flexures 20 and 22 provide all of the pivoting action needed. The form of the invention illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6 is considered particularly economical of manufacture, since the arms 10b and 12b along with the flexure 90 are integral parts--only one molding operation is thus necessary for producing the three parts 10b, 12b and 90.

Magnetic disk recording apparatus including a pair of magnetic transducers contacting the opposite sides of a magnetic disk and each carried by a swingable arm. The arms are interconnected together so that the swinging movement of one of the arms is transmitted to the other arm to cause an opposite swinging movement of the other arm for simultaneously moving the transducers away from the magnetic disk. An electromagnet actuates one of the arms so as to thereby also move the other arm.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to an autonomous navigation system for a mobile robot or manipulator. REVIEW OF THE RELATED TECHNOLOGY Mobile robots are used as automated transport, cleaning and service systems, mainly to relieve people of work which is hazardous to health or dangerous. Robots are intended for important work in connection with space travel, for example in the course of autonomous exploration of planetary surfaces or as manipulators in connection with the construction and servicing of space stations. An autonomous navigation system is intended to guide a mobile robot or manipulator to a preselected target point in a workspace by means of a reference route. The reference route to the target point is planned by global path planning on the basis of global information regarding the workspace of the robot and all objects and obstacles present therein. The disadvantages in global path planning are the restrictive requirements on the quality of the information regarding the topology of the workspace and on keeping to the preplanned route, as well as the high complexity of processing voluminous global information. Since the high computing outlay connected therewith is hard to realize in real time, the reference route is generally planned ahead of time. A strategy for global path planning by means of virtual harmonic potential fields in workspaces with a known topology and exclusively known obstacles is described by J. Guldner and V. Utkin in "Sliding Mode Control for an Obstacle Avoidance Strategy Based on a Harmonic Potential Fields" in Proceeding of the 32nd IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, San Antonio, Tex., USA, December 1993, pp. 424 to 429. A method for the motion control of robots is also described there, which is based on the theory of sliding mode control. A control device in particular is described there which allows the exact following of the gradients of a virtual harmonic potential field by a robot. Since a mobile robot or manipulator follows a previously globally planned reference route to the target point "blindly", so to speak, sensor systems and contact switches are used which stop the robot when an obstacle has been detected dangerously close to the reference route. For example, the use of ultrasonic sensors is known to prevent collisions between a mobile robot and unknown obstacles (see J. Borenstein and Y. Koren: "Obstacle Avoidance with Ultrasonic Sensors" in IEEE Journal of Robotics and "Automation", vol. 4, No. 2, Apr. 2, 1988, pp. 213 to 218). However, a simple "trial and error" strategy is proposed there, wherein the robot continues to attempt to pass laterally by an obstacle, because of which an even movement is not possible. To prevent collisions between mobile robots and obstacles, the use of a local navigation level which reacts to local information regarding the workspace or the close vicinity of the robot and underlies the global path planning level is more advantageous. The local information can be obtained by sensors, for example video cameras, ultrasonic sensors or radar. Thus, since global path planning can hardly be accomplished or not at all in real time because of its large requirements for computing time on one hand and, on the other hand, local reactive navigation cannot assure reaching the target point for reasons of the generally limited knowledge of the workspace, a combination of global path planning with a local reactive navigation system is advantageous. Such an autonomous navigation system for a mobile robot or manipulator was introduced by Bruce H. Krogh and Charles E. Thorpe in "Integrated Path Planning and Dynamic Steering Control for Autonomous Vehicles" at the IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation in San Francisco in 1986 and published in the Conference Proceedings on pages 1664 to 1669. An integrated path planning and dynamic steering control for a mobile robot is proposed there, which combines global path planning with local navigation on two hierarchical levels into a navigation system with a real-time feedback for autonomous vehicles in only insufficiently known work spaces. The path planning detects so-called critical points along a global reference route from predetermined information and measuring data of a sensor system not described in detail. The hierarchically underlying local navigation level reacts to new data of the sensor system and takes over local movement direction to prevent collisions with obstacles. The respectively next critical point among the critical points to be approached in sequence is selected as an intermediate target point when the robot nears the previous critical point. If the next critical point is not "visible" from the momentary position, in particular because an obstacle lies between them, a corner or an edge of the obstacle which lies closest to the desired critical point is selected as the next temporary intermediate target point. To guide the robot around obstacles on a collision-free path, a computing method is employed which is based on the generalized potential field approach. An attractive potential is calculated for the intermediate or the temporary intermediate target point and a repulsive potential for the obstacle. The attractive and repulsive potentials result in a potential field whose gradient is given to the motion control level as the desired trajectory. Appropriate calculations are then performed in a fixed workspace coordinate system. The integrated path planning and dynamic steering control for a mobile robot proposed by Krogh and Thorpe, and in particular the local navigation level based on the "Theory of Generalized Potential Fields" described there has a number of disadvantages: When forming the generalized potential field, it is possible that the repulsive potential of the obstacle and the attractive potential of the intermediate target point cancel each other out. Although the robot does not come to a halt, since the traveling speed of the robot is taken into consideration in the calculation of the generalized potential field, limit cycles can occur when the robot moves directly toward a corner or edge of the obstacle. In this case the repulsive potential at first overcomes the attractive potential and the robot moves away from the corner or edge selected as the temporary intermediate target point. After some time the robot has moved far enough away from the obstacle for the attraction to overcome the repulsion again and the robot moves toward the corner or edge of the obstacle, but only until the repulsion again becomes greater than the attraction and the cycle starts anew. In the end the robot only moves back and forth and it is necessary to provide an overriding strategy to end such a limit cycle. In narrow thoroughfares with lateral boundaries, for example in narrow corridors, it is possible for oscillations based on the generalized potential field to occur in the course of the dynamic steering control. If the robot slightly deviates from the globally planned reference route in the center between the lateral boundaries, the repulsive potential of the closer boundary is greater and the robot moves in the direction of the boundary which is farther away. Because of it mechanical inertia, however, it passes through the center between the lateral boundaries and now encounters repulsion from the other boundary. These oscillations around the ideal reference route in the center between the lateral boundaries can build up into complete instability. Although the consideration of measured data of a sensor system are generally mentioned in the previously mentioned article by Bruce H. Krogh and Charles E. Thorpe, it is not explained in detail how these measured data are employed for collision avoidance. The described simulations only refer to the avoidance of collision with convex obstacles. How the known navigation system reacts to concave obstacles is not described. Since in principle a repulsive potential is calculated for each obstacle, a large computing effort is generated and the already described danger of limit cycles and oscillations is increased. All calculations are performed in a workspace coordinate system. Since the required conversions, in particular of measured data of the sensor system from robot coordinates into workspace coordinates, contain errors, uncertainties are created in the collision avoidance. The disadvantages of the potential field method have been extensively explained in an article by Y. Koren and J. Borenstein, entitled "Potential Field Methods and Their Inherent Limitations for Mobile Robot Navigation", which was published on pages 1398 to 1404 of the Proceedings of the 1991 IEEE International, Conference on Robotics and Automation in Sacramento. The authors come to the conclusion that the potential field method has considerable and probably unsolvable disadvantages which appear to make it unusable in an autonomous navigation system for a mobile robot or manipulator. An autonomous navigation system for a mobile robot which moves in a workspace from a starting point to a predetermined target point is known from European Patent Publication EP 0 358 628 A2. The robot has a sensor system which monitors the vicinity of the robot or the workspace and provides measured data regarding the position of obstacles within its range. An area of the work space in which an obstacle was detected is marked as an occupied area, wherein a safety zone is placed over the obstacle in such a way that at least the part of the obstacle detected by the sensor system is covered. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, it is the object of the invention to develop a navigation system of the type mentioned at the outset, by means of which the robot or manipulator is guided through the workspace to a predetermined target point in spite of little or even incomplete information without colliding with known and unknown obstacles, wherein limit cycles, oscillatory movements and restless movement behavior in particular, such as can occur with the known methods, are prevented. This objective is attained in an autonomous navigation system for a mobile robot or manipulator. The autonomous navigation system in accordance with the invention utilizes a hierarchical system architecture with a global path planning level and an underlying navigation level. In accordance with one of the known methods, the path planning level determines a global reference route to the target point. Collisions with obstacles are prevented by the local navigation level and the robot is safely guided to the target point. A sensor system monitors the workspace or the vicinity of the robot. Although the entire size of the obstacle cannot be detected because of the limited range of the sensor system, the measured data of the sensor system of the navigation level make it possible to react locally and to avoid unknown obstacles in particular. The navigation level continuously calculates a virtual harmonic potential field whose gradient determines the motion vector of the robot. The control commands for the drive and steering systems of the mobile robot are derived from this. The measurements of the sensor system take place in the robot coordinate system. The virtual harmonic potential field used for local navigation is also calculated in the local robot coordinate system. By means of this the local navigation becomes independent of the position of the robot in the workspace coordinate system. In a navigation system like, for example, the previously mentioned integrated path planning and dynamic steering control for mobile robots proposed by Krogh and Thorpe, which performs all calculations in the global work room coordinate system, the quality always depends on the exactness of the available information regarding the topology of the workspace and known obstacles and regarding the momentary position of the robot. In comparison with this, a considerably greater reliability in the avoidance of collisions is achieved with the navigation system of the invention, and relatively inexact information regarding the topology of the workspace, known obstacles and the momentary position of the robot can be used. A sufficiently exact determination of absolute positions in incompletely known work spaces is one of the most difficult problems in the navigation of autonomous mobile robots. Besides known obstacles, it is possible to evade unknown obstacles without collisions with the help of the navigation system of the invention. In contrast to the known navigation system proposed by Krogh and Thorpe, the invention does not use a generalized potential field, but a harmonic potential field for local navigation. Harmonic potential fields meet Laplace's equation and are divergence-free. No extrema away from the singular points occur. Because of this, a stop of the robot in local minima is dependably prevented. A further difference from generalized potential fields is that in the calculation of a harmonic potential field only the position of the robot, but not its speed is taken into consideration. By means of this it is assured that the trajectories are independent of the movement of the robot. The calculation of the virtual harmonic potential field corresponds to the strategy for global path planning by means of virtual harmonic potential fields in workspaces of known topology and known obstacles, described in the already mentioned article by J. Guldner and V. Utkin. However, the required calculations of the virtual harmonic potential field are performed in the robot coordinate system. By means of this the robot has direct feedback regarding its vicinity via the sensor system and an extraordinarily great reliability regarding collision avoidance is assured. The basic principle of the navigation of robots by means of virtual harmonic potential fields is the achievement of an attraction to the target point by a global minimum in the target point and repulsion by local maxima in the obstacles. The robot is guided collision-free to the target point following the negative gradient. Accordingly, the virtual harmonic potential field must be selected in such a way that all gradient lines intersect the safety zones of the obstacles only from the inside to the outside. Furthermore, only one global minimum may be present in the target point in which all gradient lines terminate. Additional local minima away from the target point would lead to an undesired early abort of the operation and would have to be left by means of heuristic driving maneuvers. With harmonic potential fields, extremes only occur in the charges themselves. If the negative point charge in the target point is greater than the sum of the positive charges in the obstacles, all gradient lines terminate in the global minimum as the target point. Depending on whether one or several obstacles are detected by the sensor system in the vicinity of the robot, with the autonomous navigation system of the invention, the local navigation level executes the calculation of a virtual harmonic potential field on the basis of operations which are based on a common principle. This common principle provides that all operations are performed on the local navigation level in the robot coordinate system, that occupied and unoccupied areas of the work room are appropriately marked, that detected obstacles are covered by safety zones, that an intermediate target point is defined in an unoccupied area of the workspace and that a virtual harmonic potential field is calculated. If an obstacle is detected, a virtual harmonic potential field is calculated whose gradients the robot follows. If several obstacles are detected, either only one virtual harmonic potential field for the closest obstacle is also calculated or a resultant virtual harmonic potential field for the two closest obstacles is calculated whose gradients the robot again follows. When detecting a single obstacle in the detection range of the sensor system, the following operations are performed: First, the area of the workspace wherein the obstacles was detected is marked as an occupied area. Then, a safety zone is placed over the obstacle in such a way that at least the part of the obstacle detected by the sensor is covered. By means of this, a safe and collision free trip is assured in connection with a simple sensor system which only provides measuring data regarding the distance and the approximate position of obstacles. An intermediate target point in an unoccupied area of the workspace outside of the safety zone is now calculated. A virtual harmonic potential field is calculated for determining the control commands for the drive and steering system of the robot, whose gradient inside the safety zone has a component directed away from the obstacle and outside the safety zone a component directed to the intermediate target point. The robot follows the gradient of the virtual harmonic potential field. The gradient should have a finite curvature so that the robot can follow the gradient with finite adjustment effort and while taking its dynamics into consideration. In this way the robot following the gradient always moves toward the intermediate target point and not into the safety zone. The robot moves safely around the obstacle. Since outside the safety zone the gradient always has a component directed toward the intermediate target point, the robot always moves in the direction toward the intermediate target point and never moves away from the intermediate target point. Thus, no limit cycles occur. The following operations are performed when several obstacles in the detection range of the sensor system are found: First, the areas of the workspace in which the obstacles are located are marked as occupied areas. Then a safety zone is placed over the respective obstacles in such a way that at least the portion of the respective obstacle which was detected by the sensor system is covered. To find the most advantageous route between the obstacles, that unoccupied area between the obstacles or the safety zones is selected which is closest to global reference route and which is of sufficient size to allow the passage of the robot. It is now possible to define an intermediate target point in the selected unoccupied area of the workspace outside of the safety zones. In view of a small computing outlay, it is essential that in the course of the subsequent operations only the two safety zones are taken into consideration which are immediately adjacent to the selected unoccupied area. In this way the computing effort is independent of the number of obstacles. A center line which is equidistant from these two selected safety zones and has a center zone on both sides whose width is less than the least distance between the selected obstacles or the associated safety zones is defined as the optimum passage. To determine the motion vector of the robot, a virtual harmonic potential field is calculated, taking into consideration the position of the robot in relation to the center zone, whose gradient has a component inside the safety zone which is directed away from the obstacle and outside of the safety zone is directed toward the intermediate target point, so that the robot following the gradient always moves toward the intermediate target point and not into the safety zones. The consideration of the position of the robot relative to the center zone can take place in accordance with two variants which differ because of the computing operations for determining the resultant virtual harmonic potential field. In the first variant, when the robot is in an area outside the center zone, only one virtual harmonic potential field for the respectively closest obstacle or the closest safety zone is calculated separately, making reference to the intermediate target point and taking into consideration the respective safety zone. To determine the motion vector of the robot a resultant virtual harmonic potential field is calculated by means of weighted linear superposition of the two said potential fields. In the second variant, respectively one virtual harmonic potential field is continuously calculated for the two closest obstacles, making reference to the intermediate target point and taking into consideration the respective safety zone. To determine the motion vector of the robot, the two virtual harmonic potential fields are weighted and linearly superimposed to form a resultant harmonic potential field, wherein the sum of the weights is one. If the robot is in an area outside of the center zone, the potential field for the closest obstacle is marked with the weight one and the potential field for the obstacle located farther away with the weight zero. If the robot is in the center zone, the two weights are selected to be not equal to "zero". The two weights are preferably selected proportionally to the distance of the robot from the center line, wherein their sum is one. By the weighted superposition of the virtual harmonic potential fields when the robot stays in the center zone it is achieved that in this case the effect of the repulsive potentials of the boundaries approximately cancel each other out and the effect of the attractive potential of the intermediate target point is dominant. Because of this an extremely smooth motion behavior which is free of oscillations is achieved even in narrow passages. Because of the selection of the weights in connection with the superposition of the two virtual harmonic potential fields proportionally to the instantaneous distance of the robot from the centerline, wherein the sum results in one, it follows that each potential field is given the weight 0.5 when the robot is on the center line. In that case the gradient of the resultant virtual harmonic potential field points exactly along the center line. Because of this, oscillations are prevented and the greatest possible reliability in the avoidance of collisions and an optimal use of the available unoccupied space are achieved. It is possible, for example, to use a division into a grid-like structure to monitor the vicinity of the robot or the workspace, such as is used in the previously mentioned integrated path plan and dynamic steering of a mobile robot proposed by Krogh and Thorpe. A sensor system is preferably used in connection with the invention which divides the vicinity of the robot or the workspace into sectors and monitors it sector by sector, wherein the navigation level marks a sector containing an obstacle as being occupied and defines the intermediate target point in an unoccupied sector. Suitable sensor systems are known, for example ultrasonic systems, and are therefore easy to implement. Such a sensor system can have a number of sensors which monitor the vicinity of the robot or the workspace of the robot sector by sector and transmit measured data regarding the position and/or the movement of obstacles in the individual sectors to the navigation level. The edges of the sensors can overlap to improve collision safety and to compensate for inaccuracies of the sensor system. Such a system can also have only one sensor which scans the sectors sequentially, for example a rotating sensor or a phase array. The sensor system is preferably placed on the robot when operating in a large, partially unknown or changing workspace. With a robot or in particular a manipulator operating in a work space which is limited and easy to survey, the sensor system can also be mounted in a position in the workspace. The intermediate target point can be selected in accordance with various principles. The intermediate target point is preferably defined in an unoccupied sector which is adjacent to the occupied sector(s) through which the global reference route was determined. The intermediate target point is preferably located approximately at the end of the range of the sensor system, i.e. approximately at the edge of the "visual range" of the sensor system. However, it is also possible to define the intermediate target point in such a way that it is located in the area of the reference route, outside of the safety zones and outside of the range of the sensor system. Although it can occur in connection with such a definition of the intermediate target point that it is placed on an unknown obstacle, there is no danger of a collision, since the safety zones cover the entire area of the obstacles in the vicinity of the robot which is monitored by the sensor system. With the autonomous navigation system of the invention the safety zones are preferably designed as safety ellipses which are easy to adapt to various shapes of the obstacles and can also cover concave obstacles. The calculation of the virtual harmonic potential fields is greatly simplified when safety ellipses are used. The collision safety can be further improved and the motion can be made more even if the safety zones are surrounded by expanded safety zones which are determined by taking into account the traveling speed and dynamics of the robot, so that evasion is still possible, even if a robot enters an expanded safety zone, without the actual safety zone being violated. The control commands for the drive and steering systems must take place in the configuration space coordinate system of the robot, i.e. for example in the form of the steering angle and speed of the steering wheel or in the form of the two speeds of the parallel drive wheels or chains. Different ways to accomplish this are possible: With the first option, the measured data of the sensor system is collected in the robot coordinate system specific to the robot and the navigation level calculates the virtual harmonic potential field in the Cartesian space of the robot coordinate system, and transforms it into control commands in the configuration space of the robot for the drive and steering systems. In a second option the measured data of the sensor system is collected in the robot coordinate system specific to the robot and transformed into the configuration space of the robot coordinate system; the navigation level calculates the virtual harmonic potential field in the configuration space of the robot coordinate system and in this way directly defines the control commands for the drive and steering systems. In a third option the measured data of the sensor system is collected in the workspace coordinate system and transformed in the Cartesian space of the robot coordinate system; the navigation level calculates the virtual harmonic potential field in the Cartesian space of the robot coordinate system and transforms it into control commands for the drive and steering systems in the configuration space of the robot coordinate system. In a fourth option the measured data of the sensor system is collected in the workspace coordinate system and transformed in the configuration space of the robot coordinate system; the navigation level calculates the virtual harmonic potential field in the configuration space of the robot coordinate system and in this way directly defines the control commands for the drive and steering systems. The non-holonomic kinematics and the size of the robot are preferably taken into consideration in the configuration space of a mobile robot. The coordinates of the joints and the size of the links of the manipulator are preferably taken into consideration in the configuration space of a manipulator. In the course of transferring the introduced principles for the autonomous navigation of mobile robots on a flat surface to the n- dimensional configuration space of a manipulator with n degrees of freedom, care must be taken that, for example, safety ellipses change into safety hyper-ellipsoids and the calculation of the virtual harmonic potential field must be adapted to the dimensions of the respective room, as described in detail in the already mentioned article by Guldner and Utkin. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIGURES The invention will be explained in detail below by means of an exemplary embodiment, making reference to the attached drawings, including: FIG. 1, a schematic structural view of the navigation system of the invention for a mobile robot; FIG. 2, a schematic representation of the relationship between a robot coordinate system and a fixed workspace coordinate system; FIG. 3, a schematic representation of the measured data collected by the sensor system; FIG. 4, a sensor system in which the vicinity of the robot or the workspace is divided into sectors and are monitored sector by sector; FIG. 5, schematically the determination of an intermediate target point and a safety zone in the course of detecting an obstacle; FIG. 6, schematically the determination of the intermediate target point and a safety zone in the course of detecting two obstacles; FIG. 7, a detailed schematic representation of the construction of a safety ellipse for the visible portion of an obstacle; FIG. 8, a detailed schematic representation of the construction of two safety ellipses for the visible portion of two detected obstacles; FIG. 9, schematically the gradient of a virtual harmonic potential field; FIG. 10, schematically the center line with a center zone on both sides between two safety ellipses; FIG. 11, the gradient of a resultant virtual harmonic potential field in the transformed space for two safety ellipses, and FIGS. 12a and 12b, two embodiments of a mobile robot with thricycle kinematics. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A structural representation in FIG. 1 shows a schematic overview of the tasks and interactions of system components of the navigation system of the invention for a mobile robot. A global path planning level GPP plans a reference route RR from a starting point STA to a target point TAR from a priori known data regarding the topology of a workspace and known obstacles filed in a memory MAP as well as measured data ODO regarding an already traveled path. The data for the starting point STA and the target point TAR are input via an input device (not shown) and stored. The measured data ODO is determined by appropriate measuring devices of a robot ROB and relate in particular to the distance covered by each individual wheel on the already traveled path. The length and orientation of the traveled distance segments can be determined from this. The instantaneous position of the robot ROB in relation to a fixed workspace coordinate system is also determined from the measured data ODO and the data of the starting point STA. The determination of the reference route on the global path planning level GPP can take place in accordance with known methods for global path planning, such as the previously mentioned integrated path planning and dynamic steering control for a mobile robot proposed by Krogh and Thorpe. Information regarding the planned reference route RR are transferred to a local navigation level LNC, which continuously calculates the most advantageous trajectory for the motion of the robot from the instantaneous position of the robot ROB and the locally measured data of a sensor system SEN, taking into consideration the obstacles detected by the sensor system, and determines from this control commands for the drive and steering systems of the robot. The data determined in the local navigation level LNC can be transmitted back to a path planning level GPP and used, for example, to complete the information regarding the topology of the workspace and the obstacles contained therein. A motion control level RMC executes the control commands to the drive and steering systems of the robot and forwards corresponding adjustment orders to the drive control or the drives, customarily controlled electric motors. Here, and in the following claims, "robot" includes a manipulator. In the actual execution, the global path planning level GPP, the local navigation level LNC and the motion control level RMC are respectively microcomputers or parts of a computer or of a computer program. The path planning level GPP is hierarchically located above the navigation level LNC. The areas of the autonomous navigation system in which calculations are performed in a fixed global workspace coordinate system are located to the left of a dotted line in FIG. 1. On the right side of the dotted line are the areas of the autonomous navigation system in which calculations are performed in a local robot coordinate system related to the robot. The relationship between the robot coordinate system related to the robot ROB with the Cartesian coordinate axes x R , y R , and the workspace coordinate system related to the workspace with the Cartesian coordinate axes x W , y W is represented in FIG. 2. The robot ROB can have a thricycle configuration, which is shown in detail in FIG. 12. The absolute position of the robot ROB in the workspace is denoted by x,y, the absolute orientation by the angle φ. In FIG. 3 a sensor system for a mobile robot, represented as a mass point, in the plane is shown, which monitors the work space within its range R SEN and provides measured data regarding the distance d and position of the obstacle OBS in the workspace to the local navigation level LNC. The basic functions of the sensor system or its measured data are the following: a. The sensor system has a defined range R SEN and an angle of beam of 180° in the direction of the motion vector v(t) of the robot ROB. b. The shortest distance d between the robot ROB and the obstacle OBS is measured and the width δ of the obstacle visible within the range R SEN of the sensor system is determined. c. The measured data of the sensor system are periodically scanned and forwarded to the navigation level LNC. The scanning intervals have been selected such that new control commands for the drive and steering systems of the robot can be transmitted in each cycle. The measured data of the sensor system are needed on the local navigation level LNC for calculating safety zones for the obstacle(s), to define an intermediate target point and to calculate a virtual harmonic potential field whose gradient the robot follows. Measured data from all sensors are available in each scanning time interval, which are periodically processed to determine control commands for the drive and steering systems of the mobile robot. To assure continuous transitions, the gradient of the virtual potential field is smoothed by means of a low-pass filter. At high speeds of travel of the robot and with large time intervals it is advantageous that the measured data of the sensors are corrected prior to or during the determination of the intermediate target point, the safety zone and the virtual harmonic potential field in accordance with the distance traveled in the meantime. The respective instantaneous position of moving obstacles in relation to the robot is determined in an analogous manner when the said calculations are performed. FIG. 4 shows the details of a sensor system SEN having a number of sensors, in the illustrated example sixteen ultrasonic sensors which are symmetrically arranged in a ring around the robot. It is achieved by means of the symmetrical distribution of the sensors over the circumference of the robot that there are no limitations of the direction of travel. It is therefore also possible to move backward without having to change the calculating method. The sensor system SEN monitors the vicinity or the work space of the robot by sectors and transmits measured data regarding the position and/or movement of obstacles in the individual sectors to the local navigation level LNC. Each sensor covers a sector with its ultrasonic cone. The sectors slightly overlap in the edge areas for increasing the reliability. For example, an individual ultrasonic sensor has an integrated transmitter and receiver. To detect obstacles, short ultrasonic signals are transmitted and their return time is measured, from which the distance from the obstacle is calculated. The corresponding area of the sector is then considered to be occupied. If no reflected ultrasonic signal is received within a prescribed return time, the corresponding sector is considered to be unoccupied. The range R SEN of the sensor is defined by the prescribed return time. The position, shape and extent of an obstacle can only be determined inaccurately with a sensor system of such simple construction. It is therefore essential for the navigation system in accordance with the invention that it is possible to assure safe avoidance of collisions in the workspace in spite of the inaccurate measured data of the sensor system. In particular, the safe motion around obstacles which have a concave contour, viewed from the position of the sensor system of the robot is possible. However, the sensor system can also have only one sensor which sequentially scans the sectors, for example a rotating sensor or a "phased array", as is known from radar technology. FIG. 5 shows the principle of determining the safety zone SA and the intermediate target point ITP in the course of detecting an obstacle OBS in the direction of the reference route RR of the robot ROB represented in the form of a mass point. The area of the workspace in which the obstacle was detected is marked as occupied and a safety zone SA for the detected obstacle OBS is determined. In the simplest case safety zones can be safety circles covering the entire possible area of the obstacle. The safety zone SA in FIG. 5 is designed as a safety ellipse, because ellipses can be better matched to the shape of an obstacle and in this way unnecessary travel of the robot is avoided. In the illustrated example the large major axis of the safety ellipse is determined by the two intersection points of the obstacle OBS with the range R SEN of the sensor system. The short minor axis of safety ellipse is determined by the shortest distance of the robot ROB from the obstacle OBS. A safety ellipse SA can be constructed by means of these three points. The intermediate target point ITP is placed into an adjacent unoccupied area at the edge of the range R SEN of the sensor system. FIG. 6 shows the principle of determining safety zones SA1 and SA2 and the intermediate target point ITP in the course of detecting two obstacles OBS1 and OBS2, of which the obstacle OBS1 is located on the reference route RR of the robot ROB. In FIG. 6 the unoccupied area between the two obstacles is large enough for the passage of the robot ROB. The intermediate target point ITP is therefore placed in the unoccupied area between the two obstacles at the edge of the range R SEN of the sensor system. The safety zones SA1 and SA2 are again constructed in the form of safety ellipses around the respectively visible part of the two obstacles OBS1 and OBS2 and are constructed in a similar manner as in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 shows the determination of the intermediate target point ITP and the safety zone SA in the course of detecting an individual obstacle OBS by the sensor system which monitors the vicinity of the robot by sectors. The robot follows the dotted, globally planned reference route RR leading through the sector "7". An obstacle OBS within the range R SEN of the sensors is detected in sectors "6" and "7". The sectors "6" and "7" are therefore considered to be occupied. The adjacent sectors "5" and "8" are considered to be unoccupied. The intermediate target point ITP is placed into one of the adjoining unoccupied sectors at a distance from the robot ROB corresponding to the range R SEN of the sensors. Optimization of the travel time is achieved in that the sector "8" instead of the sector "5" is selected as the unoccupied sector, because it adjoins the occupied sector "7" in which the reference route RR intersects the range R SEN of the sensors. The safety ellipse SA around the obstacle OBS is constructed in such a way that it covers the entire possible area of the obstacle in sectors "6" and "7". Three points are considered for this, namely the two intersecting points A and B of the range R SEN of the sensors with the boundary lines of the occupied sectors which face away from the respective obstacle, and the point C at the edge of the occupied sector having the shortest measured distance from the obstacle. FIG. 8 shows the practical determination of the intermediate target point ITP and the safety zones SA1 and SA2 in the course of detecting two obstacles by a sensor system monitoring the vicinity of the robot by sectors. The dotted, globally planned reference route RR leads through the sectors "1", "2" and "3". In these sectors an obstacle OBS1 is detected within the range R SEN of the sensors. The sectors "1", "2" and "3" are therefore considered to be occupied. The adjoining sectors "16" and "4" are considered to be unoccupied. The intermediate target point ITP is placed into one of the adjoining unoccupied sectors at a distance from the robot ROB corresponding to the range R SEN of the sensors. Optimization of the travel time is achieved in that the sector "4" instead of the sector "16" is selected as the unoccupied sector, because it adjoins the occupied sector "3" in which the reference route RR intersects the range R SEN of the sensors. As can be seen, shape and size of the obstacle are of no consequence. For example, the same intermediate target point would have been also selected if there had been three small obstacles in each of the sectors "1", "2" and "3". It can furthermore be seen that the sensor system also detects a second obstacle OBS2. Although the second obstacle OBS2 is located off the reference route RR, since the reference route RR was abandoned because of the first obstacle OBS1, it is necessary to determine whether the robot can pass between the two obstacles. In the course of determining the safety ellipses around the two obstacles closest to the intermediate target point ITP, a search for occupied sectors, i.e. sectors in which obstacles had been detected, is performed in both directions, starting with the unoccupied sector "4". In FIG. 8 these are the sectors "1", "2," "3", as well as "6" and "7". The safety ellipses are constructed in a manner analogous to FIG. 7 in such a way that they each cover the entire possible area of the obstacles. The gradient field of a virtual harmonic potential field HPF for the safety circle SA ext , shown in dashed lines, with the extended radius R ext in the transformed space is illustrated in FIG. 9. For this purpose a mathematical coordinate transformation is performed in such a way that the safety ellipse is mapped into a circle of unit radius. To compensate for the motion of the robot towards the obstacle, the circle of unit radius is extended to the radius R ext , taking into consideration the speed component of the robot in the direction of the center of the circle of unit radius and the maximum acceleration of the robot. To calculate the virtual harmonic potential field HPF, the intermediate target point ITP in the mathematically transformed space is assigned a virtual unit charge, negative in the example. The center of the said extended safety circle with the radius R ext is assigned a virtual charge, in the example a positive charge q, which is calculated in accordance with the equation ##EQU1## where D is the distance between the two charges in the mathematically transformed space. The harmonic potential field HPF obtained in this way has the property that its gradient intersects the extended safety circle SA ext only from the inside to the outside. Outside of the extended safety circle SA ext the gradient furthermore has a component which is always directed to the intermediate target point. The gradient of the calculated harmonic potential field HPF is mathematically transformed back into the original space, in the course of which the above mentioned properties of the gradient are maintained intact. In FIG. 10 a center line ML is represented in the transformed space, which is equidistant to the extended safety circles SA1 ext and SA2 ext and has a center zone MA on both sides and whose total width is less than the smallest distance between the extended safety circles SA1 ext and SA2 ext . In the course of determining the resultant virtual harmonic potential field HPFR, the position of the robot in relation to the center zone MA in the transformed space is taken into consideration. If the robot is in an area outside the center zone MA, only the virtual harmonic potential field HPF for respectively the extended safety zone SA1 ext or SA2 ext of the closest obstacle OBS1 or OBS2 in respect to the intermediate target point ITP is calculated. If the robot is in the center zone MA, respectively one virtual harmonic potential field HPF1 and HPF2 is calculated for the two extended safety circles SA1 ext and SA2 ext in respect to the intermediate target point ITP. The resultant virtual harmonic potential field HPFR is determined by means of a weighted linear superposition of the two separately calculated virtual harmonic potential fields HPF1 and HPF2. In the process the respective weights are selected proportionally to the distance between the robot and the center line ML in such a way that their sum always is one. FIG. 11 shows the resultant virtual harmonic potential field HPFR for two safety circles SA1 ext and SA2 ext . As can be seen, the gradient always has a finite curvature, which can be followed by the robot with finite adjustment effort. The robot is guided straight through the narrow passage between the safety zones without a possibility of oscillations occurring. If the calculation of the virtual harmonic potential field is performed in a Cartesian coordinate system, the gradient determines the motion vector of the robot ROB. The gradient is converted into the configuration space of the robot, taking into consideration the kinematic properties and size of the robot and used for determining the control commands for the drive and steering systems of the mobile robot. If the calculations for determining the gradient have already been performed in the configuration space coordinates of the robot, the said control commands can be directly derived from the gradient. Most prototypes of mobile robots are equipped with thricycle kinematics and there are two kinematically equivalent thricycle configurations. FIG. 12(a) shows a thricycle configuration with a steered and driven front wheel and two non-driven rear wheels with a fixed parallel orientation. In this thricycle configuration the driving speed v and the steering angle θ of the front wheel are to be commanded. FIG. 12(b) shows a second thricycle configuration with two independently driven rear wheels of fixed orientation and a freely movable front wheel. In this thricycle configuration the two driving speeds v R and v L for the right and left rear wheel are to be commanded. The two configurations can be converted into each other by appropriate algebraic relationships. Assuming a slip-free rolling of the wheels on the ground, the motion of such a three-wheeled robot for constant steering angles θ is described by circles which are shown by dotted lines in FIG. 12. The center M of such a circle is located on the y R axis of the robot coordinate system which is defined by the rear axle of the robot. The front wheel is placed at right angles on the connecting line with the circle center M. In FIG. 12 the circle radius of the traveled circle is indicated by K, the distance of the front wheel from the rear axle by L and half the wheelbase of the robot by W. The geometric relationships between the steering angle θ and the distance covered along the arc of the circle define the configuration space of the robot.

In an autonomous navigation system for a mobile robot or a manipulator which is intended to guide the robot through the workspace to a predetermined target point in spite of incomplete information without colliding with known or unknown obstacles. All operations are performed on the local navigation level in the robot coordinate system. In the course of this, occupied and unoccupied areas of the workspace are appropriately marked and detected obstacles are covered by safety zones. An intermediate target point is defined in an unoccupied area of the workspace and a virtual harmonic potential field is calculated, whose gradient is followed by the robot. Mobile robots with such an autonomous navigation system can be used as automated transport, cleaning and service systems.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] This invention relates to a phase-locked loop circuit. [0003] 2. Description of Related Art [0004] From past to now, a phase-locked loop circuit (hereinafter referred to as a PLL circuit), which generates an output clock synchronized with an input clock, has widely been known. [0005] Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2001-94420 discloses a PLL circuit that comprises a selector for selecting one input clock from a plurality of clocks. [0006] Above-mentioned PLL circuit disclosed in the Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2001-94420 is shown in FIG. 8 . As shown in FIG. 8 , the PLL circuit 100 includes a selector 101 , a 1/M divider (1/M DIV) 102 , a phase detector (PD) 103 , a loop filter (LF) 104 , a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) 105 , a 1/M divider (1/M DIV) 106 , a 1/L fixed divider (1/L DIV) 107 , and a control circuit 108 . [0007] Based on a system-change signal input via a port 3 (P 3 ), the selector 101 selects a clock f 1 or clock f 2 as an input clock, then the selector 101 outputs the selected clock to the 1/M divider 102 . Incidentally, the clock f 1 is input to the selector 101 via a port 1 (P 1 ) and the clock f 2 is input to the selector 101 via a port 2 (P 2 ). [0008] The input clock is divided in frequency by the 1/M divider 102 , and then input to the PD 103 . An output clock divided in frequency by each of the 1/L divider 107 and 1/M divider 106 is also input to the PD 103 . The PD 103 compares the two clocks and detects a phase difference between the two clocks. Then a phase difference signal is output from the PD 103 to the LF 104 . Alternating component included in the phase difference signal is removed by the LF 104 . Then the phase difference signal is input to the VCO 105 . A frequency of the output clock output from VCO 105 is determined based on the voltage level of the phase difference signal input to the VCO 105 . [0009] As shown in FIG. 8 , the system-change signal input via a port 3 is transferred to the control circuit 108 in addition to the selector 101 when a system of the PLL circuit 100 is to be changed. The control circuit 108 sets division ratios of the 1/M dividers 102 and 106 to be smaller than a predetermined division ratio immediately after the selector 101 changes the input clock based on the system-change signal. After that, 1/M dividers 102 , 106 , and 1/L divider 107 are reset and the division ratios of the 1/M dividers 102 and 106 are changed to other values. [0010] In this way, it is possible to synchronize the output clock with a new input clock within a relatively short period of time, when the selector 101 changes the input clock. [0011] However, the voltage input to the VCO 105 from the LF 104 is not controllable at the time the input clock is changed by the selector 101 in the Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 2001-94420. More specifically, a phase difference between the two clocks input to the PD 103 is unknown at the time the input clock is changed by the selector 101 . A voltage over a tolerance range could be input to the VCO 105 , and a waveform of the output clock from the VCO 105 could be disturbed and a functioning of a circuit connected to the VCO 105 could also be disturbed. [0012] As explained above, it was difficult to suppress the disturbance of the output clock effectively at the time of changing the input clock. SUMMARY [0013] In one embodiment, a phase-locked loop circuit includes a phase detector detecting a phase difference between a first clock and a second clock; a voltage controlled oscillator outputting the second clock based on an input voltage that fluctuates corresponding to the phase difference detected by the phase detector; and a selector selecting the first clock from a plurality of clocks based on a clock change signal that is transmitted to the selector while the input voltage is set substantially constant. [0014] In another embodiment, a phase-locked loop circuit includes a selector selecting a first clock from a plurality of clocks based on a clock change signal; a first divider dividing the first clock in frequency; a second divider dividing a second clock in frequency; a phase detector detecting a phase difference between a clock output from the first divider and a clock output from the second divider; a voltage controlled oscillator outputting the second clock based on an input voltage that fluctuates corresponding to the phase difference detected by the phase detector; and a control circuit setting the input voltage substantially constant and outputting the clock change signal while the input voltage is set substantially constant. [0015] In still another embodiment, a phase-locked loop circuit includes a phase detector detecting a phase difference between a first clock and a second clock; a voltage controlled oscillator outputting the second clock based on an input voltage that fluctuates corresponding to the phase difference detected by the phase detector; a selector selecting the first clock from a plurality of clocks based on a clock change signal; and means for setting the input voltage substantially constant and for outputting the clock change signal while the input voltage is set substantially constant. [0016] According to this invention, it is possible to suppress the disturbance in the waveform of the output clock effectively at the time of changing the clock by the selector. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0017] The above and other objects, advantages and features of the present invention will be more apparent from the following description of certain preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: [0018] FIG. 1 is a schematic block diagram to describe a configuration of a PLL circuit according to a first embodiment of the present invention; [0019] FIG. 2 is a chart to explain an operation of a charge pump circuit according to the first embodiment; [0020] FIG. 3 is a timing chart to describe an operation of the PLL circuit according to the first embodiment; [0021] FIG. 4 is a schematic circuit diagram to describe a configuration of a PLL circuit according to a second embodiment of the present invention; [0022] FIG. 5 is a timing chart to describe an operation of the PLL circuit according to the second embodiment; [0023] FIG. 6 is a schematic block diagram to describe a configuration of a PLL circuit according to a third embodiment of the present invention; [0024] FIG. 7 is a timing chart to describe an operation of the PLL circuit according to the third embodiment; and [0025] FIG. 8 is a schematic block diagram to describe a configuration of a conventional PLL circuit. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0026] The invention will be now described herein with reference to illustrative embodiments. Those skilled in the art will recognize that many alternative embodiments can be accomplished using the teachings of the present invention and that the invention is not limited to the embodiments illustrated for explanatory purposes. First Embodiment [0027] FIG. 1 shows a schematic block diagram of a phase-locked loop circuit (PLL circuit) 1 . A control circuit 2 is also shown in FIG. 1 . [0028] As shown in FIG. 1 , the PLL circuit 1 includes a selector 3 , a 1/m divider (1/m DIV) 4 (note that m is nonnegative integer), a 1/n divider (1/n DIV) 5 (note that n is nonnegative integer), switch circuits 6 a and 6 b, a phase detector (PD) 7 , a low-pass filter circuit (LPF) 8 , and a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) 9 . The PD 7 includes a timing detection circuit (TDC) 10 and a charge pump circuit (charge pump) 11 . [0029] The PLL circuit 1 operates based on control signals (CCS (Clock Change Signal), DIVreset, Set(m), Set (n), Mask) from the control circuit 2 . The control circuit 2 generates the control signals (CCS, DIVreset, Set(m), Set(n), Mask) based on a system-change signal (SC-signal) input via a control terminal 15 . The control signals (CCS, DIVreset, Set(m), Set(n), Mask) are transmitted to the PLL circuit 1 from the control circuit 2 in a predetermined order and at a predetermined timing. [0030] A clock f 1 is input to the selector 3 via a first input port 12 . A clock f 2 is input to the selector 3 via a second input port 13 . The selector 3 selects one input clock from the clock f 1 and the clock f 2 based on the control signal CCS. The selector 3 selects the clock f 1 as the input clock when the control signal CCS is LOW. The selector 3 selects the clock f 2 as the input clock when the control signal CCS is HIGH. The input clock selected by the selector 3 is transferred to the 1/m divider 4 . [0031] The selector 3 outputs the input clock. The input clock output from the selector 3 is transferred to the 1/m divider 4 . The 1/m divider 4 divides the input clock in frequency, and outputs the clock divided in frequency (a first clock divided in frequency). The 1/m divider 4 is configured by a so-called counter. [0032] Now, the 1/m divider 4 is reset based on the control signal DIVreset transmitted from the control circuit 2 . The division ratio of the 1/m divider 4 is set based on the control signal Set (m) transmitted from the control circuit 2 . [0033] The 1/n divider 5 divides an output clock Fo in frequency and outputs the clock divided in frequency (a second clock divided in frequency). Note that, the output clock Fo is transferred from the VCO 9 to the 1/n divider 5 . The 1/n divider 5 is configured by a so-called counter as well as the 1/m divider 4 . [0034] The division ratio of the 1/n divider 5 is reset based on the control signal DIVreset transmitted from the control circuit 2 . The division ratio of the 1/n divider 5 is set based on the control signal Set(n) transmitted from the control circuit 2 . [0035] In this embodiment, the switch circuit 6 a is provided between the 1/m DIV 4 and the timing detection circuit (TDC) 10 . The switch circuit 6 b is provided between the 1/n DIV 5 and the TDC 10 . [0036] By adopting this configuration, the disturbance in the output clock output from the VCO 9 is suppressed at the time of changing the input clock by the selector 3 for changing a system of the PLL circuit 1 . This point will be explained below. [0037] The switch circuit 6 a is a NAND 20 . The NAND 20 is a logic circuit having 2-input and 1-output terminals. An output terminal of the 1/m divider 4 is connected to an input terminal a of the NAND 20 . The first clock divided in frequency by the 1/m divider 4 is transferred to the input terminal a of the NAND 20 . An input terminal b of the NAND 20 is connected to the control circuit 2 . The control signal Mask is transferred to the input terminal b of the NAND 20 from the control circuit 2 . [0038] Based on the control signal Mask transferred to the NAND 20 from the control circuit 2 , an output status of the NAND 20 is determined. More specifically, when the control signal Mask is HIGH, the NAND 20 outputs an inverted clock against the first clock divided in frequency by the 1/m DIV 4 . When the level of the control signal Mask is LOW, the NAND 20 outputs a constant high-level voltage signal. [0039] That is, the switch circuit 6 a selectively outputs the inverted clock or the constant high-level voltage signal to the PD 7 (an input terminal a of the TDC 10 ) based on the level of the control signal Mask transmitted from the control circuit 2 . [0040] A configuration of the switch circuit 6 b is equal to the configuration of the switch circuit 6 a. A NAND 21 of the switch circuit 6 b corresponds to the NAND 20 of the switch circuit 6 a. [0041] Note that, an input terminal a of the NAND 21 is connected to an output terminal of the 1/n divider 5 . A clock divided in frequency by the 1/n divider 5 is input to the input terminal a of the NAND 21 . An input terminal b of the NAND 21 is connected to the control circuit 2 . The control signal Mask is transferred to the input terminal b of the NAND 21 from the control circuit 2 . [0042] As well as the NAND 20 , an output status of the NAND 21 is determined based on the control signal Mask transferred to the NAND 21 from the control circuit 2 . More specifically, when the control signal Mask is HIGH, the NAND 21 outputs the inverted clock. When the control signal Mask is LOW, the NAND 21 outputs the constant high-level voltage signal. [0043] That is, the switch circuit 6 b selectively outputs the inverted clock or the constant high-level voltage signal to the PD 7 (an input terminal b of the TDC 10 ) based on the level of the control signal Mask transmitted from the control circuit 2 . [0044] As shown in FIG. 1 , the phase detector 7 includes the TDC 10 and the charge pump 11 . [0045] The TDC 10 is a logic circuit having 2-input and 2-output terminals. An input terminal a of the TDC 10 is connected to the output terminal of the switch circuit 6 a. An input terminal b of the TDC 10 is connected to the output terminal of the switch circuit 6 b. An output terminal UP-bar of the TDC 10 is connected to a first control terminal (gate terminal of a P-type MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) transistor TR 1 ) of the charge pump 11 . An output terminal DOWN of the TDC 10 is connected to a second control terminal (gate terminal of a N-type MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) transistor TR 2 ) of the charge pump 11 . [0046] The TDC 10 changes a level of a voltage signal that is output from the output terminal UP-bar of the TDC 10 at the time the TDC 10 detects a fall in a clock input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . More specifically, the TDC 10 changes a level of the voltage signal (a first timing signal) from a higher level (HIGH) to a lower level (LOW), when the TDC 10 detects a fall in the clock input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . The TDC 10 changes a level of a voltage signal that is output from the output terminal DOWN of the TDC 10 at the time the TDC 10 detects a fall in the clock input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . More specifically, the TDC 10 changes a level of the voltage signal (a second timing signal) from LOW to HIGH, when the TDC 10 detects a fall in the clock input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . [0047] The charge pump 11 includes an inverter comprised of the P-type MOS transistor TR 1 and the N-type MOS transistor TR 2 which are connected in series. A source terminal of the TR 1 is connected to a power supply potential (VDD). A gate terminal (a control terminal) of the TR 1 is connected to the output terminal UP-bar of the TDC 10 . A drain terminal of the TR 1 is connected to a drain terminal of the TR 2 . A gate terminal (a control terminal) of the TR 2 is connected to the output terminal DOWN of the TDC 10 . A source terminal of the TR 2 is connected to a ground potential (GND). [0048] The charge pump 11 generates a current (phase difference current) that corresponds to a phase difference between the clock divided in frequency by the 1/m divider 4 and the clock divided in frequency by the 1/n divider 5 . An operation of the charge pump 11 will be described below with reference to the FIG. 2 . [0049] As shown in FIG. 1 , the LPF 8 is connected to a node N 1 between the PD 7 and the VCO 9 . The LPF 8 is configured to include at least one capacitor. [0050] The capacitor included in the LPF 8 is charged or discharged corresponding to a current generated in the charge pump 11 . An amount of the current generated in the charge pump 11 corresponds to a phase difference between the clock divided in frequency by the 1/m divider 4 and the clock divided in frequency by the 1/n divider 5 as mentioned above. A potential level of the node N 1 is varied corresponding to a charge or a discharge of the capacitor included in the LPF 8 . In this way, a frequency of the output clock output from the VCO 9 is regulated. Note that, an input voltage of the VCO 9 is equal to a voltage at the node N 1 . [0051] As shown in FIG. 1 , an input terminal of the VCO 9 is connected to the PD 7 and the LPF 8 , and an output terminal of the VCO 9 is connected to an output terminal 14 and the input terminal of the 1/n divider 5 . The output clock Fo output from the VCO 9 is transferred to the output terminal 14 and the input terminal of the 1/n divider 5 . [0052] The VCO 9 outputs the output clock Fo having a frequency corresponding to a voltage level of the input voltage that is input to the input terminal of the VCO 9 . That is, a frequency of the output clock Fo becomes lower when the input voltage (a potential level of the node N 1 ) becomes lower. A frequency of the output clock Fo becomes higher when the input voltage (a potential level of the node N 1 ) becomes higher. [0053] With reference to the FIG. 2 , an operation of the charge pump 11 is described. [0054] As shown in FIG. 2 , the charge pump 11 is in a state of being charged when the first timing signal output from the output terminal UP-bar of the TDC 10 is LOW and the second timing signal output from the output terminal DOWN of the TDC 10 is LOW. That is, the TR 1 is in on-state when the first timing signal is LOW, and the TR 2 is in off-state when the second timing signal is LOW. A current is input from the charge pump 11 to the LPF 8 . In other words, the capacitor included in the LPF 8 is charged by a current generated in the charge pump 11 . [0055] When the second timing signal changes to HIGH from LOW at this condition, the TDC 10 is in a reset state. So, a current, which is input to the LPF 8 from the charge pump 11 when the charge pump 11 is in a state of being charged, is set as a phase difference current that corresponds to a phase difference between the first clock divided in frequency by the 1/m divider 4 and the second clock divided in frequency by the 1/n divider 5 . More specifically, the phase difference current reflects an amount of phase delay in the output clock Fo against the input clock selected by the selector 3 . [0056] As shown in FIG. 2 , the charge pump 11 is in a state of being discharged when the first timing signal output from the output terminal UP-bar of the TDC 10 is HIGH and the second timing signal output from the output terminal DOWN of the TDC 10 is HIGH. That is, the TR 1 is in off-state when the first timing signal is HIGH, and the TR 2 is in on-state when the second timing signal is HIGH. A current is input from the LPF 8 to the charge pump 11 . In other words, the capacitor included in the LPF 8 is discharged by a current generated in the charge pump 11 . [0057] When the first timing signal changes to a lower level at this condition, the TDC 10 is in a reset state. So, a current, which is input to the LPF 8 from the charge pump 11 when the charge pump 11 is in a state of being discharged, is set as a phase difference current that corresponds to a phase difference between the first clock divided in frequency by the 1/m divider 4 and the second clock divided in frequency by the 1/n divider 5 . More specifically, the phase difference current reflects an amount of phase lead in the output clock Fo against the input clock selected by the selector 3 . [0058] Now, a system change operation of the PLL circuit 1 is described with reference to the FIG. 3 . The PLL circuit 1 changes the input clock based on the control signals transmitted from the control circuit 2 to the PLL circuit 1 . [0059] During a time of t 1 to t 2 , which is the time before the system is changed, the first clock that is divided in frequency by the 1/m divider 4 and inverted by the switch circuit 6 a is input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . The second clock that is divided in frequency by the 1/n divider 5 and inverted by the switch circuit 6 b is input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . [0060] At t 2 , the SC-signal changes from LOW to HIGH. The SC-signal is input to the control circuit 2 via the control terminal 15 . The control circuit 2 generates the control signals (CCS, DIVreset, Set(m), Set(n), Mask) based on the SC-signal having a higher level. Note that the clock f 2 is selected when the SC-signal is HIGH and the clock f 1 is selected when the SC-signal is LOW. [0061] At t 3 , the control signal MASK changes from HIGH to LOW. At this time, an output level of the switch circuit 6 a is set to HIGH. And also, an output level of the switch circuit 6 b is set to HIGH. The control signal Mask is set to LOW until t 8 . [0062] The TDC 10 detects a fall in the clock input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 and a fall in the clock input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . The input voltages input to the input terminals a and b of the TDC 10 are set to a voltage signal having a higher level (a substantially constant voltage) as explained above. Thus, the voltage signal (the first timing signal) output from the output terminal UP-bar of the TDC 10 and the voltage signal (the second timing signal) output from the output terminal DOWN of the TDC 10 are fixed. More specifically, the first timing signal is set to a higher level and the second timing signal is set to a lower level. Both of the TR 1 and TR 2 of the charge pump 11 are in off-state. [0063] Note that, the VCO 9 keeps on outputting the output clock Fo having a same frequency as that at t 3 . In other words, the VCO 9 is in a self-running state. [0064] At t 4 , the control signal DIVreset, which is input to the 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 from the control circuit 2 , is set to LOW. The division value of the 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 is reset based on the control signal DIVreset that is input to each of a reset terminal of the 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 . The division value of the 1/m divider 4 corresponds to a value of counter included in the 1/m divider 4 . The division value of the 1/n divider 5 corresponds to a value of counter included in the 1/n divider 5 . The control signal DIVreset is set to LOW until t 7 . [0065] At t 5 , the control signal CCS, which is input to the selector 3 from the control circuit 2 , changes to HIGH. The selector 3 changes the input clock from the clock f 1 to the clock f 2 . The selector 3 outputs the selected clock f 2 as an input clock. [0066] Also at t 5 , the control signal Set (m) is input to the 1/m divider 4 from the control circuit 2 . The control signal Set (m) is used to change the division ratio of the 1/m divider 4 . At t 5 , the control signal Set (n) is input to the 1/n divider 5 from the control circuit 2 . The control signal Set (n) is used to change the division ratio of the 1/n divider 5 . These control signals Set (m) and Set (n) are set in an active state (ac) until t 6 . After t 6 these control signals Set (m) and Set (n) are set in an inactive state (iac). [0067] At t 7 , the control signal DIVreset changes to HIGH. Then, 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 start counting at the same time. [0068] At t 8 , the control signal Mask changes to HIGH. At the same time, the first divided clock inverted by the switch circuit 6 a is input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . The second divided clock inverted by the switch circuit 6 b is input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . [0069] The VCO 9 keeps on outputting the output clock Fo having a same frequency as that of the output clock Fo at t 3 until t 8 . After t 8 , the VCO 9 outputs the output clock Fo synchronized with the selected input clock f 2 . The input clock is changed by the selector 3 when the potential of the node N 1 is set substantially constant. Therefore, the output clock Fo is synchronized with the selected input clock f 2 without having a disturbance in a waveform of the output clock Fo. [0070] Note that the same explanations could be applied to a case when the SC-signal changes from HIGH to LOW. That is, same explanations could be applied to a case when the clock f 1 is selected as the input clock instead of the clock f 2 . Note that the control signal CCS is changed from HIGH to LOW corresponding to the SC-signal. [0071] In this embodiment, the control signal Mask, which is input to each of the switch circuits 6 a and 6 b, is set to LOW before the input clock is changed from the clock f 1 to the clock f 2 by the selector 3 . Then, the output signal of the switch circuits 6 a and 6 b is set to HIGH. The first timing signal and the second timing signal are set to a predetermined voltage level. No phase different current is generated in the charge pump 11 . Therefore a fluctuation of a potential at the node N 1 is suppressed effectively. [0072] The selector 3 changes the input clock from the clock f 1 to the clock f 2 while the fluctuation of a potential at the node N 1 is suppressed. While the fluctuation of a potential at the node N 1 is suppressed, the 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 are reset, and the division ratio of the 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 are set to a predetermined division ratio corresponding to the clock f 2 . In this way, the system of the PLL circuit 1 is changed with realizing the VCO 9 being in a self-running state and suppressing the disturbance in the waveform of the output clock Fo. That is, it is possible to change the system of the PLL circuit 1 without stopping or resetting the operation of the PLL circuit 1 and with suppressing the disturbance in the waveform of the output clock Fo. [0073] Note that, resetting the 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 is not necessarily performed at the same time with changing the input clock by the selector 3 . Second Embodiment [0074] Hereinafter, a PLL circuit 30 according to a second embodiment is described. This second embodiment is different from the first embodiment as below. By resetting the TDC 10 , the first timing signal and the second timing signal which are output from the TDC 10 are set so as not to generate a current in the charge pump 11 . [0075] As shown in FIG. 4 , the first divided clock divided in frequency by the 1/m divider 4 is inverted by a buffer 31 and input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . The second divided clock divided in frequency by the 1/n divider 5 is inverted by a buffer 32 and input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . [0076] The TDC 10 detects a fall in the clock input to the input terminal a and a fall in the clock input to the input terminal b as in the first embodiment. An operation of the charge pump 11 , the LPF 8 , and the VCO 9 are also the same with those of the first embodiment. [0077] In this embodiment, a control signal TDCreset is input to a reset terminal of the TDC 10 from the control circuit 2 . So, the TDC 10 is in a reset-state while the control signal TDCreset is in LOW. While the control signal TDCreset is in LOW, the first timing signal output from the output terminal UP-bar of the TDC 10 is set to HIGH, and the second timing signal output from the output terminal DOWN of the TDC 10 is set to LOW. The TR 1 and TR 2 are in off-state. So, no current flows from the LPF 8 to the charge pump 11 . No current flows from the charge pump 11 to the LPF 8 . That is no phase difference current is generated in the charge pump 11 . So, a potential of the node N 1 is set substantially constant. [0078] Incidentally, the TDC 10 is in a normal operating condition while the control signal TDCreset is in HIGH. [0079] Now, an operation of the PLL circuit 30 is described with reference to a timing chart of FIG. 5 . [0080] During a time of t 1 to t 2 , which is the time before the system is changed, the first clock that is divided in frequency by the 1/m divider 4 and inverted by the buffer 31 is input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . The second clock that is divided in frequency by the 1/n divider 5 and inverted by the buffer 32 is input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . [0081] At t 2 , the SC-signal is input to the control circuit 2 via the control terminal 15 . The control circuit 2 generates the control signals (CCS, DIVreset, Set(m), Set(n), TDCreset) based on the SC-signal. [0082] At t 3 , the control signal TDCreset, which is transmitted to the TDC 10 from the control circuit 2 , changes to LOW. The output signal from the output terminal UP-bar of the TDC 10 is set HIGH. The output signal from the output terminal DOWN of the TDC 10 is set LOW. The control signal TDCreset is set LOW until t 8 . [0083] The TDC 10 detects a fall in a clock input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 and a fall in a clock input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . The voltage signal output from the output terminal UP-bar (the first timing signal) and the voltage signal output from the output terminal DOWN (the second timing signal) is set constant, as a result of the input voltage input to input terminals a and b of the TDC 10 being set HIGH (substantially constant voltage). That is, a voltage signal output from the output terminal UP-bar is set HIGH, and a voltage signal output from the output terminal DOWN is set LOW. The TR 1 and TR 2 are in off-state. The VCO 9 continues to output the output clock Fo having a same frequency as that at t 3 . [0084] An operation of the PLL circuit 1 from t 4 to t 7 is equal to the first embodiment. So, no more explanation will be made. [0085] At t 8 , the control signal TDCreset, which is input to the TDC 10 from the control circuit 2 , changes to HIGH. Then a clock that is gained by inverting the first divided clock is input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . A clock that is gained by inverting the second divided clock is input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . [0086] The VCO 9 continues to output the output clock Fo having a same frequency as that at t 3 until t 8 . After t 8 , the VCO 9 outputs the output clock Fo synchronized the clock f 2 . The input clock is changed by the selector 3 while the potential of the node N 1 is set substantially constant. So, the output clock Fo is synchronized with the selected new input clock without disturbing a waveform of the output clock Fo. [0087] Note that, same explanations could be applied to a case when the control signal SC-signal is changed to LOW from HIGH. In this case, the control signal CCS is changed to LOW from HIGH corresponding to the control signal SC-signal. [0088] The control signal TDCreset is set LOW, before the system of the PLL circuit 30 is changed. Therefore, the first timing signal and the second timing signal which are output from the TDC 10 are set so as not to generate a phase different current in the charge pump 11 . In this way, a fluctuation of a potential level of the node N 1 is suppressed effectively. [0089] The selector 3 changes the input clock from the clock f 1 to the clock f 2 while the fluctuation of a potential at the node N 1 is suppressed. While the fluctuation of a potential at the node N 1 is suppressed, the 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 are reset and the division ratios of the 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 are set to a predetermined division ratio corresponding to the clock f 2 . In this way, the system of the PLL circuit 30 is changed with realizing the VCO 9 being in a self-running state and suppressing the disturbance in the waveform of the output clock Fo. That is, it is possible to change the system of the PLL circuit 30 without stopping or resetting the operation of the PLL circuit 30 and with suppressing the disturbance in the waveform of the output clock Fo. [0090] Note that, resetting the 1/m divider 4 and the 1/n divider 5 is not necessarily preformed at the same time with changing the input clock by the selector 3 . Third Embodiment [0091] Hereinafter, a PLL circuit 50 according to a third embodiment is described. This third embodiment is different from the first embodiment as below. By setting a 1/m divider 51 and a 1/n divider 52 in a reset-state, voltages input to the input terminals a and b of the TDC 10 are set to HIGH. The first and second timing signals output from the TDC 10 is set so as not to generate any current in the charge pump 11 . Further explanation is made below. [0092] As shown in FIG. 6 , the input terminal of the 1/m divider 51 is connected to the output terminal of the selector 3 . The output terminal of the 1/m divider 51 is connected to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . [0093] The 1/m divider 51 divides an input clock in frequency and outputs the divided clock after inverting the divided clock. The 1/m divider 51 is configured by the so-called counter. [0094] The division ratio of the 1/m divider 51 is reset by the control signal DIVreset transmitted from the control circuit 2 . In this embodiment, an output voltage from the 1/m divider 51 is set HIGH (substantially constant voltage) while the 1/m divider 51 is in reset-state. The division ratio of the 1/m divider 51 is set by the control signal Set(m) from the control circuit 2 as in the first embodiment. [0095] As shown in FIG. 6 , the input terminal of the 1/n divider 52 is connected to the output terminal of VCO 9 . The output terminal of the 1/n divider 52 is connected to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . [0096] The 1/n divider 52 divides an input clock in frequency and outputs the divided clock after inverting the divided clock. The 1/n divider 52 is configured by the so-called counter. [0097] The division ratio of the 1/n divider 52 is reset by the control signal DIVreset transmitted from the control circuit 2 . In this embodiment, an output voltage from the 1/n divider 52 is set HIGH (substantially constant voltage) while the 1/n divider 52 is in reset-state. The division ratio of the 1/n divider 52 is set by the control signal Set(n) from the control circuit 2 as in the first embodiment. [0098] As explained above, in this embodiment, a high-level voltage signal is input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 from the 1/m divider 51 while the 1/m divider 51 is reset. A high-level voltage signal is input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 while the 1/n divider 52 is reset. [0099] The TDC 10 detects a fall in the voltage signal input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 , and outputs the first timing signal. The TDC 10 detects a fall in the voltage signal input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 , and outputs the second timing signal. [0100] When the 1/m divider 51 is set to a reset-state, a voltage signal input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 is set HIGH, and the first timing signal output from the output terminal UP-bar is also set to a predetermined level. In the same way, when the 1/n divider 52 is set to a reset-state, a voltage signal input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 is set HIGH, and the second timing signal output from the output terminal DOWN is also set to a predetermined level. [0101] That is, the first timing signal is set to HIGH and the second timing signal is set to LOW. The TR 1 and TR 2 are in off-state. Therefore, no current flows into the LPF 8 from the charge pump 11 . No current flows into the charge pump 11 from the LPF 8 . In other words, no phase difference current is generated in the charge pump 11 . So, a potential of the node N 1 is set substantially constant. [0102] Here, the operation of the PLL circuit 50 is described with reference to the timing chart of FIG. 7 . [0103] During the time of t 1 to t 2 , which is the time before a system is changed, the first clock that is divided in frequency and inverted by the 1/m divider 51 is input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . The second clock that is divided in frequency and inverted by the 1/n divider 52 is input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . [0104] At t 2 , the SC-signal is input to the control circuit 2 via the control terminal 15 . The control circuit 2 generates the control signals (CCS, DIVreset, Set(m), Set(n)) based on the SC-signal. [0105] At t 3 , the control signal DIVreset that is input to the 1/m divider 51 and the 1/n divider 52 is changed from HIGH to LOW. The voltage signal output from the 1/m divider 51 is set HIGH. In the same way, the voltage signal output from the 1/n divider 52 is set HIGH. [0106] At this time, the first timing signal output from the output terminal UP-bar is set HIGH. The second timing signal output from the output terminal DOWN is set LOW. The TR 1 and the TR 2 are in off-state. Therefore, no current flows into the LPF 8 from the charge pump 11 . No current flows into the charge pump 11 from the LPF 8 . That is, no phase difference current is generated in the charge pump 11 . So, a potential of the node N 1 is set substantially constant. [0107] The control signal is maintained LOW until t 6 . Note that, the VCO 9 continues to output the output clock Fo having a same frequency as that at t 3 . [0108] At t 4 , the control signal CCS, which is input to the selector 3 from the control circuit 2 , is changed from LOW to HIGH as in the first embodiment. Then the selector 3 changes the input clock from the clock f 1 to the clock f 2 , and outputs the clock f 2 as an input clock. [0109] At t 4 , the control signal Set (m) is input to the 1/m divider 51 from the control circuit 2 . The control signal Set (m) is used for setting the division ratio of the 1/m divider 51 . At t 4 , the control signal Set(n) is input to the 1/n divider 52 from the control circuit 2 . The control signal Set (n) is used for setting the division ratio of the 1/n divider 52 . Until t 5 , the control signal Set(m) and Set(n) are set active-state. After t 5 , the control signal Set(m) and Set(n) are set inactive-state. [0110] At t 6 , the control signal DIVreset changes from LOW to HIGH. The 1/m divider 51 and the 1/n divider 52 start to operate for counting. The first clock that is divided in frequency and inverted by the 1/m divider 51 is input to the input terminal a of the TDC 10 . The second clock that is divided in frequency and inverted by the 1/n divider 52 is input to the input terminal b of the TDC 10 . [0111] The VCO 9 continues to output the output clock Fo having a same frequency as that at t 3 until t 6 . After t 6 , the VCO 9 outputs the output clock Fo synchronized with the clock f 2 . The input clock is changed by the selector 3 while the potential of the node N 1 is set substantially constant. So, the output clock Fo is synchronized with the selected new input clock without disturbing a waveform of the output clock Fo. [0112] Note that the same explanations could be applied to a case when the control signal SC-signal is changed from HIGH to LOW. In this case, the control signal CCS is changed from HIGH to LOW corresponding to the control signal SC-signal. [0113] The control signal DIVreset is set LOW, before the system of the PLL circuit 50 is changed. Therefore, the voltage signals input to the input terminals a and b of the the TDC 10 are set HIGH. The first and second timing signals are set so as not to generate a phase different current in charge pump 11 . In this way, a fluctuation of a potential level of the node N 1 is suppressed effectively. [0114] The selector 3 changes the input clock from the clock f 1 to the clock f 2 while the fluctuation of a potential at the node N 1 is suppressed. While the fluctuation of a potential at the node N 1 is suppressed, the division ratio of the 1/m divider 51 and the 1/n divider 52 are set to a predetermined division ratio corresponding to the clock f 2 . In this way, the system of the PLL circuit 50 is changed with realizing the VCO 9 being in a self-running state and suppressing the disturbance in the waveform of the output clock Fo. That is, it is possible to change the system of the PLL circuit 50 without stopping or resetting the operation of the PLL circuit 50 and with suppressing the disturbance in the waveform of the output clock Fo. [0115] Note that resetting the 1/m divider 51 and the 1/n divider 52 is not necessarily preformed at the same time with changing the input clock by the selector 3 . [0116] In this embodiment, a potential level of the node N 1 is suppressed from fluctuating by setting the 1/m divider 51 and the 1/n divider reset-state which are necessary for a configuration of the PLL circuit 50 . So, it is possible to simplify a configuration of the PLL circuit 50 and to shorten a time necessary for changing the system of the PLL circuit 50 . [0117] It is apparent that the present invention is not limited to the above embodiments but may be modified and changed without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. It is possible to adopt other technique for suppressing the fluctuation of the voltage signal input to the VCO 9 .

A phase-locked loop circuit includes a phase detector detecting a phase difference between a first clock and a second clock; a voltage controlled oscillator outputting the second clock based on an input voltage that fluctuates corresponding to the phase difference detected by the phase detector; and a selector selecting the first clock from a plurality of clocks based on a clock change signal that is transmitted to the selector while the input voltage is set substantially constant.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/025,358, filed Feb. 4, 2008, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/172,282, filed Jun. 30, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,350,291, both are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] The present invention relates to methods for assembling electrical cables. More specifically, the invention relates to devices and methods for stringing electrical cable through a tubular sheath. BACKGROUND [0003] Drawn brazed strand (DBS) is a type of cable characterized by good strength, stress resistance and conductivity properties that is frequently used in applications where cable failure is highly undesirable. One example is in the field of implantable medical devices, such as pacemakers, where the repair or replacement of electrical cables in the leads would require invasive surgery. [0004] DBS typically includes a conductive element encased in a protective sheath. The conductive element is formed of a number of conductive strands twisted together. Each strand is formed from a plurality of individual alloy wires woven or wrapped about a core wire. The core wire is generally soft but highly conductive, and is usually made of silver, while the alloy wires are less conductive but stronger. The sheath is typically formed of a non-conductive material such as silicone or polyurethane. The sheath increases cable strength and also provides a protective electrical and environmental barrier around the conductive element. [0005] Once the wires are formed into strands and the strands are twisted into the cable, the conductive element is inserted, or stringed, through one end of the sheath. Prior to assembling the conductive element with the sheath, a lubricant such as alcohol is injected into the sheath. The alcohol chemically interacts with the interior silicone wall of the tubing to provide a more lubricious surface. The conductive element is then pushed into and through the tube from one end. [0006] This process has many drawbacks. First, despite lubricating the interior of the sheath, the conductive element has a tendency to become kinked within the sheath. Kinking degrades the conductive properties and strength of the cable such that kinked units are usually discarded. Second, alcohol is highly combustible and emits noxious fumes and odors bothersome to operators. Sometimes it is necessary to provide a venting system to maintain adequate air quality and additional fire control precautions must be employed. Third, residual alcohol must be removed from the stringed cable before further processing can be carried out. This is typically accomplished by placing the stringed cable into a furnace or near some other source of heat to evaporate the alcohol. Finally, the alcohol supply may become contaminated. Contamination can affect the lubricity between the conductive element and the sheath, and may cause particulates to be deposited within the sheath after the alcohol is evaporated. [0007] Therefore, there exists a need for an improved method of stringing cables such as DBS type cable. There is a further need for a method that does not require the use of alcohol. SUMMARY [0008] In one embodiment, the present invention is a method for manufacturing a cable of the type including a conductive element disposed inside a tubular sheath. The conductive element is placed in an open channel terminating at a first end and is withdrawn through the channel a pre-determined distance from the first end. The channel is closed and a first end of the sheath is sealed to the channel first end. Compressed gas is injected into the channel towards the first end such that the conductive element is propelled through the channel into the sheath. [0009] In another embodiment, the present invention is a method of manufacturing cable of the type having a conductive element and a hollow tubular sheath. The conductive element is inserted into a needle and at least a portion of the needle is inserted into the sheath. The sheath is sealed to the needle. An air bearing is formed on an inner surface of the sheath and the conductive element is propelled through the needle, over the air bearing and into the sheath. [0010] In another embodiment, the present invention is a system for advancing a conductive element through a hollow tubular sheath. The system includes a source of compressed gas, a vacuum pump and an openable housing having a channel extending therethrough. The channel has a first end in fluid communication with the compressed gas and the vacuum pump and a second end that is open. The system also includes a holding area adjacent the first end of the housing. The holding area is sized and shaped to receive at least a portion of a conductive element and in fluid communication with the vacuum pump. [0011] While multiple embodiments are disclosed, still other embodiments of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which shows and describes illustrative embodiments of the invention. As will be realized, the invention is capable of modifications in various obvious aspects, all without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. Accordingly, the drawings and detailed description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature and not restrictive. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0012] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a cable stringing system in an open position according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0013] FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the cable stringing system of FIG. 1 in which the housing is in a closed position. [0014] FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the system of FIG. 2 in which the clamp is in the operating position. [0015] FIG. 4 is a top view of the system of FIG. 3 loaded with a sheath and conductive element. [0016] FIG. 5 shows a flowchart detailing a method of assembling the cable according to an embodiment of the present invention. [0017] FIG. 6 is a detailed view of a portion of a cable stringing system in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. [0018] While the invention is amenable to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments have been shown by way of example in the drawings and are described in detail below. The intention, however, is not to limit the invention to the particular embodiments described. On the contrary, the invention is intended to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0019] FIGS. 1-4 show a cable stringing system 100 for advancing a cable (e.g., a conductive element) through a sheath, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, during various stages of system operation. As shown in FIG. 1 , the system 100 includes a housing 102 for holding the conductive element (see FIG. 4 ), a clamp 104 for holding the sheath (see FIG. 4 ) and a compressed gas source 106 . In one embodiment, the system 100 further includes a vacuum pump 107 . In one embodiment, the housing 102 and the clamp 104 are positioned on a platform 108 at a convenient height for operator manipulation. The compressed gas 106 and the vacuum pump 107 are located nearby and are in fluid communication with the housing 102 . Multiple cable stringing systems 100 may be connected to the compressed gas source 106 and the vacuum pump 107 . [0020] The housing 102 includes an upper housing member 110 pivotally hinged to a stationary lower housing member 112 at a hinge member 114 . The upper housing 110 is pivotable from an open position, as is shown in FIG. 1 , to a closed position, as is shown in FIG. 2 . [0021] Open upper and lower channels 116 and 118 are located on the upper and lower housing members 110 and 112 , respectively. The lower channel 118 extends through a rear portion 119 of the lower housing member 112 (shown in dashed lines). In the closed position, the upper open channel 116 is aligned to the lower channel 118 to define a conductive element channel 120 extending through the housing 102 (See FIG. 2 in dashed lines). A resilient seal member 121 is disposed alongside the upper channel 116 to seal the upper channel 116 to the lower channel 118 when the upper housing member 110 is in the closed position. The rear portion 119 of the lower housing member 112 has an angled upper surface 119 a that is complementary to a lower surface 110 a of the upper housing member 110 . When the upper housing member 110 is in the closed position, the surface 119 a and 110 a abut one another to seal the upper and lower channel 116 and 118 adjacent the rear portion 119 . [0022] Both of the upper and lower channels 116 and 118 taper into upper and lower needle portions 122 and 124 , respectively. The upper and lower needle portions 122 and 124 form a hollow needle 125 protruding from the housing 102 when the upper housing member 110 is in the closed position. Each of the needle portions 122 and 124 forms approximately half of the circumference of the needle 125 . However, the upper needle portion 122 and lower needle portion 124 are slightly oversized such that when the upper housing member 110 is in the closed position, the upper needle portion 122 presses tightly against the lower needle portion 124 to form an air tight seal. [0023] The upper and lower housing members 110 and 112 include locking pin receivers 126 a and 126 b , respectively, that are aligned to one another when the upper housing member 110 is in the closed position. The rearwardly located locking pin receiver 126 b is slightly larger than the forwardly located locking pin receiver 126 a . A locking pin 128 is insertable into the aligned locking pin receivers 126 a and 126 b to lock the upper housing member 110 to the lower housing member 112 in the closed position (See FIG. 2 ). The locking pin 128 is cone-shaped and is sized relative to the locking pin receivers 126 a and 126 b to compress the upper housing member 110 and the lower housing member 112 together when engaged. The force exerted by the locking pin 128 is sufficient to cause the seal 121 around the channel 120 to be air tight, as well as to compress the upper and lower needle portions 122 , 124 sufficiently to form an air tight seal. In one embodiment, as is shown in FIGS. 1-3 , the locking pin 128 is engaged via a pneumatic actuator 130 . Other locking arrangements suitable for quickly and easily securing the upper housing member 110 to the lower housing member 112 are also contemplated. [0024] The clamp 104 , shown in the lower, right quadrant of FIGS. 1-3 , is bifurcated into two members 132 and 134 . The clamp members 132 and 134 are movable from a separated, open position, as is shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 , to a closed position in which the clamp members 132 , 134 are drawn inwardly adjacent one another, as is shown in FIG. 3 . Each clamp member 132 , 134 includes an inwardly facing, elongated, semi-hemispherical recess 136 , which are adapted to couple to the sheath (see FIG. 4 ). [0025] A locking arrangement is provided for locking the clamp members 132 , 134 to one another in the closed position and for fixing the clamp 104 in the operating position. The clamp members 132 , 134 are also movable from a retracted position that is spaced apart from the housing 102 , as is shown in FIG. 1 , to an advanced, operating position adjacent the housing 102 , as is shown in FIG. 3 . [0026] In the closed position, the recesses 136 are aligned with one another to define a tubular passageway 138 for receiving a portion of the sheath 160 . The recesses 136 , in one embodiment, are sized such that a circumference of the passageway 138 is only slightly larger than a circumference of the needle 125 when the clamp members 132 , 134 are moved into the closed position. The recesses 136 may have a length or depth of several centimeters to increase the surface area and frictional engagement between the sheath 160 and the clamp 104 . Furthermore, the clamp 104 may be provided with a non-skid coating or be formed with a surface texture at the recesses 136 that is adapted to increase frictional engagement between the sheath (see FIG. 4 ) and the clamp 104 . In the operating position, the clamp 104 is positioned such that the needle 125 is inserted into the passageway 138 . [0027] In one embodiment, a guide 140 extends in a lateral direction over the platform 108 for accommodating opening and closing movement of the clamp 104 and for guiding the clamp 104 towards the housing 102 . The clamp portions 132 , 134 are movably coupled to the guide 140 and each clamp portion 132 , 134 includes a guide recess 142 for capturing the guide 140 . In other embodiments, the platform 108 may include rails, tracks, grooves, rollers or other means for guiding the movement of the clamp members 132 , 134 between the retracted and operating positions and between the open and closed positions. In still other embodiments, the clamp 104 is movably suspended above the housing 102 . [0028] In the present embodiment, the retracted position of the clamp 104 is spaced apart from the housing 102 along a longitudinal axis a aligned with the channel 120 and parallel to the plane of the platform 108 . However, in other embodiments the clamp 104 is movable along other axes or even within other planes. For example, in other embodiments, the clamp 104 is lowered from a position above the housing 102 into the operating position. Likewise, in the present embodiment, the clamp members 132 and 134 are movable along an axis b perpendicular to the axis a within the plane of the platform 108 between the open position and the closed position. In other embodiments, however, the clamp members 132 , 134 are movable from the open position to the closed position along other axes or even within other planes. For example, in other embodiments, the clamp portions 132 and 134 are raised and lowered between the open and closed positions. Furthermore, while in the present embodiment both of the clamp members 132 , 134 move approximately equal distances from their respective open positions to the closed position, as is shown in FIGS. 1-3 , in other embodiments one of the clamp members 132 , 134 moves from an open position to a closed position while the other is stationary, or their relative movements are otherwise unequal. [0029] Movement of the housing 102 and clamp 104 into respective closed positions and into the operating position may be automated, manual, or power-assisted, or any combination thereof. [0030] The compressed air 106 and vacuum pump 107 are both in fluid communication with the housing 102 via a fluid or gas line 144 . The gas line 144 , in one embodiment, is detachably couplable to the housing 102 via a quick-connect adaptor 146 . The adaptor 146 is positioned at a rearward end 148 of the lower channel 118 . The adaptor 146 is preferably configured to both direct compressed air 106 and draw a vacuum via the vacuum pump 107 parallel to or in line with the longitudinal axis a of the channel 120 . As is shown in FIGS. 1-3 , a portion 150 of the gas line 144 immediately adjacent the housing 102 is straight or slightly arcuate. In one embodiment, the portion 150 of the gas line 144 has a length of up to about 40 inches. In another embodiment, the portion 150 of the gas line 144 has a length of about the length of the conductive element 160 . The portion 150 of the gas line 144 serves as a holding area for holding all or a portion of the conductive element 160 without deforming the conductive element 160 . [0031] The system 100 further includes a sensor 152 operationally coupled to the vacuum pump 107 . The sensor 152 is located in the rearward end 148 of the lower channel 118 within the lower housing member 112 . The sensor 152 is configured to sense the presence of the conductive element 164 when loaded into the lower channel 118 . The sensor 152 provides a signal to either or both of the vacuum pump 107 and compressed gas source 106 indicating the presence or absence of the conductive element 160 in the lower channel 118 and may further provide a signal indicating the position of the conductive element 160 relative to a reference features, such as an end of the channel 120 , the needle 125 or the adaptor 146 . This signal may be used to control at least a part of the operation of either or both of the vacuum pump 107 and compressed gas source 106 . [0032] FIG. 4 shows the system 100 in an intended operating position. As shown in FIG. 4 , a tubular sheath 160 is coupled to the clamp 104 between the clamp members 132 and 134 , and a cable or conductive element 164 is pre-loaded into the gas line 144 . As further shown, a distal end of the sheath 160 is positioned against the housing 102 and over the tip of the needle 125 . [0033] FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a method 200 of stringing or inserting the conductive element 164 through the tubular sheath 160 with the system 100 , according to one embodiment of the present invention. A first end of the conductive element 164 is placed in the lower channel 118 and inserted into the rearward end 148 of the lower channel 118 (block 202 ). The sensor 152 senses that the conductive element 164 is in the lower channel 118 and communicates with the vacuum pump 107 (block 204 ). In one exemplary embodiment, upon receiving input from the sensor 152 that the conductive element 164 is loaded into the lower channel 118 , the vacuum pump 107 exerts negative pressure sufficient to withdraw the conductive element 164 from the housing 102 into the portion 150 of the gas line 144 immediately adjacent the housing 102 (block 206 ). [0034] The strength and duration of the vacuum exerted by the vacuum pump 107 is preferably pre-determined or calculated to bring the conductive element 164 to a particular position within the gas line 144 relative to a reference feature, such as the needle 125 . In this manner, regardless of the length of the conductive element 164 , or how far the operator manually inserts the conductive element 164 into the lower channel portion 118 , the conductive element 164 is moved into a consistent position relative to the needle 125 for stringing into the sheath 160 . In one embodiment, the vacuum pump 107 operates until the sensor 152 indicates that the conductive element 164 is no longer positioned in the channel portion 118 . [0035] In other embodiments, the vacuum pump 107 is not included. Rather, either the operator is responsible for consistently positioning the conductive element 164 within housing 102 or the system 100 is provided with additional sensors to determine when the conductive element 164 is fully stringed through the sheath 160 . [0036] The upper housing member 110 is pivoted downward into the closed position (block 208 ) and secured with the locking pin 128 and locking pin receivers 126 a and 126 b , forming the sealed channel 120 (block 210 ). To load the sheath 160 into the clamp 104 , the operator manually places an end 158 of the sheath 160 over the needle 125 (block 212 ) and brings the clamp portions 132 , 134 forward to the operating position on either side of the needle 125 (block 214 ). The first and second portions 138 and 140 are moved into the closed position to clamp the sheath 160 into position over the needle 125 , as is shown in FIG. 4 (block 216 ). As stated above, the passageway 138 is only slightly larger than the needle 125 to facilitate forming a seal over the needle 125 . [0037] After the conductive element 164 and the sheath 160 have been loaded into the housing 102 and clamp 104 , the compressed air 106 is released or injected into the channel 120 (block 218 ), propelling the conductive element 164 through the needle 125 and into the sheath 160 (block 220 ). The force at which the compressed air 106 is released as well as the duration is calculated to advance the conductive element 164 a pre-determined distance into the sheath 160 . Typically, the conductive element 164 is stringed all the way through to an opposite end of the sheath 160 . According to one embodiment, the system 100 is configured to string a conductive element 164 having a length of up to about 40 inches through a sheath 160 having a length of up to about 40 inches. In other embodiments, the system 100 is configured to string longer or shorter lengths of conductive element 164 and sheath 160 . [0038] It may be necessary to adjust the position of the conductive element 164 with respect to the sheath 160 the initial stringing process described above. More compressed air 106 may be injected into the sheath 160 to “nudge” the conductive element 164 forward. Once the conductive element 164 is in a satisfactory position within the sheath 160 , the compressed air 106 is de-activated and the clamp portions 132 and 134 are opened, releasing the assembled sheath 160 and conductive element 164 . Alternately, so as to withdraw or back out the conductive element 164 from the sheath 160 , the partially stringed sheath 160 and conductive element 164 are released from the clamp portions 132 and 134 a re-assembled or reloaded into the tool 100 in the reverse direction. The opposite end of the sheath 160 is inserted over the needle 125 and the compressed air 106 is activated to propel the conductive element 160 in the opposite direction in as the initial stringing process. [0039] The above-described process may be partially automated, in which the operator merely loads the conductive element 164 into the lower channel 118 and places the sheath 160 over the needle 120 as described. Alternately, the operator can also be responsible for opening and closing the housing 102 and clamp 104 and for engaging the various locking mechanisms. The amount of the time the compressed gas 106 and vacuum pump 107 are activated may be automated or subject to the controls of additional sensors, or may be engaged and disengaged under operator control. Various additional safety features can also be employed to prevent injury to the operator. For example, sensors may be employed to allow the compressed air 106 to engage only when either or both of the housing 102 and clamp 104 are in closed positions. [0040] The force exerted by the compressed gas 106 traveling through the sheath 160 radially expands the sheath 160 , increasing the ease with which the conductive element 164 is propelled through the sheath 160 . However, injection pressure in excess of about 110 psi may cause the sheath to over-expand and rupture. Generally, the mechanical properties and characteristics of the sheath 160 material will determine the maximum injection pressure and the minimum injection pressure necessary to sufficiently radially expand the sheath 160 . For example, if the sheath 160 is constructed of a more rigid material, such as polyurethane, a higher injection pressure may be necessary to expand the sheath 160 to a chosen radius. Furthermore, the differential between the inner diameter of the sheath and the outer diameter of the conductive element will also impact the pressure necessary to string the conductive element. [0041] The compressed gas 106 is preferably released or injected into the channel 120 at a pressure of from about 90 to about 110 psi. Peripheral fixtures, such as the gas line 144 , adaptor 146 and other such features between the compressed gas 106 and the channel 120 reduce the actual injection pressure. Therefore, the compressed gas 106 is maintained at a sufficiently elevated pressure to achieve the necessary actual injection pressure. Alternately, a pressure booster as is known in the art may be employed with a lower pressure compressed gas 106 to increase the actual injection pressure to adequate levels (not shown). According to one embodiment, the source of compressed gas 106 is maintained under a pressure of about 60 psi and is employed in conjunction with a pressure booster to approximately double the pressure of the compressed gas 106 to 120 psi. [0042] The following is merely one example of system settings for stringing a conductive element through a sheath. For a conductive element having a diameter of approximately 0.200″+/−0.0015″ and a length of approximately 40″ and a sheath having an interior diameter of approximately 0.022″+/−0.001″ and a wall thickness of approximately 0.008″+/−0.001″, approximately 106 to approximately 120 psi of compressed air is applied for 3 to 10 seconds to fully string the conductive element. [0043] In one embodiment, the compressed gas 106 is injected into the channel 120 in pulses. The pulses serve to increase the propellant force and reduce the likelihood of the conductive element 164 becoming kinked within the sheath 160 . However, the compressed gas 106 may be injected into the channel 120 in any other pattern or at a constant rate of flow. Pulsing or other variations in injection of the compressed gas 106 may be automated or may be accomplished by manually engaging and disengaging the compressed gas 106 . [0044] The gas flow creates an air bearing between the interior of the sheath 160 and the conductive element 164 . The air bearing serves to reduce friction between an inner surface 161 of the sheath 160 and the conductive element 164 , further facilitating the insertion of the conductive element 164 through the sheath 160 (See FIG. 4 ). [0045] Any type of gas may be employed to propel the conductive element 164 through the sheath 160 . According to one embodiment, either of air or nitrogen is employed. Both air and nitrogen are inexpensive, commonly available gases relatively safe for use under pressure. [0046] FIG. 6 shows a portion of a device 300 according to another embodiment of the present invention. The device 300 includes a housing 302 and a clamp 304 similar to the embodiment shown generally in FIGS. 1-3 , and like parts are given like numbering. According to the present embodiment, however, a plurality of upper and lower needle portions 360 a and 360 b extend from the upper and lower channels 316 and 318 , respectively. When the upper housing member 310 is in the closed position, the upper and lower needle portions 316 , 318 form a plurality of needles arranged for insertion into a sheath 160 divided into multiple inner lumens. According to various embodiments, the device 300 includes 2, 3 or 4 sets of needle portions 316 , 318 for stringing 2 , 3 or 4 lumens within a single sheath 160 simultaneously. [0047] In order to ensure that each conductive element advances through separate needles, the conductive elements are not fully withdrawn into the gas line. Rather, a forward end of the conductive elements is positioned in the needle and the upper housing is closed. The pre-loaded conductive element is then stringed through the individual lumens of the sheath. [0048] In the embodiment of FIG. 6 , the needle portions 316 , 318 are permanently affixed to the housing 302 . In other embodiments, however, all or some of the needle portions 316 , 318 are detachable from the housing 102 individually or as a unit. This allows interchangeability of variously arranged needle units, increasing the versatility of device 300 . [0049] While the present invention is described generally in terms of manufacturing DBS cable, the methods and devices of the present invention are suitable for any number of applications. For example, the present invention may be used, but is not limited, for stringing non-DBS cables, coil cables, stylets and plastic beats. [0050] Various modifications and additions can be made to the exemplary embodiments discussed without departing from the scope of the present invention. Accordingly, the scope of the present invention is intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications, and variations as fall within the scope of the claims, together with all equivalents thereof.

A method for stringing a first elongate element through a second elongate element is provided by placing the first elongate element in a channel and injecting compressed gas into the channel to propel the first elongate element therethrough. The channel has a first open end, and the second elongate element is sealed around the first open end. Compressed gas is injected into the channel towards the second elongate element, propelling the first elongate element through the second elongate element. Also disclosed is a system for performing such a method, including a source of compressed gas and a housing having a channel with a first end and a second open end. The first end is in fluid communication with the source of compressed gas. The channel has a tapered portion adjacent the open end of the channel, and the channel defines a straight longitudinal axis between the first end and the second open end.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates to book holders and, in particular, to an opened book holding device which permits a book to be held open at a selected pair of adjacent pages. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Reading a book usually requires the use of at least one of the hands of the reader. Generally both hands are required. This requirement arises because of the tendency of some books to self close either due to the resilience of the spine of the book, or for some external reason such as a breeze turning a page. Often the reader's hands are required simply because there are no other means to support the book at a convenient reading angle and reading distance. [0003] Manually holding a book open for an extended period can be tiring, particularly for the elderly and infirm. Holding a book open is also inconvenient, for example, where a student requires their hands to make notes. Holding a book open can also cause discomfort, for example, on a cold winter's night. [0004] In the past various ways and means have been devised to support books at a convenient angle. The simplest of these is a lectern or other inclined surface. Some of these devices go further and hold the pages of the book open as well. Yet other known devices also extend to turning pages of a book. [0005] However, many of these devices are complicated to both manufacture and to use. The known devices can be arduous to use, especially where turning a page is involved. Other devices suffer from various disadvantages. [0006] For example, clear plastic cook book covers are known to hold cooking or recipe books open at the page displaying a recipe, and also inclined at a convenient reading angle. However, such devices often cause distracting reflections and are very inconvenient for page turning. OBJECT OF THE INVENTION [0007] It is an object of the present invention is to provide an opened book holding device to permit an open book to be held open at a selected pair of adjacent pages with the book being held at a convenient angle and distance from the reader. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] According to a first aspect of the invention there is provided an opened book holding device to permit an opened book to be held open at a selected pair of adjacent pages, said device including: [0009] a base; [0010] a lip extending upwardly from said base and dimensioned to abut with a lower edge of said book; [0011] at least one cover support mounted on said base and dimensioned to support a corresponding outer cover of said book; and [0012] biasing means to resiliently bias the or each said cover support towards said lip; [0013] wherein said lip and said cover support(s) are dimensioned to resiliently clamp said opened book therebetween. [0014] In preferred embodiments, the device includes a pair of said cover supports each of which is independently resiliently biased. More preferably, the cover support(s) are adjustably mounted on said base to alter the degree of inclination thereof relative to said base. [0015] Preferably, the cover support(s) are selectively inclinable relative to said base into any one of a plurality of pre-selected positions, and the cover support(s) are hingedly mounted to said base. [0016] In preferred embodiments, said cover support(s) are formed as a cantilever which constitutes said biasing means. [0017] According to another aspect of the invention there is provided a method of holding open a selected pair of adjacent pages of a book having a front cover, a back cover, and a plurality of pages, said method including the steps of: [0000] (i) opening said book at said selected pair of adjacent pages; (ii) placing said front cover and said back cover on a cover support means; and (iii) resiliently urging said cover support means towards a lip to abut said book with said lip to thereby clamp said book between said lip and said cover support means. [0018] In preferred embodiments, the method includes the step of adjustably mounting said cover supports to a base such that said cover supports inclination angle can be altered. [0019] It can therefore be seen that there is provided an opened book holding device that permits an open book to be held open at a selected pair of adjacent pages while the book is held at a convenient angle and distance from the reader. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0020] Preferred embodiments of the present invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the drawings in which: [0021] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an opened book holding device according to a first preferred embodiment; [0022] FIG. 2 is a view similar to FIG. 1 but showing a book held in the device; [0023] FIG. 3 is a perspective view from above of an opened book holding device according to another preferred embodiment; [0024] FIG. 4 is a rear perspective view of the embodiment of FIG. 3 ; [0025] FIG. 5 is an exploded rear perspective view of the embodiment of FIG. 3 ; [0026] FIG. 6 is a side elevation of the device of FIG. 5 in an inclined configuration; [0027] FIG. 7 is a side elevation of the device of FIG. 5 in another inclined configuration; and [0028] FIG. 8 is a rear elevation about a centre line of the device of FIGS. 5 to 7 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0029] As seen in FIGS. 1 and 2 , the device 10 of the first preferred embodiment is formed from a base 7 , a rear wall 8 and front wall 2 . The front wall 2 is provided with a pair of lips 1 which each extends approximately half way across the width of the device 10 and is preferably divided in two by a bight 6 . The blight 6 extends through the lip 1 and part way through the front wall 2 . [0030] Extending from the rear wall 8 in cantilever fashion are two cover supports 3 which are separated by a gap 5 which terminates in a bight 9 in the rear wall 8 . [0031] The length of the cover supports 3 is preferably selected so as to enable the free ends of the cover supports 3 to engage the lips 1 as illustrated in FIG. 1 . The natural resilience of the plastics material ensures that the cover supports 3 are urged upwardly in the direction of arrows 4 as seen in FIG. 1 . [0032] In use, as illustrated in FIG. 2 , the spine 12 of a book 13 is aligned with, and protrudes into, the gap 5 . The cover supports 3 are depressed by engaging them with the front and rear covers (obscured in FIG. 2 ) of the book 13 . The book 13 is held open at the two adjacent pages which the reader wishes to read and the lower edge of each of these pages is located under the lip 1 so as not to in any way obscure the text printed on the pages. [0033] In the configuration illustrated in FIG. 2 the natural resilience of the cover support 3 means that the book 13 is effectively clamped between the cover supports 3 and lips 1 . The front wall 2 prevents the book from moving further under the lips 1 than the intended overlap. [0034] If the reader wishes to turn the page, two possible mechanisms are able to be used. In the first, the book 13 is pushed away from the reader, lifted clear of lip 1 , the page turned, and the book replaced by reversing the sequence. Alternatively, one side (eg the right side) of the book 13 can be depressed and the corresponding (right) page turned by being slid out from underneath the corresponding (right) lip 1 . The right page is then turned over so as to lie above the other (left) side of the book which is in turn depressed so as to permit the turned page to be located under the corresponding (left) lip 1 . [0035] It will be appreciated by those skilled in the mechanical arts that the height of the book is not restricted by the length of the cover supports 3 . Also, that the width of the pages is not restricted by the width of the lips 1 . [0036] Furthermore, it is not necessary for the free ends of the cover supports 3 to engage with the lips 1 , it is only necessary for the cover supports 3 to be of a length sufficient to clamp the book 13 between the cover supports 3 and the lips 1 . If the cover supports 3 are made too short, the book 13 will develop a tendency to be rotated about the upper edges of the lips 1 into a more upright position than is desired. [0037] In an alternative arrangement to that illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 , only the covers of the book 13 are clamped between the lips 1 and cover supports 3 (not illustrated) so that all the pages may be turned freely if desired. [0038] An advantage of having two cover supports 3 is that a thick book 13 can be clamped with vastly different numbers of pages clamped between each pair of lips 1 and the corresponding cover support 3 . The gap 5 accommodates the spine 12 of the book 13 . [0039] Turning now to FIGS. 3 to 8 , there is shown another preferred embodiment of a book holding device 20 . A rear wall 28 , front wall 22 and lips 21 are substantially as before. However, in this embodiment these members are rotatably mounted from a base 27 and are able to be supported in a number of positions by means of a C-shaped wire brace 24 . [0040] As best shown in FIG. 8 , the base 27 preferably includes four rubber feet 29 extending from an underside of the base 27 which ensure good frictional engagement between the base 27 and a supporting table, for example. The brace 24 is rotatably mounted adjacent the mid point of the rear wall 28 and is engagable with any one of a number of anchor points 30 formed in the base 27 to selectively incline the front and rear walls 23 and 28 . The cover supports 23 are cantilevered as before and are again preferably dimensioned so as to be engagable with the lips 21 as indicated in FIG. 4 . [0041] The foregoing describes only two embodiments of the present invention and modifications, obvious to those skilled in the art, can be made thereto without departing from the scope of the present invention. For example, it is possible for the bight 6 , gap 5 and bight 9 of FIG. 1 not to be utilized so that only a single lip and a single cover support are created. This is less advantageous, however. Furthermore, rather than rely on the natural resilience of the material from which the rear wall 8 , 28 and cover supports 3 , 23 are fabricated, the necessary resilience can be provided by a block of rubber or other elastomer wedged into the nip between the cover supports 3 , 23 and real wall 8 , 28 . [0042] Also the base 7 , 27 or real wall 8 , 28 can include clamps for attachment to table edges, chair arms (including wheel chairs), and the like. The base or real wall can also be mounted on an upstand extending from a floor thereby permitting use alongside a bed or lounge chair. [0043] Similarly, the base 27 can be dispensed with and the brace 24 used in the manner of a support for a photographic frame. In a further modification, the page engaging surfaces of the lip(s) 1 can be friction enhanced by, for example, knurling or adhering a frictional material thereon.

A device to hold an open book at an open page is disclosed in which the page is clamped between a lip ( 1, 21 ) and a resilient book cover support ( 3, 23 ). Two embodiments of the device ( 10, 20 ) are disclosed, the former being fabricated as a single piece, the latter being able to be folded for compact packaging. In either case pages of the open book can be turned at will.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of: U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/495,971, filed Jun. 11, 2011, U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/495,961, filed Jun. 11, 2011, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/495,968, filed Jun. 11, 2011. This application is further related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/493,921, filed Jun. 11, 2012, the disclosures of each of which are incorporated herein in their entirety by this reference. TECHNICAL FIELD Embodiments of the present disclosure relate generally to methods and apparatuses for beamforming microphone arrays. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure relate to methods and apparatuses with multiple configurations of beamforming microphone arrays for teleconferencing applications. BACKGROUND In a typical telepresence application, such as, for example, teleconferencing, a loudspeaker may be located on top, bottom or side of a television set, a microphone may be located in line with the television set and a participant sits in line with a television for the audio conferencing part of it. Many improvements have been made in teleconferencing and video conferencing systems, which may use microprocessors and software to accomplish a wide variety of system tasks and signal processing algorithms to improve on, compress, and even encrypt video and audio streams. Some teleconferencing applications may include multiple microphones in an array to better capture acoustic patterns of a room and the participants in the room. However, arrayed microphones can cause their own problems with duplicate coverage and echoing. There is a need for methods and apparatuses including microphone arrays to adapt automatically to multiple configurations and placements of the microphone arrays. BRIEF SUMMARY Embodiments of the present disclosure include methods and apparatuses including microphone arrays to adapt automatically to multiple configurations and placements of the microphone arrays. Embodiments of the present disclosure include a method of sensing acoustic waves for a conferencing application. The method includes sensing acoustic waves with a plurality of directional microphones oriented to cover a corresponding plurality of direction vectors. An orientation of a housing bearing the plurality of directional microphones is sensed and the method automatically adjusts a signal-processing characteristic of one or more of the plurality of directional microphones responsive to the sensed orientation. Embodiments of the present disclosure include a conferencing apparatus, which includes a plurality of directional microphones oriented to cover a corresponding plurality of direction vectors and disposed in a housing. An orientation sensor is configured to generate an orientation signal indicative of an orientation of the housing. A processor is operably coupled to the plurality of directional microphones and the orientation sensor. The processor is configured to automatically adjust a signal-processing characteristic of one or more directional microphones of the plurality of directional microphones responsive to the orientation signal. Embodiments of the present disclosure include a conferencing apparatus, which includes a beamforming microphone array, each microphone of the beamforming microphone array includes a directional microphone configured to sense acoustic waves from a direction vector substantially different from other microphones in the beamforming microphone array. An orientation sensor is configured to generate an orientation signal indicative of an orientation of the beamforming microphone array. A memory is configured for storing computing instructions and a processor is operably coupled to the beamforming microphone array, the orientation sensor, and the memory. The processor is configured to execute the computing instructions to automatically adjust a signal-processing characteristic of one or more of the directional microphones responsive to the orientation signal. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a conferencing apparatus according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure; FIG. 2 illustrates geometrical representations of a beam for a directional microphone; FIG. 3 illustrates a top view and a side view of a conference room including participants and a conferencing apparatus disposed on a table and illustrating beams that may be formed by a beamforming microphone array disposed in the conferencing apparatus; FIG. 4 illustrates a top view and a side view of a conference room including participants and a conferencing apparatus depending from a ceiling and illustrating beams that may be formed by a beamforming microphone array disposed in the conferencing apparatus; FIG. 5 illustrates a top view and a side view of a conference room including participants and a conferencing apparatus disposed on a wall and illustrating beams that may be formed by a beamforming microphone array disposed in the conferencing apparatus; FIG. 6 illustrates elements involved in sensing acoustic waves with a plurality of directional microphones and signal processing that may be performed on the sensed acoustic waves; FIG. 7 illustrates processing involved in sensing acoustic waves wherein signals from all of the directional microphones are combined, then acoustic echo cancellation is performed on the combined signal to create a combined echo canceled signal; FIG. 8 illustrates processing involved in sensing acoustic waves wherein acoustic echo cancellation is performed on signals from each of the directional microphones, then the echo canceled signals are combined, to create a combined echo canceled signal; FIG. 9 illustrates processing involved in sensing acoustic waves wherein a subset of signals from the directional microphones are combined, then acoustic echo cancellation is performed one or more of the combined signals; and FIG. 10 illustrates computational complexity of various embodiments relative to number of microphones in a beamforming microphone array. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings in which is shown, by way of illustration, specific embodiments of the present disclosure. The embodiments are intended to describe aspects of the disclosure in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention. Other embodiments may be utilized and changes may be made without departing from the scope of the disclosure. The following detailed description is not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of the present invention is defined only by the appended claims. Furthermore, specific implementations shown and described are only examples and should not be construed as the only way to implement or partition the present disclosure into functional elements unless specified otherwise herein. It will be readily apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that the various embodiments of the present disclosure may be practiced by numerous other partitioning solutions. In the following description, elements, circuits, and functions may be shown in block diagram form in order not to obscure the present disclosure in unnecessary detail. Additionally, block definitions and partitioning of logic between various blocks is exemplary of a specific implementation. It will be readily apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that the present disclosure may be practiced by numerous other partitioning solutions. Those of ordinary skill in the art would understand that information and signals may be represented using any of a variety of different technologies and techniques. For example, data, instructions, commands, information, signals, bits, symbols, and chips that may be referenced throughout the description may be represented by voltages, currents, electromagnetic waves, magnetic fields or particles, optical fields or particles, or any combination thereof. Some drawings may illustrate signals as a single signal for clarity of presentation and description. It will be understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art that the signal may represent a bus of signals, wherein the bus may have a variety of bit widths and the present disclosure may be implemented on any number of data signals including a single data signal. The various illustrative logical blocks, modules, and circuits described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented or performed with a general-purpose processor, a special-purpose processor, a Digital Signal Processor (DSP), an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) or other programmable logic device, discrete gate or transistor logic, discrete hardware components, or any combination thereof designed to perform the functions described herein. A general-purpose processor may be a microprocessor, but in the alternative, the processor may be any conventional processor, controller, microcontroller, or state machine. A general-purpose processor may be considered a special-purpose processor while the general-purpose processor is configured to execute instructions (e.g., software code) stored on a computer-readable medium. A processor may also be implemented as a combination of computing devices, such as a combination of a DSP and a microprocessor, a plurality of microprocessors, one or more microprocessors in conjunction with a DSP core, or any other such configuration. In addition, it is noted that the embodiments may be described in terms of a process that may be depicted as a flowchart, a flow diagram, a structure diagram, or a block diagram. Although a process may describe operational acts as a sequential process, many of these acts can be performed in another sequence, in parallel, or substantially concurrently. In addition, the order of the acts may be rearranged. Elements described herein may include multiple instances of the same element. These elements may be generically indicated by a numerical designator (e.g. 110) and specifically indicated by the numerical indicator followed by an alphabetic designator (e.g., 110A) or a numeric indicator preceded by a “dash” (e.g., 110-1). For ease of following the description, for the most part element number indicators begin with the number of the drawing on which the elements are introduced or most fully discussed. For example, where feasible elements in FIG. 3 are designated with a format of 3xx, where 3 indicates FIG. 3 and xx designates the unique element. It should be understood that any reference to an element herein using a designation such as “first,” “second,” and so forth does not limit the quantity or order of those elements, unless such limitation is explicitly stated. Rather, these designations may be used herein as a convenient method of distinguishing between two or more elements or instances of an element. Thus, a reference to first and second elements does not mean that only two elements may be employed or that the first element must precede the second element in some manner. In addition, unless stated otherwise, a set of elements may comprise one or more elements. Embodiments of the present disclosure include methods and apparatuses including microphone arrays to adapt automatically to multiple configurations and placements of the microphone arrays. FIG. 1 illustrates a conferencing apparatus 100 for practicing embodiments of the present disclosure. The conferencing apparatus 100 may include elements for executing software applications as part of embodiments of the present disclosure. Thus, the system 100 is configured for executing software programs containing computing instructions and includes one or more processors 110 , memory 120 , one or more communication elements 150 , and user interface elements 130 . The system 100 may also include storage 140 . The conferencing apparatus 100 may be included in a housing 190 . The one or more processors 110 may be configured for executing a wide variety of applications including the computing instructions for carrying out embodiments of the present disclosure. The memory 120 may be used to hold computing instructions, data, and other information for performing a wide variety of tasks including performing embodiments of the present disclosure. By way of example, and not limitation, the memory 120 may include Synchronous Random Access Memory (SRAM), Dynamic RAM (DRAM), Read-Only Memory (ROM), Flash memory, and the like. Information related to the system 100 may be presented to, and received from, a user with one or more user interface elements 130 . As non-limiting examples, the user interface elements 130 may include elements such as displays, keyboards, mice, joysticks, haptic devices, microphones, speakers, cameras, and touchscreens. The communication elements 150 may be configured for communicating with other devices or communication networks. As non-limiting examples, the communication elements 150 may include elements for communicating on wired and wireless communication media, such as for example, serial ports, parallel ports, Ethernet connections, universal serial bus (USB) connections IEEE 1394 (“firewire”) connections, Bluetooth wireless connections, 802.1 a/b/g/n type wireless connections, and other suitable communication interfaces and protocols. The storage 140 may be used for storing relatively large amounts of non-volatile information for use in the computing system 100 and may be configured as one or more storage devices. By way of example, and not limitation, these storage devices may include computer-readable media (CRM). This CRM may include, but is not limited to, magnetic and optical storage devices such as disk drives, magnetic tapes, CDs (compact disks), DVDs (digital versatile discs or digital video discs), and other equivalent storage devices. Software processes illustrated herein are intended to illustrate representative processes that may be performed by the systems illustrated herein. Unless specified otherwise, the order in which the process acts are described is not intended to be construed as a limitation, and acts described as occurring sequentially may occur in a different sequence, or in one or more parallel process streams. It will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that many steps and processes may occur in addition to those outlined in flow charts. Furthermore, the processes may be implemented in any suitable hardware, software, firmware, or combinations thereof. When executed as firmware or software, the instructions for performing the processes may be stored on a computer-readable medium. A computer-readable medium includes, but is not limited to, magnetic and optical storage devices such as disk drives, magnetic tape, CDs (compact disks), DVDs (digital versatile discs or digital video discs), and semiconductor devices such as RAM, DRAM, ROM, EPROM, and Flash memory. By way of non-limiting example, computing instructions for performing the processes may be stored on the storage 140 , transferred to the memory 120 for execution, and executed by the processors 110 . The processor 110 , when executing computing instructions configured for performing the processes, constitutes structure for performing the processes and can be considered a special-purpose computer when so configured. In addition, some or all portions of the processes may be performed by hardware specifically configured for carrying out the processes. In some embodiments, an orientation sensor 160 may be included. As a non-limiting example, accelerometers configured to sense acceleration in at least two substantially orthogonal directions may be used. As another non-limiting example, a multi-axis accelerometer may be used. Of course, other types of position sensors may also be used, such as for example magnetometers to sense magnetic fields of the Earth. Single- and multi-axis models of accelerometers may be used to detect magnitude and direction of the proper acceleration (i.e., g-force), and can be used to sense orientation. Orientation can be sensed because gravity acting on the accelerometers can detect direction of weight changes. The proper acceleration measured by an accelerometer is the acceleration associated with the phenomenon of weight experienced by any mass at rest in the frame of reference of the accelerometer device. For example, an accelerometer can measure a value of “g” in the upward direction when remaining stationary on the ground, because masses on the Earth have weight (i.e., mass*g). Another way of stating this phenomenon is that by measuring weight, an accelerometer measures the acceleration of the free-fall reference frame (i.e., the inertial reference frame) relative to itself. One particular type of user interface element 130 used in embodiments of the present disclosure is a plurality of directional microphones 135 , which can be configured as a beamforming microphone array 135 . Thus, an orientation sensor 160 configured with accelerometers mounted in the housing 190 can be used to determine the orientation of the housing 190 . With the beamforming microphone array 135 also mounted in the housing 190 , the orientation of the beamforming microphone array 135 is easily determined because it is in a fixed position relative to the housing. Directional microphones are often used in a teleconference to capture participant's audio. In a teleconference, microphones are usually placed on a table or hanged from ceiling and are manually positioned so that a participant audio is in the pick-up pattern of the microphone. Since, pick-up patterns of these microphones are fixed, more often than not one type of microphone, say a tabletop microphone, may not work for another type of installation, say a ceiling installation. Thus, an installer may need to know the type of installation (e.g., tabletop or ceiling), angle of participant's relative to the microphones, and the number of participants before installing a correct set of microphones. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the conferencing apparatus 100 uses a beamforming microphone array 135 that can be installed in a number of positions and configuration and beams for the microphones can be adjusted with base level configurations or automatically and adaptively bring participants into the pick-up pattern of the beamforming microphone array 135 based on the orientation and placement of the conferencing apparatus 100 . Directional microphones may be used in conferencing applications to perform spatial filtering to improve audio quality. These microphones have a beam pattern that selectively picks up acoustic waves in a region of space and rejects others. FIG. 2 illustrates geometrical representations of a beam for a directional microphone. A direction vector 210 of the beam extends from the microphone. The beam pattern for a microphone is usually specified with an azimuth angle 220 , an elevation angle 230 , and a beamwidth 240 . Of course, the beamwidth 240 will have a three-dimensional quality to it and FIG. 2 illustrates a projection of the beam width 240 onto the X-Y plane. Not only should a participant face a microphone, the location of the participant's mouth relative to the microphone should be in the beam pattern as well for good quality of the participant's audio. Beamforming is a signal processing technique carried out by the processor 110 using input from the beamforming microphone array 135 . Various signal-processing characteristics of each of the microphones in the beamforming microphone array 135 may be modified. The signals from the various microphones may be combined such that that signals at particular angles experience constructive interference while others experience destructive interference. Thus, beamforming can be used to achieve spatial selectivity such that certain regions can be emphasized (i.e., amplified) and other regions can be de-emphasized (i.e., attenuated). As a non-limiting example, the beam-forming processing may be configured to attenuate sounds that originate from the direction of a door to a room. Beamforming may use interference patterns to change the directionality of the array. In other words, information from the different microphones may be combined in a way where the expected pattern of radiation is preferentially observed. Beamforming techniques may involve combining delayed signals from each microphone at slightly different times so that every signal reaches the output at substantially the same time. Moreover, signals from each microphone may be amplified by a different amount. Different weighting patterns may be used to achieve the desired sensitivity patterns. As a non-limiting example, a main lobe may be produced together with nulls and sidelobes. As well as controlling the main lobe width (the beam) and the sidelobe levels, the position of a null can be controlled. This is useful to ignore noise in one particular direction, while listening for events in other directions. Adaptive beamforming algorithms may be included to automatically adapt to different situations. Embodiments of the present disclosure include a beamforming microphone array, where elevation angle of the beam can be programmed with software default settings or automatically adapted for an application. In some embodiments, various configurations for the conferencing apparatus, such as tabletop, ceiling, and wall configurations can be automatically identified with the orientation sensor 160 in the conferencing apparatus 100 . FIG. 3 illustrates a top view and a side view of a conference room including participants and a conferencing apparatus 100 disposed on a table and illustrating beams that may be formed by a beamforming microphone array 135 disposed in the conferencing apparatus 100 . Beams 321 , 322 , 323 , 324 , 325 , and 326 can be configured with direction, beamwidth, amplification levels, and interference patterns to obtain quality coverage of participants, 311 , 312 , 313 , 314 , 315 , and 316 , respectively. FIG. 4 illustrates a top view and a side view of a conference room including participants and a conferencing apparatus 100 depending from a ceiling and illustrating beams that may be formed by a beamforming microphone array 135 disposed in the conferencing apparatus. Beams 421 , 422 , 423 , 424 , 425 , and 426 can be configured with direction, beamwidth, amplification levels, and interference patterns to obtain quality coverage of participants, 411 , 412 , 413 , 414 , 415 , and 416 , respectively. FIG. 5 illustrates a top view and a side view of a conference room including participants and a conferencing apparatus 100 disposed on a wall and illustrating beams that may be formed by the beamforming microphone array 135 disposed in the conferencing apparatus 100 . Beams 521 , 522 , 523 , 524 , 525 , and 526 can be configured with direction, beamwidth, amplification levels, and interference patterns to obtain quality coverage of participants, 511 , 512 , 513 , 514 , 515 , and 516 , respectively. In FIGS. 3-5 , the azimuth angles and beamwidths may be fixed to cover desired regions. As a non-limiting example, the six beams illustrated in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 can each be configured with beamwidths of 60 degrees with the beamforming microphone array 135 . The elevation angle of each beam is designed to cover most people sitting at a table. As a non-limiting example, an elevation angle of 30 degrees may cover most tabletop applications. On the other hand, for a ceiling application, the elevation angle is usually higher as shown in FIG. 4 . As a non-limiting example, an elevation angle closer to 60 degrees may be appropriate for a ceiling application. Finally, for a wall application, as shown in FIG. 5 , the elevation angle may be appropriate at or near zero degrees. While these default elevation angles may be defined for each of the orientations, the user, installer, or both, have flexibility to change the elevation angle with software settings at the time of installation, before a conference, or during a conference. A beamforming microphone array substantially improves audio quality in teleconferencing applications. Furthermore, some embodiments of the present disclosure use a teleconferencing solution with a beamforming microphone array that incorporates acoustic echo cancellation (AEC) to enhance full duplex audio quality. For high quality in teleconferencing applications, audio of the far-end participant picked up by directional microphones of the beamforming microphone array 135 can be canceled before transmitting. This is achieved by an acoustic echo canceler (AEC) that uses the loudspeaker audio of the far-end participant as a reference. In case of the beamforming microphone array 135 , there are multiple ways of doing acoustic echo cancellation in combination with beamforming. Two strategies, “AEC first” and “beamformer first,” have been proposed to combine an acoustic echo canceler with a beamforming microphone array. The “beamformer first” method performs beamforming on microphone signals and subsequently echo cancellation is applied on the beamformed signals. The “beamformer first” method is relatively computational friendly but requires continuous learning in the echo canceler due to changing characteristics of the beamformer. Often these changes renders the “beamformer first” method impractical for good conferencing systems. On the other hand, an “echo canceler first” system applies echo cancellation on each microphone signal and subsequently beamforming is applied on the echo canceled signals. The “AEC first” system provides better echo cancellation performance but is computationally intensive as the echo cancellation is applied for every microphone in the microphone array. The computational complexity increases with an increase in the number of microphones in the microphone array. This computational complexity often limits the number of microphones used in a microphone array and therefore prevents achievement of the substantial benefit from the beamforming algorithm with more microphones. Embodiments of the present disclosure implement a conferencing solution with beamformer and echo canceler in a hybrid configuration with a “beamformer first” configuration to generate a number of fixed beams followed by echo cancelers for each fixed beam. This hybrid configuration allows an increase in the number of microphones for better beamforming without the need for additional echo cancelers as the number of microphones is increased. Also, the echo cancelers do not need to continually adapt because as the number of fixed beams may be held constant. Therefore, embodiments of the present disclosure provide good echo cancellation performance and the increase in the computational complexity for large number microphones is smaller than the “AEC first” methods. FIG. 6 illustrates elements involved in sensing acoustic waves with a plurality of microphones and signal processing that may be performed on the sensed acoustic waves. In an acoustic environment on the left of FIG. 6 , an acoustic source 610 (e.g., a participant) may generate acoustic waves 612 . In addition, speakers 620 A and 620 B may generate acoustic waves 622 A and 622 B, respectively. A beamforming microphone array 135 senses the acoustic waves ( 612 , 622 A, and 622 B). Amplifiers 632 may filter and modify the analog signals to the speakers 620 A and 620 B and from the beamforming microphone array 135 . Converters 640 in the form of analog-to-digital converters and digital-to-analog converters convert signals between the analog domain and the digital domain. In some embodiments, the converters 640 may be coupled to the amplifiers 632 via cables 634 . Various signal-processing algorithms may be performed on the digital signals, such as, for example, acoustic echo cancelation 650 , beamforming 660 , and noise suppression 670 . Resulting digital signals may be then transmitted, such as, for example through a voice over Internet Protocol application 680 . Broadly, two configurations for the signal processing may be considered: “beamformer first” and “echo canceler first.” The following discussion concentrates primarily on the signal processing operations and how beamforming and acoustic echo cancelation may be performed in various configurations. Generally, in FIGS. 7 through 9 thicker lines represent multichannel signals with the number of lines illustrated, whereas thinner lines represent a single channel signal. FIG. 7 illustrates processing involved in sensing acoustic waves wherein signals from all of the directional microphones are combined, then acoustic echo cancellation is performed on the combined signal to create a combined echo canceled signal. The beamforming microphone array 135 generates a set of N microphone signals 138 . This “beamformer first” configuration uses the microphone signals 138 to define a beam in the direction indicated by a direction-of-arrival (DOA) determination process 750 . The DOA determination process 750 directs a beamforming process 730 to properly combine the microphone signals 138 into a combined signal 735 . An acoustic echo canceler 740 then performs acoustic echo cancellation on the combined signal 735 to create a combined echo-canceled signal 745 . FIG. 8 illustrates processing involved in sensing acoustic waves wherein acoustic echo cancellation is performed on signals from each of the directional microphones, then the echo canceled signals are combined, to create a combined echo-canceled signal. The beamforming microphone array 135 generates a set of N microphone signals 138 . In this “AEC first” configuration, an acoustic echo cancel process 830 performs acoustic echo cancellation on each microphone signal 138 separately. Thus, a set of N echo-canceled signals 835 are presented to a beamforming process 840 . A DOA determination process 850 directs a beamforming process 840 to properly combine the echo-canceled signals 835 into a combined echo-canceled signal 845 . Since echo is canceled beforehand in the “AEC first” method, the echo canceler performance is not affected by beam switches. On the other hand, the “AEC first” configuration first cancels the echo from the audio of each directional microphone and the beam is created from N echo-canceled signals in the direction pointed to by the DOA determination process 850 . In terms of spatially filtering the audio, both configurations are substantially equivalent. However, echo cancellation performance can be significantly different from one application to another. Specifically, as the beam is moving, the echo canceler needs to readjust. In a typical conferencing situation, talker directions keep switching and, therefore, the echo canceler needs to readjust, which may result into residual echo in the audio sent to the far end. While the “AEC first” configuration provides acceptable performance for the beamformer/AEC implementation, the computational complexity of this configuration is significantly higher than the “beamformer first” configuration. Moreover, the computation complexity to implement the “AEC first” configuration increases significantly as the number of microphones used to create beam increases. Therefore, for given computational complexity, the maximum number of microphones that can be used for beamforming is lower for the “AEC first” configuration than the “beamformer first” configuration. Using comparatively more number of microphones can increase audio quality of the participants, especially when a participant moves farther away from the microphones. FIG. 9 illustrates processing involved in sensing acoustic waves wherein a subset of signals from the directional microphones are combined, then acoustic echo cancellation is performed one or more of the combined signals. The beamforming microphone array 135 generates a set of N microphone signals 138 . In this hybrid configuration, a beamforming process 930 forms M fixed beams 935 from N microphone signals 138 . An acoustic echo cancel process 940 performs acoustic echo cancellation on each of the M fixed beams 935 separately. As a result M combined echo-canceled signals 945 are generated. A multiplexer 960 controlled by the DOA determination process 950 selects one of the M combined echo-canceled signals 945 as a final output signal 965 . In order to balance computation complexity of the complete system and number of microphones to do beamforming, the configuration of FIG. 9 creates M combined echo-canceled signals 945 to present as the final output signal 965 . In teleconferencing application including beamforming, increasing the number of beams does not add as much benefit as increasing the number of microphones. Therefore, while a large number of microphones may be used to create good beam pattern in the hybrid configuration, the increase in computational complexity due to additional echo cancelers is significantly smaller than the “AEC first” configuration. Furthermore, since the beam is selected after the echo cancellation, echo cancellation performance is not affected due to change in the beam location. It should be noted that the number of echo cancelers does not need to change with a changing number of microphones. Furthermore, since the beamforming is done before the echo cancellation, the echo canceler also performs better than the “AEC first” setup. FIG. 10 illustrates computational complexity of various embodiments relative to number of microphones in a beamforming microphone array. The computational complexity for various configurations and number of microphones was calculated in terms of required million-multiplications per second (MMPS) and is shown in FIG. 10 . It can be seen that the computational complexity for all methods increase as the number of microphones increase. However, the increase in the computational complexity for the “beamformer first” configuration and the hybrid configuration is much smaller than that of the “AEC first” configuration. With low computational complexity, and the fact that the implementation of the hybrid configuration has less chance of errors in the echo cancellation as a talker's direction switches, the hybrid configuration a good balance between quality and computational complexity for audio conferencing systems. While the present disclosure has been described herein with respect to certain illustrated embodiments, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize and appreciate that the present invention is not so limited. Rather, many additions, deletions, and modifications to the illustrated and described embodiments may be made without departing from the scope of the invention as hereinafter claimed along with their legal equivalents. In addition, features from one embodiment may be combined with features of another embodiment while still being encompassed within the scope of the invention as contemplated by the inventor.

Embodiments include methods and apparatuses for sensing acoustic waves for a conferencing application. A conferencing apparatus includes a plurality of directional microphones oriented to cover a corresponding plurality of direction vectors and disposed in a housing. An orientation sensor is configured to generate an orientation signal indicative of an orientation of the housing. A processor is operably coupled to the plurality of directional microphones and the orientation sensor. The processor is configured to automatically adjust a signal processing characteristic of one or more directional microphones of the plurality of directional microphones responsive to the orientation signal.

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 464,613, filed Feb. 7, 1983, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to an improved soil tillage implement and more particularly to a tillage implement utilizing a specific combination of discs and chisel plows supported by a unique frame and especially useful for fall tillage particularly in fields having a high stubble content such as cornfields. Subsequent to fall harvest, it is often desirable to plow the harvested field so that during the winter season the stubble in the field will decompose. Fall plowing also permits soil in a field to absorb moisture from winter snow and rain. Typically, fall plowing is done with a mold board plow or a gang of mold board plows. Plowing with mold board plows is especially necessary in harvested cornfields since the rubble and stubble associated with a cornfield will clog a chisel plow and prevent proper plowing of a field with such a chisel plow. Alternatively, a chisel plow may be used if extensive chopping or discing of the field occurs prior to chisel plowing. However, chopping or discing is a separate operation which adds to the cost of field preparation. Therefore, plowing with a mold board plow is the normal practice. A potential disadvantage associated with mold board plowing results because the soil is completely turned over and buries the field rubble exposing the soil to erosion due to wind and water flow. Additionally, since air cannot get at the field stubble, decomposition of the stubble may be prevented particularly when the top layer of soil freezes. For this reason, it is often desirable to disc a cornfield in the fall and subsequently plow the field in the spring with chisel plows or mold board plows. The present invention contemplates an improved combination disc and chisel plow of a special construction mounted on a unique frame which permits fall soil preparation in a field having a great deal of stubble such as a cornfield. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Briefly, the present invention comprises a frame with a hitch projecting from the forward end of the frame and a running gear positioned at the rear end of the frame. The running gear is designed to raise and lower the frame between a non-operating and an operating position while the hitch is maintained at a fixed position. Transverse tool bars are attached to the frame and support a series of discs for chopping field stubble and cutting into the soil. Positioned behind the discs are a series of special chisel plows arranged in a wedge configuration. In operation, the frame is gradually lowered at its rear end when beginning a row. As the frame is initially lowered, the discs initially cut into the soil and stubble and prepare the soil for receipt of the chisel plows as the implement is drawn forward. Continuous lowering of the frame to a desired position permits the chisel plows to enter the soil gradually. The design of the chisel plows insures maintenance of the plows at a desired depth in the soil as the chisel plows move through the soil following the discs which cut and move the soil in front of the chisel plows. Thus it is an object of the present invention to provide an improved fall tillage implement. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an improved fall tillage implement which will plow the soil up to one foot in depth. Still another object of the present invention is to provide an improved fall tillage farm implement which will effect tillage at a greater depth than prior art tillage implements yet which requires the same power as prior implements for moving the implement through a field. Another object of the present invention is to provide an improved tillage implement which is movable through a field during the tillage operation at a faster rate than prior art implements and which requires less energy and thus less fuel in order to effect operation. Another object of the present invention is to provide an improved fall tillage farm implement which reduces formation of ridges and thereby effects a reduction in erosion in a field tilled with the implement. Still another object of the present invention is to provide an improved fall tillage farm implement which does not require prior discing or chopping of a harvested field particularly a field having stalks therein such as a cornfield. Another object of the invention is to provide an improved fall tillage farm implement which maintains itself at a fixed level in the soil during the tillage operation and will not "ride out" from the soil. One further object of the present invention is to provide an improved fall tillage farm implement utilizing a unique chisel plow construction in an array which will not plug or clog during operation of the implement. These and other objects, advantages and features of the invention will be set forth in the detailed description which follows. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING In the detailed description which follows, reference will be made to the drawing comprised of the following figures: FIG. 1 is a side elevation of the improved farm implement of the invention; FIG. 2 is a top plan view of the implement of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a side elevation of the implement of FIG. 1 with the implement in the raised or road travel position; FIG. 4 is a side elevation of the implement in FIG. 1 in a partially lowered position upon the beginning of operation of the implement at the beginning of a row; and FIG. 5 is an enlarged side elevation of the unique chisel plow construction utilized with the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring particularly to FIGS. 1-4, the implement of the present invention includes a main frame 10 comprised of a forward cross member 12, a rear cross member 14, side longitudinal members 16 and 18, and a center frame longitudinal member 20 which are welded together to form a rectangular frame. Pivot support arms 22 and 24 extend from the opposite ends of the forward cross member 12. A draw bar 26 is attached to a drawbar cross member 28 which has projecting plates 30 and 32 that are connected by pivot members or pins 34, 36 to the pivot arms 22, 24. A hitch 38 is affixed to the forward end of the drawbar 26 for attachment to a hitch connector 40 associated with a pulling tractor 42. A turnbuckle 44 is connected between a bracket 46 at the front of the drawbar 26 and a bracket 48 projecting from the forward cross member 12 of the frame 10. The turnbuckle 44 is adjustable in order to adjust the angle of inclination between the drawbar 26 and the frame 10. Attached to the rear cross member 14 is a running gear comprised of vertical hollow beams 50, 52 which are welded to the outside ends of the cross member 14. A wheel support shaft 54, 55 projects telescopically into each tube 50, 52. Each shaft 54, 55 is connected at its lower end to an axle 56, 58, respectively, which are, in turn, connected to wheels 60, 62, respectively. Each shaft 54, 55 includes a projecting bracket 64 which is connected to a rod 66 associated with a drive cylinder 68. The opposite end of the cylinder 68 is attached to a bracket 70 affixed to the beam 50. Cylinder 68 is a hydraulic cylinder and is controlled through a hydraulic line 71 by means of hydraulic controls 73 mounted on the tractor 42. By controlling the hydraulic actuation of cylinder 68 from the tractor 42, it is possible to raise and lower the wheels 60, 62 simultaneously. Raising and lowering the wheels 60, 62 simultaneously will cause the frame 10 to raise at its rear end and pivot upwardly about the point defined by the attachment of the hitch 38 to the hitch connection 40. Attached by means of a three point hitch connection to the rear end of the frame 10 is a special chisel plow tool bar assembly 72. Tool bar assembly 72 includes a cross member 74 with projecting brackets 76 and 78. Brackets 76, 78 are pivotally attached to plates 80, 82, respectively, extending from rear frame member 14, by means of pins 84, 86, respectively. The third connection of the three point hitch is a vertical support bracket 88 extending from cross member 74 attached to a turnbuckle 90. The opposite end of the turnbuckle 90 is attached to a vertical support member 92 projecting from the center member 20 of the frame 10. The turnbuckle 90 is adjustable so that the angle of inclination of the assembly 72 may be adjusted. A reinforcing strut 94 connects brackets 48 and 92. The assembly 72 includes inclined outrigger tool bars 96, 98 connected to the center transverse member 74. The bars 96, 98 form an angle of 30° minus 5° plus 10° with respect to the transverse member 74. Attached at spaced intervals to the member 74 and bars 96, 98 are chisel plows 100. Thus, a chisel plow 100 is positioned substantially at the center of the assembly 72. Spaced therefrom by a distance of at least 15 inches on either side of the center chisel plow 100 are outrigger chisel plows 100. Thus, a series of chisel plows 100 are arranged in a V-shaped configuration. This configuration prevents clogging of the space between the chisel plows 100 and also decreases drag when pulling the chisel plows 100 through a field. Suspended from the frame 10 are a series of four tool bars 110, 112, 114, 116. The bars 110, 112, 114, 116 are each attached to the frame 10 in the same manner. Thus, a description with respect to the bar 110 applies with respect to the remaining bars 112, 114, 116. Referring to the figures, the bar 110 includes an inner end opening 118 with a bushing for receipt of a mounting pin. Opening 118 is aligned with an opening 121 associated with a bracket 120 attached to the center member 20 of the frame 10. An attachment pin 122 then fits through the openings 118, 121 to retain the bar 110. A bracket or gusset plate 124 attached to the outside frame member 18 cooperates with the bar 110 to support the bar 110 on the frame 10. That is, gusset plate 124 is attached to the frame member 18. The gusset plate 124 includes a series of openings 126. Clamp bolts 128 are affixed to appropriate openings 126 to clamp the bar 110 at a desired angle with respect to the frame 10. Thus, the orientation of the bar 110 may be adjusted with respect to the frame 10. Generally the bar 110 is positioned in the range of 5° to 20° from a direction transverse to the frame 10 with a nominal preferred angle of inclination being 15°. The two forward bars 110, 112 are inclined forwardly whereas the two rearward bars 114, 116 are inclined rearwardly with respect to the transverse direction of the frame 10. Also, the forward bars 110, 112 extend outwardly a lesser distance than the rearward bars 114, 116. The reasons for this will become apparent in view of the further description. Mounting brackets 130 are suspended from the bars 110, 112, 114, 116 and support a series of discs 132. The discs 132 associated with the forward bars 110, 112 are arranged in a position to throw dirt outwardly away from the frame 10. Thus, the discs 132 are arranged with their concave surfaces directed outwardly. Preferably the discs 132 are spaced about 15" apart to avoid plugging and to permit running of the discs 132 through stalks in a cornfield, for example. The discs 132 associated with the rear bars 114, 116 are directed inwardly with their concave surfaces. In this manner, dirt which has been thrown outwardly due to the forward discs 132 on bars 110, 112 will be redirected inwardly by the discs 132 associated with the rearward bars 114, 116. Also, since the forward discs 132 initially throw soil outwardly, the rear discs 132 are spaced a greater distance from the frame 10 to thereby redirect the soil to its original position. Positioning of the rear discs 132 therefore necessitates longer rear tool bars 114, 116. The discs 132 are arranged so that they will cut 4" to 5" in the soil during normal operating of the implement. Preferably, however, the discs 132 on the rearward bars 114, 116 have a greater diameter than those on the forward bars 110, 112 so that the rearward discs 132 will cut more deeply into the ground. FIG. 5 illustrates the special construction of the chisel plow 100 of the invention which is mounted on the bracket assembly 72. Thus, a chisel plow 100 shown in FIG. 5 includes a mounting bracket 140 which is affixed to a bar, for example, member 74. Depending from the bracket 140 are spaced support plates 142 which include a front surface 144 that is angled rearwardly. Retained by the support plates 142 is a chisel bar 146. Chisel bar 146 has an arcuate shape which defines a smooth transition from surface 144 to the direction of implement travel. The arcuate surface of the bar 146 terminates at a fixed point 150 and from that point forward defines a straight, downwardly inclined surface 152. An optional wear plate 154 may be affixed at the forward end of the bar 146. The straight, inclined surface 152 preferably defines an angle of attack or cut into the soil of about 28° as illustrated. This angle was determined empirically and may vary plus or minus 2°. The particular angle of cutting into the soil is desired in order to maintain the chisel plow 100 at the proper depth in the soil during field operation and prevent the plow from "riding out" of the soil or cutting too deeply into the soil. The surface 152 extends from point 150 at the given angle of inclination for a distance that defines a vertical drop of approximately 8" to 10". In practice it has been found that this particular configuration of chisel plow 100 with the dimensions noted correlates with a depth of operation of the chisel plow 100 of 12". This is significantly deeper than prior art chisel plow constructions. In operation, the implement of the present invention is initially maintained in the position illustrated in FIG. 3. In this position the wheels 60, 62 are extended by operation of the cylinder 68 associated with each wheel. When in this position, the discs 132 as well as the chisel plows 100 are suspended above the level of the soil though the hitch 38 is maintained at its fixed position relative to the tractor 42 and the soil. At the beginning of operation of the implement at the beginning of a row in a field, the wheels 60, 62 are lowered gradually to a position, for example, as shown in FIG. 4 as the implement is drawn forward to start a row. When in this position, the forward discs 132 begin to cut into the soil and cut the field stubble while also throwing dirt outwardly from the frame 10. Continuous lowering of the implement as the implement moves forward will cause the rear discs 132 to also engage the soil, cut the stubble and throw the soil inwardly toward the frame 10. Simultaneously the chisel plows 100 begin to cut into the soil which has been agitated and cut by the discs 132. The discs 132 initially engage the soil and field stubble and then the chisel plow 100 engages that soil. This step by step movement prevents the chisel plows 100 from becoming clogged. As the entire implement is moved in a forward direction and lowered, the discs 132 further cut into the soil to their normal operation depth as illustrated in FIG. 1 and the chisel plows 100 also move to their normal operating depth as illustrated in FIG. 1. The design of the discs 132 and more particularly the design of the chisel plows 100 tend to maintain the chisel plows 100 at an operational depth which is an increased depth relative to prior art structures. The discs 132 cut and move the soil and stubble back and forth eliminating the problem of clogging the chisel plows 100 with field stubble. As a result of the increased depth of penetration of the chisel plows 100, improved moisture flow and herbicide flow into the soil is obtained. Additionally, some of the field stubble is maintained along the top of the field in order to prevent erosion and enhance decomposition of the stubble. Ridging of the soil is also reduced which tends to reduce erosion. A complete fall field plowing operation in a single pass through a field is then possible without additional discing or chopping. There are many variable settings which may be made with respect to the present implement in order to enhance its operation. That is, the number and spacing of discs, the size of discs, the angle of inclination for the tool bars, the adjustment of the turnbuckles 44 and 90, the arrangement of the chisel plows on the tool bars and the spacing of the chisel plows are all variable in order to enhance the operation of the implement. Thus, while there has been set forth a preferred embodiment of the invention, it is to be understood that the invention is to be limited only by the following claims and their equivalents.

An improved farm implement includes a frame having a forwad hitch which is maintained at a fixed position relative to the remainder of the implement during all stages of operation. The rear end of the frame includes running gear which may be raised and lowered to raise and lower an array of discs and chisel plows in order to cultivate a field, particularly a field which may includes a great amount of field stubble.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a spring-action running and jumping shoe having an upper sole and a lower sole which are connected elastically to each other. Man's running and jumping capabilities are increased by shoes having elastic soles. For high jumps, a large spring path and large spring force are advantageous, as in trampoline jumping. Spring-action running and jumping shoes of relatively large spring path and large spring force can be used for athletic running and jumping, for jogging and for a jumping sport similar to trampoline jumping. Many embodiments of spring-action running and jumping shoes are known. In this connection, different types of springs are used, such as coil compression springs, tension springs, leaf springs, rubber and foam-rubber cushions and pneumatic springs. With a spring path of several centimeters, the exact guidance of the lower sole which contacts the ground upon running is a problem. Expensive devices have been described in order to make certain that breaking out of the spring toward the side or toward the front and rear is prevented. When wide leaf springs or similar structural parts are used, the guidance problem is solved. Thus, German Utility Model No. 7701451 describes an embodiment which contains a leaf spring, the front half of which is developed as the outer sole, while its rear end is fastened to the rear end of the upper sole. This embodiment makes it possible upon running to improve the take-off by means of the spring force shortly before the lifting off of the foot. But, one cannot take up the momentum upon placing the heel of the foot down and use it again for the forward drive. The opposite is true in the case of a V-shaped base fastened below the running show with its point forward, as described in German DE-OS No. 24 24 889. Upon running, the push of the heel is taken up thereby and is converted into an upward and forward thrust. The take-off is not improved thereby, since no spring action is present any longer in this position. Both of the embodiments described furthermore have the disadvantage that only a part of the leaf spring can fully develop its spring action since it is developed in part as the outer sole. A spring calculation shows that the permissible strength values of spring steel are rapidly exceeded if it is attempted to take up with these springs the spring forces which correspond to several times the weight of the body. From the above description it is clear that it is advantageous for a spring-action running and jumping shoe to contain two spring actions. The first spring action takes up the upward thrust when the heel is placed down and converts it into an upward and forward thrust during the course of the rolling motion of the foot. The second spring action improves the take-off with the tip of the foot. One complicated device for converting the thrust of the heel into forward thrust is described in DE-OS No. 30 12 945. Simpler embodiments having two springs are described in DE No. 30 17 769A1 and DE No. 30 34 126A1. The latter patent application also contains an embodiment having two leaf springs curved in S shape, wherein one spring is fastened to the front end and one to the rear end of the shoe. The two loose ends of the leaf springs form the outer sole. At least one of the two springs must be divided in two, for reasons of symmetry. Since the width of the shoe is not more than 10 cm, this results in relatively narrow leaf springs of only slight lateral stability. During running, such running shoes therefore tend to move out toward the side or to tilt. They have the further disadvantage that the spring action of the leaf springs is only partly utilized. Therefore, large forces cannot be taken up due to the limited strength of the material. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the invention is to develop a spring-action running and jumping shoe having one spring action in the region of the heel and a second spring action in the region of the front of the foot and also having good forward, rearward and lateral stability and which, with a spring path of several centimeters, takes up by spring action forces which correspond to several times the weight of the body. In accordance with the invention, the elastic connection between the upper and lower soles of a spring-action running and jumping shoe comprises a leaf spring of approximately the width of the shoe. One end of the spring is fastened to the front or to the rear part of the upper sole and the other end is fastened to the opposite part of the lower sole. In the preferred embodiment, the leaf spring is attached to the front end of the upper sole and to the rear end of the lower sole. To improve the spring action and so that the spring may rest against one or both of the soles in case of strong loading, either one or both of the underside of the upper sole or the upper side of the lower sole, both of which face the spring, are at least partially arched or support upon themselves arched ribs against which the spring is pressed upon loading. In an alternate embodiment, the spring itself is curved in arcuate shape along the length. With one or both of the leaf spring or the soles, the arcuate shape of the soles and/or of the leaf spring has a constant curvature. In a further alternate embodiment, rather than the entire upper sole being attached to the athletic shoe and that, in turn, being attached to the spring at one end of the upper sole, only the front part of the shoe is firmly attached to the upper sole. This permits the foot to tilt forwardly to a great extent. The attachment of the shoe to the upper sole may be at pivoting joint located, for instance, at the front of the shoe, as in a cross-country ski boot connection to the ski. Alternate additional springs at the front and/or rear of the shoe may be provided, e.g. separate pneumatic springs, which cooperate with the leaf spring to provide the correct lift. The invention is briefly described by looking at the process of running, using shoes in accordance with the invention. The leaf spring is flat in the unloaded condition. When the heel is set down, the leaf spring is curved in one direction and, upon pushing off with the tip of the foot, it is curved in the other direction (FIGS. 2 and 4). As a result, with only a single leaf spring, two spring actions are obtained, one in the region of the heel and one in the region of the front of the foot. During running, after the heel has been set down and before pushing off with the tip of the foot, the foot effects a rolling movement, which is supported by the spring which is now curved in S shape. This curvature is caused by the heel pressure initially predominating and then by the front of the foot predominating subsequently. The energy stored in the leaf spring by the placing down of the heel is converted, during the rolling process, into an upward and forward thrust. Toward the end of the rolling process, this energy is consumed and the leaf spring is now tensioned only by the action of the front of the foot. The energy stored in the leaf spring by the strong pushing-off motion of the front of the foot is converted into an additional forward and upward thrust when the muscular work has already ceased and the leg is stretched straight. By the spring-action running and jumping shoe of the invention, the efficiency of the running process is substantially improved and easier and faster running and higher and longer jumping are possible. By the use of leaf springs which utilize the entire width of the shoe or even somewhat more, good forward, rearward and lateral stability is obtained, even in the case of spring paths of several centimeters. Only a little practice is necessary to achieve dependable running and jumping with the shoe of the invention. One advantage over the prior art is the utilization of the spring action of one leaf spring in two directions, rather than using two springs. As a result, with the same spring action and the same stressing of material, the weight of the spring and the required spring space are reduced by half. Only by this technique is it possible when using leaf springs of high-grade spring steel to take up, with relatively large spring paths, forces which correspond to a multiple of the weight of the body without so increasing the base surface of the shoe or the weight of the shoe that running or jumping is impeded. It is a particular advantage over the prior art that the good properties of spring-action running and jumping shoes in accordance with the invention are obtained at only slight technical expense. The invention will be described in further detail below with reference to four illustrative embodiments. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIGURES FIG. 1 is a side elevational view of an athletic shoe provided with the present invention and not under load; FIG. 2 is the same view of the shoe when the foot first contacts the ground and the heel is closer to the ground than the toe; FIG. 3 shows the same shoe as the foot is now rolling forward; FIG. 4 shows the shoe when the foot is is about to leave the ground, with the foot tilted forwardly and the toe is closer to the ground than the heel; FIG. 5 is an elevational view of a second embodiment of a shoe provided with the invention; FIG. 6 is an elevational view of a third embodiment thereof; and FIG. 7 is an elevational view of a fourth embodiment thereof. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS EXAMPLE 1 FIG. 1 shows the construction, in principle, of a spring-action running and jumping shoe according to the invention. A substantially rigid upper sole 1 forms the shoe sole of an athletic shoe 2 which surrounds the foot. However, only a substantially rigid lower sole 3, which is connected via a wide leaf spring 4 to the upper sole 1, contacts the ground. One end of the leaf spring 4 is connected to the front part of the upper sole 1, and the other end of the leaf spring 4 is connected to the rear part of the lower sole 3. The lower sole 3 contains a running covering 5, such as a profiled sole, rubber cleats, spikes or similar devices for improving adherence to the ground at the places where the lower sole touches the ground during running. The width of the leaf spring 4 generally corresponds to the width of the shoe, although it may also be somewhat wider or narrower than it. The changes occurring during running are now described. FIG. 2 shows how the leaf spring 4 bends when a load is placed on the heel. Upon uniform vertical loading of the foot, the spring 4 bends into an S shape, as shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 4 shows the conditions when the tip of the foot is placed under load. FIGS. 2, 3 and 4 show the stages in running of foot tilting. In principle, conditions do not change if the one end of the leaf spring 4 is connected to the rear part of the upper sole 1 and the other end of the leaf spring 4 is connected to the front part of the lower sole 3. A shoe which is constructed in this manner is one according to the invention and functions in exactly the same way as the one shown in FIG. 1. The two soles 1 and 3 need not be parallel to each other when not under load. By a slight front upward tilt position of the upper sole 1, it is possible to increase the take-off power at the expense of the heel thrust, while with a slight front downward tilt position, the reverse is true. In the unloaded condition, the leaf spring 4 may be flat, as shown in FIG. 1, or else arched or S-shaped. The ratio of heel thrust to foot-tip thrust can be influenced by the spring curvature even in the case of parallel soles 1 and 3. In FIG. 8, for example, leaf spring 4 is curved in an arcuate shape having a constant curvature for producing a desired ratio of heel thrust to foot-tip thrust, and soles 1 and 3 are flat and parallel. In a running and jumping shoe according to the invention, both soles 1 and 3, or one of them, may also be elastic. If the lower sole 3, for instance, is developed as a leaf spring, it will bend in the opposite direction to the leaf spring 4 upon application of load on the foot tip, as shown in FIG. 4. Upon application of load on the heel, an elastic lower sole 3 has no effect in the case of a running and jumping shoe according to FIG. 1. The conditions are reversed if, as described in the alternative above, the leaf spring 4 is attached the other way around. EXAMPLE 2 The loading of the leaf spring 4 in a running and jumping shoe in Example 1 is greatest just behind the attachment to the soles 1 and 3. In the case of heel loading, as shown in FIG. 2, the spring curvature is, for instance, greatest just behind the attachment to the upper sole 1. In the design of the spring, one must be guided by these critical places, and the spring therefore becomes relatively thick and heavy. The conditions can be improved slightly by a conical development of the springs with respect to the thickness or width. The thinnest place in the spring then lies in the center between the two attachments. Such springs, however, are difficult to manufacture and are therefore expensive. The leaf springs 4 can be dimensioned optimally with respect to their size and weight if one sees to it, by means of a support, that a maximum spring curvature determined by the physical properties of the material cannot be exceeded. One such running and jumping shoe in accordance with the invention is shown in FIG. 5. Both the upper sole 1 and the lower sole 3 are developed with arches on their opposed sides facing the leaf spring 4, so that the leaf spring 4 can rest against the arched soles upon the application of load. With a flat leaf spring 4 of high-grade tempered spring steel (55Si7) of 5 mm in thickness and 90 mm in width and effective length of 260 mm, a tensile strength of 1200 N/mm 2 is not exceeded if the curved sole parts are formed of sections of a circular path of a radius of 435 mm. These measurements correspond approximately to the conditions shown in FIG. 5. An athlete weighing 75 kg wearing such shoes presses the springs 4 together--in case of uniform standing load on both shoes--by about 11 mm, while when the shoe is loaded by the heel or the tip of the foot with 300N, and therefore with four times the weight of the body, they are pressed together by about 69 mm. In the case of about 10 times the weight of the body, the maximum possible spring path of 75 mm is reached. These values are favorable for normal long-distance running. For fast sprints, the springs must be reinforced, while for broad and high jumps, the spring path must be increased. Due to considerations of weight, the soles 1 and 3 are not made arcuate over their entire width. It is sufficient if the leaf spring 4 can rest on both sides of the shoe against an arcuate rib. The soles are produced, for instance, as an aluminum casting and contain, in addition to the arcuate ribs, stability-increasing braces and recesses for fastening a leaf spring 4 and the athletic shoe 2 which surrounds the foot. The running and jumping shoes according to the invention which are described in this example have the further advantage over the one described in FIG. 1 of greater assurance against tilting. The possibility of twisting of the leaf springs, which must be avoided by a suitable position of the foot, is greatly reduced by its resting against the arcuate ribs. Instead of the flat leaf springs 4 provided in this example, curved leaf springs 4 can also be used. The curvature of the soles must then be suitably adapted, and flat or even negatively curved soles may be necessary in order to make certain that the leaf springs rest with the allowable tension. Materials useful for the arched soles include the aluminum described, but light materials of high stiffness and breaking strength are preferred. Fiber-reinforced plastics satisfy these requirements and can be worked inexpensively into complicated shapes. EXAMPLE 3 Up to now the simplest possible examples have been described. However, the leaf springs 4 can also be developed with a multiplicity of steps such as is customary, for instance, in the case of automobile springs. Additional springs of another type may also be used. For example, it is advantageous to use separate pneumatic springs 6 in the front and rear parts of the shoe, as shown in FIG. 6. If the pneumatic springs 6 are inflatable by means of a valve 7, the spring force can be adapted to the estimated stresses by different degrees of inflation. EXAMPLE 4 In Examples 1 to 3, a substantially rigid upper sole 1 has been used which is identical to a shoe sole. However, for dependable running and jumping with shoes in accordance with the invention, it is also sufficient if dependable guidance of the spring 4 and the lower sole 3 is assured by the connecting of the front of the shoe to the leaf spring 4. FIG. 7 shows an embodiment of a running and jumping shoe according to the invention in which only the front part of the athletic shoe 2 surrounding the foot is firmly connected to the sole 1. In order to make this clear, FIG. 7 shows the shoe with loading of the front of the foot as in FIG. 4. The rear part of the shoe is in this case lifted off from the upper sole 1 with the toes bent. The take-off behavior is improved, as compared with Examples 1 to 3, and corresponds to running with normal athletic shoes. Upon the setting down of the heel and upon the rolling of the foot during the running motion, the rear part of the shoe touches the upper sole 1. The lifting-off commences only upon the forward thrust with the point of the foot. Very similar conditions are found in cross-country skiing and all devices and measures known in the latter can be adopted here. Thus, it is advisable to provide in the region of the heel on the side of the upper sole 1 facing the shoe 2 a covering 8 forming points, which assures good adherence between shoe sole and upper sole 1. The connecting of the front of the shoe to the leaf spring 4 can also be effected by a swivel joint which is located in the region of the toes or at the tip of the foot. The Examples indicated above cannot exhaustively describe all advantageous embodiments of running and jumping shoes in accordance with the invention. Only shoes have been described in which the athletic shoe 2 which covers the foot forms a single unit with the other parts of the shoe 1, 3 and 4. However, a running and jumping shoe in accordance with the invention could be provided, in which a normal athletic shoe having a separate lower part comprising an upper sole 1, a lower sole 3 and a leaf spring 4 is attached by a shoe harness which is similar to that used in cross-country skiing. One advisable addition is to provide protection against dirtying of the leaf springs 4 and of the arcuate guide ribs. This protection can be obtained, for instance, by a rubber sleeve which connects the edges of the two soles 1 and 3 to each other. It is possible to improve the reliability against tilting by devices which assure substantial parallel guidance of the edges of the soles. This is done, for instance, by scissor-like lever arrangements (not shown) as additional connections between the upper and lower soles. High-grade tempered spring steel is preferred as the material for the leaf springs, but spring bronzes, fiber-reinforced plastics and other spring materials also may be satisfactory. A flat shape leaf spring with uniform thickness and width is preferred since it is cheapest. However, other forms of leaf springs, for instance curved or S-shaped, also enter into consideration. In case of high loads, multiple springs are advantageous. The width of the spring 4 corresponds approximately to the width of the shoe. Its length is generally slightly greater than the length of the shoe. For taking up larger forces, wider springs 4 are suitable. With longer springs 4, greater spring paths can be provided. Longer spring paths can also be obtained by mounting a plurality of the arrangements in accordance with the invention described above one above the other so that the running and jumping shoe of the invention contains two or more leaf springs 4 and one or more intermediate soles, which can also be reduced to fastening elements which connect the ends of two leaf springs together. Although the present invention has been described in connection with a number of preferred embodiments thereof, many variations and modifications will now become apparent to those skilled in the art. It is preferred, therefore, that the present invention be limited not by the specific disclosure herein, but only by the appended claims.

An athletic shoe, particularly for running and jumping, including an upper sole, a separate lower sole beneath the upper sole and a leaf spring of approximately the width of the shoe connecting the upper and lower soles. One end of the leaf spring is fastened to one end of the upper sole, such as the front end, while the other end of the leaf spring is fastened to the opposite end of the lower sole. The opposite surfaces of the upper and lower soles facing the spring may be arcuately curved. The spring may be arcuately curved. The upper sole may be fastened to the shoe over the entire length of the upper sole or only at the front of the shoe, e.g. at a joint. Additional springs may be disposed between the upper and lower soles.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims the benefits of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 60/193,118 filed Mar. 30, 2000, and of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 60/198,529 filed Apr. 20, 2000. STATEMENT RE: FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH/DEVELOPMENT [0002] Not Applicable BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] This invention relates in general to the separation and capture of molecule types from a solution mixture thereof, and in particular to apparatus and methodology wherein molecules with two or more defined properties such as ionic, hydrophobic, or affinity attractions and molecular weight ranges are captured and retained first for one such property and thereafter for the additional property, with such respective collections accomplished sequentially in a single molecule separator device. [0004] One of the most important tasks performed during research and other laboratory procedures is the separation of certain components from a mixture of components such that chemical or other analysis can proceed. A usual manner of accomplishing such separations is the employment of filtration devices whereby filtrate is collected by a filter medium as a solution containing the filtrate product passes through the filter medium. The most common of filter media are filter membranes and matrices thereof whose interstices prohibit, and thus capture, particulate whose physical size is too large to pass through as part of the solute. [0005] While such filter membranes and related matrices (e.g. cloth) work well where particulate to be collected is defined only according to size and the interstices of the filter medium are adequately sized for filtrate retention, the separation of smaller particulate, as exemplified at the molecular level, requires much greater sophistication in order to accomplish separation and collection. Additionally, molecular separation many times involves the need to collect molecules that must possess at least two properties such as ionic, hydrophobic, or affinity attractions plus a limited molecular weight range. To accomplish separation and collection of such micro-particulate, multiple filtration devices must be employed where each device has a one-membrane-type filter for collecting filtrate having one defined characteristic from a solution. Once molecules are collected that possess the first desired property, the filtrate must be transferred to a second filtration device having a second one-membrane-type filter that addresses the second property and collects molecular filtrate meeting the second standard. [0006] As is thus apparent, where, for example, molecules having at least two defining characteristics are to be isolated from a solution, a user must inefficiently perform filter procedures at least two separate times using at least two separate filtration devices. In view of this now-required inefficient approach, it is a primary object of the present invention to provide a molecule separator device where molecules having a plurality of properties can be separated and collected with one separator device. [0007] Another object of the present invention to provide a molecule separator device where such molecule separation is accomplished sequentially within a single housing. [0008] Yet another object of the present invention to provide a molecule separator device where respective dedicated membrane media provide filtrate collection. [0009] Still another object of the present invention is to provide methodology for separating and capturing molecules having a plurality of properties utilizing a single separator device. [0010] These and other objects of the present invention will become apparent throughout the description thereof which now follows. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0011] The present invention is a molecule separator device for separating and isolating molecules having at least two separable properties and present in a solution comprising the molecules. The separator device includes a housing for accepting pressured passage there through of the solution, and at least two molecule collection media disposed within the housing, wherein each such medium captures molecules exhibiting a respective property respectively capturable by the media. In a preferred embodiment, a first molecule-collection chromatography membrane captures and retains only molecules with an ionic, hydrophobic, or affinity attraction property while a second molecule-collection ultrafiltration membrane captures and retains additional such molecules that additionally fall within a particular molecular weight range. Conversely, these exemplary membranes can be in reverse order such that the first molecular collection membrane is an ultrafiltration membrane while the second membrane possesses the ionic, hydrophobic, or affinity attraction property. A preferred housing is generally cylindrical for operational acceptance within a generally cylindrical fixed-angle or swinging-bucket chamber of a centrifuge head, and is constructed of a plurality of liquid-tight, releasably-connected compartments in communication with each other. The collection media is situated in a sequential relationship among the compartments while centrifugation of the housing drives the solution through the media. Removing and replacing appropriate compartments during the molecule collection process permits separate and replaceable reservoir, wash, and collection sites to yield filtrate product as so chosen for further analysis, processing, or use, or for discard where a separation goal is the provision of clean solute. Because of separation and subsequent collection of molecules bearing two or more properties, the present invention permits rapid and efficient isolation of molecules and/or micro-particulate having multiple identification characteristics. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE DRAWINGS [0012] An illustrative and presently preferred embodiment of the invention is shown in the accompanying drawings in which: [0013] [0013]FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a first embodiment of a molecule separator device for capture or collection of molecules and/or micro-particulate; [0014] [0014]FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a separated compartment structure for the separator device of FIG. 1; [0015] [0015]FIGS. 3 a - 3 e illustrate use of the embodiment of FIG. 1; [0016] [0016]FIG. 4 is a side perspective view of a second embodiment of a molecule separator device; and [0017] [0017]FIGS. 5 a - 5 g illustrate use of the embodiment of FIG. 4. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0018] Referring first to FIGS. 1 and 2, a molecule separator device 10 is shown. The device 10 includes a housing 12 constructed of two releasably connected, liquid-tight, separable compartments 14 , 16 attached to each other by conventional friction fit between adjacent compartments. Within the housing 12 are two sequentially disposed membranes 24 , 26 for collecting filtrates. In particular, the first membrane 24 is a chromatography membrane operating as a cationic or anionic ion-exchange membrane, hydrophobic membrane, affinity membrane, or a combination thereof for attracting molecules exhibiting ionic and/or hydrophobic and/or affinity attractions. The first membrane 24 can have a porosity non-limitedly exemplified in the range of 0.1 to 10 microns and is fabricated of any appropriate microporous material including nylon, polycarbonate, polyethersulfone, glass fiber, polypropylene, polysulfone, cellulose acetate, regenerated cellulose, and mixed esters of cellulose or other polymeric material as would be recognized by a skilled artisan. The second membrane 26 preferably is anisotropic (asymmetrical) and can be fabricated of the same materials as the first while providing ultrafiltration in speaking toward molecular weight characteristics for capturing molecule filtrate. Thus, a chosen molecular weight range can be exemplified in values from about 5×10 2 to about 3×10 6 Daltons. [0019] As shown in FIG. 1, the upper compartment 14 of the housing 12 has an upper reservoir chamber 28 immediately above the first membrane 24 and a lower reservoir chamber 30 immediately below the first membrane 24 . The lower compartment 16 includes an upper chamber 32 immediately above the second membrane 26 and a fluid collection chamber 34 immediately beneath the second membrane 26 . FIG. 2 shows an independent compartment 36 attachable to the upper compartment 14 during certain washing procedures as described later. The housing 12 can be constructed of a semi-rigid material such as polypropylene or of any other plastic or polymeric material as would be evident to a skilled artisan. Likewise, housing size can be as required to provide volumetric accommodations as required for a particular task. A screw-type closure cap 38 with an aperture 40 there through closes the housing 12 . As is apparent, the housing 12 resembles the configuration of a standard centrifuge tube, thus permitting placement of the separator device 10 within a standard fixed-angle or swinging-bucket chamber (not shown) of a centrifuge head (not shown). While centrifugation is the preferred manner of pressurized force, the aperture 40 in the screw cap 38 is provided to accept a pressure nozzle such as the outlet of a hypodermic syringe (not shown) whose pressure can be applied to force the solution through the separator device 10 . [0020] A description of an exemplary operation of the separator device 10 is accompanied by the illustrations of FIGS. 3 a - 3 e . First, the upper compartment 14 and an independent compartment 36 are attached as shown in FIG. 3 a . A subject solution is placed within the upper reservoir chamber 28 of upper the compartment 14 , the cap 38 is secured in place as shown in FIG. 3 b , and the resulting unit is centrifuged (fixed angle or swinging bucket) or pressurized for as long as necessary (many times about 0.5 minute) to accomplish liquid movement through the unit. As expected, the force moves the liquid quickly through the first membrane 24 as target molecules are collected. Since this first membrane 24 has a relatively large pore size, virtually any sized molecules or micro-particulate can pass through unimpededly, and only target molecules or micro particulate with ionic, hydrophobic, or affinity attractions will be retained. Alternatively, dependent upon the properties of the passing solution, target molecules or micro-particulate may pass through the membrane while contaminant is retained. The cap 38 is removed, an appropriate buffer solution is added to the upper compartment 14 which is re-capped, and a second period of centrifugation or pressurization is completed to assure removal of any contaminants from the target molecules, while the molecules or micro-particulate remain bound to the first membrane 24 . Elution of target molecules is accomplished as the independent compartment 36 with solute therein is removed and replaced with the lower compartment 16 as shown in FIG. 3 c . The upper reservoir chamber 28 is then filled with an appropriate elution buffer to remove the target molecules from the first membrane 24 and the separator device 10 is centrifuged for several minutes as the target molecules now pass through the first membrane 24 are captured because of size by the second membrane 26 . The upper compartment 14 (FIG. 3 d ) is removed and, thereafter, the upper reservoir chamber 15 is filled with a final washing buffer and centrifuged for several minutes for product desalting and placing the target molecules in a desired buffer such as physiological saline. Finally, an independent compartment 36 (FIG. 3 e ) is placed onto the compartment 16 , and the resulting unit is inverted and centrifuged or pressurized for final product collection as the target molecules are forced from the second membrane 26 and into the independent compartment 36 . [0021] [0021]FIGS. 4 and 5 a - 5 g show a second preferred embodiment and use of a molecule or micro-particulate separator device 50 . In particular, the separator device 50 includes a housing 52 constructed of two releasably connected, liquid-tight, separable compartments 54 , 56 , each having one separable reservoir 53 , 57 , with compartments 54 , 56 and reservoirs 53 , 57 held to each adjacent structure by conventional friction fit. Within the housing 52 are two sequentially disposed membranes 63 , 65 for collecting two different filtrates. In particular, the first membrane 63 is anisotropic (asymmetrical) and can be fabricated of any appropriate polymeric material with ultrafiltration pore size including nylon, polycarbonate, polyethersulfone, glass fiber, polypropylene, polysulfone, cellulose acetate, regenerated cellulose, and mixed esters of cellulose or polymeric materials as would be recognized by a skilled artisan while providing ultrafiltration in speaking toward molecular weight characteristics for capturing molecule filtrate. Thus, a chosen molecular weight range can be exemplified in values from about 5×10 2 to about 3×10 6 Daltons. The second membrane 65 is a chromatography membrane operating as a cationic or anionic ion-exchange membrane, hydrophobic membrane, affinity membrane, or a combination thereof for attracting molecules exhibiting ionic and/or hydrophobic and/or affinity attractions. The second membrane 65 can have a porosity non-limitedly exemplified in the range of 0.1 to 10 microns and is also fabricated of nylon, polycarbonate, polyethersulfone, polysulfone, cellulose acetate, glass fiber, polypropylene, regenerated cellulose, and mixed esters of cellulose or other polymeric materials. [0022] As shown in FIG. 4, the upper compartment 54 of the housing 52 has an upper reservoir chamber 58 immediately above the first membrane 63 and a lower reservoir chamber 60 immediately below the first membrane 63 . The lower compartment 56 includes an upper chamber 62 immediately above the second membrane 65 and a fluid collection chamber 64 immediately beneath the second membrane 65 . The housing 52 can be constructed of a semi-rigid material such as polypropylene or of any other polymeric material as would be evident to a skilled artisan. Likewise, housing size can be as required to provide volumetric accommodations as required for a particular task. As is apparent, the housing 52 resembles the configuration of a standard centrifuge tube, thus permitting placement of the separator device 50 within a standard fixed-angle or swinging-bucket chamber (not shown) of a centrifuge head (not shown). [0023] A description of an exemplary operation of the separator device 50 is accompanied by the illustrations of FIGS. 5 a - 5 g . First, a subject solution is placed within the upper chamber 62 of the lower compartment 56 (FIG. 5 a ), the upper and lower compartments 54 , 56 are attached as shown in FIG. 5 b , and the resulting unit is centrifuged (fixed angle or swinging bucket) for as long as necessary (many times about 0.5 minute) to accomplish liquid movement through the membrane. As expected, the centrifugal force moves the liquid quickly through the second membrane 65 as target molecules are collected. Since this second membrane 65 has a relatively large pore size, virtually any sized molecule or micro-particulate can pass through unimpededly, and only target molecules with ionic or hydrophobic or affinity attractions will be retained. Alternatively, dependent upon the properties of the passing solution, target molecules or micro-particulate may pass through the membrane while contaminant is retained. Next, an appropriate buffer solution is added to the upper chamber 62 of the lower compartment 56 , and a second centrifugation is completed to assure removal of any contaminants from the target molecules while the molecules remain bound to the second membrane 65 . The reservoir 57 is then removed and emptied, and filled with an elution buffer. Upon reassembly, the separator device 50 is inverted (FIG. 5 e ) and inserted into the centrifuge for centrifugation to remove the target molecules or micro-particulate from the second membrane 65 and capture them because of size at the first membrane 63 . Thereafter, while remaining in the now-upside down position, the lower reservoir chamber 60 is filled with an appropriate buffer to wash the target molecules free of high salt of the elution buffer while retaining the molecules at the first membrane 54 . Finally, the reservoir 53 is emptied (FIG. 5 f ), the reservoir 57 is removed and replaced with a new reservoir 57 a (FIG. 5 g ), and the resulting unit is inverted and centrifuged for final product collection as the target molecules are forced into the reservoir 57 a . Alternatively, of course, the device 50 may be inverted at the beginning of the process such that the ultrafiltration membrane is the first contact membrane. [0024] As is apparent, the molecule separator devices above described provide rapid two-stage separations within a single, convenient, and molecular-property specific apparatus. Additionally, as recognized by the skilled artisan, there are numerous possible combinations of chromatography membranes and ultrafiltration membranes for producing unique purification results. Therefore, while an illustrative and presently preferred embodiment of the invention has been described in detail herein, it is to be understood that the inventive concepts may be otherwise variously embodied and employed and that the appended claims are intended to be construed to include such variations except insofar as limited by prior art.

A molecule separator device for isolating molecules having at least two separable properties and within a solution. The device includes a housing, and at least two molecule collection media disposed within the housing, whereby each such medium captures molecules exhibiting a respective property. In one embodiment, a first membrane captures only molecules with an ionic and/or hydrophobic and/or affinity attraction property while a second membrane captures only such molecules that additionally fall within a particular molecular weight range. A preferred housing is cylindrical for acceptance within a centrifuge, and is constructed of a plurality of releasably-connected compartments. The collection media is sequentially situated and centrifugation of the housing drives the solution through the media. Because of separation and subsequent collection in one device of molecules bearing multiple properties, the present invention permits rapid and efficient isolation of molecules and micro-particulate having a plurality of identification characteristics.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] This invention relates generally to communication networks. More specifically, this invention relates to performance monitoring in high-speed packet networks. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] A number of acronyms well known in the art are used herein. For convenience, they are summarized in Table 1. TABLE 1 ACRONYM Meaning AIS alarm indication signal APS automatic protection switching BER bit error rate BIP bit interleaved parity CV code violation DS-N digital signal at level N ES errored seconds ES-LFE far end line errored second ES-S Section Errored Second LOF loss of framing LOS loss of signal OC-N optical carrier level at level N OS operations system PDH plesiochronous digital hierarchy POH payload overhead RDI remote defect indication REI remote error indication SDH synchronous digital hierarchy SEF severely eroded framing SEF severely errored framing SES severely errored second SONET synchronous optical network SPE synchronous payload envelope STM signaling traffic management STS-N synchronous transport signals at level N TDM time division multiplexed TOH transport overhead UAS unavailable seconds. A count of the seconds during which a layer was considered to be unavailable. VT virtual tributary VTG virtual tributary group [0005] High-speed communications networks continue to increase in importance in modern telecommunications. As an example, the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) is a set of standards that define a hierarchical set of transmission rates and transmission formats for carrying high-speed, time-domain-multiplexed (TDM) digital signals. SONET lines commonly serve as trunks for carrying traffic between circuits of the plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) used in circuit-switched communication networks. SONET standards of relevance to the present patent application are described, for example, in the document Synchronous Optical Network ( SONET ) Transport Systems: Common Generic Criteria (Telcordia Technologies, Piscataway, N.J., publication GR-253-CORE, September, 2000). While the SONET standards have been adopted in North America, a parallel set of standards, known as Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH), has been promulgated by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), and is widely used in Europe. From the point of view of the present invention, these alternative standards are functionally interchangeable. [0006] There are four optical interface layers in SONET: path layer, line layer, section layer and photonic layer. These optical interface layers have a hierarchical relationship, with each layer building on the services provided by the lower layers. Each layer communicates with peer equipment in the same layer and processes information and passes it up and down to the next layer by mapping the information into a differently organized format and by adding overhead. In a simplified example, network nodes exchange information as digital signals (DS1 signals) having a relatively small payload. At a source node of the path layer several DS1 signals are packaged to form a synchronous payload envelope (SPE) composed of synchronous transport signals (STS) at level 1 (STS-1), along with added path overhead. The SPE is handed over to the line layer. The line layer concatenates multiple SPEs, and adds line overhead. This combination is then passed to the section layer. The section layer performs framing, scrambling, and addition of section overhead to form STS-Nc modules. Finally the photonic layer converts the electrical STS-Nc modules to optical signal and transmits them to a distant peer node as optical carriers (OC-N signals). [0007] At the distant peer node, the process is reversed. First, at the photonic layer the optical signal is converted to an electrical signal, which is progressively handed over to lower levels, stripping off respective overheads, until the path layer is reached. The DS1 signals are unpackaged, and terminate at the destination node. [0008] The lowest-rate link in the SONET hierarchy is the optical carrier level (OC-1) at the path layer, which is capable of carrying 8000 STS-1 frames per second, at a line rate of 51.840 Mbps. An STS-1 frame contains 810 bytes of data, which are conventionally organized as a block of nine rows by 90 columns. The first three columns hold transport overhead (TOH) while the remaining 87 columns carry the information payload, referred to as the synchronous payload envelope (SPE). The SPE contains one column of payload overhead (POH) information, followed by 86 columns of user data. The POH can begin at any byte position within the SPE capacity of the payload portion of the STS-1 frame. As a result, the SPE typically overlaps from one frame to the next. The TOH of each frame contains three pointer bytes (H1, H2, H3), which are used to indicate where in each frame the POH begins and to compensate for timing variations between the user input lines and the SONET line on which the STS-1 frames are transmitted. [0009] STS-1 frames can efficiently transport DS-3 level signals, operating at 44.736 Mbps. The STS-1 frames themselves are not too much larger than DS-3 frames. When signals at rates below DS-3 are to be carried over SONET, the SPE of the STS-1 frame is divided into sections, known as virtual tributaries (VTs), each carrying its own sub-rate payload. The component low-rate signals are mapped to respective VTs, so that each STS-1 frame can aggregate sub-rate payloads from multiple low-rate links. Multiple STS-1 frames can be multiplexed (together with STS-Nc frames) into STS-N frames, for transmission on OC-N links at rates that are multiples of the basic 51.840 Mbps STS-1 rate. [0010] For the purpose of VT mapping, each STS-1 frame is divided into seven virtual tributary groups (VTGs), each occupying 12 columns of the SPE. Within each VTG, four VT sizes are possible: [0011] The size VT1.5 occupies three columns, each with sufficient bandwidth to transport a DS-1 signal at 1.544 Mbps (i.e., the signal carried on a T-1 line). One VTG can contain four VT1.5 sections. [0012] The size VT2 occupies four columns, providing bandwidth sufficient for an E-1 line. [0013] The size VT3 occupies six columns, providing bandwidth sufficient for a DS-1C signal. [0014] The size VT6 occupies twelve columns, providing bandwidth sufficient for a DS-2 signal. [0015] Mapping of the VTs to the columns of the SPE is specified in detail in the above-noted Telcordia publication GR-253-CORE, at section 3.2.4. It is not necessary that all of the VTs in an STS-1 frame be used to carry lower-rate signals. Unequipped VT sections, i.e., sections that have no service to carry in the SPE, are simply filled with default data. These unequipped sections are assigned a special indication in the VT POH byte V5, bits 5 to 7, known as the signal label. In SDH systems, STM-1 frames are similarly divided into sub-rate payload sections of different sizes, referred to as TU-11, TU-12 and TU-2. [0016] Maintenance criteria are extensively specified in the above-noted Telcordia publication GR-253-CORE to enable the maintenance of the integrity of the network and individual network elements. Maintenance includes the general undertakings of (1) defect detection and the declaration of failures, (2) verification of the continued existence of a problem, (3) sectionalization of a verified problem, (4) isolation, and (5) restoration. [0017] Performance monitoring, to which this application particularly relates, is important and sometimes essential to the conduct of the various above-mentioned tasks in network maintenance. Performance monitoring, as used herein, relates to the in-service, non-intrusive monitoring of transmission quality. Network elements are required to support performance monitoring as appropriate to the functions provided at their respective levels in the network. In large part, performance data is accumulated from information carried in overhead bits. The photonic layer is an exception. There, specified physical parameters are monitored. Network elements are also required to perform self inventory, by which a network element reports information to the performance monitor about its own equipment, as well as adjacency information concerning other network elements to which it is physically or logically connected. The above-noted Telcordia publication GR-253-CORE contains generic performance monitor strategies, discusses various types of performance monitor registers (e.g., current period, previous period, recent period and threshold registers), and defines performance monitor parameters for the various signals which are found in SONET communication. [0018] A principal approach taken in SONET performance monitoring is the accumulation by network elements of various performance monitor parameters based on performance “primitives” that it detects in the incoming digital bit stream. Primitives can be either anomalies or defects. An anomaly is defined to be a discrepancy between the actual and desired characteristics of an item. A defect is defined to be a limited interruption in the ability of an item to perform a required function. The persistence of a defect results in a failure, which is defined to be the termination of the ability of an item to perform a required function. A large number of defects and failures are defined in the above-noted Telcordia publication GR-253-CORE. [0019] Functionally, performance monitoring is performed at each layer, independent of the other layers. However, part of the functional model assumes that layers pass maintenance signals to higher layers. For example, a defect, such as Loss of Signal (LOS) that occurring at the section layer causes an alarm indication signal (AIS-L) to be passed to the line layer, which in turn causes an alarm signal (AIS-P) to be transmitted to the STS Path layer. Thus, an AIS defect can be detected at a particular layer either by receiving the appropriate AIS on the incoming signal, or by receiving it from a lower layer. In consequence, performance monitor parameters at a level are influenced by defects and failures occurring at other levels. [0020] Thresholds are defined for most of the performance monitor parameters supported by SONET network elements. These are used by the performance monitor to detect when transmission degradations have reached unacceptable levels. It is common for hysteresis to be employed before a declared defect or failure can be terminated, in order to assure stability of the system. [0021] Accumulation intervals are defined for each performance monitor parameter. Data accumulated in successive accumulation intervals are required to be independently maintained in a memory as a pushdown stack during a current day's operation. Each network element reports its statuses and results periodically to a higher authority or performance monitor management system. It is the responsibility of the performance monitor management system to derive time-based calculations such as the time during which an defect or failure persisted (errored seconds) and other performance monitor related parameters. Each of the parameters that have to be calculated is depend on one or more variables related to SONET defects, SONET counters, and SONET failures. [0022] For example, Severely eroded seconds at the line level are monitored using the performance monitor parameter SES-L. This parameter is advanced if any of the following SONET defects was active during the previous second: severely eroded framing (SEF), loss of signal (LOS), and alarm indication signal (AIS-L). [0023] As a second example, the counter CV-L counts coding violations at the line level. The performance monitor parameter SES-L is advanced if the SONET counter CV-L is above 9834. [0024] Conventional performance monitor management implementations employ a separate state machine for the monitoring of each performance monitor parameter. An advantage of the state machine approach is the possibility of an “undo” operation, or rollback to a previous state. However, due to the large numbers of performance monitor parameters, and their interrelationships, the state machines are complex, and difficult to maintain and debug. In conventional performance monitor management systems rollback has been accomplished in two ways. In a first approach, it is possible to maintain a previous state for a period of time. During this the system can discard new state data and roll back to the previous state. Maintaining large number of states involves complex software, large amounts of memory storage, and implies slow performance. [0025] A second approach to performance monitor management provides inverse operations. For example, for each increment function, a decrement function can be provided. Using inverse operations requires the propagation of data through the network, under various conditions of operational impairment, and possibly to computer systems outside the network. Considerable system coordination among various network elements and external systems again implies a high degree of design complexity and expense in program maintenance and administration. [0026] U.S. Pat. No. 6,097,702 to Miller et al. discloses an implementation of a performance monitor management system using a library of event-responsive code modules which are installed in various telecommunication equipment as components of event-responsive performance monitoring software. While the use of such modules may mitigate the load on designers of a performance monitor management system, there still remains a need for a more efficient, simpler implementation of a performance monitor management system in a SONET network. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0027] It is therefore a primary object of some aspects of the present invention to improve the performance management of digital communication networks. [0028] It is a further object of some aspects of the present invention to provide an improved method and apparatus for monitoring the performance of digital networks. [0029] It is yet another object of some aspects of the present invention to improve the performance management of optical networks. [0030] These and other objects of the present invention are attained by a performance monitoring system applicable to network elements having performance monitoring responsibilities in a digital network. Apparatus is provided for individual network elements, in which a bitmap representation of performance primitives detected during an acquisition interval act as a control in the tracking and updating of network performance parameters. An important advantage of the bitmap representation is simplification of program maintenance and development as performance monitoring of digital transmission networks evolves, new performance parameters are instituted, and old ones redefined. The bitmap representation also enhances the efficiency of performance management by providing immediate access to states that enable and inhibit the evaluation of individual performance parameters. [0031] The monitoring system is realized as a single state machine in each network element, which performs the performance management tasks in an efficient manner, for example, maintenance tasks such as the addition and deletion of performance parameters. [0032] The invention provides a method of monitoring performance of a communications network, including the steps of associating a performance parameter with a set of events in the communications network, and defining a map in a memory, wherein the map includes a plurality of concatenated elements. Each of the concatenated elements is independently capable of a transition between a first binary state and a second binary state, and each of the concatenated elements corresponds to a member of the set of the events. The communications network is monitored for an acquisition interval by detecting a signal in a data stream of the communications network that represents an occurrence of one of the events during the acquisition interval, and thereafter flagging one of the concatenated elements of the map that corresponds to event. Then the performance parameter is calculated in accordance with the state of the map. [0033] According to an aspect of the method, the communications network is a SONET network. [0034] According to yet another aspect of the method, the communications network is an SDH network. [0035] In an additional aspect of the method, the map includes a plurality of maps. The method further includes associating members of a first subset of the set with the concatenated elements of a first map of the plurality of maps, and associating members of a second subset of the set with the concatenated elements of a second map of the plurality of maps. The performance parameter is calculated if at least one of the concatenated elements of the first map is flagged. [0036] In a further aspect of the method, the performance parameter is calculated if none of the concatenated elements of the second map is flagged. [0037] According to yet another aspect of the method, the map is a bitmap. [0038] In a further aspect of the method, the performance parameter is adjusted for a portion of the acquisition interval, during which the data stream was determined to be unavailable. [0039] The invention provides a method of monitoring performance of an optical communications network, including the steps of associating a performance parameter with a set including defects and failures capable of occurring in the optical communications network, defining a map in a memory, wherein the map includes a plurality of concatenated elements. Each of the concatenated elements is independently capable of a transition between a first binary state and a second binary state. Each of the concatenated elements corresponds to a member of the set. The method further includes monitoring the optical communications network for an acquisition interval, by detecting information in a frame that is transmitted in a data stream of the optical communications network that represents an occurrence of one of the defects and failures during the acquisition interval. Thereafter one of the concatenated elements of the map that corresponds to the one of the defects and failures is flagged. Then, the performance parameter is calculated in accordance with the state of the map. [0040] In an aspect of the method the map is defined by defining an OR-defects bitmap and associating elements thereof with first members of the set, wherein the first members are defects, defining a NOT-defects bitmap and associating elements thereof with second members of the set, wherein the second members are defects, defining an OR-failures bitmap and associating elements thereof with third members of the set, wherein the third members are failures, and defining a NOT-failures bitmap and associating elements thereof with fourth members of the set, wherein the fourth members are failures. Flagging is accomplished by creating a transition between the first binary state the second binary state in one of the concatenated elements of one of the OR-defects bitmap, the NOT-defects bitmap, the OR-failures bitmap and the NOT-failures bitmap. [0041] In another aspect of the method, the performance parameter is adjusted for a portion of the acquisition interval during which the data stream was determined to be unavailable. [0042] The invention provides an apparatus for monitoring performance of a communications network, including a memory that has a map defined therein, wherein the map includes a plurality of concatenated elements. Each of the concatenated elements is independently capable of a transition between a first binary state and a second binary state. The apparatus includes a processor that accesses the memory and is connected to a network element of the communications network. Program instructions stored in the processor cause the processor to perform the steps of associating a performance parameter with a set of events in the communications network, wherein each of the concatenated elements of the map corresponds to a member of the set of the events, monitoring the communications network for an acquisition interval by detecting a signal in a data stream of the communications network that represents an occurrence of one of the events during the acquisition interval, flagging in one of the concatenated elements an indication that the occurrence has been detected, and thereafter calculating the performance parameter in accordance with the state of the map. The communications network can be an optical communications network. [0043] The invention provides a computer software product, including a computer-readable medium in which computer program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a computer, cause the computer to monitor performance of a communications network by associating a performance parameter with a set of events in the communications network, monitoring the communications network for an acquisition interval, detecting a signal in a data stream of the communications network that represents an occurrence of a member of the set of the events during the acquisition interval, flagging in a bitmap an indication that the occurrence has been detected, and thereupon calculating the performance parameter in accordance with the state of the bitmap. [0044] In an aspect of the computer software product, the instructions cause the computer to flag the indication by associating each the member of the set of the events with an element of the bitmap. The communications network can be an optical communications network. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0045] For a better understanding of these and other objects of the present invention, reference is made to the detailed description of the invention, by way of example, which is to be read in conjunction with the following drawings, wherein: [0046] [0046]FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an end-to-end connection in a SONET network which is constructed and operative in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention; [0047] [0047]FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an end-to-end connection in a SONET network, which is constructed and operative in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the invention; [0048] [0048]FIG. 3 is a detailed block diagram of a performance manager in the SONET network shown in FIG. 1; [0049] [0049]FIG. 4 is a high level flow chart illustrating a method of performance monitoring in a SONET network in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention; [0050] [0050]FIG. 5 is a detailed flow chart illustrating the derivation of performance parameters in the method shown in FIG. 4; [0051] [0051]FIG. 6 is a detailed flow chart illustrating adjustment of a current performance parameter for unavailable seconds; [0052] [0052]FIG. 7 is a detailed flow chart illustrating the evaluation of bitmaps in the method shown in FIG. 5; and [0053] [0053]FIG. 8 is a detailed flow chart illustrating the evaluation of the counters in the method shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0054] In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art, however, that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances well-known circuits, control logic, and the details of computer program instructions for conventional algorithms and processes have not been shown in detail in order not to unnecessarily obscure the present invention. [0055] Software programming code, which embodies aspects of the present invention, is typically maintained in permanent storage, such as a computer readable medium. In a client/server environment, such software programming code may be stored on a client or a server, or on various network elements. The software programming code may be embodied on any of a variety of known media for use with a data processing system, such as a diskette, or hard drive, or CD-ROM. The code may be distributed on such media, or may be distributed to users from the memory or storage of one computer system over a network of some type to other computer systems for use by users of such other systems. The techniques and methods for embodying software program code on physical media and distributing software code via networks are well known and will not be further discussed herein. [0056] The preferred embodiment of the invention is presented with reference to a SONET/SDH network. However the teachings of the invention are not limited to such a network, but are broadly applicable to other communications network protocols in which performance monitoring occurs. [0057] System Architecture [0058] Turning now to the drawings, reference is made to FIG. 1, which is a high level diagram of an end-to-end connection in a SONET network, which is constructed and operative in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention. An optical network 10 of SONET network elements is shown. At a path level 12 . The terminal SONET portions of the optical network 10 are represented by STS path terminating equipment 14 , 16 , which can multiplex and demultiplex an STS payload, and interface with non-SONET elements. The path terminating equipment 14 , 16 communicates with a line layer 18 , consisting of line terminating equipment 20 , 22 . The line terminating equipment 20 , 22 originates and terminates line signals, and relates to a section layer 24 . In some embodiments, the optical network 10 may be an SDH network. [0059] The section layer 24 is defined by adjacent SONET network elements, which can be a terminating network elements, various cross-connects, add-drop multiplexers, or regenerators. These network elements can originate, modify or terminate section overhead, or can perform any combination of these actions. A section 26 is defined by a regenerator 28 and section terminating equipment 30 . A section 32 is defined by the section terminating equipment 30 and a digital cross-connect 34 . A section 36 is defined by the digital cross-connect 34 and section terminating equipment 38 . A section 40 is defined by the section terminating equipment 38 and a regenerator 42 . [0060] Each of the network elements of the optical network 10 has performance monitoring responsibilities, and is provided with a performance monitor 44 . The performance monitor 44 monitors the incoming digital stream, and the prevailing operating conditions of the network element itself. It communicates information to an operations system (OS), via the SONET network or using alternate channels of communication. [0061] While an end-to-end connection is shown in FIG. 1, many alternate SONET network configurations are possible, as may be required by a particular network or application. For example, the embodiments shown herein can be operated equally well with a ring-based network architecture, and are operable with modern resilient packet ring networks. [0062] Performance monitoring in accordance with the invention deals extensively with performance anomalies, defects, failures, and various indications generated in response thereto. It will be helpful to briefly discuss a selected group of such occurrences in a SONET network that are recognized as defects and failures, and result in various signals that may reach a performance monitor management system of the network. It will be understood that this selection is limited for purposes of brevity and clarity of illustration, and that the teachings herein may be routinely extended to encompass the larger universe of defects, failures, and indications that are generated in SONET networks that are compliant with the above-noted Telcordia publication GR-253-CORE, and in SONET networks generally. [0063] In a network employing linear APS protection switching, each incoming SONET signal is separately monitored for several items that are required to be detected on the line level, both for purposes of protection switching and line performance monitoring. These items include line BIP errors, AIS-L, lower-layer LOS and SEF or LOF defects, RDI-L defects, and REI-L indications. The detection of certain of these items on an incoming signal may result in the generation of REI-L and RDI-L indications in the line overhead on the corresponding outgoing signal. [0064] Reference is now made to FIG. 2, which is which is a high level diagram of an end-to-end connection in a SONET network, which is constructed and operative in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the invention. An optical network 46 is similar to the optical network 10 , except now a single performance monitor 48 operates as a single state machine, routinely performing all performance monitoring tasks for all layers of the network, including the representative path layer network element 50 . Elimination of separate machines for different network elements and different layers greatly simplifies the process of performance monitoring, and facilitates maintenance and modification of the performance monitor program. [0065] Reference is now made to FIG. 3, which is a detailed block diagram of the performance monitor 44 shown in FIG. 1 in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention. The performance monitor 44 is provided with a processor 52 , which can be realized as a general-purpose computer. In some embodiments, the processor 52 may be a multiprocessor, in which case the derivation of the various performance parameters discussed hereinbelow can be performed in parallel. In still other embodiments, the processor 52 may be shared with the network element associated with the performance monitor 44 . The processor 52 is provided with conventional facilities as may be required for its operation, such as an execution memory 54 , and it is able to access its associated network element in order to obtain internal operating parameters. [0066] An I/O module 56 of the performance monitor 44 communicates with a data network 58 , which may be SONET elements of the optical network 10 (FIG. 1), or may be an alternate network. In the latter case, performance management information can be available to an operator, even when the optical network 10 has failed entirely. In such circumstance, the performance monitor 44 and the data network 58 may provide information that is important to the restoration of network integrity. [0067] A framer 60 is an independent processing element, which can be an integral part of the performance monitor 44 or can be located elsewhere in its associated network element. The framer 60 is programmed to inspect data frames of the digital stream. Upon detecting an event such as an alarm signal or other defect, the framer 60 generates an interrupt, which causes the processor 52 to store the detected event in an additional memory 62 . [0068] In some embodiments the processor 52 operates in a multitasking environment, and the framer 60 is realized by a concurrently executing process of the processor 52 . In such embodiments the framer 60 may announce the presence of a recordable event by raising a software exception rather than by generating a hardware interrupt. [0069] Information relating to each performance parameter is stored in one of a plurality of data storage memories 64 . The memories 64 can be defined in one or more random access memories as are well known in the art. Each of the memories 64 has an assigned administrative area 66 , in which is stored information associated with a particular performance parameter. This information includes an identifier of the performance parameter, identification of relevant counters, thresholds for the counters, and the collection method for each of the counters, e.g. accumulation of seconds, or a gauge value. As mentioned above, the first method is the most prevalent, while gauges are employed principally in the measurement of physical parameters of the photonic layer. Typically the identifiers for the counters are implemented as an array of pointers 68 that reference locations in the memory 62 , in which storage for the counters themselves is allocated. The array of pointers 68 also includes references to other counters and registers, which are required during evaluation of performance parameters, for example ES, and SES, and counters related to tracking intervals in which resources of the optical network 10 are unavailable (UAS). The last category includes a UAS entry and UAS exit counter. The thresholds pertaining to the performance parameter are stored in an array 70 . [0070] Each of the memories 64 has a storage area 72 reserved for four data arrays, which are preferably defined as bitmaps. It is possible to define other data structures in the storage area 72 , so long as they include a plurality of concatenated elements, each of which is can be independently marked or flagged during performance monitoring. Preferably, the data stricture can be evaluated by a logical operator in order to determine if any of the concatenated elements has been flagged. As used herein the term “flagging” means causing a memory state transition from a first binary state to a second binary state in one of the concatenated elements. It is an advantage of the present invention that binary logic relating to the presence or absence of SONET primitives can be employed in controls to improve the efficiency of performance monitoring, and that the evaluation of numerical counters is performed only if the flags of the storage area 72 are appropriately set or reset. [0071] An OR-defects bitmap 74 has a plurality of locations, each of which relates to an individual SONET defect that is a control that permits calculation of the performance parameter specified in the administrative area 66 . In some embodiments, SONET anomalies, which do not qualify as defects according to the above-noted Telcordia publication GR-253-CORE, can be included in the OR-defects bitmap 74 . The OR-defects bitmap 74 is actually a bitmap of defects, such that if at least one defect exists, then the relevant performance parameter should be counted. During a monitoring interval, as is explained in further detail hereinbelow, as soon as one element of the OR-defects bitmap 74 has been set, it is not necessary to check any further as to other elements. The performance parameter is simply marked, and other performance monitoring tasks can be accomplished. [0072] For example, when evaluating the performance parameter ES-S, the OR-defects bitmap 74 may be defined to include the defects LOS and SEF. Each STS frame includes a checksum field. The framer 60 monitors the checksum field, calculates the checksum of the current frame, and compares it with the checksum field. A code violation is registered if the two do not match. However, if during a performance monitoring interval, the defect LOS is active, then it is not necessary to the check the code violation counter (B 1 ) of the STS frame, which is commonly used to indicate section errors in line-side signals. The SEF defect is registered if four consecutive framing errors are detected. In such a case, there is also no point in calculating the checksum on the received frames. [0073] A NOT-defects bitmap 76 has a plurality of locations, each of which relates to an individual SONET anomaly or defect that is a control that prevents calculation of the performance parameter specified in the administrative area 66 . An OR-failures bitmap 78 has a plurality of locations, each of which relates to an individual SONET failure that is a control that permits calculation of the performance parameter specified in the administrative area 66 . The operation of the OR-failures bitmap 78 is the same as that of the OR-defects bitmap 74 , except that SONET failures, rather than SONET defects form its elements. A NOT-failures bitmap 80 has a plurality of locations, each of which relates to an individual SONET failure that is a control that prevents calculation of the performance parameter specified in the administrative area 66 . The bitmaps of the storage area 72 provide a highly compact representation of a large number of SONET performance primitives and permit the primitives to be efficiently related to performance parameters at all levels of the optical network 10 (FIG. 1). In addition, the bitmaps are amenable to highly efficient bitwise operations that are features of modern computer processors and are supported by programming languages such as C and C++. [0074] The bitmaps of the storage area 72 may have fixed lengths, or may be individually dimensioned as appropriate to different performance parameters. In some cases, bitmap locations may be assigned based on derived functions of one or more performance primitives, even at different SONET levels, in order to deal with the complex interrelationships of performance data that are occur in practical SONET operations. [0075] Operation [0076] The approach to performance monitoring for a performance parameter (PM) is outlined in Listing 1. [0077] Listing 1 Listing 1 DON'T-COUNT-DEFECTS (bitmap) - if one of these defects is active then don't calculate the PM. DON'T-COUNT-ALARMS (bitmap) - if one of these alarms is active then don't calculate the PM. COUNT-DEFECTS (bitmap) - if one of these defects is active then the PM should be incremented. COUNT-ALARMS (bitmap) - if one of these alarms is active then the PM should be incremented. Counter (optional) Evaluate Threshold for the counter. Counting method - Adding actual value or adding 1. [0078] Reference is now made to FIG. 4, which is a flow chart illustrating a method of performance monitoring in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention. The disclosure of FIG. 4 is described in conjunction with the operation of the apparatus of FIG. 3; however the method can also be performed in different apparatus. [0079] At initial step 82 the performance monitor 44 begins collection of performance data. In practice initial step 82 recurs periodically, typically once each second under control of a task scheduler (not shown), In some embodiments an asynchronous collection message initiating initial step 82 may also be received from an external authority. Counters are initialized, including a UAS counter. [0080] Next, at step 84 performance data is acquired via the I/O module 56 or directly from internal circuitry of the associated network element, and is stored by the processor 52 , using the memory 62 . During a one-second acquisition interval, the framer 60 inspects data frames, and under interrupt control, the processor 52 stores events of interest in the memory 62 . Following expiration of the current acquisition interval, control proceeds to step 86 , where values relating to performance parameters will be measured layer-by-layer. [0081] At step 86 a layer is chosen. In the case of layers other than the photonic layer, various performance primitives, including anomalies, defects, and failures are identified and accumulated in counters, as appropriate for the particular network element that is associated with the performance monitor 44 . When anomalies, defects, and failures are identified, appropriate counters in the memory 62 are incremented. In the case of the photonic layer, actual physical parameters may be stored, and counters indicating the violation of threshold values incremented. [0082] All relevant performance parameters are established at step 88 , which is explained in further detail hereinbelow with reference to FIG. 5. Control then passes to decision step 90 . [0083] At decision step 90 , a determination is made whether more layers remain to be processed. If the determination at decision step 90 is affirmative, then control returns to step 86 . [0084] If the determination at decision step 90 is negative, then in the following steps, a specific adjustment for each layer is made for unavailability during the foregoing acquisition interval. Control proceeds to step 92 , where a layer is selected. The process now continues at step 94 . [0085] In step 94 a negative adjustment is made for any unavailable seconds (UAS) that apply to the responsible performance monitor 44 (FIG. 1) that is associated with the layer that was selected in step 92 . For example, in the case of the line layer, the unavailable seconds (UAS-L) parameter is a count of the seconds during which the line was considered to be unavailable. According to the above-noted Telcordia publication GR-253-CORE, a line becomes unavailable at the onset of 10 consecutive seconds that qualify as severely errored seconds for the line (SES-Ls), and continues to be unavailable until the onset of 10 consecutive seconds that do not qualify as SES-Ls. Similar adjustments are made for the other layers of the SONET network. Step 94 is explained in further detail hereinbelow with reference to FIG. 6. Control then passes to decision step 96 . [0086] At decision step 96 a determination is made whether more layers remain to be adjusted. [0087] If the determination at decision step 96 is affirmative, then control returns to step 92 . [0088] If the determination at decision step 96 is negative, then at decision step 98 a test is made to determine if a 15-minute performance monitoring interval has expired. If the determination at decision step 98 is negative, then control returns to initial step 82 . The granularity of performance monitoring is controlled by the length of the acquisition interval in step 84 , as the update frequency of the performance parameters is only once each interval. Compliance with industry standards can be assured by controlling the length of the acquisition interval. For example, the above-noted Telcordia publication GR-253-CORE specifies measurement of errored seconds. [0089] If the determination at decision step 98 is affirmative, then control proceeds to step 100 . All totals for the current 15-minute performance monitoring interval are recorded in a database. All counters and bitmaps are reset. Control then returns to initial step 82 . [0090] Reference is now made to FIG. 5, which is a detailed flow chart illustrating the establishment of performance parameters for the current acquisition interval in step 88 (FIG. 4). The procedure disclosed in FIG. 5 is performed at network elements of each section of each layer of the network. While many the steps in FIG. 5 are shown sequentially for clarity of presentation, in the preferred embodiments data is acquired only once. Many of the steps shown in FIG. 5 may be accomplished concurrently in different network elements, and even in the same network element, using an appropriate multiprocessing implementation. At initial step 102 a performance parameter is selected, and relevant details and specifications for the parameter are identified from the particular one of the memories 64 with which it is associated. [0091] Next, at step 104 an item, e.g., a counter, relating to the current performance parameter is identified, and a location in the memory 62 relating to the item is accessed. Items of interest, including anomalies, defects, and failures are individually specified for each performance parameter. The values of counters relevant to the current performance parameter may also be obtained from the network element associated with the performance monitor 44 . [0092] At decision step 106 a determination is made whether the collection method associated with the item identified in step 104 is incrementation by a fixed value, e.g. 1. If the determination at decision step 106 is negative, then it is assumed that the method calls for the determination of a value, and control proceeds directly to decision step 108 , which is disclosed below. [0093] If the determination at decision step 106 is affirmative, then control proceeds to decision step 110 , where a determination is made whether the item has been detected during the previous acquisition interval. If the determination at decision step 110 is negative, then control proceeds to decision step 108 . [0094] If the determination at decision step 110 is affirmative, then control proceeds to step 112 , where the appropriate element of the four bitmaps in the storage area 72 (FIG. 1) is set. The bitmap element corresponding to the item that was detected in decision step 110 is preferably identified by a lookup table. Using a lookup table avoids the search penalty that would be incurred if the bitmaps were to be scanned to identify the correct bitmap element. [0095] Next, at decision step 108 a determination is made whether more items remain to be evaluated for the current performance parameter. If the determination at decision step 108 is affirmative, then control returns to step 104 . [0096] If the determination at decision step 108 is negative, then control proceeds to step 114 . Here the bitmaps, which were configured in step 112 , are evaluated. Step 114 is explained in further detail hereinbelow. [0097] Next, at decision step 116 a test is made to determine if more performance parameters remain to be evaluated. If the determination at decision step 116 is affirmative, then control returns to initial step 102 . [0098] If the determination at decision step 116 is negative, then control proceeds to final step 118 , and the procedure terminates. [0099] Reference is now made to FIG. 7, which is a detailed flow chart illustrating the evaluation of the bitmaps in step 114 (FIG. 5). A general outline of the procedure disclosed with reference to FIG. 7 is shown in Listing 2, In Listing 2, the term “DEFECTS” refers to a global bitmap representing all defects that were active during the read interval; the term “FAILS” refers to a global bitmap representing all failures that were active during the read interval; and the term “COUNTERS” refers to a data structure holding all counters readings for the read interval. Listing 2 If (any defect from NOT defects active on DEFECTS) then QUIT. If (any fail from NOT failures active on FAILS) then QUIT. If (any defect from OR defects active on DEFECTS) then Return 1 (add second) If (any fail from OR failures active on FAILS) then Return 1 (add second). Get the relevant counter value from COUNTERS and if the value is above threshold then If counting method is actual value, return (actual value) Else, return 1 (increment by 1 second) [0100] The process begins at initial step 120 , and control immediately proceeds to decision step 122 , where the NOT-defects bitmap 76 (FIG. 1) is tested. If at decision step 122 any element of the NOT-defects bitmap 76 is determined to have been set during the foregoing acquisition interval, a defect has been detected which prevents the calculation of the performance parameter for the foregoing acquisition interval. Control proceeds to step 124 . [0101] At step 124 , the current performance parameter is marked as being ineligible for evaluation during the foregoing acquisition interval. Control then proceeds directly to final step 126 . [0102] If it is determined at decision step 122 that no elements of the NOT-defects bitmap 76 are set, then control proceeds to decision step 128 where the NOT-failures bitmap 80 (FIG. 1) is tested. [0103] If at decision step 128 any element of the NOT-failures bitmap 80 is determined to have been set during the foregoing acquisition interval, then a failure has been detected which prevents the calculation of the current performance parameter for the foregoing acquisition interval. Control proceeds to step 124 . [0104] If it is determined at decision step 128 that no elements of the NOT-failures bitmap 80 are set, then control proceeds to decision step 130 , where the OR-defects bitmap 74 (FIG. 1 is tested. [0105] If at decision step 130 any element of the OR-defects bitmap 74 is determined to have been set during the foregoing acquisition interval, then a defect has been detected that requires adjustment of the current performance parameter. Control proceeds to step 132 , where the current performance parameter is adjusted by a predetermined value, typically one second. Control then proceeds to final step 126 . [0106] If it is determined at decision step 130 that no elements of the OR-defects bitmap 74 are set, then control proceeds to decision step 134 , where the OR-failures bitmap 78 (FIG. 1) is tested. [0107] If at decision step 134 any element of the OR-failures bitmap 78 is determined to have been set during the foregoing acquisition interval, then a failure has been detected, which requires adjustment of the current performance parameter by a predetermined value. Control proceeds to step 132 . [0108] If it is determined at decision step 134 that no elements of the OR-failures bitmap 78 are set, then control proceeds to step 136 , where counters associated with the current performance parameter are evaluated. Step 136 is explained in further detail hereinbelow. After performance of step 136 the process terminates at final step 126 . [0109] In some embodiments the bitmaps discussed above with reference to FIG. 7 can be evaluated in parallel. [0110] Reference is now made to FIG. 8, which is a detailed flow chart illustrating the evaluation of the counters in step 136 (FIG. 7). [0111] The process begins at initial step 138 . The value of the counter associated with the current performance parameter is recalled. The counter is referenced by an element of the array of pointers 68 (FIG. 1) of the particular one of the memories 64 that is associated with the current performance parameter. [0112] Control then proceeds to decision step 140 , where a test is made to determine whether the value of the counter that was recalled in initial step 138 exceeds the threshold that is stored in the array 70 (FIG. 1). If the determination at decision step 140 is negative, then no positive adjustment of the counter is made. Control proceeds to final step 142 . [0113] If the determination at decision step 140 is affirmative, then control proceeds to decision step 144 , where it is determined whether the performance parameter is to be adjusted by adding the value of the counter recalled in initial step 138 . It will be recalled that for each performance parameter it is specified whether to increment the parameter by the actual value returned, or to increment the parameter by 1. [0114] If the determination at decision step 144 is affirmative, then control proceeds to step 146 , where the current performance parameter is positively adjusted by the value of the counter. Control then proceeds to final step 142 . [0115] If the determination at decision step 144 is negative, then control proceeds to step 148 , where the current performance parameter is positively adjusted by the value 1. Control proceeds to final step 142 . [0116] Reference is now made to FIG. 6, which is a detailed flow chart illustrating adjustment of the current performance parameter for unavailable seconds (UAS) in step 94 (FIG. 4). An outline of the procedure that is disclosed with reference to FIG. 6 is shown in Listing 3. [0117] A UAS condition is declared when SES conditions have been in effect for more than 10 consecutive seconds. At the time of this declaration, a UAS counter is initialized to a value of 10, and then counts continually, so long as UAS condition apply. A corresponding downward adjustment of the SES and ES counters is also made. The UAS condition is declared to be terminated after 10 consecutive seconds have elapsed with no SES conditions active. At that time the UAS counter is adjusted downward by 10, and corresponding forward adjustments are made for the ES and SES counters. To assist in these determinations, a UAS entry counter and a UAS exit counter respectively count consecutive frames, in which SES defects are active and not active. Listing 3 Update UAS ( ) { if UAS condition applies (more then 10 sec of SES) { if SES condition apply // state 1 : inside UAS, received SES 1. Ignore previous ES and SES values (zero) 2. Increment UAS value by 1. else // state 2 : inside UAS, didn't receive SES 1. Advance UAS exit counter. 2. If UAS exit conditions apply (more then 10 sec without SES) Do UAS exit PM adjustments: 2.1 subtract 9 from UAS value. 2.2 Update ES with counted ES events } else { if SES condition apply // state 3 : not in UAS, received SES 1. Advance UAS enter counter 2. If UAS enter conditions apply (more then 10 sec with SES) Do UAS enter PM adjustments: 2.1 sub 9 from ES & SES value. 2.2 Add 10 to UAS. else // state 4 : not in UAS, didn't receive SES Do nothing } } [0118] The procedure begins at initial step 150 . Control immediately passes to decision step 152 , where it is determined if UAS conditions are in effect. If the determination at decision step 152 is negative, then control proceeds to decision step 154 , which is disclosed below. [0119] If the determination at decision step 152 is affirmative, it is necessary to evaluate one of two possibilities, depending on whether an SES condition occurred during the foregoing acquisition interval. Control proceeds to decision step 156 , where a test is made to determine whether SES have been reported during the foregoing acquisition interval. If the determination at decision step 156 is negative, then control proceeds to step 158 , which is disclosed below. [0120] If the determination at decision step 156 is affirmative, then control proceeds to step 160 . Any prior ES and SES information is caused to be ignored. Typically this is done by resetting the ES and SES counters that are referenced in the array of pointers 68 (FIG. 1). A UAS counter is incremented by one. Control then is transferred to step 162 , which is explained below. It will be recalled that the UAS counter was initialized at the beginning of the current read interval. [0121] Step 158 is performed if the decision at decision step 156 indicated that SES conditions do not currently apply. A UAS exit counter is referenced and advanced, using the array of pointers 68 (FIG. 1). Control then proceeds to decision step 164 . [0122] At decision step 164 a test is made to determine if UAS exit conditions apply. This test produces an affirmative result if more than 10 consecutive seconds have elapsed without any SES being reported. If the determination at decision step 164 is negative, then control proceeds to step 162 . [0123] If the determination at decision step 164 is affirmative, then control proceeds to step 166 , where UAS conditions are declared to be terminated. UAS exit adjustments are made. The UAS counter is decremented by nine, and the ES counter is updated according to ES events that were reported during the foregoing acquisition interval. Control then proceeds to step 162 . [0124] Decision step 154 is performed if the determination at decision step 152 was negative, indicating that UAS conditions are not in effect. The test, which is the same as that performed in decision step 156 , is performed in order to determine whether SES have been reported during the foregoing acquisition interval. If the determination at decision step 154 is negative, then no further action is taken, and control proceeds to step 162 . [0125] If the determination at decision step 154 is affirmative, then control proceeds to step 168 , where a UAS entry counter is advanced. Control then proceeds to decision step 170 . [0126] At decision step 170 a determination is made whether UAS entry conditions apply. This test succeeds if SES conditions have been in effect for at least 10 consecutive seconds. A UAS entry counter is tested to determine if its value is at least 10. If the determination at decision step 170 is negative, then Control proceeds to step 162 . [0127] If the determination at decision step 170 is affirmative, then control proceeds to step 172 , where a UAS condition is declared to be in effect. Adjustments to the performance parameter counters are made The ES and SES counters are each decremented by nine. The UAS counter is incremented by 10. These counters are typically referenced using the array of pointers 68 (FIG. 1). Control proceeds to step 162 . [0128] At step 162 a performance parameter is chosen among the performance parameters that qualify for adjustment for the current network layer, which was chosen in step 92 (FIG. 4). [0129] Next, at step 174 the performance parameter that was chosen in step 162 is adjusted according to the current value of the UAS counter. The details for adjusting particular SONET performance parameters are given in the above-noted Telcordia publication GR-253-CORE. In many cases they are treated in the same manner as the SES and ES parameters, as disclosed above. [0130] At decision step 176 a determination is made whether more performance parameters need to be adjusted. If the determination at decision step 176 is affirmative, then control returns to step 162 . [0131] If the determination at decision step 176 is negative, then control proceeds to final step 178 . The process then terminates. EXAMPLE [0132] The following example illustrates performance monitoring of using the far-end line layer performance parameter ES-LFE. The ES-LFE parameter is a count of seconds, during which, at any point during a second, at least one line BIP error was reported by the far-end line terminating equipment, using the REI-L indication, or presence of an RDI-L defect. This example is explained with reference to FIG. 1 and FIG. 3. One of the memories 64 is assigned to the performance parameter ES-LFE, and its bitmaps are configured as follows. [0133] An element of the OR-defects bitmap 74 is associated with the defect RDI-L. [0134] Elements of the NOT-defects bitmap 76 are associated with the defects LOS, LOF, and AIS-L. [0135] No failures are associated with the OR-failures bitmap 78 . [0136] No failures are associated with the NOT-failures bitmap 80 . [0137] The related counter is linked to the line BIP errors using an element of the array of pointers 68 . These errors are detected in the B2 byte of the STS-N SPE. [0138] The counter threshold in the array 70 is assigned the value 9835, which is appropriate for OC-192 rates. [0139] Monitoring is then conducted in accordance with the procedure disclosed above with reference to FIG. 4. [0140] It will be appreciated by persons skilled in the art that the present invention is not limited to what has been particularly shown and described hereinabove. Rather, the scope of the present invention includes both combinations and sub-combinations of the various features described hereinabove, as well as variations and modifications thereof that are not in the prior art which would occur to persons skilled in the art upon reading the foregoing description.

A performance monitoring system for a digital network is installed in network elements having performance monitoring responsibilities. Apparatus is provided for network elements, in which a bitmap representation of performance primitives detected during an acquisition interval is used as a control in the tracking and updating of network performance parameters. Immediate access to states that enable and inhibit the evaluation of individual performance parameters is available.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to a technical field of radio communications. More specifically, the present invention relates to a transmission apparatus and a communication method used for a communication system in which multicarrier transmission is performed. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] In this technical field, it is becoming more and more important to realize wideband radio access for efficiently performing high speed and large capacity communications. As for downlink channels, a multicarrier scheme, more specifically an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) scheme, is considered promising from the viewpoint of performing high speed and large capacity communications while effectively suppressing multipath fading. [0005] As shown in FIG. 1 , a frequency bandwidth used in the system is divided into multiple resource blocks (divided into three resource blocks in FIG. 1 ), and each of the resource blocks includes one or more subcarriers. The resource block is also referred to as a frequency chunk or a frequency block. One or more resource blocks are allocated to a mobile station. The technology for dividing a frequency band into multiple resource blocks is described in P. Chow, J. Cioffi, J. Bingham, “A Practical Discrete Multitone Transceiver Loading Algorithm for Data Transmission over Spectrally Shaped Channel”, IEEE Trans. Commun. vol. 43, No. 2/3/4, February/March/April 1995, for example. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Problem(s) to be solved by the Invention [0006] When a frequency bandwidth is divided into multiple resource blocks, multiple control channels (control signals) for multiple scheduled users can be multiplexed into a single subframe. FIGS. 2A-2C show examples of multiplexing control channels for multiple users into a single subframe. FIG. 2A shows an example of multiplexing control channels for three users (UE 1 , UE 2 , and UE 3 ) into a single OFDM symbol within the subframe. User data are placed (mapped) on shared data channels multiplexed into the subframe. FIG. 2B shows an example of multiplexing control channels for three users into two OFDM symbols within the subframe. FIG. 2C shows an example of multiplexing control channels for three users into the single subframe. To focus attention on control channels, shared data channels are not illustrated in FIGS. 2B and 2C . As shown in FIGS. 2A-2C , the present invention discusses the case where control channels for multiple users are placed within the subframe and these control channels are multiplexed into one or more OFDM symbols at the same timing. [0007] Since the control channel includes information necessary for modulating the shared data channel, it is desired to improve reception quality on the control channel. However, when transmission power control or transmission beamforming is used, there is a problem in that control channels transmitted from neighboring base stations may cause interference and degrade reception quality on the control channel. Particularly, a mobile station situated at a cell edge may seriously have this problem. [0008] In view of the aforementioned problem, it is a general object of the invention to improve reception quality on the control channel. Means for solving the Problem [0009] In one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a transmission apparatus which multiplexes control channels for multiple reception apparatuses into an OFDM symbol at the same timing in OFDM downlink radio access, including: [0010] a pattern generating unit configured to generate a frequency mapping pattern which is specific to the transmission apparatus; and [0011] a frequency allocating unit configured to allocate subcarriers to the control channels for the multiple reception apparatuses according to the frequency mapping pattern. [0012] In another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a communication method in which a transmission apparatus multiplexes control channels for multiple reception apparatuses into an OFDM symbol at the same timing in OFDM downlink radio access, including the steps of: [0013] generating a frequency mapping pattern which is specific to the transmission apparatus; [0014] allocating the control channels for the multiple reception apparatuses to subcarriers according to the frequency mapping pattern; and controlling transmission power for the subcarriers. Effect of the Invention [0015] According to an embodiment of the present invention, reception quality on the control channel can be improved. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0016] FIG. 1 shows an example of dividing a frequency bandwidth into multiple resource blocks. [0017] FIG. 2A shows a first example of multiplexing control channels for multiple users into a subframe. [0018] FIG. 2B shows a second example of multiplexing control channels for multiple users into a subframe. [0019] FIG. 2C shows a third example of multiplexing control channels for multiple users into a subframe. [0020] FIG. 3 shows interference in the case where base stations perform transmission power control. [0021] FIG. 4A shows a first example of FDM-based transmission power control. [0022] FIG. 4B shows a second example of FDM-based transmission power control. [0023] FIG. 4C shows a third example of FDM-based transmission power control. [0024] FIG. 5 shows an example of CDM-based transmission power control. [0025] FIG. 6 shows a combination of FDM-based transmission power control and CDM-based transmission power control. [0026] FIG. 7 shows interference in the case where base stations perform transmission beamforming. [0027] FIG. 8 shows a block diagram of a base station in accordance with a first or second embodiment. [0028] FIG. 9 shows a flowchart of power control in the base station in accordance with the first or second embodiment. [0029] FIG. 10 shows a block diagram of a mobile station in accordance with a first or second embodiment. [0030] FIG. 11 shows an approach for achieving orthogonalization of control channels among sectors in the frequency domain. [0031] FIG. 12 shows an approach for achieving orthogonalization of control channels among sectors in the code domain. [0032] FIG. 13 shows an approach for using inter-sector FDM-based transmission power control and using CDM-based transmission power control within each sector. [0033] FIG. 14 shows an approach for using inter-sector FDM-based transmission power control and using FDM-based transmission power control within each sector. [0034] FIG. 15 shows an approach for using inter-sector CDM-based transmission power control and using CDM-based transmission power control within each sector. [0035] FIG. 16 shows an approach for using inter-sector CDM-based transmission power control and using FDM-based transmission power control within each sector. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Description of Notations [0036] eNB 1 , eNB 2 base station [0037] UE 1 , UE 2 , UE 3 , UE 4 mobile station [0038] 10 base station [0039] 101 - 1 , 101 - 2 pattern generating unit/code multiplying unit [0040] 103 - 1 , 103 - 2 frequency allocating unit [0041] 105 - 1 , 105 - 2 power control unit [0042] 107 IFFT unit [0043] 109 CP adding unit [0044] 111 weight multiplying unit [0045] 113 transmission unit [0046] 20 mobile station [0047] 201 reception unit [0048] 203 CP removing unit [0049] 205 FFT unit [0050] 207 demultiplexing unit [0051] 209 pattern/code storing unit BEST MODE OF CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION [0052] With reference to the accompanying drawings, a description is given below with regard to preferred embodiments of the present invention. First Embodiment [0053] In a first embodiment, a base station performs transmission power control of signals transmitted to mobile stations, when control channels are arranged as shown in FIGS. 2A-2C . The transmission power control refers to changing transmission power of signals transmitted to mobile stations in order to improve reception quality at each mobile station. [0054] FIG. 3 shows transmission power on the frequency axis in the case where base stations perform transmission power control. The base stations are shown as eNB 1 and eNB 2 and mobile stations are shown as UE 1 -UE 4 . When the base station eNB 1 performs transmission power control of signals transmitted to the mobile stations UE 1 and UE 2 which are situated within a cell 1 covered by the base station eNB 1 , the base station eNB 1 decreases transmission power of signals transmitted to the mobile station UE 1 which is situated close to the base station eNB 1 . In addition, the base station eNB 1 increases transmission power of signals transmitted to the mobile station UE 2 which is situated far from the base station eNB 1 . Similarly, when the base station eNB 2 performs transmission power control, the base station eNB 2 decreases transmission power of signals transmitted to the mobile station UE 4 which is situated close to the base station eNB 2 . In addition, the base station eNB 2 increases transmission power of signals transmitted to the mobile station UE 3 which is situated far from the base station eNB 2 . As shown in FIG. 3 , when subcarriers corresponding to a control channel transmitted from the base station eNB 1 to the mobile station UE 2 coincides with subcarriers corresponding to a control channel transmitted from the base station eNB 2 to the mobile station UE 3 , the control channel for the mobile station UE 2 interferes with the control channel for the mobile station UE 3 , and vice versa. Accordingly, the SIR (signal-to-interference ratio) cannot be improved, even though the base stations eNB 1 and eNB 2 increase transmission power. [0055] In the first embodiment, each base station uses a frequency mapping pattern which is specific to the base station (cell), in order to solve this problem. This approach is referred to as FDM-based transmission power control. The base station uses the frequency mapping pattern determined in advance for each cell. [0056] Specifically, each base station uses the frequency mapping pattern which is different from that of other base stations so as to randomize positions (subcarriers) where control channels for the respective mobile stations are placed (mapped), as shown in FIG. 4A . For example, the base station eNB 1 covering the cell 1 allocates third, fourth, sixth, seventh, tenth, thirteenth, and fourteenth subcarriers to the mobile station UE 1 . Then, the base station eNB 1 allocates the other subcarriers to the mobile station UE 2 . On the other hand, the base station eNB 2 covering the cell 2 allocates first, third, fourth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth subcarriers to the mobile station UE 3 . Then, the base station eNB 2 allocates the other subcarriers to the mobile station UE 4 . This allocation can make portions with a low interference level and portions with a high interference level and reduce interference among subcarriers. [0057] According to the FDM-based transmission power control shown in FIG. 4A , transmission power of signals transmitted to a mobile station is at the same level among subcarriers allocated to the mobile station. For example, transmission power of the signals transmitted to the mobile station UE 1 is determined based on average reception quality (for example, SINR (signal-to-interference plus noise ratio)) on the system bandwidth for the mobile station UE 1 . Alternatively, transmission power may be determined for each subcarrier based on reception quality on each subcarrier, as shown in FIG. 4B . Controlling transmission power for each subcarrier can further reduce interference observed by the mobile station. Alternatively, the base station may group subcarriers into subcarrier groups based on reception quality on each subcarrier and determine transmission power for each subcarrier group based on average reception quality on each subcarrier group, as shown in FIG. 4C . Alternatively, the base station may group subcarriers into subcarrier groups within close ranges in the frequency domain and determine transmission power for each subcarrier group. In addition, the base station may combine the approach for grouping subcarriers into subcarrier groups based on reception quality with the approach for grouping subcarriers into subcarrier groups within close ranges in the frequency domain. In this manner, the subcarrier groups may be arranged in multiple levels. [0058] Alternatively, the base station may multiply control channels for the respective mobile stations with orthogonal codes to achive orthogonalization among the mobile stations, instead of using the frequency mapping pattern which is specific to the base station. This approach is referred to as CDM-based transmission power control. [0059] Specifically, the base station multiplies control channels for the respective mobile stations with orthogonal codes (Walsh codes, Phase shift codes, and the like) to achieve orthogonalization among mobile stations in the code domain, as shown in FIG. 5 . According to this approach, transmission power of signals transmitted to each mobile station is at the same level among subcarriers. Therefore, this approach can reduce variations in transmission power (interference) among subcarriers. [0060] As shown in FIG. 6 , FDM-based transmission power control and CDM-based transmission power control may be combined. It should be noted that FIGS. 3-5 show multiplexed control channels for two mobile stations and FIG. 6 shows multiplexed control channels for four mobile stations. [0061] CDM-based transmission power control has an advantage over FDM-based transmission power control to randomize interference. When control channels to be multiplexed increase in number, however, CDM-based transmission power needs a large spreading factor, and may not maintain orthogonality in the frequency selective fading environment. In other words, CDM-based transmission power has a disadvantage of being vulnerable to interference within the cell. On the other hand, FDM-based transmission power control is tolerant of interference within the cell, because signals among mobile stations do not interfere with each other in the frequency domain. When CDM-based transmission power control and FDM-based transmission power control are combined, interference can be reduced with a small spreading factor. Second Embodiment [0062] In a second embodiment, a base station performs transmission beamforming of signals transmitted to mobile stations, when control channels are arranged as shown in FIGS. 2A-2C . The transmission beamforming refers to changing antenna directivity in order to improve reception quality at each mobile station. [0063] FIG. 7 shows reception power for control channels for respective mobile stations observed by a mobile station UE 2 on the frequency axis in the case where base stations perform transmission beamforming. The base stations are shown as eNB 1 and eNB 2 and the mobile stations are shown as UE 1 -UE 4 . When the base station eNB 1 performs transmission beamforming of signals transmitted to the mobile stations UE 1 and UE 2 which are situated within a cell 1 covered by the base station eNB 1 , the base station eNB 1 changes antenna directivity so as to improve reception quality at the mobile station UE 2 which is situated far from the base station eNB 1 . Similarly, when the base station eNB 2 performs transmission beamforming, the base station eNB 2 changes antenna directivity so as to improve reception quality at the mobile station UE 3 which is situated far from the base station eNB 2 . As shown in FIG. 7 , when subcarriers corresponding to a control channel transmitted from the base station eNB 1 to the mobile station UE 2 coincides with subcarriers corresponding to a control channel transmitted from the base station eNB 2 to the mobile station UE 3 , the control channel for the mobile station UE 2 interferes with the control channel for the mobile station UE 3 , and vice versa. Accordingly, the effect of transmission beamforming may be reduced. [0064] In the second embodiment, similar to the first embodiment, each base station uses a frequency mapping pattern which is specific to the base station (cell), in order to solve this problem. This approach is referred to as FDM-based transmission beamforming. The use of the frequency mapping pattern which is specific to the base station can make portions with a low interference level and portions with a high interference level and reduce interference among subcarriers, as is the case with FIG. 4A . Alternatively, the base station may multiply control channels for the respective mobile stations with orthogonal codes. This approach is referred to as CDM-based transmission beamforming. This approach can reduce variations in interference among subcarriers, as is the case with FIG. 5 . In addition, FDM-based transmission beamforming and CDM-based transmission beamforming may be combined. Structures of Base Station and Mobile Station in accordance with First or Second Embodiment [0065] With reference to FIGS. 8 and 9 , a structure and an operation of a base station 10 are described below. The base station 10 includes pattern generating units/code multiplying units 101 - 1 and 101 - 2 , frequency allocating units 103 - 1 and 103 - 2 , power control units 105 - 1 and 105 - 2 , an IFFT (Inverse Fast Fourier Transform) unit 107 , a CP (Cyclic Prefix) adding unit 109 , a weight multiplying unit 111 , and a transmission unit 113 . Although FIG. 8 shows the base station 10 including the two pattern generating units/code multiplying units 101 - 1 and 101 - 2 , the two frequency allocating units 103 - 1 and 103 - 2 , and the two power control units 105 - 1 and 105 - 2 for two mobile stations, the base station 10 may include N pattern generating units/code multiplying units 101 , N frequency allocating units 103 , and N power control units 105 for N mobile stations. Alternatively, the base station 10 may use a single pattern generating unit/code multiplying unit 101 and multiple frequency allocating units 103 for multiple mobile stations. [0066] In the case of FDM-based transmission power control or FDM-based transmission beamforming, the pattern generating unit 101 generates a frequency mapping pattern which is specific to the base station (cell) (S 101 ). Alternatively or in addition, in the case of CDM-based transmission power control or CDM-based transmission beamforming, the pattern generating unit/code multiplying unit 101 multiplies control channels for mobile stations with orthogonal codes to achieve orthogoonalization among the mobile stations (S 103 ). In the case of FDM-based transmission power control or FDM-based transmission beamforming, the frequency allocating unit 103 allocates subcarriers according to the frequency mapping pattern (S 105 ). In the case of CDM-based transmission power control or CDM-based transmission beamforming, the frequency allocating unit 103 may allocate subcarriers (frequencies) sequentially starting from the first mobile station 1 , since the orthogonal codes are multiplied to achieve orthogonalization among the mobile stations (S 107 ). The power control unit 105 controls transmission power based on reception quality at mobile stations (S 109 ). Control channels for the respective mobile stations are multiplexed and transformed into orthogonal multicarrier signals by the IFFT unit 107 . The CP adding unit 109 inserts CPs into the orthogonal muticarrier signals. The weight multiplying unit 111 multiplies the signals with a weight to change antenna directivity based on the positional relationship between the base station and the mobile stations (S 111 ). The transmission unit 113 transmits the signal to the mobile stations. [0067] FIGS. 8 and 9 show the base station 10 implementing both the first embodiment and the second embodiment. When the base station implements only the first embodiment, the base station 10 may not include the weight multiplying unit 111 . When the base station implements only the second embodiment, the base may not include the power control unit 105 . [0068] In addition, the base station may notify the mobile stations of the frequency mapping pattern or the orthogonal codes generated by the pattern generating unit/code multiplying unit 101 on a broadcast channel. [0069] FIG. 10 shows a structure of a mobile station 20 which receives a control channel for the mobile station 20 using the frequency mapping pattern or the orthogonal codes received on the broadcast channel. The mobile station 20 includes a reception unit 201 , a CP removing unit 203 , an FFT unit 205 , a demultiplexing unit 207 , and a pattern/code storing unit 209 . The CP removing unit 203 removes CPs from signals received by the reception unit 201 , and then the FFT unit 205 transforms the signals into the frequency domain. The pattern/code storing unit 209 stores the frequency pattern or the orthogonal codes received on the broadcast channel. The demultiplexing unit 207 retrieves the control channel for the mobile station 20 using the frequency mapping pattern or the orthogonal codes. Third Embodiment [0070] In a third embodiment, a base station orthogonalizes control channels among sectors, when the base station covers multiple sectors. [0071] FIG. 11 shows a diagram in which control channels are orthogonalized among sectors in the frequency domain. This approach is referred tows inter-sector FDM-based transmission control. Allocating different subcarriers to control channels in the sectors can orthogonalize the control channels among the sectors. Specifically, when the frequency allocating unit ( 103 in FIG. 8 ) for a sector 1 allocates subcarriers to control channels, the frequency allocating unit ( 103 in FIG. 8 ) for a sector 2 does not allocate the same subcarriers to control channels. For example, the base station 10 may include a control unit for controlling the frequency allocating units in this manner among sectors. The control unit controls not to transmit control channels for the sector 2 on the subcarriers to which the control channels for the sector 1 are allocated. [0072] FIG. 12 shows a diagram in which control channels are orthogonalized among sectors in the code domain. This approach is referred to as inter-sector CDM-based transmission control. Using different orthogonal codes for control channels in the sectors can orthogonalize the control channels among the sectors. Specifically, when the code multiplying unit ( 101 in FIG. 8 ) for a sector 1 uses orthogonal codes, the code multiplying unit ( 101 in FIG. 8 ) for a sector 2 does not use the same orthogonal codes to control channels. For example, the base station 10 may include a control unit for controlling the code multiplying units in this manner among sectors. The control unit controls to orthogonalize between the control channels for the sector 1 and the control channels for the sector 2 in the code domain. [0073] When transmission timings for control channels are synchronized among base stations, control channels can be orthogonalized among base stations, as is the case with FIGS. 11 and 12 which show control channels orthogonalized among sectors. GPS (Global Positioning System) may be used to synchronize control channels among base stations. [0074] FIGS. 13-16 show diagrams in which control channels for respective mobile stations are orthogonalized using the combination of the aforementioned approaches. FIG. 13 corresponds to the combination of inter-sector FDM-based transmission control among sectors and CDM-based transmission power control within each sector. FIG. 14 corresponds to the combination of inter-sector FDM-based transmission control among sectors and FDM-based transmission power control within each sector. FIG. 15 corresponds to the combination of inter-sector CDM-based transmission control among sectors and CDM-based transmission power control within each sector. FIG. 16 corresponds to the combination of inter-sector CDM-based transmission control among sectors and FDM-based transmission power control within each sector. [0075] According to an embodiment of the present invention, interference among control channels can be reduced and reception quality on the control channel can be improved. [0076] This international patent application is based on Japanese Priority Application No. 2006-169443 filed on Jun. 19, 2006, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

A transmission apparatus which multiplexes control channels for multiple reception apparatuses into an OFDM symbol at the same timing in OFDM downlink radio access includes a pattern generating unit configured to generate a frequency mapping pattern which is specific to the transmission apparatus; and a frequency allocating unit configured to allocate subcarriers to the control channels for the multiple reception apparatuses according to the frequency mapping pattern.

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/484,526, filed on Jun. 7, 1995, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,537,997, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference, which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 08/378,467, filed on Jan. 26, 1995 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,540,219. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to methodology and apparatus for treatment of sleep apnea and, more particularly, to mono-level, bi-level and variable positive airway pressure apparatus. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The sleep apnea syndrome afflicts an estimated 1% to 5% of the general population and is due to episodic upper airway obstruction during sleep. Those afflicted with sleep apnea experience sleep fragmentation and intermittent, complete or nearly complete cessation of ventilation during sleep with potentially severe degrees of oxyhemoglobin desaturation. These features may be translated clinically into extreme daytime sleepiness, cardiac arrhythmias, pulmonary-artery hypertension, congestive heart failure and/or cognitive dysfunction. Other sequelae of sleep apnea include right ventricular dysfunction with cor pulmonale, carbon dioxide retention during wakefulness as well as during sleep, and continuous reduced arterial oxygen tension. Hypersomnolent sleep apnea patients may be at risk for excessive mortality from these factors as well as by an elevated risk for accidents while driving and/or operating potentially dangerous equipment. Although details of the pathogenesis of upper airway obstruction in sleep apnea patients have not been fully defined, it is generally accepted that the mechanism includes either anatomic or functional abnormalities of the upper airway which result in increased air flow resistance. Such abnormalities may include narrowing of the upper airway due to suction forces evolved during inspiration, the effect of gravity pulling the tongue back to appose the pharyngeal wall, and/or insufficient muscle tone in the upper airway dilator muscles. It has also been hypothesized that a mechanism responsible for the known association between obesity and sleep apnea is excessive soft tissue in the anterior and lateral neck which applies sufficient pressure on internal structures to narrow the airway. The treatment of sleep apnea has included such surgical interventions as uvulopalatopharyngoplasty, gastric surgery for obesity, and maxillo-facial reconstruction. Another mode of surgical intervention used in the treatment of sleep apnea is tracheostomy. These treatments constitute major undertakings with considerable risk of postoperative morbidity if not mortality. Pharmacologic therapy has in general been disappointing, especially in patients with more than mild sleep apnea. In addition, side effects from the pharmacologic agents that have been used are frequent. Thus, medical practitioners continue to seek non-invasive modes of treatment for sleep apnea with high success rates and high patient compliance including, for example in cases relating to obesity, weight loss through a regimen of exercise and regulated diet. Recent work in the treatment of sleep apnea has included the use of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) to maintain the airway of the patient in a continuously open state during sleep. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,655,213 discloses sleep apnea treatments based on continuous positive airway pressure applied within the airway of the patient. An early mono-level CPAP apparatus is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,117,819 wherein the pressure is measured at the outlet of the blower so as to detect pressure changes caused by the patient's breathing. The arrangement is such that the control motor is regulated by the microprocessor to maintain the pressure at constant level regardless of whether the patient is inhaling or exhaling. Also of interest is U.S. Pat. No. 4,773,411 which discloses a method and apparatus for ventilatory treatment characterized as airway pressure release ventilation and which provides a substantially constant elevated airway pressure with periodic short term reductions of the elevated airway pressure to a pressure magnitude no less than ambient atmospheric pressure. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,245,995 5,199,424, and 5,335,654, and published PCT Application No. WO 88/10108 describes a CPAP apparatus which includes a feedback/diagnostic system for controlling the output pressure of a variable pressure air source whereby output pressure from the air source is increased in response to detection of sound indicative of snoring. The apparatus disclosed in these documents further include means for reducing the CPAP level to a minimum level to maintain unobstructed breathing in the absence of breathing patterns indicative of obstructed breathing, e.g., snoring. Bi-level positive airway therapy for treatment of sleep apnea and related disorders is taught in U.S. Pat. No. 5,148,802. In bi-level therapy, pressure is applied alternately at relatively higher and lower prescription pressure levels within the airway of the patient so that the pressure-induced patent force applied to the patients airway is alternately a larger and a smaller magnitude force. The higher and lower magnitude positive prescription pressure levels, which will be hereinafter referred to by the acronyms IPAP (inspiratory positive airway pressure) and EPAP (expiratory positive airway pressure), may be initiated by spontaneous patient respiration, apparatus preprogramming, or both, with the higher magnitude pressure (IPAP) being applied during inspiration and the lower magnitude pressure (EPAP) being applied during expiration. This method of treatment may descriptively be referred to as bi-level therapy. In bi-level therapy, it is EPAP which has the greater impact upon patient comfort. Hence, the treating physician must be cognizant of maintaining EPAP as low as is reasonably possible to maintain sufficient pharyngeal patency during expiration, while optimizing user tolerance and efficiency of the therapy. Both inspiratory and expiratory air flow resistances in the airway are elevated during sleep preceding the onset of apnea, although the airway flow resistance may be less during expiration than during inspiration. Thus it follows that the bi-level therapy as characterized above should be sufficient to maintain pharyngeal patency during expiration even though the pressure applied during expiration is generally not as high as that needed to maintain pharyngeal patency during inspiration. In addition, some patients may have increased upper airway resistance primarily during inspiration with resulting adverse physiologic consequences. Thus, depending upon a particular patient's breathing requirements, elevated pressure may be applied only during inhalation thus eliminating the need for global (inhalation and exhalation) increases in airway pressure. The relatively lower pressure applied during expiration may in some cases approach or equal ambient pressure. The lower pressure applied in the airway during expiration enhances patient tolerance by alleviating some of the uncomfortable sensations normally associated with mono-level CPAP. Although mono-level, bi-level and variable positive airway pressure therapy has been found to be very effective and generally well accepted, they suffer from some of the same limitations, although to a lesser degree, as do the surgery options; specifically, a significant proportion of sleep apnea patients do not tolerate positive airway pressure well. Thus, development of other viable non-invasive therapies and better versions of existing therapies has been a continuing objective in the art. In this regard, even the more sophisticated CPAP apparatus heretofore known in the art, including those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,245,995 5,199,424, and 5,335,654, and published PCT Application No. WO 88/10108, suffer from certain operational disadvantages which stem from the structural relationships of their essential components. More particularly, the CPAP apparatus disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,245,995 5,199,424, and 5,335,654, and published PCT Application No. WO 88/10108 provide feedback/diagnostic systems including at least one sensor (typically an audio transducer such as a microphone) in communication with the patient's respiratory system. This sensor is located on or is connected to means (such as a breathing mask or nasal prongs) in sealed air communication with a patient's respiratory system. The sensor continuously senses the patient's breathing patterns and transmits signals indicative of those patterns to information processing means which control the motor speed of a blower. The breathing pattern signals can also be continuously monitored and/or recorded, thereby imparting to the apparatus a diagnostic as well as therapeutic capability. The blower delivers pressurized air to the patient through a length of conduit and the breathing mask or nasal prongs. When the sensor detects breathing patterns indicative of obstructed breathing, e.g., snoring, it transmit signals corresponding to this condition to the information processing means which causes an increase in blower motor speed and, therefore, blower pressure output, until unobstructed breathing is eliminated. The system also includes logic whereby blower motor speed (and blower pressure output) is gradually decreased if unobstructed breathing patterns are detected over a preselected period of time. The purpose of this feature is to provide the patient with a pressure minimally sufficient to maintain airway patency during unobstructed breathing, thereby enhancing patient comfort and therapy compliance. Despite the general effectiveness of these apparatus, however, the structural relationship of their feedback/diagnostic system with respect to the patient's breathing circuit (i.e., the blower, gas delivery conduit, and breathing mask or nasal prongs) results in an arrangement of lesser reliability than would otherwise be desirable. For example, certain feedback/diagnostic systems utilize a breathing pattern sensor mounted on or connected to the breathing mask or nasal prongs. Such an arrangement requires a length of feedback conduit to be added to the patient's breathing circuit. The feedback conduit extends from the breathing patterns sensor at the mask to the blower. Such an added feedback conduit renders the patient's breathing circuit cumbersome and increases the risk of entanglement of the feedback circuit. The arrangement also increases the risk of the feedback conduit becoming kinked or having the conduit accidently disconnected from the breathing mask, either of which render the device inoperable. Such a feedback conduit also requires frequent cleaning because it is in contact with the patient's expired air. An advantage exists, therefore,. for an apparatus for delivering pressurized air to the airway of a patient which includes a feedback/diagnostic system of higher reliability and increased ease of use, whereby diagnostic accuracy and patient comfort and adherence to the therapy administered by the apparatus are optimized. A problem associated with positive airway pressure devices is a lack of moisture in the air delivered by these devices has a drying effect on patient airways which causes the patient to have considerable discomfort and difficulty sleeping. Humidifiers have been developed for use with CPAP devices to humidify the air supplied to the patient. In the type of system according to the present invention in which the sensor is situated generally at an end of the breathing circuit remote from the patient any type of accessory such as a humidifier may attenuate or absorb snore sound. Humidifiers for use with CPAP apparatus are taught in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,807,616 and 5,231,979. Other humidifiers of interest are manufactured by Respironics, Inc. of Murrysville, Pa. and Healthdyne Technologies. However, these humidifiers are for use with conventional CPAP apparatus and therefore are not configured to acoustically tune snoring sound as required for use with the unique sleep apnea treatment apparatus of the present invention. An advantage exists, therefore, for a humidifier which is configured to acoustically tune the snoring sound received from a patient in order to set the resonant frequency of the snore sound. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention contemplates a novel and improved method for treatment of sleep apnea as well as novel methodology and apparatus for carrying out such improved treatment method. The invention contemplates the treatment of sleep apnea through application of pressure at variance with ambient atmospheric pressure within the upper airway of the patient in a manner to promote patency of the airway to thereby relieve upper airway occlusion during sleep. According to the invention, positive pressure may be applied at a substantially constant, "mono-level," patient-specific prescription pressure, at alternatively higher (IPAP) and lower (EPAP) "bi-level" pressures, or at variable pressures within the airway of the patient to maintain the requisite patent or "splint" force to sustain respiration during sleep periods. In all embodiments considered to be within the scope of the instant invention, the apparatus for delivering pressurized breathing gas to the airway of a patient comprises a breathing gas flow generator, information processing means for controlling the output of the gas flow generator, and a length of flexible conduit connected at one end to the gas flow generator and at an opposite end to a patient interface means such as a breathing mask or nasal prongs. By controlling the output of the gas flow generator, the information processing means likewise controls the pressure of the breathing gas delivered to the patient through the flexible conduit and the patient interface means. The apparatus further includes a novel feedback system which may impart both therapeutic as well as diagnostic capability to the apparatus. The feedback system includes at least one sensor means, such as a pressure or flow responsive transducer, located on, within or closely adjacent to the gas flow generator. The sensor means continuously senses the patient's breathing patterns and transmits signals indicative of those patterns to the information processing means. The apparatus may also include means whereby these signals can also be continuously monitored and/or recorded whereby the patient's specific breathing disorder may be diagnosed as well as treated by the apparatus. Like the feedback/diagnostic systems known in the art, when the sensor detects breathing patterns indicative of obstructed breathing, it transmits signals corresponding to this condition to the information processing means. This means, which may be any suitable microprocessor or central processing unit (CPU), then causes the flow generator to increase its output which increases the air pressure delivered to the patient until obstructed breathing is no longer detected. The system also includes logic whereby the flow generator output is gradually decreased if unobstructed breathing patterns are detected over a preselected period of time. This feature serves to provide the patient with a pressure minimally sufficient to maintain airway patency during unobstructed breathing, thus enhancing patient comfort and therapy compliance. Unlike other positive airway pressure apparatus equipped with feedback/diagnostic systems including a breathing patterns sensor located on or connected to the patient interface, the apparatus according to the present invention finds its breathing patterns sensor situated generally at the end of the breathing circuit remote from the patient. That is, the sensor is preferably located within, on or is connected closely adjacent to the outlet of the gas flow generator controller. Situating the breathing patterns sensor at this region of the breathing circuit realizes considerable improvements in apparatus performance characteristics and in particular sensor reliability and ease of use. More specifically, by distancing the breathing patterns sensor from the patient interface (i.e., the breathing mask or nasal prongs), that portion of the along the patient's breathing circuit is eliminated, and only a relatively shorter feedback conduit is required and is provided. Consequently, the patient's breathing circuit is rendered considerably less cumbersome, the risk of entanglement is negatived, and any annoyance of the patient is minimized. The length of the shorter feedback conduit reduces, if not totally eliminates, the risk of being kinked or accidently disconnected from the patient's breathing circuit. Additionally, frequent cleaning of the shorter feedback conduit is not required because it is not in direct contact with the patient's expired air. The shorter feedback conduit also reduces the materials cost for the system. Admittedly, placement of the breathing patterns sensor substantially at or near the gas flow generator reduces the responsiveness of the apparatus to the patient's continually changing respiratory needs. However the reduction in responsiveness of the breathing patterns sensor is compensated for by resonant tuning of the system. That is, the frequency response of the patient's breathing circuit and internal tubing of the present system is acoustically tuned to optimally transmit sounds with frequency content which is known to be indicative of upper airway obstructions. Thus the tuned resonance is such that sounds (snores) with frequencies near the resonant frequency are amplified, thus boosting the signal-to-noise ratio (more accurately the ratio of snore noise to gas flow generator noise) back to the level which is comparable to that which has been obtained by sensing at the patient interface. As illustration, a patient's lack of demand or a reduced demand for inspiratory air often precedes, frequently by several seconds, by the onset of an audible snore or other pronounced physical manifestation indicative of obstructed breathing. The breathing pattern sensors typically must detect such salient occurrences before they register an obstructed breathing event. In such case, the sensor would transmit data to the CPU such that the CPU could step up the output of the flow generator well in advance of not only an apneic event but also prior to the characteristic audible snore patterns which normally precede such an event. Known breathing pattern sensors typically accomplish this while being located on or connected to the patient interface. The sensor of the present invention, on the other hand, may be an equally responsive pressure or flow transducer sensitive to pressure or flow variations of any selected magnitude and/or frequency, but located within, on or connected closely adjacent to the outlet of the gas flow generator. In order to prevent drying of the breathing passage during the administration of pressurized air delivered by the flow generator of the present invention, it is desirable to use the present invention in combination with a humidifier. A problem associated with using a humidifier with the breathing pattern sensor of the present invention is the humidifier may attenuate or absorb snore sound. This and other problems have been solved by the humidifier in the present invention which includes a U-shaped accumulation chamber which is configured to acoustically tune the snoring sound received from a patient. The humidifier of the present invention is disclosed in more detail in U.S. Pat. No. 5,598,837, entitled "Passive Humidifier for Positive Airway Pressure Devices", the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. Other details, objects and advantages of the present invention will become apparent as the following description of the presently preferred embodiments and presently preferred methods of practicing the invention proceeds. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will become more readily apparent from the following description of preferred embodiments thereof shown, by way of example only, in the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a functional block diagram of a prior art CPAP apparatus including a patient feedback/diagnostic system; FIG. 2 is a functional block diagram showing a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a functional block diagram of a further preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a view schematically illustrating a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a view schematically illustrating the sleep apnea treatment apparatus of the present invention in use with a humidifier of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a humidifier of a first embodiment of the present invention showing a humidifier top and a humidifier base in assembled condition; and FIG. 7 is a plan view of a humidifier top of a presently preferred second embodiment viewed from the bottom. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION There is generally indicated at 10 in FIG. 1, in the form of a functional block diagram, a mono-level CPAP apparatus including a patient feedback/diagnostic system generally and schematically representative of the apparatus disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,245,995 5,199,424, and 5,335,654, and published PCT Application No. WO 88/10108. Apparatus 10 includes a blower 12 driven by an electric blower motor 14. The speed of motor 14 and thus the output of the blower 12 is controlled by an information processing means or central processing unit (CPU) 16. The output of the blower is connected by a suitable length of flexible gas delivery conduit means 18 to a patient interface means 20 such as, for example, nasal prongs or, as illustrated, a breathing mask which is in sealed air communication with the airway of a patient 22. If constructed as a breathing mask the patient interface means 20 may include suitable exhaust port means, schematically indicated at 24, for exhaust of breathing gas during expiration. Exhaust port means 24 may be a conventional non-rebreathing valve or one or more continuously open ports which impose a predetermined flow resistance against exhaust gas flow. Apparatus 10 also includes a suitable pressure transducer 26 located on or connected to the patient interface means 20. Typically, the pressure transducer 26 is an audio transducer or microphone. When, for example, snoring sounds occur the pressure transducer detects the sounds and feeds corresponding electrical signals to the CPU 16 which, in turn, generates a flow generator motor control signal. Such signal increases the speed of the flow generator motor, thereby increasing output pressure supplied to the patient by the blower 12 through conduit means 18 and the patient interface means 20. The system may include suitable data storage and retrieval means (not illustrated) which may be connected to CPU 16 to enable medical personnel to monitor and/or record the patient's breathing patterns and thereby diagnose the patient's particular respiratory disorder and breathing requirements. As snoring is caused by vibration of the soft palate, it is therefore indicative of an unstable airway and is a warning signal of the imminence of upper airway occlusion in patients that suffer obstructive sleep apnea. Snoring is itself undesirable not only as it is a disturbance to others but it is strongly believed to be connected with hypertension. If the resultant increase in system output pressure is sufficient to completely stabilize the airway, snoring will cease. If a further snoring sound is detected, the pressure is again incrementally increased. This process is repeated until the upper airway is stabilized and snoring ceases. Hence, the occurrence of obstructive apnea can be eliminated by application of minimum appropriate pressure at the time of use. The feedback circuit also includes means to gradually decrease the output pressure if an extended period of snore-free breathing occurs in order to ensure that the pressure is maintained at a level as low as practicable to prevent the onset of apnea. This effect can be achieved, for example, by the CPU 16 which, in the absence of an electronic signal from the pressure transducer 26 indicative of snoring, continuously and gradually reduces the flow generator speed and output pressure over a period of time. If, however, a snore is detected by the first pressure transducer, the CPU will again act to incrementally increase the output of the flow generator. The feedback circuit of the present invention as will be discussed hereinafter in connection with FIG. 2 preferably includes similar means. In use, a patient using apparatus 10 may connect himself to the apparatus and go to sleep. The output pressure is initially at a minimum operating value of, for example, approximately 3 cm H 2 O gauge pressure so as not to cause the previously mentioned operational problems of higher initial pressures. Not until some time after going to sleep, the patient's body relaxes, will the airway start to become unstable and the patient begin to snore. The pressure transducer 26 will then respond to a snore, or snore pattern, and via the CPU 16 increase the blower motor speed such that output pressure increases, for instance, by 1 cm H 2 O for each snore detected. The pressure can be increased relatively rapidly, if the patient's condition so requires, to a working pressure of the order of 8-20 cm, which is a typical requirement. Additionally, for ease of monitoring the variation over time a parameter such as pressure output can be recorded in some convenient retrievable form and medium (such as the aforesaid data storage and retrieval means) for periodic study by medical personnel. If for example in the early stages of sleep some lesser output pressure will suffice, apparatus 10 will not increase the pressure until needed, that is, unless the airway becomes unstable and snoring commences, no increase in airway pressure is made. By continuously decreasing the output pressure at a rate of, for example, 1 cm H 2 O each 15 minutes in the absence of snoring, the pressure is never substantially greater than that required to prevent apnea. The feedback circuit of FIG. 1 provides a system which adjusts apparatus output pressure according to variations in a patient's breathing requirements throughout an entire sleep period. Further, apparatus 10 will likewise accommodate variable output pressure requirements owing to general improvements or deteriorations in a patient's general physical condition as may occur over an extended period of time. Despite the general effectiveness of apparatus 10, however, the structural relationship of its feedback/diagnostic system with respect to the patient's breathing circuit (i.e., the blower, gas delivery conduit, and breathing mask) results in an arrangement which can be cumbersome to use, inconvenient to maintain, and of lesser reliability. The present invention overcomes deficiencies of currently available positive airway pressure apparatus such as apparatus 10 by proposing a novel feedback/diagnostic system which is adapted for use in mono-level, bi-level and variable output positive airway pressure apparatus. Although for brevity the invention will be described in detail as it may be adapted to mono-level positive airway pressure apparatus, it is further contemplated that the particulars of the present invention may also be gainfully adapted to equally preferred embodiments including bi-level and variable positive airway pressure apparatus, the general characteristics and functions of which are well known in the art. However, the particulars of the "bi-level" and "variable" positive airway pressure apparatus embodiments of the present invention will not be described at length. Consequently, it will nevertheless be understood that the presently proposed arrangement and operation of the feedback/diagnostic system components with respect to the breathing circuit will be substantially the same for a "bi-level" and "variable" positive airway pressure apparatus as those discussed hereinafter in connection with the "mono-level" embodiment of the invention. Referring to FIG. 2, there is illustrated in the form of a functional block diagram, an apparatus 110 representing perhaps the simplest of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention contemplated by applicants. Apparatus 110 includes a gas flow generator 114 (e.g., a blower) which receives breathing gas from any suitable source such as a pressurized bottle or the ambient atmosphere. Located substantially at, i.e., within, on or connected closely adjacent to, the outlet of the gas flow generator 114 is a sensor means 126 in fluid communication with a flexible gas delivery conduit means 118. One end of conduit 118 is connected to the outlet of the gas flow generator 114. The conduit 118 communicates the output of the gas flow generator 114 to a patient interface means or breathing appliance 120 that is connected to the opposite end of the conduit 118. The patient interface means 120 may be a mask of any suitable known construction which is worn by patient 122 and is in sealed communication with the patient's airway. The patient interface means 120 may preferably be a nasal mask or a full face mask as illustrated and hereinafter referred. Other breathing appliances which may be used in lieu of a mask may include nasal cannulae, an endotracheal tube, or any other suitable appliance for interfacing between a source of breathing gas and a patient. The mask 120 includes suitable exhaust port means, schematically indicated at 124, for exhaust of breathing gases during expiration. Exhaust port means 124 preferably is a continuously open port provided in the mask 120 or a non-rebreathing valve (NRV) situated closely adjacent the mask in conduit 118. The exhaust port means imposes a suitable flow resistance upon exhaust gas flow to permit an information processing means or central processing unit (CPU) 130, which receives signals generated by sensor means 126 as indicated at 128, to control the output of the gas flow generator in a manner to be described at greater length hereinafter. The exhaust port means 124 may be of sufficient cross-sectional flow area to sustain a continuous exhaust flow of approximately 15 liters per minute. The flow via exhaust port means 124 is one component, and typically the major component of the overall system leakage, which is an important parameter of system operation. Sensor means 126 preferably comprises at least one suitable pressure or flow transducer which continuously detects pressure or flow discharge substantially at the outlet of the gas flow generator, which pressure or flow reflects the patient's breathing patterns. Concurrently, the sensor means 126 generates output signals 128 corresponding to the continuously detected gas pressure or flow from the gas flow generator 114 and transmits these signals to a pressure or flow signal conditioning circuit of the CPU 130 for derivation of a signal proportional to the instantaneous pressure or flow rate of breathing gas within conduit 118. Such flow or pressure signal conditioning circuit may for example be of the type described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,148,802, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Depending upon the characteristics of the conditioned flow or pressure signal, the CPU may generate a command signal 132 to either increase or decrease the output of the gas flow generator 114, e.g., to increase or decrease the speed of an electric motor (not illustrated) thereof. The gas flow generator 114, sensor means 126 and CPU 130 thus comprise a feedback circuit or system capable of continuously and automatically controlling the breathing pressure supplied to the patient's airway responsive to the patient's respiratory requirements as dictated by the patient's breathing patterns. Like the feedback/diagnostic systems known in the art, when the sensor means 126 detects breathing patterns indicative of obstructed breathing, it transmits signals corresponding to this condition to the CPU 130. The CPU then causes the gas flow generator 114 to increase its output which increases the air pressure delivered to the patient until obstructed breathing is no longer detected. The system also includes means such as appropriate logic programmed into the CPU whereby the gas flow generator output is gradually decreased if unobstructed breathing patterns are detected over a preselected period of time. This feature serves to provide the patient with a pressure minimally sufficient to maintain airway patency during unobstructed breathing, thus enhancing patient comfort and therapy compliance. In many respects, therefore, the feedback circuit of the present invention performs similarly to the feedback circuits disclosed in previously discussed U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,245,995 and 5,199,424 and published PCT Application No. WO 88/10108. However, by situating the sensor means 126 proximate the outlet of the gas flow generator rather than proximate the patient interface means 120 many significant benefits in apparatus performance are realized, which translate into increased patient comfort and therapy compliance. Admittedly, placement of the breathing patterns sensor substantially at or near the gas flow generator reduces the responsiveness of the apparatus to the patient's continually changing respiratory needs. However the reduction in responsiveness of the breathing patterns sensor is compensated for by resonant tuning of the system. That is, the frequency response of the patient's breathing circuit and internal tubing of the present system is acoustically tuned to optimally transmit sounds with frequency content which is known to be indicative or upper airway obstructions. Thus the tuned resonance is such that sounds with frequencies near the resonant frequency (snores) are amplified, thus boosting the signal-to-noise ratio (more accurately the ratio of snore noise to gas flow generator noise) back to the level which is comparable to that which has been obtained by sensing at the patient interface. As illustration, a patient's lack of demand or a reduced demand for inspiratory air often precedes, frequently by several seconds, the onset of an audible snore or other pronounced physical manifestation indicative of obstructed breathing. In such case, the sensor means would transmit data to the CPU 130 such that the CPU may step up the output of the gas flow generator 114 well in advance of not only an apneic event but also prior to the characteristic audible snore patterns which normally precede such an event. Known breathing pattern sensors typically accomplish this while being located on or connected to the patient interface. The sensor of the present invention, on the other hand, may be an equally responsive pressure or flow transducer sensitive to pressure or flow variations of any selected magnitude and/or frequency, but located within, on or connected closely adjacent to the outlet of the gas flow generator. In addition to its accurate and responsive feedback capability, the feedback circuit of apparatus 110, by virtue of the strategic placement of sensor means 126, also affords medical personnel the opportunity to monitor and/or record the patient's breathing activity with high precision. With this capability, the medical personnel may confidently diagnose the patient's particular breathing disorder, prescribe the appropriate therapy, and monitor the patient's progress while undergoing treatment using apparatus 110. In this regard, such monitoring and/or recording may be achieved by system data storage and retrieval means 140. System data storage and retrieval means 140 may within the scope of the present invention comprise any suitable computer memory into which information can be written and from which information can be read. Representative, although not limitative, embodiments of the system data storage and retrieval means may therefore include a random access memory (RAM), magnetic tapes or magnetic disks which may be incorporated into a stand-alone personal computer, mainframe computer, or the like (not illustrated). System data storage and retrieval means 140 may be configured to record output data from gas flow generator 114 and/or, as indicated, it may compile data from one or more data input lines 142 which communicate data transmitted by other sensors or monitors (not shown) which are operatively connected to other patients in a manner known to those skilled in the art. FIG. 3 reveals, in the form of a functional block diagram, an apparatus 210 for use in treatment of sleep apnea and related disorders that is constructed in accordance with a further preferred embodiment of the present invention. For brevity, only those elements of apparatus 210 which depart materially in structure and/or function from their counterpart elements in FIG. 2 will be described in detail where such description is necessary for a proper understanding of the invention. In other words, except where otherwise indicated, gas flow generator 214, conduit means 218, patient interface means 220, exhaust port means 224, sensor means 226, CPU 230 and system data storage and retrieval means 240 of FIG. 3 desirably are constructed as and function substantially identically to gas flow generator 114, conduit 118, patient interface means 120, exhaust port means 124, sensor means 126, CPU 130 and system data storage and retrieval means 140 discussed hereinabove in connection with FIG. 2. The primary distinction between apparatus 210 and apparatus 110 is the presence of a pressure controller 216 which may be controlled separately from and in addition to the gas flow generator 214 by CPU 230. The pressure controller 26 is thus operative to regulate, at least in part, the pressure of breathing gas within the conduit means 218 and thus within the airway of the patient 222. Pressure controller 216 is located preferably, although not necessarily, within or closely downstream of flow generator 214 and may take the form of an adjustable valve, the valve being adjustable to provide a constant or variable pressure drop across the valve for all flow rates and thus any desired pressure within conduit means 218. Interposed in line with conduit means 218, downstream and substantially adjacent to pressure controller 216, is a suitable sensor means 226 such as a pressure or flow transducer which generates an output signal that is fed as indicated at 228 to a pressure or flow signal conditioning circuit of CPU 230 for derivation of a signal proportional to the instantaneous pressure or flow rate of breathing gas within conduit means 218 to the patient. Depending upon the instantaneous pressure or flow condition detected by sensor means 226, which feeds a signal 228 corresponding to that condition to the CPU 230, the CPU may generate and transmit a command signal 232 to increase or decrease the output of the gas flow generator 214 in the manner discussed above in connection with the description of FIG. 2. Alternatively, or in addition to, command signal 232, the CPU may generate and transmit command signal 234 (shown in dashed line) to the pressure controller 216 to adjust the pressure drop produced thereby. In this way particularly sophisticated instantaneous pressure output patterns may be achieved to satisfy the demands of the patient on a breath-to-breath basis. Furthermore, data storage and retrieval means 240 may be configured to compile input not only from the gas flow generator 214 and from the patient 222 via input lines 242, but also from the pressure controller 216 to provide the overseeing medical personnel an even more complete representation of the patient's respiratory activity. FIG. 4 schematically illustrates an arrangement wherein apparatus 310 includes a device 312 incorporating the flow generator 314, breathing patterns sensor means 326, a CPU or central processing unit 330 which includes a pressure controller (not illustrated). The flow generator 314 presents a bellows 338 terminating in a circuit coupler 344 presented externally of the device 312. A patient or first conduit means 318 has one end connected to the circuit coupler 344 and an opposite end connected to the patient interface means 320 which includes exhaust port means 324. Unlike other positive airway pressure apparatus equipped with feedback/diagnostic systems including a breathing patterns sensor located on or connected to the patient interface, the apparatus 310 according to the present invention finds its breathing patterns sensor means 326 situated generally at the end of the breathing circuit remote from the patient 322. That is, the sensor 326 is preferably located within, on or is connected closely adjacent to the outlet of the gas flow generator 314. More specifically, the sensor means 326 comprises a pressure transducer 346 operably connected to the CPU 330. The sensor means 326 is in fluid communication with the patient or first conduit means 318 by means of sensor or second conduit 347. In accordance with the present invention, the sensor or second conduit means 347 comprises a internal conduit portion 348 disposed entirely within the device 312, and an external conduit portion 350 disposed exteriorly of the device 312. The sensor or second conduit means 347 has one end connected to the pressure transducer 346 and an opposite end connected to the patient or first conduit means 318 through the circuit coupler 344 and thus provide sound pressure communication between the pressure transducer 346 and the patient or first conduit means 318 through the circuit coupler 344. The arrangement is such that when the transmitted sound wave is close to the resonant frequency of the system, greatly amplified sound pressure will be transmitted from the mask 320 through the patient or first conduit means 318, the circuit coupler 344, and the sensor or second conduit means 347 to the pressure transducer 346. That is, the system responds like a harmonic oscillator with one degree of freedom. By taking advantage of moving the sensor means 326 back to the device 312, the present invention provides system that is acoustically tuned to optimally transmit sounds in the frequency range of 20 to 120 Hz (the same range of sounds that are indicative of upper airway obstructions). In apparatus, such as that illustrated in FIG. 4, the volume and entrance characteristics of the bellows 338, the blower 314, and the patient circuit 318 also affect the resonance properties in a complex manner. Therefore the optimum lengths of the internal and external conduit portions 348, 350 are best verified empirically. This is achieved by placing a sound source at the patient mask 320, sweeping through the range of frequencies of interest, and measuring the output response of the pressure transducer 346. The lengths of the internal and external conduit portions 348, 350 are varied until the desired frequency response is achieved. In one operative embodiment of the apparatus of FIG. 4, one-eighth inch inner diameter tubing is used as the internal and external conduit portions 348, 350. A length L of 40 inches of the internal and external conduit portions 348, 350 was found to provide the desired resonant frequency, w of 70 cycles per second. At that resonant frequency, the apparatus 310 is acoustically tuned to optimally transmit sounds in the target frequency range of 20 to 120 Hz--the primary frequency range of sounds that are indicative of upper airway obstruction. It should be understood, however, that the length L of the internal and external conduits 348, 350 will change with changes in the system elements. That is, the particular type of patient circuit 318, blower 314, bellows 338, circuit coupler 344, and pressure transducer 346 used in the system do determine the length L of the internal and external conduits 348, 350 that is required to produce the desired resonant frequency of 70 cycles per second. Likewise, it should be understood that the frequencies of sounds associated with upper airway obstructions are known to fall within a range of about 20 to 2,000 Hz. Therefore, other operative embodiments of the apparatus may be tuned by similar methods to resonant frequencies other than 70 Hz. It should also be apparent that by distancing the breathing patterns sensor from the patient interface (i.e., the breathing mask or nasal prongs), the patient conduit means 318 is rendered considerably less cumbersome, the risk of entanglement is negatived, and the annoyance of the patient is minimized. The length of the shorter feedback conduit reduces, if not totally eliminates, the risk of being kinked or accidently disconnected from the patient's breathing circuit. Additionally, frequent cleaning of the shorter feedback conduit is not required because it is not in direct contact with the patient's expired air. The shorter feedback conduit also reduces the materials cost for the system. Turning to FIGS. 5-7, a sleep apnea treatment apparatus according to the present invention is illustrated in combination with a humidifier of the present invention. When the apparatus 310 according to the present invention includes a humidifier 400 or 500, the circuit coupler 344 detaches from the gas flow generator device 312 and to an outlet 416 of the humidifier 400 or 500. An inlet 415 is then connected to the outlet of the gas flow generator device 312. Referring to FIG. 6, humidifier 400 has a U-shaped chamber 427 having a first leg 428 which directs air from the body of the humidifier and a second leg 429 which directs air towards the outlet 416. The U-shaped chamber 427 acoustically tunes the snoring sound received from a patient. In an alternative preferred embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7, humidifier 500 includes an inlet 516 and a U-shaped chamber 527 having a chamber inlet 543, a diameter transition portion 544 and a laterally extending outlet 515. The configuration of the U-shaped chamber 527 optimally transmits sound frequencies falling within a frequency range which is known to be associated with upper airway obstructions by setting the resonant frequency of the snore sound. The position of the diameter transition portion 544 controls the resonant frequency such that the resonant frequency of interest may be selected. Further included is a dissipation hole 545 between chamber inlet 543 and the outlet portion 516 of U-shaped chamber 427. Dissipation hole 545 in this presently preferred embodiment is approximately 0.098 inches in diameter. Energy is stored in U-shaped chamber 427 during each oscillation cycle of snore sound. Dissipation hole 545 helps dissipate some of that energy to adjust the Q or quality factor (a measure of resonance) of the circuit. Thus, dissipation hole 545 dissipates the energy stored in each oscillation cycle of snore sound to make the Q of the U-shaped chamber 427 comparable to that of the CPAP device. Although the invention has been described in detail for the purpose of illustration, it is to be understood that such detail is solely for that purpose and that variations can be made therein by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention except as it may be limited by the claims.

Apparatus for delivering pressurized gas to the airway of a patient including: a gas flow generator for providing a flow of gas, a breathing appliance for sealingly communicating with the airway of the patient, and a conduit for delivery of the gas flow to the airway of the patient, the conduit having a first end connected to the gas flow generator and a second end connected to the breathing appliance. The apparatus further includes at least one sensor in fluid communication with the conduit and located substantially at the gas flow generator for detecting conditions corresponding to breathing patterns of the patient and generating signals corresponding to the conditions, and an information processor for receiving the signals and for controlling the output of the gas flow generator responsive to the signals. The apparatus further includes a humidifier connected to the gas flow generator for moisturizing a flow of pressurized gas provided by the gas flow generator and includes an outlet chamber including a diameter transition portion and a dissipation hole for acoustically tuning snoring sounds received by the patient.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a differential amplifier. More specifically, the present invention is directed to a differential amplifier used in an amplifying circuit of an LCD driver for driving a capacitive load. 2. Description of the Related Art Nowadays, there is a trend that higher gradation is strongly required in a TFT-LCD (Thin-Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display) field. That is to say, conventionally, 260,000-color display (64 gradation levels in 6 bits) sufficiently satisfied requirements of the TFT-LCD field. However, currently, 16,780,000-color display (256 gradation levels in 8 bits) is requested in the TFT-LCD field. Moreover, display of 1,024 gradation levels in 10 bits is requested depending on fields. For instance, such a higher gradation display is requested for X-ray image display in a medical field and TV display field. When such a higher gradation display is achieved, an LCD driver circuit becomes more complicated. For example, such a LCD driver is disclosed in Japanese Laid Open Patent Application (JP-P2001-34234A). In this LCD driver, furthermore, a chip area of the driver circuit is increased, resulting in higher cost. FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing a partial circuit of a conventional LCD driver in which operational amplifiers having two non-inversion inputs are used. Referring now to FIG. 1 , the conventional LCD driver is composed of a latch address selector 101 , a latch circuit 102 , n (n is an integer more than 1) decoders 103 , and n operational amplifiers 104 . Each of these operational amplifiers 104 has two non-inversion inputs, and constitutes a voltage follower circuit. Input data D 0 to D 8 corresponding to 8-bit display data are supplied to the latch circuit 102 . Outputs of the latch circuit 102 are supplied to the respective decoders 103 . Each of these decoders 103 has two voltage output terminals (Vin 1 and Vin 2 ). Voltage outputs (Vin 1 /Vin 2 ) from the two voltage output terminals of each decoder 103 are supplied to a corresponding one of the operational amplifiers 104 . In this circuit, 8-bit 256-gradation voltages are not supplied to one decoder 103 , but 129-gradation (=256/2+1) voltages are supplied to the decoder 103 . A voltage between the adjacent two voltages is interpolated by the operational amplifiers 104 , and 8-bit 256-gradation voltages are outputted as a final output from the operational amplifiers 104 . FIG. 2 is a diagram showing a specific circuit arrangement of one operational amplifier 104 having two non-inversion inputs shown in FIG. 1 . Referring to FIG. 2 , in the operational amplifier 104 , two MOS transistors on an input side are grouped, and one output (Vout) is generated to the two input voltages (Vin 1 , Vin 2 ). The output voltage (Vout) is V 2 in case where the input voltages (Vin 1 and Vin 2 ) are equal to a same gradation voltage (for instance, Vin 1 =Vin 2 =V 2 ). In case where the input voltages (Vin 1 and Vin 2 ) are adjacent gradation voltages (for instance, Vin 1 =V 0 and Vin 2 =V 2 ), the output (Vout) is substantially equal to an intermediate voltage V 1 obtained by combining V 0 with V 2 . In the 2-input amplifier employed in the conventional driver circuit as shown in FIG. 2 , when a difference between the two input voltages Vin 1 and Vin 2 is relatively small, the output voltage (Vout) is obtained as follows: V out=( V in1+ V in2)/2. However, when a difference between the two input voltages becomes large, a deviation from (Vin 1 +Vin 2 )/2 becomes larger. Thus, a high precision driver circuit is desirable without requiring a complex circuit arrangement. In conjunction with the above description, an interpolation type D-A converter is disclosed in Japanese Laid Open Patent Application (JP-P2001-313568A, see FIG. 10 of this conventional example). This conventional example is used for a TFT LCD driver which is composed of a reference voltage generation circuit which generates a plurality of reference voltages. At least one decoding switch receives the plurality of reference voltages from the reference voltage generation circuit and selects two of the plurality of reference voltages based on a plurality of high bits of a digital image signal. A routing switch is connected with the decoding switch and generates first and second reference voltages based a plurality of low bits of the digital image signal. An interpolation buffer is connected with the routing switch and generates an interpolation analog signal based on the first and second reference voltages. Also, a driver circuit is disclosed in Japanese Laid Open Patent Application (JP-P2001-343948A). In this conventional example, a gradation voltage generating circuit generates a plurality of gradation voltages which are different in voltage level from each other. A decoder decodes an input data and selects first and second gradation voltages from the plurality of gradation voltages based on the decoding result. An amplifier generates a drive voltage based on the first and second gradation voltages. The amplifier is composed of a first transistor for a differential pair, a second transistor connected with the first transistor for the differential pair, a third transistor connected in parallel to the second transistor, and a switch circuit. The switch circuit carries out a switching operation in a predetermined period between a first state in which the first gradation voltage is transferred to the first transistor and the second gradation voltage is transferred to the second transistor, and a second state in which the second gradation voltage is transferred to the first transistor and the first gradation voltage is transferred to the second transistor. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to provide a high-precision LCD driver circuit with a simple circuit arrangement. Another object of the present invention is to provide an operational amplifier having two input terminals, and capable of correctly outputting an averaged voltage of two different voltages which are supplied to the two input terminals. In an aspect of the present invention, a differential amplifier circuit includes a first differential transistor pair, a second differential transistor pair, an adder section and an amplifying unit. The first differential transistor pair receives first and second input signals and an output signal as a third input signal, and the second differential transistor pair receives the first and second input signals and the output signal as a fourth input signal. The adder section adds first output signals from the first differential transistor pair and second output signals from the second differential transistor pair, and the amplifying unit amplifies an addition resultant signal from the adder section to output to the first and second differential transistor pairs. Here, the first differential transistor pair may include first and second P-channel transistors having sources which are commonly connected, gates which respectively receive the first and second input signals, and drains which are commonly connected; and third and fourth P-channel transistors having sources which are commonly connected with the sources of the first and second P-channel transistors, gates which commonly receive the output signal, and drains which are commonly connected. The second differential transistor pair may include fifth and sixth N-channel transistors having source which are commonly connected, gates which respectively receive the first and second input signals, and drains which are commonly connected; and seventh and eighth N-channel transistors having sources which are commonly connected with the sources of the fifth and sixth N-channel transistors, gates which commonly receive the output signal, and drains which are commonly connected. The first output signals are respectively outputted from the drains of the first and second P-channel transistors and the drains of the third and fourth P-channel transistors, and the second output signals are respectively outputted from the drains of the fifth and sixth N-channel transistors and the drains of the seventh and eighth N-channel transistors. In this case, the adder section may include first to third current mirror circuit. The first current mirror circuit is connected with the first differential transistor pair to receive the first output signals; and the second current mirror circuit is connected with the second differential transistor pair and outputs one of the second output signals to one of transistors of the first current mirror circuit. The third current mirror circuit is connected with the second differential transistor pair and outputs the other of the second output signals to the other of the transistors of the first current mirror circuit. Also, the differential amplifier may further include first and second constant current sources. In this case, the first and second P-channel transistors are connected in parallel to each other and the sources of the first and second P-channel transistors are connected with the first constant current source, and the drains of the first and second P-channel transistors are commonly connected with one of transistors of the first current mirror circuit to output one of the first output signals to the one transistor of the first current mirror circuit. The third and fourth P-channel transistors are connected in parallel to each other and the sources of the third and fourth transistors are connected with the first constant current source, and the drains of the third and fourth transistors are commonly connected with the other of transistors of the first current mirror circuit to output the other of the first output signals to the other transistor of the first current mirror circuit. The fifth and sixth N-channel transistors are connected in parallel to each other and the source of the fifth and sixth N-channel transistors are connected with the second constant current source, and the drains of the fifth and sixth N-channel transistors are commonly connected with one of transistors of the second current mirror circuit. The seventh and eighth N-channel transistors are connected in parallel to each other and the sources of the seventh and eighth N-channel transistors are connected with the second constant current source, and the drains of the seventh and eighth N-channel transistors are commonly connected with one of transistors of the third current mirror circuit. One of the second output signals is supplied from the other transistor of the second current mirror circuit to the other transistor of the first current mirror circuit, and the other of the second output signals is supplied from the other transistor of the third current mirror circuit to the one transistor of the first current mirror circuit. Also, the adder section may include fourth and fifth current mirror circuits and a floating constant current source section. The fourth current mirror circuit receives the second output signals, and the fifth current mirror circuit receives the first output signals. The floating constant current source section is connected between the fourth and fifth current mirror circuits. The amplifying unit is driven based on a third output signal from the fourth current mirror circuit and a fourth output signal from the fifth current mirror circuit to output the addition resultant signal. In this case, each of the fourth and fifth current mirror circuits may be of a cascode connection type. Also, the floating constant current source section may include a first current source section which comprises a P-channel MOS transistor and an N-channel MOS transistor which are connected in parallel and is connected between one side of the fourth current mirror circuit and one side of the fifth current mirror circuit; and a second current source section which comprises a P-channel MOS transistor and an N-channel MOS transistor which are connected in parallel and is connected between the other side of the fourth current mirror circuit and the other side of the fifth current mirror circuit. Also, the amplifying unit may include a P-channel MOS transistor and an N-channel MOS transistor which are connected in series. The P-channel MOS transistor and the N-channel MOS transistor of the output stage circuit receive as the addition resultant signal, the third output signal from the fourth current mirror circuit and the fourth output signal from the fifth current mirror circuit respectively, and the output signal is outputted from a node between the P-channel MOS transistor and the N-channel MOS transistor of the output stage circuit. Also, the floating constant current source section may include a first current source section which comprises a P-channel MOS transistor and an N-channel MOS transistor which are connected in parallel and is connected between one side of the fourth current mirror circuit and one side of the fifth current mirror circuit. In this case, the amplifying unit may include a P-channel MOS transistor and an N-channel MOS transistor which are connected in series. The P-channel MOS transistor and the N-channel MOS transistor of the output stage circuit receive as the addition resultant signal, the third output signal from the fourth current mirror circuit and the fourth output signal from the fifth current mirror circuit respectively, and the output signal is outputted from a node between the P-channel MOS transistor and the N-channel MOS transistor of the output stage circuit. Also, a mobility of each of the first to fourth P-channel MOS transistors is μ P , and a mobility of each of the fifth to eighth N-channel MOS transistors is μ N , a ratio of a gate width W of each of the first to fourth P-channel MOS transistors to a gate length L thereof is: W L ⁢ | P a ratio of a gate width W of each of the fifth to eighth N-channel MOS transistors to a gate length L thereof is: W L ⁢ | N when a gate oxide film capacitance per unit area of each of the first to fourth P-channel MOS transistors and the fifth to eighth N-channel MOS transistors is C 0 , β P and β N indicated by the following equations satisfy a relation of β P =β N : β P = W L ⁢ | P ⁢ μ P ⁢ C o β N = W L ⁢ | N ⁢ μ N ⁢ C o BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic block diagram showing the circuit arrangement of a conventional LCD source driver; FIG. 2 is a diagram showing an example of a specific circuit of a conventional amplifier employed in the LCD source driver; FIG. 3 is a circuit diagram showing a two-input amplifier according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a diagram showing an example of a specific circuit of a differential stage employed in the 2-input amplifier of FIG. 3 ; FIG. 5 is a diagram showing another example of a specific circuit of the differential stage employed in the 2-input amplifier of FIG. 3 ; FIG. 6 is a diagram showing an input/output characteristic of the 2-input amplifier shown in FIG. 4 ; FIG. 7 is a diagram showing an input/output characteristic of the 2-input amplifier shown in FIG. 5 ; FIG. 8 is a diagram showing an input/output characteristic of the 2-input amplifier shown in FIG. 3 ; FIG. 9 is a circuit diagram showing a two-input amplifier according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a circuit diagram showing a specific circuit of a current adder circuit employed in the 2-input amplifier of FIG. 9 ; and FIG. 11 is a circuit diagram showing another specific circuit of the current adder circuit employed in the 2-input amplifier of FIG. 9 . DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, a differential amplifier of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to the attached drawings. First Embodiment FIG. 3 is a diagram showing a circuit arrangement of an equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier having two inputs. FIG. 4 is a circuit diagram showing a specific circuit arrangement of a PMOS (P-channel MOS) transistor differential amplifier contained in the equivalent circuit shown in FIG. 3 . FIG. 5 is a circuit diagram showing another specific circuit arrangement of an NMOS (N-channel MOS) transistor differential amplifier contained in the equivalent circuit shown in FIG. 3 . The operational amplifier shown in FIG. 3 is constituted by combining the PMOS transistor differential amplifier shown in FIG. 4 and the NMOS transistor differential amplifier shown in FIG. 5 . In order to easily understand the present invention, the circuit arrangement and operation of each of the PMOS transistor differential amplifier and the NMOS transistor differential amplifier will be described. Further, an equivalent circuit arranged by combining the NMOS transistor differential amplifier and the PMOS transistor differential amplifier will be described. Referring to FIG. 4 , the PMOS transistor differential amplifier is composed of a source type constant current source CC 2 , PMOS transistors M 1 to M 4 and NMOS transistors MS and M 6 , and an amplifying unit A 1 . The PMOS transistor M 1 has the gate as a first input terminal, and the PMOS transistor M 3 has the gate as a second input terminal. The PMOS transistor M 2 has the gate as an inversion input terminal, and the PMOS transistor M 4 has the gate as the inversion input terminal. The NMOS transistor M 5 and the NMOS transistor M 6 constitute a current mirror circuit functioning as an active load, and an input of the amplifying unit A 1 is connected to an output of the active load. Furthermore, the gates of the PMOS transistor M 2 and PMOS transistor M 4 are connected with the output of the amplifying unit A 1 to constitute a voltage follower connection. More specifically, one terminal of the constant current source CC 2 is connected to a power supply voltage V DD , and this constant current source CC 2 supplies a current IR. The other terminal of the constant current source CC 2 is connected to the sources of the PMOS transistor M 3 and M 1 . A first input voltage V 1 and a second input voltage V 2 are applied to the gate of the PMOS transistor M 3 , and the gate of the PMOS transistor M 1 , respectively. The drain of the PMOS transistor M 3 and the drain of the PMOS transistor M 1 are connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 5 . The NMOS transistor M 5 constitutes a current mirror in combination with the NMOS transistor M 6 . The characteristics of the NMOS transistor M 5 are supposed to be identical to those of the NMOS transistor M 6 . The source of the NMOS transistor M 5 and the source of the NMOS transistor M 6 are connected to a ground voltage. The gate of the NMOS transistor M 5 and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 6 are connected to each other, and are further connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 5 . The drain of the NMOS transistor M 6 is connected to the drain of the PMOS transistor M 2 and the drain of the PMOS transistor M 4 . The source of the PMOS transistor M 2 and the source of the PMOS transistor M 4 are connected to the constant current source CC 2 . The gate of the PMOS transistor M 2 and the gate of the PMOS transistor M 4 are connected to the output of the amplifying unit A 1 as an output V o . Characteristics of the PMOS transistor M 2 and the PMOS transistor M 4 are supposed to be substantially same to those of the PMOS transistor M 3 and the PMOS transistor M 1 . The output voltage V o of the PMOS transistor differential amplifier having such a circuit arrangement is in a range of the voltage V 1 and the voltage (V 1 +V 2 ). When the constant current source CC 2 flows the current I R , the PMOS transistor M 1 and the PMOS transistor M 3 flow a current I 2P and a current I 3P corresponding to the first input voltage V 1 and the second input voltage V 2 , respectively. A summation of the current I 2P and the current I 3P is equivalent to a current I R /2 and flows through the NMOS transistor M 5 . Since the NMOS transistor M 5 and the NMOS transistor M 6 have the same characteristics and constitute the current mirror circuit, the current I R /2 flows through the NMOS transistor M 6 . The constant current source CC 2 supplies the current I R /2 to the source of the PMOS transistor M 2 and the source of the PMOS transistor M 4 . If the PMOS transistor M 2 and the PMOS transistor M 4 have the same characteristics, a current I 1P flows through the PMOS transistor M 2 and the PMOS transistor M 4 . Also, if the summation between the current flowing through the PMOS transistor M 2 and the current flowing through the PMOS transistor M 4 is coincident with the summation between the current flowing through the PMOS transistor M 3 and the current flowing through the PMOS transistor M 1 , the current I 1 is coincident with an averaged current between the current I 2 and the current I 3 . If the characteristics of the PMOS transistor M 2 and the PMOS transistor M 4 are coincident with the characteristics of the PMOS transistor M 3 and the PMOS transistor M 1 , the voltage at the gates of the PMOS transistor M 2 and M 4 is substantially equal to the averaged voltage between the first input voltage V 1 and the second voltage V 2 , namely, the in-phase voltage ((V 1 +V 2 )/2). Assuming now that a voltage which is applied to one non-inversion input terminal is equal to V 1 and another voltage which is applied to the other non-inversion input terminal is equal to V 2 , the in-phase voltage is correctly analyzed. In this case, a voltage V 0 which is finally outputted can be expressed as follows. That is, when β = W L ⁢ μ ⁢ ⁢ C o , ( 1 ) where μ is a mobility in an MOS transistor, W is a gate width of the MOS transistor, L is a gate length of the MOS transistor is L, CO is a gate oxide film capacitance, the finally outputted voltage V 0 is expressed by the following equation (2): V o = V 1 + V 2 2 + - 2 ⁢ 2 ⁢ I 1 β + ( 2 ⁢ 2 ⁢ I 1 β ) 2 - ( V 1 - V 2 ) 2 2 ( 2 ) where I 1 is the current flowing through each of the PMOS transistor M 2 and the PMOS transistor M 4 . Referring to FIG. 5 , similarly to the PMOS transistor differential amplifier shown in FIG. 4 , the NMOS transistor differential amplifier is provided with a constant current source CC 1 for supplying a current I R , NMOS transistors M 7 to M 10 , and PMOS transistors M 11 and M 12 . One terminal of the constant current source CC 1 is connected to the ground voltage, and the constant current source CC 1 supplies the current I R to the ground terminal. The other terminal of the constant current source CC 1 is connected to the sources of the NMOS transistors M 9 to M 10 . A first input voltage V 1 and a second input voltage V 2 are applied to the gate of the NMOS transistor M 9 and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 7 , respectively. The drain of the NMOS transistor M 9 and the drain of the NMOS transistor M 7 are connected to the drain of the PMOS transistor M 11 . The PMOS transistor M 11 constitutes a current mirror circuit together with the PMOS transistor M 12 . The characteristics of the PMOS transistor M 11 are supposed to be identical to those of the PMOS transistor M 12 . The source of the PMOS transistor M 11 and the source of the PMOS transistor M 12 are connected to the power supply voltage V DD . The gate of the PMOS transistor M 11 and the gate of the PMOS transistor M 12 are connected to each other, and are further connected to the drain of the PMOS transistor M 11 . The drain of the PMOS transistor M 12 is connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 8 and the drain of the NMOS transistor M 10 . The source of the NMOS transistor M 8 and the source of the NMOS transistor M 10 are connected to the constant current source CC 1 . An input of the amplifying unit A 1 is connected with the drain of the PMOS transistor M 12 , and an output of the amplifying unit A 1 is connected to the gate of the NMOS transistor M 8 and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 10 which are held to a same output voltage V o . The characteristics of the NMOS transistor M 7 to M 10 are supposed to be substantially identical to each other, and the characteristics of the PMOS transistor M 11 are supposed to be substantially identical to those of the PMOS transistor M 12 . In this case, the output voltage V o of the NMOS transistor differential amplifier having such a circuit arrangement is substantially equal to an averaged voltage between the first input voltage V 1 and the second input voltage V 2 , namely an in-phase voltage ((V 1 +V 2 )/2). The NMOS transistor M 9 and the NMOS transistor M 7 flow a current I 2N and a current I 3N corresponding to the first input voltage V 1 and the second input voltage V 2 , respectively. A current I R /2 equal to a summation of the current I 2N and the current I 3N flows through the PMOS transistor M 11 . Since the PMOS transistor M 11 and the PMOS transistor M 12 constitute the current mirror circuit, the current I R /2 equal to that of the current flowing through the PMOS transistor M 11 flows through the NMOS transistor M 8 and the NMOS transistor M 10 . Since the NMOS transistor M 8 and the NMOS transistor M 10 have the same characteristics, a currents I 1N flows through the NMOS transistor M 8 and the NMOS transistor M 10 . Since a summation between the current flowing through the NMOS transistor M 8 and the current flowing through the NMOS transistor M 10 is coincident with a summation between the current flowing through the NMOS transistor M 9 and the current flowing through the NMOS transistor M 7 , the current I 1N is coincident with an averaged current between the current I 2N and the current I 3N . Further, since the characteristics of the NMOS transistor M 8 and the NMOS transistor M 10 are coincident with the characteristics of the NMOS transistor M 9 and the NMOS transistor M 7 , the voltage at the gates of the NMOS transistor M 8 and M 10 is substantially equal to the averaged voltage of the first input voltage V 1 and the second voltage V 2 , namely, the in-phase voltage ((V 1 +V 2 )/2). In other words, assuming now that a voltage which is applied to one non-inversion input terminal is equal to V 1 and another voltage which is applied to the other non-inversion input terminal is equal to V 2 , a voltage V 0 which is finally outputted from the NMOS transistor differential amplifier shown in FIG. 5 is expressed by the following equation (3): V o = V 1 + V 2 2 + 2 ⁢ 2 ⁢ I 1 β - ( 2 ⁢ 2 ⁢ I 1 β ) 2 - ( V 1 - V 2 ) 2 2 ( 3 ) where β is expressed by the following equation (1), like the PMOS transistor differential amplifier: β = W L ⁢ μ ⁢ ⁢ C o ( 1 ) where I 1 is a current which flows through each of the NMOS transistor M 8 and the NMOS transistor M 10 . FIG. 6 is a diagram graphically showing an actual input/output characteristic of the PMOS transistor differential amplifier. Referring to FIG. 6 , the output voltage V o of the PMOS transistor differential amplifier with the two inputs is nearly equal to: V o =( V 1 +V 2 )/2. When a difference between the two inputted voltages V 1 and V 2 is relatively small. However, when a difference between the two inputted voltages V 1 and V 2 becomes large, an error of the output voltage V o from (V 1 +V 2 )/2 becomes large. FIG. 7 is a diagram graphically showing an actual input/output characteristic of the NMOS transistor differential amplifier. Referring to FIG. 7 , the output voltage V o of the NMOS transistor differential amplifier with the two inputs is nearly equal to: V o =( V 1 +V 2 )/2. When a difference between the tow inputted voltages V 1 and V 2 is relatively small. However, when a difference between the two inputted voltages V 1 and V 2 becomes large, an error of the output voltage V o from (V 1 +V 2 )/2 becomes large. Furthermore, when the input/output characteristic of FIG. 6 is compared with that of FIG. 7 , it could be seen that polarities of errors are opposite to each other, when the difference between input voltages V 1 and V 2 becomes large in the PMOS transistor differential amplifier and the NMOS transistor differential amplifier. Referring now to FIG. 3 , an input stage constitutes a differential amplifier having two non-inversion inputs. The differential amplifying circuit shown in FIG. 3 is composed of a PMOS transistor differential stage having a circuit arrangement similar to that of the above-described PMOS transistor differential amplifier, and an N differential stage having a circuit arrangement similar to that of the above-explained NMOS transistor differential amplifier, between which the amplifying unit A 1 is shared. The PMOS transistor differential stage is formed from the constant current source CC 1 , the four PMOS transistors M 1 to M 4 and the two NMOS transistors M 5 and M 6 . The sources of the four PMOS transistors M 1 to M 4 are commonly connected to each other, and the constant current source CC 1 is inserted between the power supply voltage V DD and the drains of the four PMOS transistors. The drains of the PMOS transistors M 1 and M 3 are commonly connected to each other, and the drains of the PMOS transistors M 2 and M 4 are commonly connected to each other. The NMOS transistors M 5 and M 6 constitute the current mirror circuit and functions as the active load. The NMOS transistor differential stage is formed from the constant current source CC 2 , the four NMOS transistors M 7 to M 10 and the first and second current mirror circuits CM 1 and CM 2 . Each of the first and second current mirror circuits CM 1 and CM 2 is formed from the PMOS transistors M 11 and M 12 . The output of the PMOS transistor M 11 in the first current mirror circuit is connected with the NMOS transistors M 7 and M 9 , and the output of the PMOS transistor M 12 is connected with drain of the NMOS transistor M 6 . Also, the output of the PMOS transistor M 11 in the second current mirror circuit is connected with the NMOS transistors M 8 and M 10 , and the output of the PMOS transistor M 12 is connected with drain of the NMOS transistor M 5 . The sources of the four NMOS transistors M 7 to M 10 are commonly connected to each other, and the constant current source CC 2 is inserted between the ground voltage and the drains of the four NMOS transistors. The sources of the NMOS transistors M 7 and M 9 are commonly connected to each other, and the sources of the NMOS transistors M 8 and M 10 are commonly connected to each other. In the N differential stage, the current mirror circuit CM 1 and the current mirror circuit CM 2 are provided in place of the current mirror circuit M 11 and M 12 . The current mirror circuit CM 1 supplies the current I R /2 from one output to the NMOS transistors M 7 and M 9 , and the other output is connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 6 . Also, the current mirror circuit CM 2 supplies the current I R /2 from one output to the NMOS transistors M 8 and M 10 , and the other output is connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 5 . Furthermore, the output of the amplifying unit A 1 is connected with the gate of the NMOS transistor M 8 and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 10 commonly and with the gate of the PMOS transistor M 2 and the gate of the PMOS transistor M 4 commonly, so as to constitute a voltage follower connection. The gate of the NMOS transistor M 9 and the gate of the PMOS transistor M 3 as a first input terminal are commonly connected with the first input voltage V 1 , and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 7 and the gate of the PMOS transistor M 1 as a second input terminal are commonly connected with the second input voltage V 2 . The gate of the NMOS transistor M 5 is connected to the gate of the NMOS transistor M 6 , and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 5 is connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 5 . The sources of the NMOS transistors M 5 and M 6 are connected to the ground terminal GND. The drain of the NMOS transistor M 5 is connected to the drains of the PMOS transistor M 1 and M 3 and the current mirror circuit CM 2 . The drain of the NMOS transistor M 6 is connected to the drains of the NMOS transistor M 2 and M 4 , the input of the amplifying unit A 1 and the current mirror circuit CM 1 . Assuming now that the voltage at the common source of the PMOS transistor differential stage is V MP , and the voltage at the common source of the NMOS transistor differential stage is V MN , a calculation is carried out. With reference to FIG. 3 , assuming now that the current flowing through each of the PMOS transistor M 2 and the PMOS transistor M 4 is I 1P , the current flowing through the PMOS transistor M 3 is I 2P , and the current flowing through the PMOS transistor M 1 is I 3P , the current 4 I 1P flows through the PMOS transistor differential stage and is expressed by the following equation (4): 4 I 1P =2 I P +I 2P +I 3P   (4) Also, assuming now that the current flowing through each of the NMOS transistor M 8 and the NMOS transistor M 10 is I 1N , the current flowing through the NMOS transistor M 9 is I 2N , and the current flowing through the NMOS transistor M 7 is I 3N , the current 4 I 1N flows through the NMOS transistor differential stage and is expressed by the following equation (5): 4 I 1N =2 I 1N +I 2N +I 3N   (5) In this case, since the currents flowing through the active load are equal to each other, the following equation (6) is given: I 2P +I 3P +2I 1N=I 2N +I 3N +2I 1P   (6). At this time, assuming that a mobility in a PMOS transistor is μ P , a mobility in an NMOS transistor is μ N , and a ratio of a gate width W of the PMOS transistor to a gate length L thereof is: W L ⁢ | P and a ratio of the gate width W of the NMOS transistor to the gate length L thereof is W L ⁢ ❘ N the following calculation is carried out by employing β P and β N which are expressed by the following equations (7) and (8) when a gate oxide film capacitance per a unit area of each of the PMOS and NMOS transistors is equal to CO; β P = W L ⁢ | P ⁢ μ P ⁢ C o , ( 7 ) β N = W L ⁢ | N ⁢ μ N ⁢ C o . ( 8 ) Based upon a relation between a gate-to-drain voltage and a drain current, it is assumed that a common source-to-node voltage in the PMOS transistor differential stage is V MP , and a common source-to-node voltage in the NMOS transistor differential stage is V MN . Also, assuming now that a threshold voltage of the PMOS transistor is V TP and a threshold voltage of the NMOS transistor is V TN , currents which flow through the respective transistors are expressed as follows: I 1 ⁢ P = β P 2 ⁢ ( V MP - V o - V TP ) 2 , ( 9 ) I 2 ⁢ P = β P 2 ⁢ ( V MP - V 1 - V TP ) 2 , ( 10 ) I 3 ⁢ P = β P 2 ⁢ ( V MP - V 2 - V TP ) 2 , ( 11 ) I 1 ⁢ N = β N 2 ⁢ ( V o - V MN - V TN ) 2 , ( 12 ) I 2 ⁢ N = β N 2 ⁢ ( V 1 - V MN - V TN ) 2 , ( 13 ) I 3 ⁢ N = β N 2 ⁢ ( V 2 - V MN - V TN ) 2 . ( 14 ) If the above-described equations (9) to (14) are substituted for the above-explained equation (6), the following equation (15) is given: β P 2 ⁢ ⁢ { ( V MP - V 1 - V TP ) 2 + ( V MP - V 2 - V TP ) 2 } + ⁢ β N ⁡ ( V o - V MN - V TN ) 2 = ⁢ β N 2 ⁢ { ( V 1 - V MN - V TN ) 2 + ( V 2 - V MN - V TN ) 2 } + ⁢ β P ⁡ ( V MP - V o - V TP ) 2 . ( 15 ) In this case, based upon a relation between the gate-to-source voltage V GS and the drain currents (I 1P , I 1N ), the following equation can be satisfied in the PMOS channel differential stage: V MP - V TP = 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ P β P + V o In other words, the following equal (16) can be satisfied: V GS = V MP - V o = 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ P β P + V TP . ( 16 ) Similarly, the following equation can be satisfied in the NMOS channel differential stage: V GS = V o - V MN = 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ N β N + V TN . In other words, the following equation (17) can be satisfied: - V MN - V TN = 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ N β N - V o . ( 17 ) If these equations (16) and (17) are substituted for the above-mentioned equation (15), the following equation (18) is obtained: β P ⁢ ( 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ p β P + V o - V 1 ) 2 + β P ⁡ ( 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ P β P + V o - V 2 ) 2 + ⁢ 2 ⁢ β N ⁢ 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ N β N = ⁢ β N ⁡ ( V 1 + 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ N β N o - V o ) 2 + β N ⁡ ( V 2 + 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ P β P - V o ) 2 + ⁢ 2 ⁢ β P ⁢ 2 ⁢ I 1 ⁢ P β P . ( 18 ) When this equation (18) is expanded, the following equation (19) is obtained: 2√{square root over (2β P I 1P )}(2 V o −V 1 −V 2 )+β P {( V o −V 1 ) 2 +( V o −V 2 ) 2} =2√{square root over (2β N I 1N )}( V 1 +V 2 −2 V o )+β N {( V 1 −V o ) 2 +( V 2 −V o ) 2 }  (19). In this equation (19), if β P =β N , namely, W L ⁢ ❘ P ⁢ μ P ⁢ C o = W L ⁢ ❘ N ⁢ μ N ⁢ C o W L ⁢ ❘ P ⁢ μ P = W L ⁢ ❘ N ⁢ μ N then the following equation can be satisfied under the condition that β P =β N =β: 2√{square root over (2β)}(2 V o −V 1 −V 2 )(√{square root over ( I 1P )}+√{square root over ( I IN )}) +β{( V o −V 1 ) 2 +( V o− V 2 ) 2}−β{( V 1 −V o ) 2 +( V 2 −V o ) 2 }=0. When this equation is solved, the following equation is given as follows: 2 V o −V 1 −V 2 =0 In other words, V 0 is expressed by the following equation (20): V o = V 1 + V 2 2 . ( 20 ) As a consequence, in accordance with the differential amplifier described in this first embodiment, the desirable half voltage of the two input voltages can be outputted irrespective of the current flowing through the PMOS transistor differential stage and the current through the NMOS transistor differential stage. FIG. 8 is a diagram graphically showing the input/output characteristic of the differential amplifier shown in FIG. 3 . With reference to FIG. 8 , it could be readily understood that even when a difference between the first input voltage V 1 and the second input voltage V 2 becomes large, the voltage of (V 1 +V 2 )/2 is outputted as the output voltage V 0 of the differential amplifier with the two inputs of this first embodiment. Also, if β P is not equal to β N , the following equation can be satisfied: 2(√{square root over (2β P I 1P )}−√{square root over (2β N I 1N )})(2 V o −V 1 −V 2 )+β P {2 V o 2 −2 V o ( V 1 +V 2 ) + V 1 2 +V 2 2 }−β N {2 V o 2 −2 V o ( V 1 +V 2 )+ V 1 2 +V 2 2 }=0 When a left side of this equation is expanded, an equation (21) is obtained: 2(β P −β N ) V o 2 −2 V o {(β P −β N )( V 1 +V 2 )−2(√{square root over (2β P I 1P )}−√{square root over (2β N I 1N )})}+(β P −β N )( V 1 2 +V 2 2 )−2(√{square root over (2β P I 1P )}−√{square root over (2β N I 1N )})( V 1 +V 2 )=0  (21). When this equation (21) is solved with respect to V o , the following equation (22) is obtained as follows: V o = ⁢ V 1 + V 2 2 - ( 2 ⁢ ⁢ β P ⁢ I 1 ⁢ P - 2 ⁢ ⁢ β N ⁢ I 1 ⁢ N ) ( β P - β N ) ± ⁢ 16 ⁢ ( 2 ⁢ ⁢ β P ⁢ I 1 ⁢ P - 2 ⁢ ⁢ β N ⁢ I 1 ⁢ N ) 2 - 4 ⁢ ( β P - β N ) 2 ⁢ ( V 1 - V 2 ) 2 4 ⁢ ( β P - β N ) . ( 22 ) In this equation, based upon the condition of V 1 =V 2 =V 0 under V 1 =V 2 , symbol “plus or minus” becomes plus (+) in the above-explained equation (22). As a consequence, this equation (22) is transformed into the following equation (23): V o = ⁢ V 1 + V 2 2 - ( 2 ⁢ ⁢ β P ⁢ I 1 ⁢ P - 2 ⁢ ⁢ β N ⁢ I 1 ⁢ N ) ( β P - β N ) + ⁢ 16 ⁢ ( 2 ⁢ ⁢ β P ⁢ I 1 ⁢ P - 2 ⁢ ⁢ β N ⁢ I 1 ⁢ N ) 2 - 4 ⁢ ( β P - β N ) 2 ⁢ ( V 1 - V 2 ) 2 4 ⁢ ( β P - β N ) . ( 23 ) This equation (23) expresses an equation when the NMOS transistor differential stage and the PMOS transistor differential stage are not balanced, and the second term and the third term constitute an error from a desirable value. As indicated in the above-described equation (23), by using the differential amplifying circuit of this first embodiment, the precision of the averaged voltage of the 2-input amplifier can be considerably improved even when β P is not equal to β N . Second Embodiment FIG. 9 is a diagram showing the circuit arrangement of a differential amplifier according to the second embodiment of the present invention. Referring now to FIG. 9 , the differential amplifier of the second embodiment is formed from the 2-input PMOS transistor differential stage, the 2-input NMOS transistor differential stage, a current adder circuit and an amplifying unit A 2 . The 2-input PMOS transistor differential stage is composed of the constant current source CC 2 and the PMOS transistors M 1 to M 4 , like the PMOS transistor differential stage in the first embodiment. Also, the 2-input NMOS transistor differential stage is composed of the constant current source CC 1 and the NMOS transistors M 7 to M 10 , like the NMOS transistor differential stage in the first embodiment. The current adder circuit adds the outputs of the NMOS transistor differential stage and the outputs of the PMOS transistor differential stage, and outputs the addition result to the amplifying unit A 2 . The output of the amplifying unit A 2 is commonly connected to the PMOS transistors M 2 and M 4 and the NMOS transistors M 8 and M 10 so as to construct a voltage follower. FIG. 10 is a specific circuit diagram of the current adder circuit. Referring now to FIG. 10 , the current adder circuit contains a fourth current mirror circuit connected to a positive power supply voltage V DD2 , a fifth current mirror circuit connected to the ground terminal GND, first and second floating constant current sources between the fourth and fifth current mirror circuit. In this case, the power supply voltage is V DD2 but may be V DD . The fourth current mirror circuit is a current mirror circuit of a low-voltage cascode connection. The fourth current mirror circuit contains PMOS transistors M 21 to M 24 . The sources of the PMOS transistors M 21 and M 22 are connected to the positive power supply V DD2 . The gate of the PMOS transistor M 21 is connected to the gate of the PMOS transistor M 22 , and the gate of the PMOS transistor M 23 is connected to the gate of the PMOS transistor M 24 . The drain of the PMOS transistor M 21 is connected with the source of the PMOS transistor M 23 , and the drain of the PMOS transistor M 22 is connected with the source of the PMOS transistor M 24 . The drain of the PMOS transistor M 23 is connected with the gate of the PMOS transistor M 21 . The gates of the PMOS transistors M 23 and M 24 are connected to a bias terminal BP 2 . The source of the PMOS transistor M 23 and the source of the PMOS transistor M 24 are connected to a common node of the drains of the NMOS transistors M 7 and M 9 and to a common node of the drains of the NMOS transistors M 8 and M 10 , respectively. The bias signal BP 2 and the following bias signal BN 2 are respectively set to a low level and a high level during the amplification. The fifth current mirror circuit is a current mirror circuit of a low-voltage cascode connection. The fifth current mirror circuit contains NMOS transistors M 25 to M 28 . The sources of the NMOS transistors M 25 and M 26 are connected to the ground voltage GND. The gate of the NMOS transistor M 25 is connected to the gate of the NMOS transistor M 26 , and the gate of the PMOS transistor M 27 is connected to the gate of the NMOS transistor M 28 . The drain of the NMOS transistor M 25 is connected with the source of the NMOS transistor M 27 , and the drain of the NMOS transistor M 26 is connected with the source of the NMOS transistor M 28 . The drain of the NMOS transistor M 27 is connected with the gate of the NMOS transistor M 25 . The gates of the NMOS transistors M 27 and M 28 are connected to a bias terminal BN 2 . The source of the NMOS transistor M 27 and the source of the NMOS transistor M 28 are connected to a common node of the drains of the PMOS transistors M 2 and M 4 and to a common node of the drains of the PMOS transistors M 1 and M 3 , respectively. The first floating constant current source contains a PMOS transistor M 30 and an NMOS transistor M 29 which are connected in parallel. The source of the PMOS transistor M 30 and the drain of the NMOS transistor M 29 are connected to the drain of the PMOS transistor M 23 . Also, the drain of the PMOS transistor M 30 and the source of the NMOS transistor M 29 are connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 27 . The gate of the PMOS transistor M 30 and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 29 are connected to bias terminals BP 3 and BN 3 , respectively. As a result, a constant current flows from the fourth current mirror circuit to the fifth current mirror circuit based on signals on the bias terminals BP 3 and BN 3 . The second floating constant current source contains a PMOS transistor M 32 and an NMOS transistor M 31 which are connected in parallel. The source of the PMOS transistor M 32 and the drain of the NMOS transistor M 31 are connected to the drain of the PMOS transistor M 24 . Also, the drain of the PMOS transistor M 32 and the source of the NMOS transistor M 31 are connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 28 . The gate of the PMOS transistor M 32 and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 31 are connected to the bias terminals BP 3 and BN 3 , respectively. As a result, a constant current flows from the fourth current mirror circuit to the fifth current mirror circuit based on signals on the bias terminals BP 3 and BN 3 . In this current adder circuit, a node between the drain of the PMOS transistor M 21 and the source of the PMOS transistor M 23 commonly connected to each other, and a node between the drain of the PMOS transistor M 22 and the source of the PMOS transistor M 24 function as a positive current adding terminal. Also, a node between the drain of the NMOS transistor M 25 and the source of the NMOS transistor M 27 commonly connected to each other, and a node between the drain of the NMOS transistor M 26 and the source of the NMOS transistor M 28 function as a negative current adding terminal. A series circuit of capacitors C 1 and C 2 is connected between the drain of the PMOS transistor M 22 and the drain of the NMOS transistor M 28 . A node between the capacitors C 1 and C 2 is connected with an output terminal OUT. An output stage circuit as the amplifying unit A 2 contains a PMOS transistor M 33 and an NMOS transistor M 34 which are connected in series. The source of the PMOS M 33 is connected to the positive power source terminal V DD2 , and the source of the NMOS transistor M 34 is connected to the negative power source terminal GND. The gate of the NMOS transistor M 33 is connected to the drain of the PMOS transistor M 24 as the output of the fourth current mirror circuit, and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 34 is connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 28 as the output of the fifth current mirror circuit. A node between the PMOS transistor M 33 and the NMOS transistor M 34 is connected with the output terminal OUT. The output stage circuit constitutes a so-called an AB class output circuit, and an idling current is determined based upon a voltage between the above-described bias terminals BP 3 and BN 3 . In this current adder circuit, signals of transistors which are connected to respective current adding terminals are added to each other, and an adding result is outputted to an output terminal OUT. Since the differential amplifier shown in FIG. 9 is provided with the current adder circuit shown in FIG. 10 , input currents are not added to each other in the active load, but are separately processed. In the second embodiment, the following calculation is carried out, assuming now that a voltage at the common sources of the PMOS transistor differential stage is V MP , and a voltage at the common sources of the NMOS transistor differential stage is V MN . 4 I 1P =2 I 1P +I 2 P+I 3P   (4) 4 I 1N =2 I 2N +I 3N   (5) Since the current flowing through the active loads are equal to each other, the following equations (24) and (25) can be obtained: I 2P +I 3P =2 I 1N   (24) I 2N +I 3N =2 I 1P   (25) Even if the left side of the equation (25) is added to the right side of the equation (24), and the right side of the equation (25) is added to the left side of the equation (24), the following equation (26) can be satisfied: I 2P +I 3P +2 I 1N =I 2N +I 3N +2 I 1P   (26) It could be understood that this equation (26) is completely the same as the equation (6) of the differential amplifier (namely, differential amplifier which adds the N-channel output to the P-channel output in the active load) in the first embodiment. Therefore, the calculation results become equal to each other. In other words, the differential amplifier shown in FIG. 9 outputs a desirable half voltage of the two input voltages. Moreover, since the circuit arrangement of the present invention is employed, an input Rail-to-rail can be realized. In FIG. 9 , in order to realize the input Rail-to-rail as the entire characteristic of the differential amplifier, the circuit arrangement of the current adder circuit is important. This reason will now be described with reference to FIG. 9 . First of all, in order to realize the input Rail-to-rail, all of the input stage transistors M 1 to M 4 , or all of other transistors M 7 to M 10 are required to enter into a pentode region (namely, saturation region). This is because of the following reason. That is, if these transistors M 1 to M 4 , or M 7 to M 10 enters into a triode region, the output resistance of the transistor is extremely lowered, and the mutual conductance gm of the transistor is also lowered, so that these transistors cannot carry out the normal differential stage transistor operation. A condition when an MOS transistor enters into the pentode region (saturation region) is expressed by the following equation (27), assuming now that a drain-to-source voltage is V DS , a gate-to-source voltage is V GS , and a threshold voltage is V T : V DS >V GS −VT   (27). In this case, the condition under which the PMOS transistors M 1 to M 4 enters into the pentode region (saturation region) when the input voltage becomes the minimum voltage of GND (zero volt) is the gate voltage of GND (zero volt), since the source voltages of these PMOS transistor become equal to V GS . On the other hand, assuming now that a drain voltage is equal to V D , the source-to-drain voltage V DS is given by the following equation (28): V DS =V GS −V D   (28). Based upon the conditions defined by the above-described equation (27) and equation (28), the current adder circuit needs to be designed in such a manner that the following equation can be satisfied: V GS −V D >V GS −V T , namely, V D <V T   (29). The voltage V D is a voltage of a node to which the drains of the MOS transistors M 1 and M 3 , or the drains of the MOS transistors M 2 and M 4 are connected. Based upon this condition and the above-described equation (29), the input voltage of the current adder circuit must be set lower than or equal to VT. Now, as a specific value, since a threshold voltage VT of a general transistor is approximately 0.7 V, the input voltage of the current adder circuit needs to be lower than or equal to approximately 0.7 V in accordance with the equation (29). Similarly, the condition under which the NMOS transistors M 7 to M 10 enters into the pentode region (saturation region) when the input voltage is equal to the maximum potential of V DD is the gate voltages of V DD . Therefore, the source voltages of these NMOS transistors become equal to V DD −V GS at this time. On the other hand, assuming now that the drain voltage is equal to V D , the source-to-drain voltage V DS is given by the following equation (30): V DS =V D −( V DD −V GS )  (30) Based upon the conditions defined by the above-described equation (27) and equation (30), the current adder circuit is required to be designed in such a manner that the following equation can be satisfied: V D −V DD +V GS >V GS −V T namely, V DD −V D <V T   (31). The drain voltage V D is a terminal voltage of a node to which the drains of the NMOS transistors M 7 and M 9 , or the drains of the NMOS transistors M 8 and M 10 are connected. Based upon this condition and the above-described equation (31), the input voltage of the current adder circuit must be set higher than or equal to V DD −V T . Now, as specific value, the input voltage is required to be set higher than or equal to approximately (V DD −0.7V). The current adder circuit of FIG. 9 is required to be designed in such a manner that the above-explained conditions can be satisfied. It should be noted that one example of the current adder circuits capable of satisfying the conditions is the circuit arrangement of the current adder circuit shown in FIG. 10 . Next, the reason why this current adder circuit of FIG. 10 can satisfy the above-described conditions will now be explained. The input terminal voltage of the current adder circuit when the input voltage is equal to GND (zero volt) is drain voltages V D(M25/M26) of the NMOS transistors M 25 and M 26 . Assuming now that the terminal voltage of the bias terminal BN 2 is V BN2 and the gate-to-source voltage of each of the NMOS transistors M 27 and M 28 is V GS(M27/M28) , this drain voltage V D(M25/M26) is given by the following equation (32): V D(M25/M26) =V BN2 −V GS(M27/M28)   (32). In this case, this terminal voltage V BN2 of the bias terminal BN 2 is generated by the gate-to-source voltage of the MOS transistor in a general design. Therefore, the above -equation (32) is modified as follows: V D(M25/M26) =V GS −V GS(M27/M28) <0.7 V   (33). As a consequence, this equation (33) can satisfy the above conditions. Similarly, when the input voltage is the maximum potential of V DD , the above-described conditions can be satisfied. Thus, if such a circuit arrangement is employed, the input Rail-to-rail can be realized. As a result, the use efficiency of the power supply can be increased, and the low voltage and the low power consumption can be realized. FIG. 11 is a diagram showing another specific circuit of the current adder circuit. Referring now to FIG. 11 , this current adder circuit will be described. The current adder circuit shown in FIG. 11 is composed of a sixth current mirror circuit connected to the positive power supply, a seventh current mirror circuit connected to the ground terminal GND, and a third floating constant current source. This sixth current mirror circuit is composed of PMOS transistors M 41 and M 42 . The gate of the PMOS transistor M 41 is connected to the gate of the PMOS transistor M 42 , and the drain of the PMOS transistor M 41 . Also, the sources of the PMOS transistors M 41 and M 42 are connected to the positive power supply voltage V DD2 . The drains of the PMOS transistor M 41 and M 42 are connected to a node of the drains of the NMOS transistors M 7 and M 9 and a node of the drains of the NMOS transistors M 8 and M 10 , respectively. This seventh current mirror circuit is composed of NMOS transistors M 43 and M 44 . The gate of the NMOS transistor M 43 is connected to the gate of the NMOS transistor M 44 , and the drain of the NMOS transistor M 43 . Also, the sources of the NMOS transistors M 43 and M 44 are connected to the ground voltage GND. The drains of the NMOS transistor M 43 and M 44 are connected to a node of the drains of the PMOS transistors M 2 and M 4 and a node of the drains of the PMOS transistors M 1 and M 3 , respectively. The third floating constant current source is composed of a PMOS transistor M 52 and an NMOS transistor M 51 which are connected in parallel. The source of the PMOS transistor M 52 and the drain of the NMOS transistor M 51 are commonly connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 44 . Also, the source of the PMOS transistor M 52 and the drain of the NMOS transistor M 51 are commonly connected to the drain of the PMOS transistor M 42 . The gate of the PMOS transistor M 52 and the gate of the NMOS transistor M 51 are connected with bias terminals BP 3 and BN 3 , respectively. A series circuit of a constant current source CC 3 , capacitors C 1 and C 2 , and a constant current source CC 4 is provided between the positive power supply voltage V DD2 and the ground voltage GND. A node between the constant current source CC 3 and the capacitor C 1 is connected with the drain of the PMOS transistor M 42 . Also, a node between the constant current source CC 4 and the capacitor C 2 is connected with the drain of the NMOS transistor M 44 . A node between the capacitors C 1 and C 2 is connected with an output terminal OUT. An output stage circuit is composed of a PMOS transistor M 53 and an NMOS transistor M 54 which are connected in series between the power supply voltage V DD2 and the ground voltage GND. The gate of the PMOS transistor M 53 is connected to the drain of the PMOS transistor M 42 and the node between the constant current source CC 3 and the capacitor C 1 . Also, the gate of the NMOS transistor M 54 is connected to the drain of the NMOS transistor M 44 and the node between the constant current source CC 4 and the capacitor C 2 . A node between the PMOS transistor M 53 and the NMOS transistor M 54 is connected with the output terminal OUT. This output stage circuit constitutes a so-called AB class output circuit, and an idling current is determined based upon a voltage between the bias terminals BP 3 and BN 3 . The constant current source CC 3 flows a same current as the constant current source CC 4 flows, and may be same as a current flowing through the third floating constant current source. In this current adder circuit shown in FIG. 11 , current consumption becomes small, as compared with that of the current adder circuit of FIG. 10 . The reason is in that the first floating constant current source of MOS transistors M 29 and M 30 can be omitted in the current adder circuit in FIG. 11 as well as the current flowing through the current path of the transistors M 51 /M 52 can be reduced to a minimum current value in a design. As described above, in accordance with the present invention, the NMOS transistor differential amplifier and the PMOS transistor differential amplifier are combined with each other so as to cancel the errors in the respective differential amplifiers. As a result, when the two different input voltages V 1 and V 2 are supplied to the two input terminals, the averaged voltage, namely, (V 1 +V 2 )/2) can be correctly outputted.

A differential amplifier circuit includes a first differential transistor pair, a second differential transistor pair, an adder section and an amplifying unit. The first differential transistor pair receives first and second input signals and an output signal as a third input signal, and the second differential transistor pair receives the first and second input signals and the output signal as a fourth input signal. The adder section adds first output signals from the first differential transistor pair and second output signals from the second differential transistor pair, and the amplifying unit amplifies an addition resultant signal from the adder section to output to the first and second differential transistor pairs.

[0001] This application claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/873,701, filed Dec. 8, 2006. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The invention generally relates to breastpumps, and more particularly relates to antimicrobial agents for use in conjunction with breastpump assemblies. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Breastmilk pumps generally include a breastshield (also known as a suction hood) that typically includes a funnel-shaped surface sized and shaped to fit over the breast; a pressure source connected to the breastshield for generating an intermittent pressure (e.g., vacuum) within the breastshield; and conduit structure for communicating milk from the breastshield to a container for the expressed milk, as well as for communicating pressure variations (such as intermittent vacuum) to the breastshield. An example of this type of pump is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,007,899. [0004] Breastshields, containers for the expressed milk, and associated tubing and valves are generally variously constructed of plastic, vinyl and/or rubber. Such materials have the advantage of being lightweight, easy to clean, durable, and relatively inexpensive to manufacture. In addition, such materials are able to withstand repeated exposure to high temperature and pressure, such as is used in cleaning and sterilizing the components. [0005] During use, many of the breastpump components come into direct contact with the expressed breastmilk, other fluids, and obviously, the mother's body. As is well known, breastmilk is rich in nutrients, and constitutes an effective food source for not only infants, but microbes (e.g. bacteria and fungi) as well. The presence of such contaminants on the breastpump assembly can therefore lead to contamination of the expressed milk, which can lead to more rapid spoiling of the breastmilk, and further spread of the contaminants. This risk is exacerbated if the microbe for instance causing the contamination is a pathogen, or if the infant ingesting the contaminated breastmilk happens to be immuno-compromised and thus more susceptible to infection. Consequently, it is ordinarily recommended that breastpump components be thoroughly cleaned before and after use. [0006] In a hospital setting, cleaning can include autoclaving the components of the breastpump assembly that come into contact with breastmilk. Autoclaving subjects the components to extremely high pressure and heat, and is effective to eliminate microbes from the assembly. Thereafter, the components may be sealed within sterile packaging for storage until use by a nursing mother. In settings outside a hospital or clinic, however, autoclave devices are generally not available or practical, and thus users ordinarily clean the breastpump assembly components with soap and water, or better still, a dishwasher unit. [0007] While the above-described cleaning steps work well, they are not without certain disadvantages. One problem is the propensity for microbes and bacteria not removed or killed to nonetheless grow on surfaces following cleanings with soap and water. Microbes, and bacteria and fungi in particular, may have the ability to reside on surfaces of plastic, vinyl, and rubber for long periods in a relatively dormant state without substantial nutrients, and may in fact proliferate in such conditions, albeit relatively slowly. They may at least partially colonize the surfaces of a breastpump assembly following cleaning of the breastpump components, and thus are present when expressed milk comes in contact with the surfaces. Furthermore, strong antiseptic solutions or antibiotics are contraindicated, since those agents could mix with the expressed breastmilk and later be ingested by an infant. There thus remains a need, for an improved breastpump that itself helps to inhibit or prevent the growth of microbes on its surfaces. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] It is an aspect of the invention to provide a breastpump assembly including surfaces that have incorporated thereon or therein effective forms and amounts of antimicrobial materials. In one preferred embodiment, the antimicrobial materials include silver or silver-based compositions. [0009] The invention may include an effective amount and form of silver and/or silver-containing compounds disposed on or provided to one or more parts or surfaces of the breastpump assembly. The antimicrobial composition may be provided as an additional layer or additional composition to the breastpump part or parts. [0010] The silver or silver-containing compounds on the breastpump surfaces in one form of the invention release ions of silver that permeates the surfaces and contact the mother's body to confer antimicrobial qualities to the surfaces. The silver or silver containing compounds are preferably present on the breastpump assembly surfaces in sufficient quantities as to provide sufficient ionic silver at the breastpump assembly surface as to prevent colonization of microbes thereon. This could be a discrete outboard layer with the antimicrobial silver exposed therein. The antimicrobial compounds could also be applied to the breastpump in a fluid or cream or a similar separate base layer. [0011] Advantages of embodiments of the invention include providing antimicrobial agents on the breastpump assembly surfaces that may be relatively permanent, (at least insofar as the typical lifetime of the unit when incorporated into the equipment), particularly with respect to elemental silver at the breastpump assembly surface, and thus present before and after use. Ionic forms of silver mixed in with the structural material of the breastpump can be adapted to migrate to breastpump assembly surfaces after use in sufficient concentrations to inhibit or eradicate microbes between uses of the breastpump assembly. [0012] Another object of the invention is to provide methods of applying silver to breastpump assemblies and/or equipment associated with the storage and dispensing of breast milk. In certain embodiments, elemental nanosilver particles are attached to the surfaces of the breastpump assemblies. In other embodiments, the nanosilver particles are partially embedded in the surfaces of the breastpump assemblies. In yet other embodiments, ionic silver is applied to the surfaces of the breastpump assemblies. [0013] Yet another embodiment of the invention includes the incorporation of an effective amount of silver-containing antimicrobial material into a lanolin or lanolin-containing composition. The combined lanolin and antimicrobial silver compound may be applied topically to a user before, during and/or after breastpump activity. The combined compound may be applied to the breastpump, for example, before the pump is used. [0014] Yet another embodiment of the invention is the incorporation of antimicrobial agents containing effective amounts of silver or silver compounds into devices which while related to breast pumps or breastpump related functions, are not always considered part of a breastpump. For example, some commercially available breast pumps include flexible tubing to connect a pump part to a breast shield part. The invention contemplates the inclusion of silver-containing antimicrobial agents in the tubing. It should be understood that there are other ancillary parts, devices, and elements which are contemplated by the invention, when provided with silver-containing antimicrobial agents. [0015] In addition to the incorporation or association of silver-containing antimicrobial agents in breast pumps and related devices, the invention contemplates the incorporation of silver-containing antimicrobial agents into breastfeeding equipment or accessories such as, for example, breast milk storage and feeding devices, such as bottles, collars, caps, lids and feeding nipples. Freezer bags, cooler carriers, pump valves, separation membranes, breastshield inserts, are all contemplated by the invention by incorporation of silver-containing antimicrobial agents. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING [0016] FIG. 1 illustrates a side view of a breastpump assembly according to one embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0017] As shown in FIG. 1 , an exemplary breastpump assembly 20 comprises a hood or breastshield 1 . The breastshield has a funnel shape part 2 that during operation is placed over the breast of the mother. Another part 3 of the hood member is generally cylindrical in shape and communicates with a collecting or catch chamber 4 , and with a vacuum line 6 via an extension 5 . The vacuum line 6 leads to a pump 10 , which can be manually or motor driven. A manual piston-type pump is shown, having a piston cylinder 9 a and piston 9 b . A catch container 12 (e.g. a bottle) may be attached to the second end via a threaded aperture, and so attached may collect expressed breastmilk. [0018] As previously explained, surfaces of the breastpump assembly 20 have a number of surfaces, such as surfaces 7 , 8 , 11 on which breastmilk may be in contact or which contact the mother's body upon which microbes, bacteria, viruses, fungi and other living contaminants (referred to collectively simply as “microbes” hereafter for brevity, it being understood that all of these contaminants are in point), may colonize. In order to prevent or inhibit microbial proliferation on such surfaces, elemental silver or silver-containing compounds are embedded in or affixed to such surfaces. As explained in more detail below, elemental silver and certain silver-containing compounds exhibit antimicrobial properties, particularly when in the presence of moisture. The surface in particular point are those which contact the breast and breastmilk but the invention is applicable to all other desirable components, such as handles, tubing, etc. [0019] Embodiments of the invention include compounds having silver, which may be applied to some or all of the components of the breastpump assembly to aid in the prevention of microbe colonization on the assembly components. Silver has long been known as possessing inherent antimicrobial properties, and as being safe for human contact and ingestion. Silver and silver-containing compounds are further known to be effective against a broad spectrum of microorganisms that cause, for example, disease, odor, and discoloration. [0020] When present in aqueous solutions (i.e. in ionic form), silver has antimicrobial qualities due to the positively charged ionic form being highly toxic for microorganisms, but having relatively low toxicity for human cells. Specifically, silver ions have a high affinity for negatively charged side groups on biological molecules common in microbes, including sulfhydryl, carboxyl, phosphate, and other charged groups distributed throughout microbial cells. The binding reaction of silver to such side groups alters the molecular structure of the macromolecule, rendering it unusable to the microbial cell. Silver ions are further known to react with multiple sites within the microbial cell to inactivate critical physiological functions such as cell-wall synthesis, membrane transport, nucleic acid (such as RNA and DNA) synthesis and translation, protein folding and function, and electron transport, which is necessary for generating energy. Silver is thus a nonselective, broad spectrum antimicrobial agent also effective in the eradication of bacteria, fungi, and yeasts. [0021] Surface-application methods can be employed to deposit either elemental silver or an ionic salt thereof to the surfaces of the breastpump assembly. Both forms are activated when placed in the presence of moisture. Ionic salts are active for relatively short periods of time, generally no more than a few days. Elemental particles of nanosilver, on the other hand, may persist in delivering antimicrobial forms of silver for as long as hundreds of days. Silver Zirconium Phosphate [0022] In one embodiment, a zirconium phosphate-based ceramic ion-exchange resin containing silver is applied to the breastpump assembly components. An exemplary compound includes silver sodium hydrogen zirconium phosphate available from Milliken & Company under the name AlphaSan™. Formulations and application of ion-exchange resins containing silver are described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,118,761. [0023] In a preferred embodiment, the silver sodium hydrogen zirconium phosphate is in an aqueous solution. The solution may be applied to any surface of the breastpump assembly that is desired to be free of microbes. In particular, surfaces 7 , 8 , 11 and any other surfaces that may contact expressed breastmilk may be coated with a layer of the solution containing the silver sodium hydrogen zirconium phosphate. So coated, the assembly 20 may be stored to maintain a relatively microbe-free state until the assembly 20 is used again. The silver antimicrobial solution could be provided in a kit, for example, where the mother can rinse, scrub or otherwise easily treat the surface(s). Nanosilver Particles [0024] In another embodiment, nanosilver particles are coated onto or embedded in surfaces 7 , 8 , 11 , for example, or any other desired surface of the breastpump assembly 20 . Nanosilver particles are elemental silver particles measuring from 5 to 15 nm, and which function to facilitate the slow release of ionic silver into solution. When exposed to moisture, elemental silver oxidizes, resulting in the release of the ionic form. This chemical reaction occurs at the surface of the nanosilver particle. Because elemental silver oxidizes slowly, it is able to persist on the surface on which it is deposited device for longer periods of time than solutions containing silver compounds. Nanosilver particles have the advantage of having relatively large surface to volume ratios, which allow the nanosilver particles to release more ionic silver through oxidation than larger pieces of silver. By way of example, the surface area of one a gram of silver having a spherical configuration is 10.6 cm 2 , compared to a gram of nanosilver particles having an average diameter of 10 nm and a surface area of 6×10 5 cm 2 . A number of well known methods may be used to adhere nanosilver particles to the desired surfaces of a breastpump assembly 20 . [0025] Nanosilver particles in either an aqueous or solvent-based solution may also be applied to surfaces of the breastpump assembly 20 to inhibit microbial proliferation. The chosen solution causes the outer layer of the nanosilver particles to oxidize upon exposure to air or fluids, forming a monolayer of silver oxide (Ag 2 O) on the surface of each nanosilver particle. The silver oxide then dissolves in the fluid to produce the ionic (Ag + ) form of silver, which is the form that is effective against microbes. [0026] While endeavoring in the foregoing specification to draw attention to those features of the invention believed to be of particular importance it should be understood that the Applicants claim protection in respect of any patentable feature or combination of features hereinbefore referred to and/or shown in the drawings whether or not particular emphasis has been placed thereon. While the apparatus and method herein disclosed forms a preferred embodiment of this invention, this invention is not limited to that specific apparatus and method, and changes can be made therein without departing from the scope of this invention.

Breastpump assemblies having antimicrobial agents associated therewith are disclosed. Embodiments include breastpump assemblies associated with elemental nanosilver. Other embodiments include breastpump assemblies associated with ionic silver in an ionic exchange resin.

This application claims the benefit the U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/578,560 entitled “VIRTUAL SOFT HAND OVER PROCEDURE IN OFDM AND OFDMA WIRELESS COMMUNICATION NETWORKS” and filed Jun. 9, 2004, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety as part of the specification of this application. BACKGROUND This application relates to wireless communication systems and techniques based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA). Wireless communication systems use electromagnetic waves to communicate with wireless communication devices located within cells of coverage areas of the systems. A radio spectral range or band designated or allocated for a wireless communication service or a particular class of wireless services may be divided into different radio carrier frequencies for generating different communication frequency channels. This use of different frequencies for different communication channels may be used in various multiple access radio wireless communication systems. OFDM and OFDMA systems generate different channels within a given band by using the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing to generate channel spectral profiles that are orthogonal to one another without interference when different channels are centered at selected equally-spaced frequencies. Under the OFDM, the frequency spacing can be smaller than the minimum spacing in conventional channels and hence increase the number of channels within a given band. The existing and developing specifications under IEEE 806.16x standards support wireless communications under OFDM and orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA). The drafts for IEEE 806.16e published in January 2004 (revision D3) and revised in May 2005 (revision D8) provide technical specifications for OFDM and OFDMA wireless systems. One technical feature in OFDM and OFDMA systems is the hand-over process where a mobile subscriber station (MSS) changes from one base station (BS) to another adjacent base station due to various reasons. For example, the hand over may be initiated when the MSS moves in its location due to signal fading, interference levels, etc. at the current serving base station and thus needs to change another base station to which the MSS is connected in order to provide a higher signal quality. In another example, a hand over may be initiated when the MSS can be serviced with higher QoS at another base station. Such a hand over process may be implemented in different ways. For example, a soft hand over (SHO) process is to operate the MSS to simultaneously communicate with and to receive and send communication traffic with two or more adjacently located base stations and to synchronize the data among the different communication traffic with the different base stations to ensure continuing service during the hand over process. SUMMARY This application describes a virtual soft hand over (VSHO) to ensure the hand over quality with reduced complexity and overhead in the hand over process. The present VSHO technique uses diversity gain at reduced complexity comparing to the standard HO procedure within an IEEE 802.16e system. In implementations, the present VSHO utilizes a selection diversity and a fast switching mechanism to improve the link quality with less complexity. Instead of transmission synchronization by multiple BSs required by the SHO process, the present VSHO process uses a fast switching mechanism to allow data transmission from the BS with the best channel condition at any given time. A common shared MAC process is employed to facilitate the hand over process. As an example, this common shared MAC process can be achieved by a full MAC context sharing or transfer among BSs. The present VSHO can be implemented to provide a number of technical features. As an example, it can provide diversity gain by allowing fast switching of data transmission from one BS to another BS dynamically. In the present VSHO, only one BS is transmitting at any given time, the scheduler can be more flexible and optimized than in the SHO implementation since no data synchronization is needed. In addition, the present VSHO can be configured to support data connection with the hybrid automatic Repeat request (H-ARQ) mechanism to further improve the link quality. Furthermore, the implementations of the present VSHO can be efficient and thus do not require additional air link capacity or resource. In one implementation, a method for implementing a hand over of a mobile subscriber station (MSS) in a wireless communication network includes operating the MSS to monitor air interface messages from a plurality of adjacent base stations; controlling the MSS to transmit data to and receive data from only a single one of the adjacent base stations in each single frame; and processing the messages from the plurality of adjacent base stations to decide which base station is to be used for a frame. Exemplary implementations and various features of the present VSHO are now described in greater detail in the attached drawings, the detailed description, and the claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows an example of an OFDM/OFDMA wireless communication system in which the present VSHO can be implemented. FIG. 2 shows hand over zones between two base stations in the system shown in FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 shows an example of the air interface message flow in one implementation of the present virtual soft hand over process. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary wireless communication system 100 that uses communication channels at different frequencies to provide wireless communication services based on OFDM and OFDMA and can be used to implement the present VSHO process. The system 100 may include a network of base stations (BSs) or base station transceivers 120 that are spatially distributed in a service area to form a radio access network for wireless subscriber stations (SSs) 110 . A SS may be a MSS or a fixed SS which may be relocated within the system. In some implementations, a base station 120 may be designed to have directional antennas and to produce two or more directional beams to further divide each cell into different sections. Base station controllers (BSCs) 130 are connected, usually with wires or cables, to BSs 120 and control the connected BSs 120 . Each BSC 130 is usually connected to and controls two or more designated BSs 120 . The wireless system 100 may include a carrier packet network 140 that may be connected packet data network 160 (e.g., an IP network). A packet data serving node 142 may be used to provide an interface between the carrier packet network 140 and the packet data network 160 . In addition, a carrier packet network manager 144 may be connected to the carrier packet network 140 to provide various network management functions, such as such as an AAA server for authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) functions. Each subscriber station 110 may be a stationary or mobile wireless communication device. Examples of a stationary wireless device may include desktop computers and computer servers. Examples of a mobile wireless device (i.e., a MSS) may include mobile wireless phones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), and mobile computers. A subscriber station 110 may be any communication device capable of wirelessly communicating with base stations 120 . In the examples described here, mobile wireless devices or mobile stations (MSs) are used as exemplary implementations of the subscribed stations. FIG. 2 illustrates one exemplary implementation of a hand over process. Two neighboring base stations BS 1 and BS 2 in the system 100 divide their respective radio cells into two zones, a hand-over zone and a non-hand-over zone based on the radial distance from the respective base station. In the hand-over zone, a subscriber station receives signals from both base stations BS 1 and BS 2 and may be operated to select either of the two base stations BS 1 and BS 2 to communicate. Notably, a subscriber station may switch from BS 1 to BS 2 in the hand-over zone or vice versa. In the non-hand-over zone of the cell, a subscriber station receives signals only from its own base station but not from the other neighboring station. To be more accurately, the signals from the base station in the neighboring cell are below the threshold power level for a normal communication link. As a specific example, FIG. 2 shows that the cell of the base station BS 1 has a central region 210 around the BS 1 as the non-hand-over zone in which a signal from the neighboring BS 2 is not sufficiently strong to allow for a subscriber station in the region 210 to communicate with the BS 2 . Similarly, the cell of the neighboring base station BS 2 has a central zone 220 as the non-hand-over zone in which a subscriber station only communicates with the BS 2 . A region 212 between the BS 1 and BS 2 outside the non-hand-over zones 210 and 220 is shown as the hand-over zone for at least the base stations BS 1 and BS 2 and may also receive signals from other neighboring base stations. Similar hand-over zones exist for BS 1 with other neighboring base stations and are not illustrated here. The present VSHO process generally happens in the hand-over zones. Although only two base stations are shown in FIG. 2 , it is understood that three or more adjacent base stations may be within the radio range with the MSS and may be part of the present VSHO process. Several technical concepts are now introduced for the VSHO. Some aspects of these concepts may be described in IEEE 802.16e/D8 (May 2005) in connection with the fast base station switching (FBSS) mechanism. See, generally, the description in Section 6.3.21 entitled “MAC layer handover procedure” and more specifically see sections 6.3.21.3, 6.3.21.3.2, 6.3.21.3.3 4. section 6.3.21.3.4, 6.3.21.3.4.1, and 6.3.21.3.4.2. The entire description in Section 6.3.21 entitled “MAC layer handover procedure” of IEEE 802.16e/D8 (May 2005) is incorporated herein by reference as part of the specification of this application. First, a serving BS is a BS that has allocated resources to the MSS, i.e. assigned Basic connection identifier (CID), Primary Management CID, Secondary Management CID and data CIDs to the MSS which is kept in synchronization with a serving BS at all times. A target BS is a BS that the MSS is intended to hand over to. Once the hand over process is successfully completed, a target BS becomes a serving BS. A transmitting BS is the serving BS that is designated to transmit data to and receive data from the MSS at a given frame. An active set is a data sheet with a list of serving BSs to the MSS and is maintained at the BS. FIG. 3 illustrates the message flow of one implementation of the present VSHO. When a MSS is in a VSHO process, the MSS's active set contains multiple serving BSs. The MSS is only transmitting/receiving data to/from one of the serving BSs (transmitting BS) at any given frame. The transmitting BS can change from frame to frame depending on the BS allocation scheme. Therefore, different transmitting BSs may be used in transmitting different frames. Although the MSS only receiving and transmitting the traffic with one BS in each frame, the MSS is simultaneously monitoring other BSs during the VSHO process. For example, the MSS is controlled to process the DL_MAP message which is a directory of the slot locations within the downlink subframe, and UL_MAP which is a directory of slot locations within the uplink subframe from all serving BSs at each frame. Based on the DL MAP and UL MAP messages from other serving BSs, the MSS decides which serving BS is the transmitting BS for the current frame. Alternatively, the switching of transmitting BS can also be done through the MAC message and the MSS does not need to read DL_MAP and UL_MAP from multiple BSs. The MSS monitors the downlink of all serving BSs in the active set and determines its preferred transmitting BS based on received Carrier-to-Interference-plus-Noise-Ratio (CINR) from all serving BS. The MSS sends its preferred transmitting BS to the current transmitting BS over fast feedback channel. When the BS receives the request, the receiving BS changes the transmitting BS to the MSS preferred BS after all H-ARQ (if activated) re-transmissions are completed. In FIG. 3 , a specific example for adding a serving BS is illustrated to show the basic operation of the present VSHO. Some features of the air interface messages used in FIG. 3 are as follows. A BS broadcasts information about the network topology using the MOB-NBR-ADV MAC Management message. When an MSS performs the scanning of neighbor BSs, it may use the channel information about neighbor BSs acquired from this message. After scanning for neighbor BSs using the scanning interval allocated by the serving BS, the MSS shall report the scanning result to the Serving BS through MOB-SCAN-REPORT message, periodically or in case of a specific event which can be that the rank of the received CINR of neighbor BSs is changed. This scanning report may assist Serving BS to recommend suitable BSs for BS initiated handover operation. The Scanning Interval Allocation Request (MOB-SCN-REQ) message may be transmitted by an MSS to request a scanning interval for the purpose of seeking neighbor BS, and determining their suitability as targets for the hand over. The Scanning Interval Allocation Response (MOB-SCN-RSP) message is transmitted by the BS in response to an MOB-SCN-REQ message sent by an MSS. In addition, BS may send an unsolicited MOB_SCN_RSP. The message is to be transmitted on the basic CID. As an example, the MOB-SCN-REQ message can be sent by the BS with setting parameters to all zeros when it wants to deny scan request from the MSS and the BS includes all parameters (e.g., Scan Duration, Start Frame, Interleaving interval, etc.) in the MOB-SCN-RSP message. The MSS may transmit an MSS HO Request (MOB-MSSHO-REQ) message (MOB-MSSHO-REQ message) when the MSS initiates a hand over. The MOB-MSSHO-REQ message is transmitted on the basic CID. In addition, when an MSS starts actual handover process, it sends an MOB_HO-IND with HO_IND_type=“00”. When a serving BS receives an MOB-HO-IND message, the serving BS may release resource or retain it in order to transfer to a target BS when it is requested in future operations. In implementing the present VSHO, the MS and the BS maintain a list of BSs that are involved in VSHO with the MS. The list is called the Active Set. Among the BSs in the Active Set, an Anchor BS is defined. Regular operation when MS is registered at a single BS is a particular case of VSHO with Active Set consisting of single BS, which in this case shall be the Anchor BS. When operating in VSHO, the MS only communicates with the Anchor BS for UL and DL messages including management and traffic connections. Transition from one Anchor BS to another (“switching”) is performed. The BS broadcasts the DCD message that includes the H_Add Threshold and H_Delete Threshold. These thresholds may be used by the MS to determine if MOB_MSHO-REQ should be sent to request switching to another Anchor BS or changing Active Set. When the mean CINR of a BS is less than a threshold (H_Delete Threshold), the MS may send MOB_MSHO-REQ to request dropping this BS from the active set; when the mean CINR of a neighbor BS is higher than H_Add Threshold, the MS may send MOB_MSHO-REQ to request adding this neighbor BS to the active set. In each case Anchor BS responds with MOB_BSHO-RSP with updated Active Set. The process of updating Active Set begins with MOB_MSHO-REQ from MS or MOB_BSHO-REQ from the Anchor BS. Process of Anchor BS update may also begin with MOB_MSHO-REQ from MS or MOB_BSHO-REQ from the Anchor BS or it may begin with Anchor switching indication via Fast Feedback channel. If an MS that transmitted a MOB_MSHO-REQ message detects an incoming MOB_BSHO-REQ message, it may respond with a MOB_MSHO-REQ or MOB_HO-IND message and ignore its own previous request. Similarly, a BS that transmitted a MOB_BSHO-REQ message and detects an incoming MOB_MSHO-REQ or MOB_HO-IND message from the same MS can ignore its own previous request. In some implementations, there are several conditions for implementing the VSHO handover between MS and a group of BSs. These conditions include (1) BSs involving in VSHO are synchronized based on a common time source; (2) The frames sent by the BSs from Active Set arrive at the MS within the prefix interval; (3) BSs involving in VSHO have synchronized frames; (4) BSs involving in VSHO operate at same frequency channel; and (5) BSs involving in VSHO are also required to share or transfer MAC context. Such MAC context includes all information MS and BS normally exchange during Network Entry, particularly authentication state, so that an MS authenticated/registered with one of BSs from active set BSs is automatically authenticated/registered with other BSs from the same active set. The context includes also set of Service Flows and corresponding mapping to connections associated with MS, current authentication and encryption keys associated with the connections. In implementing the present VSHO, the related MAC management messages are processed as follows. The MS reports the preferred Anchor BS by using the MOB_MSHO-REQ message. The BS informs the MS of the Anchor BS update through MOB_BSHO-REQ or MOB_BSHO-RSP message with the estimated switching time. The MS updates its Anchor BS based on the information received in MOB_BSHO-REQ or MOB_BSHO-RSP. The MS also indicates its acceptance of the new anchor BS through MOB_HO-IND, with SHOFBSS_IND_type field set to 0b00. The MS may reject the Anchor BS update instruction by the BS, by setting the SHOFBSS_IND_type field in MOB_HO-IND to 0b10 (Anchor BS update reject). The BS may reconfigure the Anchor BS list and retransmit MOB_BSHO-RSP or MOB_BSHO-REQ message to the MS. After an MS or BS has initiated an Anchor BS update using MOB_MSHO/BSHO-REQ, the MS may cancel Anchor BS update at any time. The cancellation shall be made through transmission of a MOB_HO-IND with SHOFBSS_IND_type field set to 0b01. The present VSHO includes a feedback from a BS to the MSS during the VSHO, now referred as Fast Anchor BS Selection Feedback Mechanism. For MS and BS using the Fast-feedback method to update Active BS Set, when the MS has more than one BS in its active set, the MS transmits fast Anchor BS selection information to the current Anchor BS using Fast-feedback channel. If the MS needs to transmit Anchor BS selection information, it transmits the codeword corresponding to the selected Anchor BS via its Fast-feedback channel. The codeword is identified by TEMP_BSID assigned to the BSs in an active set. Only a few implementations and examples are described, however other variations, modification and enhancements are possible.

Efficient hand over mechanisms for OFDM and OFDMA wireless communication systems to operate a mobile subscriber station to transmit and receive a frame with only one base station while monitoring communications with adjacent base stations.

RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is related to, and claims priority in, co-pending U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 60/551,421, filed Mar. 9, 2004, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. This application is also a continuation-in-part of co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/369,737, filed Feb. 21, 2003, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] The treatment of long bone fractures typically involves internal stabilization. The benefits over external stabilization casting traction and plating include, better alignment, less invasive procedure, faster weight bearing, faster recovery, and less blood loss. An intramedullary nail or rod is a cylindrical usually hollow rod inserted in the center of the intramedullary canal or marrow cavity. The rod is usually titanium or stainless steel and is strong enough to support the bone loads during the bones healing process. The bones that are fixed in this manner are the femur, tibia, humerus and radius an ulna. Nails are typically generally circular in cross section or have a shape nearly circular. [0003] One step in the surgical technique is the preparation of the canal. It varies in shape depending upon the position along the bone axis. The center of the bone is called the isthmus, which is a narrowing of the canal. This is especially true in the femur where in order to carry the body weight, the bone gets quite thick in its center. [0004] A nail must be sized to carry the body weight. In order to get present day nails large enough to carry these loads, typically one and one-half to three times body weight, the rod must be larger than the canal. What is presently done is enlarging the canal. This is done is the following steps. A guide rod is inserted in the canal over it entire length. It is usually about two to about four millimeters in diameter and is about 250 to about 1000 millimeters long. It serves several purposes; first it is used to align the fragments of bone. A surgeon will use the guide rod to thread the segments through their canals. Secondly the guide rod is used to guide cutters through the canal to enlarge it to accept the nail. [0005] The reaming process has several components. A drill with a hole through its driving axis is used to supply power. Bone is difficult to cut, especially in young males, who are frequently the fracture patient. The drill is either pneumatic or battery powered. It can impart a high torque on all driving components in order to ream the bone. As the canal of the bone is curved, a flexible shaft is used to couple the drill and the reamer. The flexible shaft is usually about 450 millimeters long and about eight to about twelve millimeters in diameter. It is cannulated, and has a hole along its length slightly larger than the guide rod. It has a connection means on one end for the drill and on the other end for connection with the reamer head (cutters). The connection to the cutter can be a radial or side-loading dovetail. It can also be an axial loading quick connect that uses the guide rod as a lock or locking means. [0006] The reaming set has a set of cutters that increase in diameter in increments of one half to one millimeter. A set of reamer heads for the femur may have reamer heads from nine to fourteen millimeters. The reamers are typical less than three centimeters in length, as longer cutter could not follow the curve of the bone. The reaming is done to one half to one millimeter over the selected nail size so it is easy to insert. [0007] The reaming is done by attaching a reamer head to the flex shaft and then threading these two parts over the end of the guide rod. They are advanced to bone, cut the bone and are withdrawn. The cutter is pulled back off the guide rod and then disconnected from the flexible shaft by moving the cutter radially. The next size reamer head is connected to the flexible shaft radially, and then the assembly is axially threaded onto the guide rod and the process is repeated until the desired cavity size is prepared. [0008] It is common for six to ten reaming steps to be needed to make the canal of sufficient size to accept a nail. This is a slow and tedious part of the surgery. The difficulty arises in that the guide rod is very long and is only slightly more rigid than a coat hanger. The flexible shaft is also pretty flimsy and almost as long. The guide rod's long length outside the body make it a hard target to hit as a three millimeter rod must be axially aligned with a three millimeter nominal sized hole in the flexible shaft with only about a quarter millimeter of tolerance. Two long flexible parts must be perfectly axially aligned in order to be threaded. [0009] These steps show how it is done. The surgeon must hold the dovetail style cutter to the flexible shaft while trying to do the threading process. At the same time, the drill must be supported. This process usually requires at least three hands: one to hold the drill, one to hold the flex shaft reamer connection and one to hold the guide rod steady so they can be axially aligned. As the surgeon's gloves at this time are wet with blood and fat from the canal, they are very slick and only makes this more difficult. Some surgeons that are very skilled can hold the drill with one hand, and use the other to hold the reamer to the shaft, and capture the bouncing guide rod, then align it all together with one hand. Few indeed are those who have this type of dexterity. [0010] The axially loading flex shaft/cutter connections do load these two parts together faster and may hold them together on their own, however they still require three hands to thread the cutter over the guide rod. The most difficult part is threading the cutters on the guide rod, and it must be done many times. [0011] If the reamer head is dropped from the hand onto the floor during this process, it must be sterilized delaying the process even further. Clearly, reaming is a frustrating part of the long bone fracture fixation procedure, and it is no wonder it is left to residents and those in their medical training to do this tedious task. [0012] Another drawback of the contemporary guide rods is that they are constructed of non-resilient or non-flexible material. This provides additional difficulty in manipulating the reamer heads onto the guide rod such as requiring the drill and drill head to be lifted high into the air to perform the exchange. [0013] Accordingly, there is a need for a reaming device and related apparatus that addresses these drawbacks. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0014] It is an object of the present invention to provide a device that allows changing of reamer heads without removal of the flexible shaft from the guide rod. [0015] It is a further object of the present invention to provide such a device that facilitates the procedure for exchanging cutters during the bone reaming process. [0016] These and other objects and advantages of the present invention are achieved by providing a bone reaming device for reaming a bone canal, which device has a rod and a cutter. The rod has a first end, a second end and is sized and shaped to fit in the bone canal. At least a portion of the rod is flexible thereby allowing the first and second ends to be bent toward each other. The cutter is removably connectable to the rod. The rod guides the cutter in the bone canal. [0017] In another embodiment, there is also provided a guide rod for use with a cutter for reaming a bone canal. The cutter is removably connectable to the guide rod. The guide rod has a body having a first end, a second end and is sized and shaped to fit in the bone canal. The body has at least a portion thereof that is flexible thereby allowing the first and second ends to be bent toward each other. The guide rod guides the cutter in the bone canal. [0018] In another embodiment, there is also provided a guide rod operably connectable with a cutter for creating a hole in a bone canal. The guide rod has a first end, a second end, a flexible portion and a plurality of cross-sectional areas. The guide rod is sized and shaped to fit in the bone canal. At least a first cross-sectional area of the plurality of cross-sectional areas allows the cutter to be removed from the guide rod. At least a second cross-sectional area of the plurality of cross-sectional areas prevents the cutter from being removed from the guide rod. The flexible portion allows the first and second ends to be bent toward each other. [0019] There is also provided a method of reaming a bone canal which includes, but is not limited to, providing a guide rod having a first end, a second end and a flexible portion; providing a cutter that is removably connectable to the guide rod; bending the guide rod at the flexible portion thereby moving the first and second ends toward each other; loading the cutter on the guide rod; and advancing the cutter along the guide rod into the bone canal. [0020] There is also provided a method of reaming a bone canal that includes the steps of, but is not limited to, providing a guide rod having a flexible portion and a longitudinal axis when the flexible portion is unbiased; providing a cutter that is removably connectable to the guide rod; loading the cutter on the guide rod; and advancing the cutter along the guide rod into the bone canal. The loading of the guide rod is done when the guide rod is non-coincidental to the longitudinal axis. [0021] There is also provided a cutter for creating a hole in a bone canal. The cutter has a central bore having a diameter and a radial slot with slot walls. The radial slot is in communication with the central bore. The radial slot has a width that is smaller than the diameter of the central bore. [0022] At least a portion of the rod that is flexible can be made from a super elastic alloy. The second end of the rod may have an enlarged member that prevents the cutter from sliding off the second end. The cutter can have a central bore and a radial slot. The central bore can have a diameter and the radial slot can have a width. The radial slot may be in communication with the central bore. The width of the radial slot can be smaller than the diameter of the central bore. [0023] The rod can have a plurality of cross-sectional areas. At least a first cross-sectional area of the plurality of cross-sectional areas allows the cutter to be removed from the rod and at least a second cross-sectional area of the plurality of cross-sectional areas can prevent the cutter from being removed from the rod. At least one of the plurality of cross-sectional areas may be circular. At least a portion of the first cross-sectional area may be flexible. At least a portion of the second cross-sectional area may be flexible. [0024] The device may also have a support member operably connected between the first and second cross-sectional areas. The support member may be a hollow tube having a third cross-sectional area that is greater than the first cross-sectional area and less than the second cross-sectional area. The support member may have a tapered end. At least a portion of the support member may be made from a super elastic alloy. [0025] The slot walls may be parallel to each other in a direction toward the central bore. The slot walls may converge toward each other in a direction toward the central bore. The slot walls may have first and second portions, where the first portions are parallel to each other in a direction toward the central bore and the second portions converge toward each other in the direction toward the central bore. At least a portion of the cutter may have a coating. The coating can be titanium oxide, chrome, titanium aluminum oxide, or any combinations thereof. At least a portion of the cutter may be treated with a low-friction coating. [0026] The present invention is intended to alleviate the drawbacks of the conventional axially loaded intramedullary reamer used in long bone fixation surgery. An object of this invention is to provide a radially loading reamer that does not necessitate separation of the reamer shaft and the guide rod. [0027] To accomplish the above recited object, the present invention has a long slender rod to fit the intramedullary canal of a long bone with a plurality of cross sectional areas used to guide reamers (cutters) within the intramedullary canal of the bone. The cutters are conventional reaming heads with the addition of a radial slot extending from the central bore. The preferred embodiment has two main shaft cross sections, and both sections are circular. The guide rod can be constructed from one component. The advantage to one component is that is preassembled, however the small diameter shaft can bend during manipulation prior to reaming. Straightening a bent rod intra-operatively can be difficult. [0028] Alternatively, the rod may have more than one segment. One component looks externally like a conventional guide rod with an engagement means on the end opposite the ball end. The engagement means could be contained within an internal cavity, a thread. The second component is a smaller cross section rod, or loading section. The preferred embodiment would be a round section. [0029] The small section could have an engagement means on it. It can be a friction fit into a smooth bore. The preferred embodiment is a thread. The two components could line up axially and lock together. They would then function like the unitary component device. The small component could be added after the fracture manipulation is complete lessening the chance for a bent small section. The small section rod could be a commonly used orthopaedic wire, or Kirschner wire (K wire), used for a multitude of procedures. [0030] The length of the small section should be slightly longer than the cutter. It could be much longer than the cutter, as K wires can be over ten centimeters long. The preferred embodiment for ease of loading, flexible shaft retention would be approximately five centimeters. That typically would allow a few centimeters of small shaft to extend beyond the cutter to hold the flexible shaft in place. [0031] The locking means between each rod segment holds the small section on while the flexible reamer is being moved back and forth. There is some friction between the guide rod and inner portion of the flexible reamer. Axial resistance to the motion of the small segment relative to the large segment could be done with a threaded connection. The reamers tend to run in one direction only, so a standard right hand thread would tend to self tighten during operation. Typical sizes of the rod main portion would be from two and four millimeters in diameter, and the smaller cross section is between one to two millimeters in diameter. The smaller section would typical have a size that is fifty percent of the larger section. [0032] The small cross section can be made by removal of material from a conventional guide rod. This can be done in one or more planes, so the cross section can form a polygon. These cuts can be adjacent to the end of the guide rod, or they can be located a short distance from the end. The later embodiment allows a full section of the guide rod to center the flexible shaft and its dovetail (or equivalent locking means) over the rod to further speed reamer loading. This method is somewhat more difficult to manufacture, as working with a long flexible rod is difficult. [0033] The loading section could have both small and large sections, allowing radially loading while maintaining the centering of a full section on the flexible shaft bearing surface, at the same time, keeping the economy of a constant section main guide rod. This embodiment of the loading section can also be replaceable to reduce bending risk. [0034] Another loading section has two diameter sections equal to the main guide rod flanking a smaller loading section. This allows the advanced centering, radially loading of the previous embodiments, and provides an abutment surface to stop the thread engagement, stiffening the junction between the main guide rod and the loader section. The loading section could have a tapered approach to facilitate loading of the reamer shaft initially. [0035] The small cross section of the above embodiments is long enough to clear the length of the reamer, approximately three centimeters. In cases where the small section is not backed up with a larger cross section, the shorter section can be extended to maintain the flexible shaft on the rod. An overlap of two centimeters is adequate to keep the flexible shaft in place. The length of the straight short portion could then be about five centimeters. [0036] The main portion of the two piece embodiment would be from about 250 to about 1000 millimeters long. This depends on the bone that is being reamed. Generally, the rod is about twice the length of the canal of the bone. The main portion of the two piece assembly has a stop on the end going into the canal to prevent reamer dissociation. The unitary guide rod has a stop to prevent reamer dissociation also. [0037] The reamer or cylindrical cutter enlarges the intramedullary canal by cutting a round hole. This hole will provide means to place an intramedullary rod. The cutters generally are tapered or barrel shape to follow previous cutters, and have a good cutting action. The radial slot is cut from the central bore to the outer edge. It is located to minimize the disturbance to the cutting edges of the flutes. Flutes that must be divided are done so such that there are no weak sections or unintended sharp edges. The slot is slightly wider than the small section of the rod. The reamer head can then slide on and off of the rod. When the reamer is advanced onto the main portion of the rod, it spins freely and can not move radially because the slot is smaller than the guide rod at that portion. At this point it functions like a typical reamer. [0038] When the reamer is to be exchanged, the flexible drive shaft draws it back out of the canal and up the rod so the reamer head is over the smaller section. The cutter is slid off the guide rod along a radial path. When the loading section is a constant diameter (K wire) the flex shaft is held in place and provides some movement between the rod and flexible shaft connector. With the multiple diameter loading section, the larger upper section perfectly centers the flexible shaft so that no alignment is needed. The round cross section of the smaller section does not require special alignment either. The only alignment necessary is that of the reamer dovetail to the flexible shaft, which is as it is required on present reaming systems. In the embodiment of a guide rod with the polygon shaped reduced section, the reamer engagement must be aligned with the polygon before the reamer can be loaded. With all of the embodiments, once the smaller reamer is removed, the next sized reamer is placed over the small section, locked with the dovetail and advanced into the canal. [0039] Another embodiment is for the transitions in guide rod diameters to have tapers to make it easier for a reamer to go from one to another without getting caught. This can be adapted to all previous embodiments. The extra section for the two pieces can have driving means on one end to lock the threads in place and to remove it if need be. These can be a screw driver slot, external or internal polygon shape or a surface geometry such as a knurl. In another embodiment of the loading rod, the tip adjacent to the thread has a diameter to facilitate centering within the thread, making the connection faster. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0040] [0040]FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the prior art showing a long bone (femur), drill, flexible reamer shaft (shortened and simplified) guide rod (shortened), and cylindrical cutter, just prior to reaming the bone; [0041] [0041]FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the prior art showing the reamer assembly disengaged from the guide rod in preparation for reamer exchange; [0042] [0042]FIG. 3A is a perspective view of the prior art, showing the radial engagement of the reamer and dovetail reamer connection, off the guide rod; [0043] [0043]FIG. 3B is a close up perspective view of the prior art, showing the radial engagement of the reamer and dovetail reamer connection, off the guide rod; [0044] [0044]FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the prior art, a guide rod with end stop, straight, shown shortened for clarity; [0045] [0045]FIG. 5A is a perspective view of the prior art, a ten mm diameter reamer head with the helical cutting teeth omitted for clarity; [0046] [0046]FIG. 5B is a perspective view of the prior art, a twelve mm diameter reamer head with the helical cutting teeth omitted for clarity; [0047] [0047]FIG. 5C is a perspective view of the prior art, a fourteen mm diameter reamer head with the helical cutting teeth omitted for clarity; [0048] [0048]FIG. 6 is a perspective view of an embodiment, the one piece, multiple cross section shaft of guide rod, with the larger cross section portion of the shaft shortened for clarity of the present invention; [0049] [0049]FIG. 7A is a perspective view of another embodiment of the present invention, a multi-piece, multiple cross section shaft guide rod, assembled, with the larger cross section portion of the shaft shortened for clarity; [0050] [0050]FIG. 7B is a plan view of a cross section of the multiple-piece rod, with the larger cross portion of the section shaft shortened for clarity; [0051] [0051]FIG. 7C is a detail of the plan view of threaded connection of the multiple-piece rod; [0052] [0052]FIG. 8A is a perspective view of an alternate embodiment of the guide rod with parallel cuts, cut away from end, with the larger cross section portion of the shaft shortened for clarity; (ball end is omitted); [0053] [0053]FIG. 8B is a plan view of the alternate embodiment of the guide rod of FIG. 8A with parallel cuts, cut away from end; [0054] [0054]FIG. 9A is a perspective view of an alternate embodiment of guide rod with a polygon cross section, cut away from end; [0055] [0055]FIG. 9B is a perspective view of the alternate embodiment of the guide rod of FIG. 9A with a polygon cross section, cut away from end; [0056] [0056]FIG. 10 is a perspective view of an embodiment showing the positioning of the cutter, flexible shaft, and guide rod components prior to radial loading; The large section of the guide rod is shown shortened for drawing clarity; [0057] FIGS. 11 A-F are perspective views of an embodiment showing progressive radial engagement of the cutter guided by the small section and the connector on the shaft; [0058] FIGS. 12 A-C are perspective views of the components in FIG. 10 to illustrate the advancement of cutter and flexible shaft from the small cross section to the large cross section of the rod; [0059] FIGS. 13 A-C are perspective views of the components in FIG. 10 to illustrate the advancement of cutter and flexible shaft from the small cross section to the large cross section of the rod rotated to show the junction position; [0060] FIGS. 14 A-B are perspective views of the embodiment of FIG. 10 to show the radial slot guiding the small cross section; [0061] FIGS. 15 A-B are perspective views of the embodiment of FIG. 8A with the cutter and flexible shaft in alignment for radial engagement; [0062] [0062]FIG. 16A is a plan view of the loading of cutter relative to intramedullary canal, guide rod assembly and femur; [0063] [0063]FIG. 16B is a perspective view of the loading of cutter relative to intramedullary canal, guide rod assembly and femur; [0064] [0064]FIG. 17A is a perspective view of the cutter on the guide rod, attached to the flexible shaft, ready to ream the canal; [0065] [0065]FIG. 17B is a detailed view of the cutter of FIG. 17A; [0066] [0066]FIG. 18A is a perspective view of the prior art cutter with cutting flutes; [0067] [0067]FIG. 18B is a perspective view of a cutter of the present invention with cutting flutes and the radial slot; [0068] [0068]FIG. 19A is a perspective view of small cross section rod with constant cross section; [0069] [0069]FIG. 19B is a perspective detail view of the embodiment of FIG. 19A showing the locking thread and the leading alignment boss; [0070] [0070]FIG. 20 is a perspective view of the main guide rod of large cross section with a threaded recess for the second, small section rod component; [0071] [0071]FIG. 21A is a perspective view of a two piece embodiment of the present invention with dual diameters with a flexible shaft alignment boss on the small section component shown assembled; [0072] [0072]FIG. 21B is a plan view of the two piece embodiment of the present invention with dual diameters with a flexible shaft alignment boss; [0073] [0073]FIG. 22 is a perspective view of the cutter on the two piece embodiment with a flexible shaft alignment boss; [0074] [0074]FIG. 23 is a perspective view of the two piece embodiment with a flexible shaft alignment boss and flange adjacent to the locking thread; [0075] [0075]FIG. 24 is a plan view of the small section with a driving mechanism, and the flange adjacent to the locking thread; [0076] [0076]FIG. 25 is a perspective view of the embodiment shown in FIG. 24; [0077] [0077]FIG. 26 is a perspective view of a one piece guide rod with integral small section and upper large section for alignment; [0078] [0078]FIG. 27 is a plan view of an alternative embodiment of the guide rod of the present invention; [0079] [0079]FIG. 28 is a perspective view of a cross-section of the guide rod with a strain relieving tube; [0080] [0080]FIG. 29 is a perspective view of an alternate embodiment of the cutter of the present invention; [0081] [0081]FIG. 30 is a top view of the cutter of FIG. 29; [0082] [0082]FIG. 31 is a top view of an alternative cutter of the present invention; [0083] [0083]FIG. 32 is a top view of another alternative cutter of the present invention; [0084] [0084]FIG. 33 is a top view of yet another alternative cutter of the present invention; and [0085] [0085]FIG. 34 is a top view of still yet another alternative cutter of the present invention. REFERENCE NUMBERS IN THE DRAWINGS [0086] [0086] 10 femur [0087] [0087] 20 drill [0088] [0088] 30 flexible reamer shaft [0089] [0089] 40 cutter [0090] [0090] 50 guide rod, [0091] [0091] 60 axial separation [0092] [0092] 70 dovetail [0093] [0093] 75 internal cannula [0094] [0094] 80 relief [0095] [0095] 90 dovetail cavity [0096] [0096] 100 relief channel [0097] [0097] 110 cannulation [0098] [0098] 110 cutter cannula [0099] [0099] 120 stop or ball end [0100] [0100] 130 two cross sectioned shaft guide rod with ball end. [0101] [0101] 140 small cross section portion [0102] [0102] 150 junction [0103] [0103] 160 large cross section portion [0104] [0104] 170 small section [0105] [0105] 180 large section [0106] [0106] 190 threaded portion [0107] [0107] 200 threaded recess [0108] [0108] 210 rectangular [0109] [0109] 220 square [0110] [0110] 230 cutter [0111] [0111] 240 radial slot opening [0112] [0112] 250 bone's canal [0113] [0113] 260 cutting flutes [0114] [0114] 270 recesses. [0115] [0115] 280 alignment section [0116] [0116] 290 integral flexible shaft alignment section [0117] [0117] 300 large sections. [0118] [0118] 310 driving means [0119] [0119] 500 guide rod [0120] [0120] 501 longitudinal axis of guide rod body [0121] [0121] 600 support member [0122] [0122] 610 outer edge [0123] [0123] 620 tapered edge [0124] [0124] 2300 cutter [0125] [0125] 2310 cutting flute [0126] [0126] 2320 leading edge [0127] [0127] 2325 trailing edge [0128] [0128] 2350 slot wall [0129] [0129] 2400 cutter [0130] [0130] 2410 cutting flute [0131] [0131] 2450 slot wall [0132] [0132] 2500 cutter [0133] [0133] 2510 cutting flute [0134] [0134] 2550 slot wall [0135] [0135] 2600 cutter [0136] [0136] 2610 cutting flute [0137] [0137] 2650 slot wall [0138] [0138] 2655 parallel wall [0139] [0139] 2660 angled wall [0140] [0140] 2700 cutter [0141] [0141] 2710 cutting flute [0142] [0142] 2750 slot wall [0143] [0143] 2755 parallel wall [0144] [0144] 2760 angled wall DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0145] For purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the present invention, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and specific language will be used to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of the scope of the invention is thereby intended, there being contemplated such alterations and modifications of the illustrated device, and such further applications of the principles of the invention as disclosed herein, as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. [0146] [0146]FIG. 1 shows the prior art. A long bone, in this case a femur 10 , is reamed with a drill 20 coupled to a flexible reamer shaft 30 and a cutter 40 . This assembly is slid over a guide rod, 50 into the intramedullary canal. The flexible shaft 30 and the cutter 40 are locked together so they rotate at the same speed. The drill drives these two components into the bone 10 , to create a cylindrical cavity for a fracture fixing rod. [0147] [0147]FIG. 2 is of prior art showing the axial separation 60 of the cutter/flexible shaft/drill and the guide rod 50 in preparation for reamer exchange. [0148] [0148]FIG. 3A is of prior art showing the radial loading of the cutter 40 onto the flexible shaft 30 . [0149] [0149]FIG. 3B is of prior art showing details of a typical flexible shaft and reamer connection. The flexible shaft has a dovetail 70 adjacent to a relief 80 . The cutter has a corresponding dovetail cavity 90 and smaller relief channel 100 . The cuter has a cannulation 110 extending through its length. The cannulation 110 is slightly larger than the guide rod 50 . The flexible shaft 30 has an internal cannula 75 that is the same size as the cutter cannula 110 and both of these are slightly larger than the guide rod 50 , so everything will easily rotate about the guide rod 50 , when powered by the drill. [0150] [0150]FIG. 4 shows the prior art guide rod 50 . It is typically a solid rod with a stop or ball end 120 . The ball end 120 is larger than the cutter cannulation 110 and will not allow the cutter to pass. This keeps the cutter from coming off inside the bone. The ball is typical welded or silver soldered onto the rod. The rod can be from 300 to 1000 millimeters long. [0151] FIGS. 5 A,B,C show the prior art. The cutters have identical dovetail cavity and reliefs, but the main diameter increases. [0152] [0152]FIG. 6 shows the two cross sectioned shaft of rod 130 with ball end of one embodiment of the present invention. The rod 130 has a large cross section portion 160 , a small cross section portion 140 and a ball end 120 . The junction 150 of the large cross section portion 160 and small cross section portion 140 is tapered to facilitate cutter transfer. The components line up along their axes. The large cross section 160 and the ball end 120 are similar in shape to the prior art. [0153] [0153]FIGS. 7A and B show the inventive guide rod 1 that can be more than one component. The small section rod component 170 can be exclusively on one component, and the large section on another component 180 . The two components 170 , 180 are joined together to functional as one with a connection. [0154] A threaded connection is shown in FIG. 7C. The small section rod component 170 has a threaded portion on one end 190 , mates with a threaded recess 200 in the large section rod component 180 . [0155] The cross section of the smaller section rod component 170 is shown as circular. [0156] The smaller cross section can be non circular and can be generally rectangular 210 or square 220 as shown in FIGS. 8 A-B and FIGS. 9 A-B. [0157] [0157]FIG. 10 shows a flexible shaft 30 that goes over the guide rod small section 170 . The inventive cutter 230 is positioned so the dovetail locking feature 90 is aligned with the mating geometry on the flexible shaft 70 and the inventive radial slot opening 240 is directed toward the small section. [0158] FIGS. 11 A-F show the cutter 230 advanced radially toward the center of the guide rod small section 170 . [0159] [0159]FIG. 12A-C show the cutter 230 and flexible shaft 30 advanced axially down the guide rod 180 . [0160] [0160]FIG. 13A-C show the smaller section of the guide rod 170 going into the flexible shaft 30 and the inventive cutter cannula or center bore 110 fitting over the guide rod large section 180 . [0161] [0161]FIGS. 14A and B show the detail of the cutter retention means. The small section 170 can pass through the radial slot 240 . The large section 180 can not, and the cutter 230 can freely rotate on the main rod section 180 . [0162] [0162]FIGS. 15A and B show the non round smaller section guide rod 210 align with the flexible shaft dovetail 80 . The geometry on the guide rod 210 must be aligned with the slot 240 in the cutter 230 to advance the cutter radially to the locking position. [0163] [0163]FIGS. 16A and B show that the loading of the cutter 230 is done adjacent to the bone 10 . Most of the guide rod large section 180 is in the bone's canal 250 while loading occurs. [0164] [0164]FIGS. 17A and B show the cutter 230 with the radial slots 240 positioned ready to go into the intramedullary canal 250 . The drill 20 and flexible shaft 30 advance the cutter 230 over the guide rod large section 180 into the canal 250 . [0165] [0165]FIG. 18A shows a conventional cutter 40 with cutting flutes 260 and recesses 270 shown. [0166] [0166]FIG. 18B shows the inventive cutter 230 with cutting flutes 260 , recesses 270 and the inventive radial slot 240 shown. The cannulation 110 of the cutter is the same as the one shown in the prior art cutter 40 . The flexible shaft retention means, shown here as a dovetail interlock, 90 and 100 , are also the same as the prior art. [0167] [0167]FIG. 19A shows the single cross section small section component 170 of the guide rod assembly. The cross section is circular of maximum stiffness and ease of manufacture. [0168] [0168]FIG. 19B shows a detail of the small cross section 170 . A thread 190 is used for joining the component of the guide rod, with an alignment section 280 to align and help start the threading process. [0169] [0169]FIG. 20 shows the inventive large section guide rod component 180 with a connecter means 200 , a threaded hole shown in the non ball end. [0170] [0170]FIGS. 21A and B show the inventive guide rod assembly having a small section segment with an integral flexible shaft alignment section 290 . The flexible shaft alignment section has a diameter approximately the same diameter as the main guide rod. The internal cannula of the flexible shaft 290 is a slip fit over the guide rod 180 . The flexible shaft alignment section 290 centers the dovetail of the cutter aligned with the dovetail of the flexible shaft so the radial slot does not require its own alignment. [0171] [0171]FIG. 22 shows the cutter 230 relative to the small section and the flexible shaft alignment section 290 . [0172] [0172]FIG. 23 shows an embodiment of the small section guide rod component with two large sections 290 and 300 adjacent each other. The large section 300 adjacent to the threads stabilizes the thread. [0173] [0173]FIGS. 24 and 25 shows a driving mechanism or means to engage the small diameter section with a driving tool 310 . The driving means 310 is shown as a slot for a screw driver. The tapers 150 are to ease axial travel of the cutter. [0174] [0174]FIG. 26 shows an embodiment of the guide rod with the main section 180 , the small section 170 and the alignment section 290 all in one piece. [0175] Referring to FIG. 27, another embodiment of the present invention is shown in which at least a portion of the guide rod 500 has a body that is made from a flexible, resilient material to facilitate exchanging out the cutter 230 . Preferably, all of small section rod component 170 of guide rod 500 is made from the flexible, resilient material. This allows the large section rod component 180 to be hard and rigid enough to move bone segments, while also allowing the flexible portion to be bent and/or manipulated so that the drill 20 and reamer shaft 30 can be located in an accessible position/orientation when exchanging the cutters 230 . This is particularly helpful where longer guide rods 500 are needed and the drill 20 would typically need to be elevated very high to exchange the cutter 230 . Reference numeral 501 generally represents the longitudinal axis of the guide rod 500 when in an unbiased or unstressed state, e.g., not bending the ends towards each other. [0176] Alternative positionings of the flexible portion along the guide rod 500 can be used which similarly allow for resilient bending to make the drill more accessible for exchanging the cutters 230 , such as, for example, a portion or a plurality of portions of the small section rod component 170 , the large section rod component 180 , or both, being made flexibly resilient. Also, the entire body of the guide rod 500 or a substantial portion thereof can be made flexible or flexibly resilient. [0177] The portion of the guide rod 500 that is flexibly resilient can be made from a variety of flexible, resilient materials and/or combinations of flexible, resilient materials. Preferably, the flexible material is a shape memory alloy and/or super elastic alloy. More preferably, the material is a nickel titanium alloy or a combination of nickel titanium alloys. Most preferably, the material is nitinol. [0178] Due to the load exerted on the transition between the rigid and flexibly resilient portions of guide rod 500 , a taper along the guide rod can be used in the transition area so as to relieve the stress. Also, a tube or other rigid support member could be placed over, around, or be operably connected to the flexible portion of guide rod 500 to provide support and relieve the stress. [0179] Referring to FIG. 28, a stress or strain relieving hollow tube of the present invention is shown and represented by reference numeral 600 . Tube 600 provides stress or strain relief to lessen the localized stress or strain in the transition area between the flexibly resilient area and the more rigid area, which in this particular embodiment is between the small section 170 and the large section 180 . Tube 600 also facilitates the cutters 230 (shown in FIGS. 10-17) traveling along the guide rod 500 and passing over the transition area by reducing the change in diameter between the small section 170 and the large section 180 of the guide rod. [0180] Tube 600 can have various shapes to further facilitate both relieving the stress and strain in the transition area and facilitating the cutters 230 passing over the transition area, such as, for example, a small or gradually increasing outer diameter in proximity to the transition area near the outer edge 610 of the large section 180 so that the cutter does not catch that edge. Tube 600 can also have an angled or tapered edge 620 to facilitate the cutters passing from the small section rod component 170 over the tube. The tube 600 can additionally be a plurality of tubes, with the same or different shapes and/or dimensions, to further reduce the stress or strain in the transition area and further facilitate the cutters 230 passing over the transition area. [0181] Preferably, tube 600 is made from a flexible, resilient material or combination of flexible, resilient materials. More preferably, the flexible material is a shape memory alloy and/or super elastic alloy. Even more preferably, the material is a nickel titanium alloy or a combination of nickel titanium alloys. Most preferably, the material is nitinol. [0182] Where the entire small section rod component 170 is made of the flexible resilient material, such as, for example, nitinol, it can be crimped into place in the end of the rigid larger section rod component 180 through a hole disposed through the end of the larger section. Where tube 600 or another support member is used in conjunction with the flexible portion of the guide rod 500 , the flexible portion and the tube can be crimped or swaged together, such as, for example, in a hole formed in the end of the rigid portion of the guide rod. The distal end of guide rod 500 has an enlarged member (not shown) that prevents the cutters 230 from sliding off. [0183] The use of a flexible portion for a part or all of the guide rod 500 also facilitates shipping and handling of the guide rod. Conventional guide rods that are made of rigid material require very large boxes for shipping, which is avoided by the present invention. Additionally, cleaning and sterilization is facilitated due to the flexibility of the guide rod 500 which can be manipulated into a smaller area, such as, for example, a sterilization autoclave. The guide rod 500 can also have a clip operably connected thereto and preferably connected to the flexible portion to prevent the flexible portion from leaving the sterile field, such as, for example, by affixing the clip to a surgical drape. The clip can also facilitate the packaging of the guide rod 500 , such as, for example, allowing for the flexible portion to be clipped to the rigid portion of the guide rod to reduce the overall footprint. [0184] It should also be understood that the present invention contemplates the flexible portion or plurality of portions (or entirety) of guide rod 500 being usable with the various embodiments described herein. Alternatively, the present invention contemplates the flexible portion or plurality of portions, as described herein, being usable with other guide rods so that they are capable of placing the distal end of the guide rod, which is connectable with the drill 20 , in a position that makes the drill more accessible for exchanging the cutters 40 , such as, for example, guide rods having a uniform diameter. [0185] Referring to FIGS. 29 and 30, a cutter of the present invention is shown and generally represented by reference numeral 2300 . Cutter 2300 , similar to cutter 230 described above, allows for easy loading and unloading of the cutter on the guide rod 130 , 500 by way of central bore 110 and slot 240 . Cutter 2300 has cutting flutes 2310 , which are preferably shaped in a spiral or curved configuration. Cutting flutes 2310 preferably have leading edges 2320 that are chamfered or smoothly shaped to facilitate cutting and manipulation of the cutter 2300 . Cutting flutes 2310 are also preferably tapered so that the leading edge 2320 has a smaller width than the trailing edge 2325 . The present invention also contemplates the use of other shapes and sizes of flutes 2310 to facilitate cutting and manipulation of the cutters 2300 . [0186] Slot 240 in cutter 2300 is defined by slot walls 2350 . Cutter 2300 has slot walls 2350 that are non-parallel, symmetric and converging towards each other in the direction of the center bore 110 . The converging angle of the slot walls 2350 facilitates the loading of guide rods 130 , 500 through the slot 240 and into center bore 110 by providing a larger target. The converging angle of the slot walls 2350 also facilitates ejection of any bone chip that enters the slot 240 since the outer opening of the slot will be wider than the inner opening near the center bore 110 . [0187] Referring to FIG. 31, another alternate cutter is shown and generally represented by reference numeral 2400 . Cutter 2400 allows for easy loading and unloading of the cutter on the guide rod 130 , 500 by way of central bore 110 and slot 240 . Cutter 2400 has cutting flutes 2410 with features similar to the ones described above with respect to cutting flutes 2310 . Slot 240 in cutter 2400 is defined by slot walls 2450 . Slot walls 2450 are parallel. The parallel configuration of the slot walls 2450 reduces the likelihood of bone chips entering the slot 240 as compared to the slot in cutter 2300 since the outer opening of the slot will be the same size as the inner opening near the center bore 110 . [0188] Referring to FIG. 32, another alternate cutter is shown and generally represented by reference numeral 2500 . Cutter 2500 allows for easy loading and unloading of the cutter on the guide rod 130 , 500 by way of central bore 110 and slot 240 . Cutter 2500 has cutting flutes 2510 with features similar to the ones described above with respect to cutting flutes 2310 . Slot 240 in cutter 2500 is defined by slot walls 2550 . Slot walls 2550 are non-parallel, non-symmetric and converging towards each other in the direction of the center bore 110 . The converging angle of the slot walls 2550 facilitates the loading of guide rods 130 , 500 through the slot 240 and into center bore 110 by providing a larger target. The converging angle of the slot walls 2550 also facilitates ejection of any bone chip that enters the slot 240 since the outer opening of the slot will be wider than the inner opening near the center bore 110 . The non-symmetry of slot walls 2550 reduces the chance of the slot 240 filling with bone chips since the size of the outer opening is being reduced and the reduction of the angle reduces chips being drawn into the slot. [0189] Referring to FIG. 33, another alternate cutter is shown and generally represented by reference numeral 2600 . Cutter 2600 allows for easy loading and unloading of the cutter on the guide rod 130 , 500 by way of central bore 110 and slot 240 . Cutter 2600 has cutting flutes 2610 with features similar to the ones described above with respect to cutting flutes 2310 . Slot 240 in cutter 2600 is defined by slot walls 2650 . Slot walls 2650 have portions that are parallel 2655 and non-parallel 2660 that converge towards each other in the direction of the center bore 110 . The parallel configuration of the wall portion 2655 reduces the likelihood of bone chips entering the center bore 110 . The converging angle of the wall portion 2660 facilitates the loading of guide rods 130 , 500 through the slot 240 and into center bore 110 by providing a larger target. The converging angle of the slot walls 2660 also facilitates ejection of any bone chip that enters the slot 240 since the outer opening of the slot will be wider than the inner opening near wall portion 2655 . [0190] Referring to FIG. 34, another alternate cutter is shown and generally represented by reference numeral 2700 . Cutter 2700 allows for easy loading and unloading of the cutter on the guide rod 130 , 500 by way of central bore 110 and slot 240 . Cutter 2700 has cutting flutes 2710 with features similar to the ones described above with respect to cutting flutes 2310 . Slot 240 in cutter 2700 is defined by slot walls 2750 . Slot walls 2750 have portions that are parallel 2755 , as well as non-symmetrical, non-parallel wall portions 2760 that converge towards each other in the direction of the center bore 110 . The parallel configuration of the wall portion 2755 reduces the likelihood of bone chips entering the center bore 110 . The converging angle of the wall portion 2760 facilitates the loading of guide rods 130 , 500 through the slot 240 and into center bore 110 by providing a larger target. The converging angle of the slot walls 2760 also facilitates ejection of any bone chip that enters the slot 240 since the outer opening of the slot will be wider than the inner opening near wall portion 2755 . The non-symmetry of slot walls 2750 reduces the chance of the slot 240 filling with bone chips since the size of the outer opening is being reduced and the reduction of the angle reduces chips being drawn into the slot. [0191] The present invention also contemplates the use of other configurations for the cutters described above, such as, for example, disposing the parallel wall portion of the slot walls closest to the leading edge of the cutter in order to further reduce the likelihood of bone chips entering the slot 240 . Any of the cutters described above could also be coated for improved performance, such as, for example, with a hardener. Such coatings include, but are not limited to, titanium oxide, chrome and/or titanium aluminum oxide. The present invention contemplates the use of a marker or indicator to provide visual indication of the slot 240 , such as, for example, a coloring. The area in proximity to slot 240 can also be coated with a low-friction substance to facilitate loading the guide rod 130 , 500 into slot 240 . [0192] The present invention having been thus described with particular reference to the preferred forms thereof, it will be obvious that various changes and modifications may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined in the appended claims.

A rod is used to guide a cutter through the intramedullary canal of a long bone. Loading and unloading of the cutter is done quickly by having a reduced cross-section near one end of the rod. Loading and unloading of the cutter can also be done quickly by having at least a portion of the rod be flexible so that the ends can be bent. The cutter can have a corresponding slot radially extending from its center. The cutter can be disengaged from a driving shaft without disengaging the driving shaft from the rod, thereby eliminating a difficult realignment process and making the whole cutting process faster. The slot would not interfere with the cutting operation, nor allow the cutter to break free. The reduced section of the rod can be modular and replaceable.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit of provisional patent application No. 60/715,623, filed Sep. 9, 2005, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT RIGHTS [0002] This invention was made with United States government support awarded by the following agency: DOD ARPA DAAD 19-02-2-0026. The United States government has certain rights in this invention. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0003] The present invention relates generally to the field of molecular biology and particularly to the artificial synthesis of long DNA fragments including fragments encompassing a gene or multiple genes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0004] Significant efforts have been made to synthesize genes from oligonucleotides, with the assembly of viral and bacteriophage genomes being reported. See, e.g., J. Cello, et al., Science, 297, 2002, pp. 1016-1018; H. O. Smith, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 100, 2003, pp. 15440-15445. Assembly of these long sequences required the use of hundreds of commercially synthesized and gel-purified olignucleotides. Thus, such approaches are not economically feasible for the routine synthesis of genes for research and clinical purposes. [0005] Over the last decade, techniques have been developed for the synthesis of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) on solid substrates for use in genetics studies, particularly for hybridization experiments with microarrays. These developments have included systems to carry out precision patterning and fluorescence analysis. See, e.g., P. B. Garland, et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 30, 2002, pp. e99, et seq: A. Relogio, et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 30, 2002, pp. e51 et seq. DNA “chips” formed in this manner offer the potential for acquiring a large number of user-defined DNA oligonucleotide sequences for subsequent use in biological applications. Although oligonucleotides grown on slide surfaces have been extensively employed in this manner, there remains some uncertainty concerning the amount and relative proportion of failure sequences on the chip surface. Previous studies have estimated that a total of about 10 to 30 pmol/cm 2 of oligonucleotides are synthesized on the chip surface. G. McGall, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 119, 1997, pp. 5081-5090; E. LeProust, et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 29, 2001, pp. 2171-2180. However, it is not clear whether this estimate represents the population of full-length product or a mixture of full-length and truncated or mutated sequences. In studies using photogenerated acids during DNA synthesis, it has been postulated that proximity to the synthesis surface led to lower fidelity, and that this decrease is due to inefficient reactions of various reagents. It is unclear, however, whether such surface effects occur in photolithographic procedures using photolabile 2-nitrophenyl propoxycarbonyl (NPPOC) photodeprotection-based DNA synthesis. [0006] Historically, scientists have made use of gene synthesis to produce those genes recalcitrant to cloning due to high organismal A-T or G-C content or to modify genes for optimal protein expression and heterologous hosts. Such expression targets are generally less than three thousand bp (base pairs) in length. Gene synthesis has also been utilized to create larger assemblages (e.g., 7-8 kb) but the conventional techniques used have often required very long lengths of time (e.g., months) to obtain the final product. J. Cello, supra. [0007] New techniques have been developed for the assembly of genes, including ligase-chain reaction (LCR) and suites of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) strategies. While most gene assembly protocols start with pools of overlapping synthesized oligonucleotides, and end with PCR amplification of the assembled gene, the pathway between those two points can be quite different. In the case of LCR, the initial oligonucleotide population is required to have phosphorylated 5 ends that allow Pfu DNA ligase to covalently connect these building blocks together to form the initial template. Single stranded (ss) PCR assembly, however, makes use of unphosphorylated oligonucleotides, which undergo repetitive PCR cycling to extend and create a fill length template. A variant of this method, termed double stranded (ds) PCR involves combining all single stranded PCR oligonucleotides and their reverse complement oligonucleotides for assembly. Additionally, the LCR process requires oligonucleotide concentrations in the μM(10 −6 ) range, whereas both ss and ds PCR options have concentration requirements that are much lower (nM, 10 −9 range). The relative efficiencies and mutation rates inherent in these different strategies are not necessarily well understood. In addition to the manner used to assemble genes, the size of the initial oligonucleotides utilized may also have significant impact upon the final product and the efficiency of the process. Prior synthesis attempts have generally used oligonucleotides ranging in size from 20 to 70 bp, assembled through hybridization of overlaps in the range of 6-40 bp. Since many factors in the process are determined by the length and composition of the oligonucleotides (T m , secondary structure, etc.), the size and heterogeneity of the initial oligonucleotide population can have a significant effect on the efficiency of the assembly and the quality of the final assembled genes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] In accordance with the present invention, synthesis of long chain molecules such as DNA is carried out rapidly and efficiently to produce relatively large quantities of the desired product. The synthesis of an entire gene or multiple genes formed of many hundreds or thousands of base pairs can be accomplished rapidly and, if desired, in a fully automated process requiring minimal operator intervention, and in a matter of a day or a few days rather than many days or weeks. [0009] In the present invention, production of a desired gene or set of genes having a specified base pair sequence is initiated by analyzing the specified target sequence and determining a set of subsequences of base pairs that can be assembled to form the desired final target sequence. For example, a target sequence having several hundreds or thousands of base pairs may be divided up into a set of subsequences each having a much smaller number of base pairs, e.g., 400 to 600 bp, which are then further divided into oligonucleotide sequences, e.g., in the range of 20 to 100 bp, which may be conveniently synthesized utilizing automated oligonucleotide synthesis techniques. An exemplary oligonucleotide synthesis technique utilizes a maskless array synthesizer (MAS) by which large numbers of different oligonucleotide sequences (e.g., 50 to 100 bases in length) are generated in a array on a support in a few hours under computer control utilizing phosphoramidite chemistry without moving parts or operator intervention, although other synthesis materials and techniques may also be utilized. The synthesized oligonucleotides are subsequently selectively released from the support to be used in a sequential assembly process. The oligonucleotides may be released utilizing, for example, base labile linkers or photo-cleavable linkers. In a preferred process, the oligonucleotide sequences include not only the desired subsequences for the final product but also end sequences that may be utilized as primers in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), allowing the initial set of oligonucleotides to be greatly amplified in volume using PCR techniques. After the oligonucleotides have been amplified by PCR, the primer sequences are then removed, leaving only the desired oligonucleotides. [0010] DNA error filtering is preferably carried out on short double-stranded oligonucleotides and longer DNA fragments before and during the assembly process. An exemplary error filtering technique is DNA coincidence filtering, which utilizes the bacterial MutS protein to bind DNA duplexes containing mismatched bases while allowing error free duplexes to pass through. Assembly chambers are utilized for mixing and thermal cycling during the DNA fragment assembly. Oligonucleotides or intermediate sized DNA fragments flow into the chambers along with PCR buffer, deoxynucleotide triphosphates, and thermostable DNA polymerase. These reagents are then mixed, e.g. by ultrasonic mixing, and then thermal cycled for assembly and amplification reactions. An integrated fluidic system collects the released oligonucleotides from the synthesis chamber and routes them through the error filters to and from the assembly chambers. The system also delivers reagents needed for fragment assembly and error filtering. The fluidic system is preferably constructed of microfluidic channels and includes integrated micro-valves, flow sensors, heaters, ultrasonic mixers, and appropriate connections to external reagents, pumps and waste containers. [0011] Further objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0012] In the drawings: [0013] FIG. 1 is a simplified summary diagram of the gene assembly process of the invention. [0014] FIG. 2 is a simplified diagram illustrating the gene fabrication process sequence in accordance with the invention. [0015] FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of the safety catch photoliable linker process that may be utilized in the invention. [0016] FIG. 4 are chemical diagrams illustrating phosphoramidites which may be used for base labile linker chemistry. [0017] FIG. 5 are chemical diagrams illustrating the synthesis of acid-activated safety catch photolabile linker. [0018] FIG. 6 are chemical diagrams of photolabile protecting groups NPPOC (1.0), (8NNa) MOC (1.5), and 5 (2Na) NPPOC (3.0) (relative deprotection rates shown in parenthesis) for use in DNA synthesis. [0019] FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating the performance of various sensitizer molecules in deprotecting NPPOCT at wavelengths longer than 400 nm. [0020] FIG. 8 are chemical diagrams illustrating a synthesis of base-activated SCPL-linker. [0021] FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram illustrating the consensus filtering process. [0022] FIG. 10 is a diagrammatic representation of an illumination and optical system of a maskless array synthesizer that may be utilized in the invention. [0023] FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram of a image locking system in the maskless array synthesizer of FIG. 10 . [0024] FIG. 12 is a diagrammatic representation of a reference mark on a reaction cell. [0025] FIG. 13 is a diagrammatic representation of a projected alignment pattern on a glass slide. [0026] FIG. 14 is a diagrammatic representation of locations of alignment marks. [0027] FIG. 15 is a simplified cross-sectional view of a reaction cell with image locking. [0028] FIG. 16 is a diagrammatic representation of a captured image to be processed in the maskless array synthesizer. [0029] FIG. 17-19 are examples of captured images to be processed. [0030] FIG. 20 is a diagrammatic representation of a image projected on a substrate wherein the image includes several micromirrors. [0031] FIG. 21 is a schematic diagram of the manner of appearance of the micromirrors in the field of a microscope with respect to the maskless array synthesizer. [0032] FIG. 22 is a simplified cross-sectional view of a synthesis cell incorporating microspheres in the reaction chamber. [0033] FIG. 23 has a partially schematic view of a capillary tube apparatus for use in synthesis of chain molecules. [0034] FIG. 24 is a simplified diagram illustrating the steps in the process of the assembly of genes including the post-synthesis fluid handling steps performed in a repetitive manner. [0035] FIG. 25 is a illustrative diagram of a post-processing system using robotics and micropipettes. [0036] FIG. 26 is a simplified cross-sectional view of a modified pipette tip with integrated MutS filtering element for parallel error-filtering. [0037] FIG. 27 is a diagrammatic view illustrating steps in the basic process of forming a microfluidic handling system. [0038] FIG. 28 is a schematic view of an integrated post-synthesis processing system. [0039] FIG. 29 is a flow diagram illustrating the control steps carried out in process monitoring. [0040] FIG. 30 is a schematic diagram illustrating light directed combinatorial synthesis, in which a substrate is coated with a scaffold molecule protected with a photolabile protecting group (PL) and additional latent photocleavable protecting groups (PGx). [0041] FIG. 31 are chemical diagrams illustrating the activation of safety catch and photo cleavage of long wavelength trimethoxyphenacyl protecting groups. [0042] FIG. 32 are chemical diagrams illustrating a synthesis route for safety-catch photo cleavable protecting groups. [0043] FIG. 33 are chemical diagrams illustrating the synthesis of test compounds. [0044] FIG. 34 are chemical diagrams illustrating the synthesis of a SCPL-protected Lys-Ser scaffold. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0045] For purposes of exemplifying the invention, FIG. 1 illustrates in summary form a process by which a desired target sequence of, e.g., ten thousand base pairs (bp) forming a desired set of genes can be synthesized. It is understood that this example is provided as a representative case, and that the invention is not limited to such examples. To develop the synthesis strategy (using bioinformatics computer software algorithms as discussed further below), the desired target sequence is analyzed and split (for the 10,000 bp example) into 20 intermediate sequences of 500 bp each, and the 500 bp intermediate sequences are then split into a total of 500 subsequences of 40 bp (25 subsequences for each intermediate sequence), which are lengths that can be conveniently synthesized using automated oligonucleotide synthesis techniques. After the synthesis strategy has been developed, parallel synthesis of the 500 specified 40 bp oligonucleotides is carried out, followed by selectively sequential release of the oligonucleotides, purification, assembly and amplification, and error filtering. It should be understood that the length of the assembly blocks can be selected as desired and the lengths of the blocks can be individually varied to optimize the process. [0046] An exemplary oligonucleotide synthesis system in accordance with the invention uses the intrinsic parallelism of optical imaging that allows very high densities (>300,000 cm −2 ) of oligonucleotide sequences to be synthesized on a support such as a glass surface. By releasing selected oligonucleotides from the support in an effective and controllable way, long dsDNA can be created by assembling the short oligonucleotide pieces. Thus, after release and step-wise assembly, the desired dsDNA sequence is formed. The gene assembly system is thus based on four capabilities: (1) the ability to synthesize arbitrary sequences of short oligomers in a massively parallel way, in situ, starting from monomers; (2) the ability to selectively release from the synthesis support whichever oligomer sequences are desired in order to perform a partial assembly; (3) the ability to assemble these intermediate length oligomers into a full length final product; and (4) the ability to filter and eliminate assembly or synthesis errors. The functional features (3) and (4) may be carried out in multiple steps and be interleaved with one another. [0047] FIG. 2 illustrates the synthesis components. A bioinformatics data set 2 (specifying the oligonucleotides to be synthesized and the assembly sequence, as discussed above) is provided to an automated DNA synthesis cell 3 which carries out oligonucleotide synthesis and selected release of the oligonucleotides, preferably under automated computer control. These materials are then provided to a DNA assembly cell 4 that carries out the assembly stages and error filtering to result in the final synthesized target DNA molecule 5 . [0048] The synthesis of oligonucleotides traditionally occurs in the 3′-5′ direction for optimal synthesis yields. For the purpose of creating oligonucleotide microarrays useful in bioassays requiring enzymatic processing of the 3′ ends of the DNA, synthesis in the 5′-3′ direction is required. The quality of oligonucleotides synthesized by inverse 5′-3′ chemistry has been shown to be comparable to that obtained in the normal 3′-5′ direction. Oligonucleotides may be synthesized in either or both directions as needed. For the purposes of gene synthesis, the oligonucleotides need to be released from the support surface, and thus a cleavable linker is required. Standard oligonucleotide synthesis on controlled pore glass substrates utilize a base-labile linker that is cleaved along with the nucleobase protecting groups by ammonium hydroxide or ethylene diamine at the end of the synthesis. Although the base-labile linker approach should be sufficient for the release of oligonucleotides from the glass surface, it requires additional features: (1) the chip surface reactions must be divided into microchannels for the independent release of two or more groups of oligonucleotides for separate assembly, and (2) the DNA is released along with the nucleobase and phosphate protecting group cleavage products, requiring a purification/buffer exchange before the oligonucleotides can be used for assembly. A safety catch photolabile (SCPL) linker is preferably used to allow both the light-directed synthesis and light mediated surface release of oligonucleotides, as illustrated in FIG. 3 . This photolabile linker provides several advantages over direct chemical release strategies: (1) the chip layout will be completely flexible for each synthesis as light will dictate which pixels on the chip surface will be released, (2) the purity of the released oligonucleotides will be increased as oligonucleotides will be selectively released with the highest efficiency from the same areas of the chip where the synthesis occurs and not from areas that receive scattered light such as the 1 μm borders surrounding each pixel, and (3) the linker will allow direct release of oligonucleotides into aqueous buffers following deprotection of the phosphate and nucleobase protecting groups. [0049] The quality of synthetic oligonucleotides is governed by a number of factors including: (1) achieving highest possible yield of photodeprotection to obtain acceptable full length products from a multi-step (e.g., up to 80) linear synthesis, (2) the efficiency of attachment of the bases to the deprotected sites (coupling efficiency), and (3) the amount of damage by excess light energy to the growing oligonucleotide strands. To address these issues, methods may be used to speed up the photoreaction and minimize damage to the growing oligonucleotide chains by shifting the deprotection wavelength from the UV to the visible range and suppressing unwanted side reactions during photodeprotection. [0050] Due to the extremely small quantities of oligonucleotides produced per chip (˜10-20 pmol/cm 2 ) utilizing a maskless array synthesizer, highly sensitive methods are required to analyze the quality of the oligonucleotides. Oligonucleotides produced on the MAS chip's surface have been analyzed by cleaving the silicon tether between the linker and the glass slide through extended treatment with ammonium hydroxide, phosphorylating the released oligonucleotides with ATP-y- 32 P, and separating the oligonucleotides on the PAGE denaturing gel to visualize the distribution of oligonucleotide lengths produced and to provide a quantitative assessment of synthesis efficiency. The ladders show that the full length products are being produced as the primary products, but also reveal a ladder of truncates, indicating that purification will be required to isolate full length oligonucleotides from truncates and synthesis by-products. [0051] Four examples of specialized photolabile nucleoside phosphoramidites with base-labile linkers are shown in FIG. 4 , based upon the acid-labile phosphoramidites described by R. T. Pon, et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 42(51), 2001, p.p. 8943-8946, and may be synthesized as illustrated in FIG. 5 . These linkers can be used with 5′-3′ extension phosphoramidites for the optimization of DNA synthesis chemistry. [0052] It has been determined that thioxanthone sensitizers increase the quantum efficiency of NPPOC deprotection, that is, the use of sensitizers generates more “light-activated” molecules per photon. New photolabile groups have been developed with faster deprotection rates, improving the speed of photocleavage by about a factor of three. FIG. 6 shows structures of some new light-sensitive protecting groups and their relative deprotection rates (in parentheses). Sensitization of these groups with thioxanthones further enhance deprotection rates by another factor of three; however, the quality of the synthesized oligonucleotides is not optimal due to increased side reactions with the sensitizer chemistry. [0053] Experiments clearly indicate that sensitized deprotection is a viable option for shifting the irradiation wavelength into the visible (>400 nm) region. This is due to the fact that energy band gap between the relevant excited states is smaller in the sensitizer than in the NPPOC. Thus, the necessary wavelength for “populating” the deprotection transition state, the NPPOC-triplet (T1), is shifted from 365 nm to about 405 nm via indirect excitation. As can be seen in the graph of FIG. 7 , only a few of the chosen sensitizer molecules effectively deprotect NPPOC-Thymidine at irradiation wavelengths longer than 400 nm. [0054] To improve the quality of released oligonucleotides prior to assembly, a reverse phase C18 purification step may be implemented to isolate oligonucleotides that received a base in the final synthesis cycle from those that did not. This should separate primarily full length oligonucleotides from tuncated sequences. In the final cycle, standard dimethoxytrityl (DMT)-protected nucleoside phosphoramidites may be used in place of the NPPOC—protected phosphoramidites such that, after deprotection of the nucleobase/phosphate protecting groups and activation of the safety-catch, oligonucleotides containing a DMT group will be selectively retained on C18-silica. After cleavage of the DMT group with aqueous acid, primarily full length oligonucleotides will be eluted for use in assembly reactions. This trityl-on synthesis and C18 purification is a standard protocol in oligonucleotide synthesis. If this purification is insufficient for assembly, full length oligonucleotides may be isolated by electrophoresis and/or ion exchange chromatography prior to assembly. If separation by oligonucleotide length is required, the oligonucleotide design may be restricted to have all oligonucleotides used in an assembly reaction be of the same length. Where a C18 purification step may be required to remove truncates, a base-activated SCPL-linker may be utilized. A synthesis of a base-activated SCPL-linker is discussed further below and illustrated in FIG. 8 . The synthetic route is a minor variation of the existing synthetic route, wherein an acyl cyanohydrin is used to protect the aryl ketone rather than the dimethoxy ketal. This SCPL-linker will be activated by treatment with ethylene diamine while simultaneously deprotecting the nucleobase and phosphate protecting groups prior to photo release. The DMT group is known to be stable to these conditions and will thus allow trityl-on C18 purification. [0055] Although the “building block” nucleotides can undergo filtering and subsequent purification to allow for a reduction in error-filled DNAs, the size of the oligonucleotides themselves may play a vital role in assembly success. Since step-wise base addition is not 100% efficient, the longer oligonucleotides are more likely to have errors and truncate species. However, although the longer oligonucleotides have more errors, fewer of these “blocks” are needed for assembly. The size of the “building block” can have a significant effect on the amount of error introduced into the assembled gene. [0056] One approach for gene assembly in accordance with the invention involves a two stage process in which the synthesized oligonucleotides are first eluted and concentrated prior to assemblage into dsDNA. Assembly (the second stage) occurs in two steps: initially, the 20-50 bp short ssDNA are hybridized together and extended into ever-increasing lengths of dsDNA. After denaturation, this cycle is repeated until the oligonucleotides form the full length template. Next the full length template is amplified by PCR using primers directed against sequences present at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the assembled gene. Amplified products may be cloned and sequenced for quality control. However, depending on the use of the product, large sets of unassembled oligonucleotides or the PCR amplified DNA itself may be provided to the end-user, if desired. In this manner, the picomole concentrations of oligonucleotides present on the glass surface are converted into the nanomole and micromole amounts of DNA needed for cloning. [0057] The two stages (elution and assembly) may be done in one step, but there is a predicted risk of creating truncated amplification products since hybridization is occurring at very low total mass concentrations. Another option involves performing the assembly reaction with the 5′ or 3′ oligonucleotides covalently attached to a small domain on the glass surface. The linker attaching this terminal oligonucleotide to the glass may be either chemically or photolytically labile so that the surface-assembled dsDNA molecule can be released into solution and amplified with the addition of micromole amounts of universal primers. [0058] Results with PCR assembled genes have shown that errors in the initial assembly products are commonplace. These errors limit the immediate usefulness of assembled double stranded DNA for all applications requiring perfect DNA sequences, such as gene expression. Indeed, this problem may be very significant with regard to the length of time required to produce any given sequence, since correcting errors is a time consuming process. To address these problems, general approaches to reduce or eliminate errors in assembled DNA sequences are utilized. There are two distinct phases where additions, deletions, and transversion errors are introduced in synthetic DNA: during the oligonucleotide synthesis; and during the assembly processes. During synthesis, errors can occur through unintended photodeprotections by stray photons, incomplete photodeprotection, incomplete couplings, incomplete nucleobase or phosphate backbone deprotections, as well as plethora of other side reactions. During assembly, errors can be introduced via mls-hybridization or mls-incorporation of bases by the polymerase. Most errors will occur randomly, although some may occur systematically and possibly be sequence dependent. The general preferred approach is termed “consensus filtering” as it utilizes DNA shuffling, error removal, and reassembly to convert a population of DNA molecules with random or partial systematic errors to a population of DNA enriched with molecules containing the consensus sequence of the original population. The error removal process utilizes the mismatch binding protein MutS to remove duplexes containing mismatches via affinity capture from a population of dsDNA molecules. The MutS filter may be considered a “coincidence filter”. The term “coincidence filter” is similar in concept to an “AND” gate in electronic circuitry wherein signal 1 AND signal 2 must be present for an event to be counted. The adaptation of this concept for DNA error filtering works as follows: for every oligonucleotide synthesized on the chip surface, its complement oligonucleotide will also be synthesized. Because the vast majority of the oligonucleotides are wild type (wt) or error-free, the error-containing or mutant type (mt) oligonucleotides will be most likely to hybridize with wild type, thus creating double-stranded oligonucleotides containing mismatches. The mismatched bases in the double-stranded oligonucleotide cause a bulge at the position where the base pairing is incorrect and will thus be trapped by an immobilized MutS protein while error-free pairs will flow through. To ascertain the effectiveness of MutS filtering, a 160 bp region of the green florescent protein (GFP) gene was assembled from unpurified 40mer oligonucleotides. The assembly product was either directly cloned into an expression vector, or heat denatured, re-annealed and subjected to MutS filtering before cloning. Although there were no apparent differences at the functional level (as assayed by visual inspection of the GFP fluorescing transformants), sequence analysis revealed that the control population lacking the MutS filter was 81% wt, whereas the “filtered” population was 100% wt. This experiment demonstrated that MutS filtering can increase the percentage of wt clones. From these and other assembly reactions using PCR, overall mutation rates are between 0.2 and 1.2 errors/kilobase (data not shown). Consensus filtering is essentially equivalent to DNA shuffling with a MutS mismatch removal step. The pool of dsDNA molecules containing mutations is fragmented into sets of overlapping fragments via restriction digestion and re-assembled into full length molecules by primerless PCR and amplification PCR. Although DNA shuffling has traditionally been used as a method for creating diverse populations of DNA molecules with all possible combinations of mutations present in the original population, the creation of diversity from a fixed population of mutants also demands an equivalent reduction in diversity among the shuffled products. Indeed, with this approach it is possible to start with a population of DNA molecules wherein every individual in the population contains errors, and create a new population of molecules in which the dominant species have the consensus sequence of the original population. [0059] As illustrated in FIG. 9 , an assembly PCR product can be split into several pools. Each pool undergoes complete digestion with one or more restriction enzymes to form distinct pools of fragments with overlapping ends. The digested pools of DNA are denatured and re-annealed to create a population of dsDNA fragments wherein the majority of DNA strands containing errors will be present as dsDNAs with mismatches to another strand. This population of DNAs is passed through a MutS filter (MutS immobilized on a solid support) to affinity-remove sequences containing errors. Perfectly matched duplex DNA should pass directly through the MutS filter. The mixture of fragments thus depleted of error containing sequences will serve as template fragments for another assembly reaction. This process can be iterated until the consensus sequence emerges as the dominant species in the population of full length DNA molecules. Implementing shuffling via restriction digests, rather than random fragmentation with DNAse, allows for greater efficiency in MutS filtering by providing double stranded fragments. [0060] The following simple mathematical model can be used to predict some parameters of consensus shuffling. P = 100 ⁢ ( 1 - S · E · M C 1000 ) 2 ⁢ N S Where P=percentage of clones with no errors S=average size of fragments E=errors per 1000 bases of input DNA population M=MutS factor (fraction of mismatches escaping filter) C=cycles of MutS filter [0061] An input population of dsDNA molecules of length N, containing E errors/kb is fragmented into shorter dsDNA fragments of average length S. The fraction of oligonucleotide fragments with correct sequences (on average) will be 1−S*E/1000. The likelihood of the assembled product also containing the correct sequence will be the product of the likelihoods of all the individual oligonucleotides used in the assembly having the correct sequence. A reasonable approximation for the required number of oligonucleotides of average length S to assemble a gene of length N is 2N/S, assuming both strands must be represented. If a MutS error filter is applied to the re-annealed dsDNA fragments, the fraction of error containing dsDNA hybrids will be reduced by fraction M, the MutS factor. If the MutS process is iterated to increase the population of correct sequences, the fraction of error-containing sequences (S*E/1000) can be multiplied by the MutS factor M each cycle. [0062] Several interesting predictions emerge from this model. First, some realistic assumptions are made about the variables in this model: error rates in the initial assembly product are between 1 and 5 errors/kb, target sequence lengths are between 500 bases and 5 kb, average fragment lengths are between 50 and 200 bases, MutS factors of 1.0 (no filtering), 0.5 (50% efficient), 0.25 (75% efficient) or 0.1 (90% efficient) are considered. From the results of the theoretical calculations shown in Table 1 below, less than 3 rounds of consensus shuffling with a MutS filter should be sufficient to convert a population of DNA sequences where all molecules contain multiple errors in to a population of DNA sequences where the correct sequence is the dominant sequence. The model also predicts that fragment sizes between 50 and 200 will not be a critical factor, and that MutS filtering, even if poorly efficient (50%) is effective upon multiple iterations. TABLE 1 Fraction of % Correct % Correct % Correct Fragment Errors Target MutS Oligos per Incorrect Consensus Consensus Consensu Size per kb Length Factor Assembly Fragments Shuffle (1) Shuffle (2) Shuffle (3) S E N M 2N/S S*E/1000 P (C = 1) P (C = 2) P (C = 3) 50 1 500 1.00 20 0.05 35.85 NA NA 50 5 500 1.00 20 0.25 0.32 NA NA 50 1 5000 1.00 200 0.05 0.00 NA NA 50 5 5000 1.00 200 0.25 0.00 NA NA 50 1 500 0.50 20 0.05 60.27 77.76 88.22 50 5 500 0.50 20 0.25 6.92 27.51 52.99 50 1 5000 0.50 200 0.05 0.63 8.08 28.54 50 5 5000 0.50 200 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.17 50 1 500 0.25 20 0.05 77.76 93.93 98.45 50 5 500 0.25 20 0.25 27.51 72.98 92.47 50 1 5000 0.25 200 0.05 8.08 53.47 85.53 50 5 5000 0.25 200 0.25 0.00 4.29 45.71 50 1 500 0.10 20 0.05 90.46 99.00 99.90 50 5 500 0.10 20 0.25 60.27 95.12 99.50 50 1 5000 0.10 200 0.05 36.70 90.48 99.00 50 5 5000 0.10 200 0.25 0.63 60.62 95.12 200 1 500 1.00 5 0.20 32.77 NA NA 200 5 500 1.00 5 1.00 0.00 NA NA 200 1 5000 1.00 50 0.20 0.00 NA NA 200 5 5000 1.00 50 1.00 0.00 NA NA 200 1 500 0.50 5 0.20 59.05 77.38 88.11 200 5 500 0.50 5 1.00 3.13 23.73 51.29 200 1 5000 0.50 50 0.20 0.52 7.69 28.20 200 5 5000 0.50 50 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 200 1 500 0.25 5 0.20 77.38 93.90 98.45 200 5 500 0.25 5 1.00 23.73 72.42 92.43 200 1 5000 0.25 50 0.20 7.69 53.32 85.51 200 5 5000 0.25 50 1.00 0.00 3.97 45.50 200 1 500 0.10 5 0.20 90.39 99.00 99.90 200 5 500 0.10 5 1.00 59.05 95.10 99.50 200 1 5000 0.10 50 0.20 36.42 90.47 99.00 200 5 5000 0.10 50 1.00 0.52 60.50 95.12 [0063] Consensus shuffling will be necessary whenever a significant portion of the DNA population contains errors. By fragmenting the full length DNA into shorter fragments, the MutS filter will be able to remove the mismatched fragments while allowing a much greater proportion of the DNA to pass through the filter. In the case where all members of the population contain errors, coincidence filtering of the product alone would be ineffective. [0064] Gene sequence fidelity and production efficiency depend on specificity and completeness of sub-sequence hybridization. The primary bioinformatics objectives are to ensure that each assembly sub-sequence has one and only one complementary target sequence and to ensure that each component sequence is free of any secondary structure that would preclude gene assembly. Thus, the problem of breaking down a complete gene (2,000-10,000 base pairs) into assembly sequences is solved when each of the sequences is unique and structure free. [0065] Bioinformatics software may be utilized to divide a target DNA sequence into oligonucleotides capable of assembly. Effective gene assembly begins with careful planning. The bioinformatics software deconstructs the whole gene into the small oligonucleotide building blocks from which it will be constructed. There are several critical factors that affect the choice of lines of demarcation between assembly sequences. The first step in actual gene assembly is hybridization of sub-sequences. Hybridization between any two indivicial complements should be complete and specific. That means that the thermodynamic stability of the duplex should be known and that the annealing temperature be appropriate to that value. When a sub-sequence has strong secondary structure it cannot effectively hybridize to its complement. Therefore, the potential for secondary structure must be evaluated for each elementary sequence. Next, the potential for mishybridization must be evaluated by identifying gene sequences with a high level of homology to the sub-sequence under consideration. With a fixed annealing temperature, it is possible to predict the extent of mishybridization by calculating the thermodynamic free energy of formation between the sub-sequence and the sequence at the improper target location. The levels of tolerance for secondary structure and mishybridization are difficult to predict without supporting experimental validation. [0066] A relatively simple gene assembly design software breaks the complete gene down into fixed length (N) oligonucleotides. The length is typically 20-60 bases. The length of the overlap between sub-sequences is set at N/2. To find the “best” set of oligonucleotides for assembly, the algorithm divides the sequence into all possible N-mers with N/2 overlap and then calculates the Tm (Tm=81.5+0.41(% GC)−500/length+16.6 log[salt]) of all overlapping portions. The highest score is given to the set with the most uniform set of melting temperatures. The algorithm also scans each overlap sequence for complete uniqueness for its identified target within the context of the entire gene. If more than one target is identified for a sub-sequence, assembly is split to separate the intended target from the unintended target into separate subassembly steps. Sub-assemblies are completed and then combined for the final assembly. Sets with only a few sub-assembly steps are scored more favorably than those with multiple assembly steps. The output of the software is the set of oligonucleotides with the best overall score. In a more sophisticated software approach, the gene is still divided into fixed length (N) sub-sequences, but instead of simply having fixed N/2 overlaps, overlap length is adjusted to achieve a specific melting temperature (% G/C method). [0067] The software may have a web based graphical user interface based on the design of the familiar NCBI BLAST interface. The user can paste or upload a sequence file of the desired DNA sequence into the sequence window. The user then chooses the sub-sequence length and the desired assembly temperature. The user can also specify the coordinates of the open reading frame and choose from a menu of codon preferences for the output oligonucleotides. This feature enables sequences from one species to be efficiently expressed in another. The output is displayed in two formats. The text mode displays lists of oligonucleotides with their melting temperatures broken up into assembly steps. The graphics mode visually shows the oligonucleotides and overlaps. Each image of a fragment is a link to a text string representation of that fragment sequence. The two modes have clickable links to an output tab delimited file containing the list of oligo sequences to be synthesized, its step, and its overlap melting temperature. The links allow the user to open or save the file. [0068] Various adjustments and enhancements may be made to the basic software structure. A first adjustment updates the method of calculating melting temperature to one that uses nearest neighbor (NN) free energies. The accuracy of the NN method is significantly higher than the % GC method. A second adjustment eliminates the requirement for fixed length product. Rather, an assembly Tm can be defined and the length of sub-sequence products adjusted in each case to be the sum of two variable length sequences chosen to agree with the design Tm. Once the entire gene is broken down into parts, each part can be evaluated for secondary structure (e.g., hairpin information) using the publicly available Mfold or other similar software packages. Such programs have been used to evaluate large combinatorial libraries (17 million individual sequences) of long 100mer oligonucleotides for secondary structure and cross-hybridization between individual members. Sets for the synthesizer can be scored highly which have little or no secondary structure at the assembly temperature. The overlapping sequences are tested for uniqueness in the gene and near-identical sequences can be evaluated as potential sources of error. Specifically, partial match sequences can be identified which may contain mismatches, insertions, or deletions, and their thermodynamic binding energy can be calculated. The error prone sequences (those whose free energies indicate unacceptable levels of formation at the design Tm) can either be separated during assembly or an alternate set will be chosen which divides the conflicting sequences. Finally, the software can automatically perform a BLAST search for each gene sequence to ensure that it does not contain significant sub-sequences of forbidden pathogens (Anthrax, Plague, Ebola etc.) [0069] There are four critical aspects of the multiplexed surface invasive cleavage reaction bioinformatics that deserve attention. First, one must consider the uniqueness of each probe and its specificity for the desired target in the context of the complete sample. While it is quite straightforward to ensure that the complete probe sequence is unique, one also must consider non-specific hybridization, which would inhibit proper signal generation. Second, one must consider the uniformity of duplex formation temperature. For the invasive cleavage reaction, the optimum reaction temperature is identical to the melting temperature of the target:probe duplex. Duplexes whose formation temperatures differ from the reaction temperature may not produce large signals because of limited cleavage. Third, it is becoming well known that the duplex formation energies are lower on surfaces than in solution. The reasons are just now being elucidated. This fact must be accounted for when choosing sequences and reaction temperatures. Fourth, in one of its current forms, the surface invasive cleavage reaction requires addition of invader oligonucleotides in solution. It is important that these oligonucleotides also have high specificity for the target and additionally do not hybridize to any probes at the reaction temperature. This concern is obviously eliminated for the second format of the reaction where both invader and probe are co-immobilized on the same array element. [0070] After the set of oligonucleotides has been selected, synthesis of these oligonucleotides is preferably carried out utilizing an automated DNA synthesizer system. Because of its flexibility and addressability, a large massively parallel optical DNA maskless array synthesizer (MAS) system which is based on the use of a high density spatial light modulator (e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,375,903, incorporated herein by reference) is a preferred system for oligonucleotide synthesis. An image locking system as described below is preferably used to eliminate image drift during synthesis of the set of oligonucleotides. [0071] FIG. 10 illustrates a schematic of an optical system 10 of an MAS gene synthesizer incorporating image locking. The system 10 includes a 1:1 ratio image projection system 12 , a mercury (Hg) arc lamp 14 , an image locking system 16 , a condenser 18 , a digital micro-mirror device (DMD) 20 , and a DNA cell 22 . The digital micromirror device (DMD) 20 may consist of a 1024×768 array of 16 μm wide micro-mirrors. Preferably, these mirrors are individually addressable and can be used to create any given pattern or image in a broad range of wavelengths. Each virtual mask is generated in a bitmap format by a computer and is sent to the DMD controller, which forms the image onto the DMD 20 . The 1:1 ratio projection system 12 forms a UV image of the virtual mask on the active surface of the glass substrate mounted in a flow cell reaction cell connected to a DNA synthesizer. [0072] A maskless array synthesizer can generate several μm of drift over several hours due to the thermal expansion of optics parts and from other sources. The optical path between the DMD 20 and DNA cell 22 is about 1 meter. The thermal expansion caused by the temperature and humidity fluctuation of surrounding environments and also due to UV exposure, a slight change of position or rotation of the primary spherical mirror and other optical parts may result. This slight change may cause several μm of drift of the projected image. Since the space between each digital micromirror is only 1 μm, this image drift can cause the projected image to be shifted to expose the UV light at the wrong oligonucleotide spots, generating defects in oligonucleotides sequences and their spatial distribution. The image locking system 16 confines the image shift within a certain range to minimize image drift. [0073] FIG. 11 illustrates a diagram of an image locking system 28 . The image locking system 28 can include a digital light processor (DLP) or digital micromirror device (DMD) 30 , a concave mirror 32 , a convex mirror 34 , a beam splitter 36 , a reaction cell 38 , a camera 40 , a laser 42 , and a UV lamp 44 . In an exemplary embodiment, the laser 42 is a He—Ne laser with a wavelength of 632.8 nm (red light) and does not disturb the photochemical reaction of oligonucleotide synthesis. The He—Ne laser beam from the laser 42 is projected to a reaction cell 38 using an “off” state (rotated −10°) of micromirrors without interrupting the current UV exposure system with UV light from the UV lamp 44 which is projected to the reaction cell 38 using an “on” state (rotated 10°) of micromirrors. The He—Ne laser 42 is at the opposite side of the UV lamp 44 with incident angle of −20° into the DMD 32 . [0074] The system 28 can be a 0.08 numerical aperture reflective imaging system based on a variation of the 1:1 Offner relay. Such reflective optical systems are described in A. Offner, “New Concepts in Projection Mask Aligners,” Optical Engineering, Vol. 14, pp. 130-132 (1975). The DMD 30 can be a micromirror array available from Texas Instruments, Inc. The reaction cell 38 includes a quartz block 47 , a glass slide 49 , a projected image 51 , a radiochromic film 52 , and a reference mark 53 . The UV lamp 44 can be a 1000 W Hg Arc lamp (e.g., Oriel 6287, 66021), which can provide a UV line at 365 nm (or anywhere in a range of 350 to 450 nm). Other sources, such as, e.g., Ar-ion lazers and Hg—Xe high pressure lamps, may also be used. [0075] The laser 42 projects a laser beam onto beam splitter 36 which reflects a portion of the beam onto DMD 30 . DMD 30 has a two-dimensional array of individual micromirrors which are responsive to the control signals supplied to the DMD 30 to tilt in one of at least two directions. A telecentric aperture may be placed in front of the convex mirror 34 . [0076] The camera 40 is a closed circuit device (CCD) camera used to capture an image of one or more alignment marks. The captured image is transferred to a computer 46 for image processing. When a misalignment is detected, correction signals are generated by the computer 46 and sent to actuators 48 and 50 as the feedback to adjust the mirror 32 , so that the correct alignment is reestablished. In at least one alternative embodiment, three electro-strictive actuators (instead of actuators 48 and 50 ) are used to provide minimum incremental movement of 60 nm and control the rotations and movement of the mirror 32 . The displacement of the projected image at the glass slide is highly sensitive to the rotations and movement of the mirror 32 . [0077] FIG. 12 illustrates the alignment mark 53 patterned on the quartz block 47 in the reaction cell 38 . The quartz block 47 includes an outlet 55 and an inlet 57 through which fluid may flow through the reaction cell 38 . Such reaction cells are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,375,903, 6,315,958, and 6,444,175. A predefined micromirror pattern shown in FIG. 13 is projected, being centered at the alignment mark 53 . In an exemplary embodiment, the projected image 51 is manually aligned at the beginning of synthesis, so that the center of the projected image 51 is overlapped with the center of the alignment mark 53 . The CCD camera 40 is used to capture the image that is formed by a 20× (long focal length) microscope lens, which is focused at the middle between the reference mark 53 and the projected image 51 . An image processing program in the computer 46 calculates the centers of the reference mark 53 and the projected image 51 , generating the amount and direction of any displacement, and sending its correction signals to the corresponding actuator(s) 48 and/or 50 . The reference mark 53 is patterned on the surface of the quartz block 47 as shown in FIG. 12 . The relative position of the projected image 51 to the reference mark 53 is shown in FIG. 14 . [0078] FIG. 15 illustrates a cross-sectional view of the reaction cell 38 . The projected image 51 is focused on an inner glass slide surface 61 of the glass slide 49 where the oligonucleotides are grown. The reference mark 53 and the projected image 51 are not at the same focus plane. A microscope lens focuses at the middle plane between the reference mark 53 and the projected image 51 . As such, the image captured by the camera 40 is blurred, as shown in FIG. 16 . The gap between the glass slide surface 61 and quartz block surface 65 of the quartz block 47 is on the order of 100 μm. To locate the center position of each pattern, a 2D optical pattern recognition technique, which is based on correlation theory, is used. Correlation analysis compares two signals (or images) in order to determine the degree of similarity, where input signal is to be searched for a reference signal. Each correlation gives a peak value where the reference signal and input signal matches the best. If the location of this value is different from the previous value, it means that the image has been shifted, indicating the need of correction. [0079] In an exemplary embodiment, an image processing procedure calculates the image displacement from the images captured by the camera 40 , by calculating the cross-correction signals between a captured input image described with reference to FIG. 19 , the reference mark 53 of FIG. 17 , and the projected image 51 of FIG. 18 . The cross-correlation is a measure of the similarity between two images, such as images from FIGS. 17 and 19 and such as images from FIGS. 18 and 19 . Mathematically, the cross-correlation can be calculated as: c gh ⁡ ( X , Y ) = ∫ - ∞ ∞ ⁢ ∫ - ∞ ∞ ⁢ g ⁡ ( x , y ) ⁢ h ⁡ ( x + X , y + Y ) ⁢   ⁢ ⅆ x ⁢   ⁢ ⅆ y or, using the Wiener-Khintchine Theorem, as c gh ( X,Y )= IFFT ( FFT 2( g ( X,Y ))· FFT 2(rot90( h ( X,Y )))) [0080] The new locations of the reference mark and the projected image are marked by correlation peaks (i.e., the highest value of c gh (X,Y)). Based on the new locations, correction signals are computed and sent to the actuators to move the mirror. This correction procedure continues until the synthesis is completed. [0081] In an exemplary embodiment, computer programs control the actuators and generate the correction signals by image processing. A log file of displacements can also be recorded and analyzed for measuring actual displacement indirectly and its direction for further refinement of the algorithm. Various mark shapes (e.g., crosses, chevrons, circles) can be used as the reference mark 53 . [0082] FIG. 20 illustrates an image 71 projected on a substrate where the image includes several micro-mirrors 73 , 75 , 77 , and 79 according to another exemplary embodiment. A reference mark 71 is included on the substrate. In the field of the microscope, the micro-mirrors 73 , 75 , 77 , and 79 appear as a bright image while the reference mark 74 can be dark so that the image of the mask will appear as a dark line 76 ( FIG. 21 ). As such, overlap of the micro-mirrors 73 , 75 , 77 , and 79 and the reference mark 74 can be observed. Image processing software can determine if the dark shadows are centered on the micro-mirror and if not, apply a correction. [0083] Since each pixel is approximately 15 μm in size, it is necessary to keep the image locked to less than 200 nm. Since the distance from the concave mirror 32 ( FIG. 11 ) to the reaction cell 38 can be approximately 500 mm, the angle pointing accuracy is 0.4×10 −6 radians. Since the diameter of the optics is 200 mm, a piezoelectric or similar system can be used to generate the angular shift by applying a displacement of 80 nm. Typically, a nanopositioner can control displacements of even 10 nm. In particular, the focus of the system can be adjusted by moving the three actuators together (piston motion). The focal position is affected by the distance between the fixed small mirror and the movable large mirror. [0084] Other designs are possible, involving different schemes for the detection of the displacements. The actuators 48 and 50 can be used to effectively align the optics. In another exemplary embodiment, diffractive marks can also be used, alleviating the need for microscopes. Partially transmitting marks (half toned) can be used for other schemes of detection. [0085] The synthesis stage may utilize the technology that has been developed for the fabrication of rapid turnaround microarray DNA chips and that is being commercialized by NimbleGen, Inc. See, e.g., F. Cerrina, et al., Microelectronic Engineering, 61-2, 2002, pp. 33-40. In this process, oligonucleotides are attached to the substrate by a stable linker, and are terminated with a photolabile protecting group. Exposure to the light removes the photolabile protective group, making the attachment point available to chemicals that are floated into the reaction cell. These chemicals can be phosphoramidite based, or can be other types of more general chemicals, and carry the photoprotecting group. After attachment of the base (the chemicals to be attached will be referenced to as “base” although other molecules are possible), the base is connected to the pre-existing oligonucleotide and the photolabaile group protects it from further development. After four of these steps, one per base, the surface of the chip will have an array of the four different “colors,” i.e., A, C, T or G. In the next round of exposure, the photolabile groups are again deprotected by selective light exposure and the next base is attached. In this way, if N illuminated pixels are used to form the exposure, at the end of 20 cycles N different oligonucleotides will be distributed on the surface of the chip in separate and distinct locations. The areas where the oligonucleotides have been synthesized are “tiled” on the surface and are separated from each other by a region where no exposure takes place. This reduces the problem of light being scattered from one tile into the other and thus into causing unwanted reactions. The use of digital micromirror display (DMD) based optics as discussed above allows great flexibility in the DNA chip layout. To completely deprotect a site requires about 60 seconds at a fluence of about 100 mw/cm 2 of Hg I-line radiation (365 nm). Throughout the system, great care is used to contain stray and diffracted light because photons that reach unwanted sites will cause unwanted deprotection reactions and thus errors in the synthesis. Stray light must be kept to an absolute minimum. This may be done by using high quality optical mirrors and anti-reflection coatings on all of the surfaces that are present throughout the system. [0086] In the formation of the oligonucleotides for gene synthesis, the dimensions of the features are usually relatively large, approximately 100×150 microns. That means that the geometrical depth of focus of the image is of the order of 1400 microns at a NA of 0.07, while the cavity of the typical reaction chamber is only of the order of 100 microns. As shown in FIG. 22 , the synthesis chamber of a reaction cell 80 (e.g., formed from a quartz block) can be modified to increase the active surface area by filling the chamber 81 of the cell with quartz microspheres 82 that have been primed before insertion into the chamber. The chamber 81 is defined between a well in the reaction cell block and a glass slide 84 , sealed by a gasket 85 . A fluid inlet 86 and fluid outlet 87 allow fluid to be introduced into and removed from the chamber. The active surface area is greatly increased by performing the synthesis on the microspheres 82 rather than on the flat surfaces of a glass slide. The spheres cannot move around during the synthesis because of a combination of tight packing and surface tension, and thus do not compromise the quality of the imaging during the synthesis. A liquid index matching fluid can be used during the exposures so that the spheres themselves will be essentially invisible to the incoming light and not affect the image. [0087] Synthesis may also be carried out by other types of systems, for example, based on the use of an array of light emitting diodes (LEDs) or solid state lasers. Such an array can be placed at the focal plane of the mirrors assembly, replacing the micromirror spatial light modulator and lamp. Several types of LEDs are commercially available, based on gallium nitride and/or aluminum nitride formulation with different lifetimes and different wavelength characteristics, from companies such as Nichia, Cree and Uniroyal. An array of solid state lasers may also be used instead of an array of LEDs. [0088] Other types of automated synthesis systems may also be utilized that do not rely on optical image formation to form an array. For example, synthesis can also be carried out utilizing a column packed with microspheres as illustrated in FIG. 23 . Such a parallel synthesizer is capable of creating many (e.g., 20) different sequences at once using photolabile chemistry. Several such parallel synthesizers may then be used to release selected nucleotides formed therein to an assembly chamber where assembly of longer DNA fragments takes place. The active area of the microspheres is much larger than the surface area of a glass slide or chip used in forming microarrays. In addition, the spheres occupy part of the volume so that the amount of reagent used need only be an amount sufficient to fill the free volume among the spheres. The net result is that the ratio of synthesis surface area to reagent volume is much greater than in flat surface synthesis. [0089] In the apparatus 110 shown in FIG. 23 , a reagent supply 111 is utilized to provide selected reagents, as discussed further below, in sequence on a supply line 113 that provides the liquid reagents to the inlet end 114 of a conduit 116 . The conduit 116 has an interior channel 117 through which the reagents flow to an outlet end 119 of the channel in the conduit. The conduit 116 can be formed as a thin walled capillary tube in which the channel 117 is the cylindrical interior bore of the capillary tube conduit. The wall 120 of the conduit 116 may be formed of a substantially transparent material, such as glass or quartz, so that light from outside the conduit can be transmitted through the wall of the conduit and thence into the interior channel 117 . The channel 117 holds a large number of solid carrier particles 122 which may be spherical as shown, but which may also have other shapes such as cylinders or fibers, etc., formed of a variety of materials such as quartz, glass, plastic, and, in particular, CPG glasses and other porous materials. The particles 122 may have sections of different sizes or optical properties to better control flow of reagent, improve the exposure uniformity and better control scattered light. The particles 22 may be held within the channel 117 by a perforated screen 124 at the outlet 119 of the channel and preferably also by a screen 125 at the inlet end 114 of the channel. The screens 124 and 125 have openings formed therein which are sized to allow fluid from the reagent supply 111 to pass freely therethrough while blocking passage of the carrier particles 122 through the openings, thus holding the particles 122 within the channel without fixing or attaching the particles to the walls of the channel. The fluid from the reagent supply flows through the interstices between the particles 122 so that the flowing fluid is in contact with a large proportion of the surface area of the particles 122 as the fluid flows through the conduit. Thus, the total area on which chain molecules can be formed is many times greater than the interior surface area of the channel 117 , and generally is far greater than the surface area of the flat substrates conventionally used in DNA microarrays. The reagent supply 111 may be, for example, a conventional DNA synthesizer supplied with the requisite chemicals. [0090] A plurality of controllable light sources 130 are mounted at spaced positions along the length of the transparent wall 120 of the conduit to allow selective illumination of separated sections of the conduit and of the particles held therein in the separated sections. Light emitted from the sources 130 may be focused by lenses 131 before passing through the wall 120 of the conduit to illuminate separated sections 133 of the particles within the conduit. Light absorbing or blocking elements 135 may be mounted between each of the light sources 130 to minimize stray light from one light source being directed to the region to be illuminated by an adjacent light source. The light sources 130 may be any convenient light source, for example, light emitting diodes (LEDs), which are selectively supplied with power on lines 136 from a computer controller 137 , such that any combination of the light sources can be turned at a particular point in time. Any other controllable light source may be utilized, including individual lamps of any type that can be turned on and off, constantly burning lamps with mechanical shutters (including movable mirrors as well as light blocking shutters) or electronic shutters (e.g., liquid crystal light valves), and fiber optic or other light pipes transmitting light from single or multiple sources, etc. The controller 137 is also connected to controllable valves 140 and 141 which are connected to an output line 138 which receives the fluid from the outlet end 119 of the conduit. The controller 137 can control the valves 140 and 141 to either discharge the reagents that have been passed through the conduit onto a waste (collection) line 143 , or to direct oligomers which have been released from the conduit onto a discharge line 145 which can be directed to further processing equipment or to readers, etc. [0091] In operation, the reagent supply initially provides fluid flowing through the conduit that creates a photodeprotective group covering the surfaces of the carrier particles 122 . The flow of reagent is then stopped and the controller 137 turns on a selected combination of the light sources 130 (typically at ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths) to illuminate selected ones of the separated sections 133 of the packed particles within the conduit. In a conventional manner, the light emitted from each active source 130 renders the photodeprotective group susceptible to removal by a reagent which is passed through the conduit by the reagent supply 111 , following which the reagent supply can be controlled to provide a desired molecular element, such as a nucleotide base (A,G,T,C) which will bind to the surfaces of the carrier particles from which the photodeprotective group has been removed. Thereafter, the reagent supply can then provide further photodeprotective group material through the conduit to protect all bases, followed by activation and illumination from selected sources 130 to allow removal of the photodeprotective group from the particles in selected sections of the conduit. After removal of the susceptible photodeprotective material, the reagent supply 111 can then provide another base material that is flowed through the conduit to attach to existing bases on the carrier particles which have been exposed. The process as described above can be repeated multiple times until a sufficient size of chain molecule is created. Each of the light sources 130 can separately illuminate one of the separated sections of packed particles, allowing different sequences of, e.g., nucleotides within the oligomers formed at each of the separated sections. [0092] Although it is preferable that the controller 137 be an automated controller, for example, under computer control, with the desired sequence of reagents and activated light sources 130 programmed into the controller, it is also apparent and understood that the reagent supply 11 and the light sources 130 can be controlled manually and by analog or digital control equipment which does not require the use of a computer. [0093] The surfaces of the carrier particles 122 are coated with a material that acts as a group linker between the surface of the particle and the chain molecule to be formed. The carrier particles may have a diameter substantially less than the width of the channel so that multiple carrier particles may pack each section of the channel between the walls of the channel. The carrier particles are otherwise free from attachment to each other or to the walls of the conduit. As illustrated in FIG. 23 , the conduit may be formed of a thin walled capillary tube and the carrier particles may comprise spherical quartz particles of a diameter from a few microns to several hundred microns or more. However, the conduit may also be formed in other ways, including solid fluid guiding structures, in which the channel is formed within the solid structure of the conduit, and the carrier particles may be formed in shapes other than spheres, for example, as cylinders, fibers, or irregular shapes, and with smooth or structured surfaces. For example, the carrier particles may be formed of controlled porosity glass (CPG) or similar porous materials which provide a large surface area to mass ratio. The particles may be contained in other ways, for example, trapped in wells formed in a substrate, rather than being contained in a tube. [0094] The light sources emit light within a range of a selected wavelength, and lenses and/or mirrors may be mounted with the sources to couple and focus the light from the sources onto the sections of the channel. The sources may also be mounted to the conduit such that a face of the source (e.g., a light emitting diode) from which light is emitted forms a portion of the transparent wall of the conduit. Light blocking material may be mounted between adjacent sources in position to prevent light from one source passing into a section of the channel that is to be illuminated by an adjacent source. The conduit may be filled with an index matching fluid to minimize scattering losses. The apparatus may further include a transparent window spaced from the transparent wall of the conduit and including an enclosure forming an enclosed region with the window and the transparent wall of the conduit. An index matching fluid within the enclosed region has an index of refraction near that of the transparent wall of the conduit to minimize reflections at the transparent wall of the conduit. The light sources may be mounted outside of the window in position to project light through the window, the index matching fluid, and the transparent wall of the conduit. The window can include an antireflective coating thereon to minimize unwanted reflections and dispersion of light. Where the conduit has walls which are all transparent to light, a material may be formed adjacent to the conduit, between the separated sections to be illuminated, which absorbs or reflects light transmitted through the walls of the conduit to minimize stray light. [0095] FIG. 24 illustrates an exemplary assembly process in accordance with the invention. This process is shown for illustration as utilizing a “chip” (with a flat support substrate) formed using a maskless array synthesizer, but it is understood that the same process may be carried out with other synthesizers, such as multiple column synthesizers as shown in FIG. 23 , which release oligonucleotides in sequence in a manner similar to which oligonucleotides are released from an array formed on a chip. For example, to assemble a 10K bp gene from 40mer oligonucleotides, 549 unique 40mers are synthesized on the DNA chip in a single run. It is understood that not all the oligomers need to be or generally will be of the same length. In this particular example, a group of 26 unique 40mers is eluted from the forming support surface and may then be purified using a reverse phase C18 column to filter out non-full length oligonucleotides from the synthesis product, although other filtering approaches may be used. The purified group of 40mers is assembled to generate an intermediate 500mer, which is then amplified using polymerase chain reaction to increase the concentration. Before assembly of the 21 packs of 500mers into a 10K bp gene, each 500mer may also go through a consensus filter, as discussed above, to remove the errors introduced during assembly via mls-hybridization or mls-incorporation of bases by the polymerase. The pool of 500mer dsDNA molecules containing mutations is fragmented into sets of overlapping fragments via restriction digestion and re-assembled into full length molecules by primerless PCR and amplification PCR. The whole assembly involves several steps performed in a serial manner. After the oligonucleotides are synthesized and eluted, subsequent purification, assembly, PCR, and error-filtering steps may be done manually or automatically. [0096] After synthesis and elution, volumes of materials may be handled through a repetitive process. The post-synthesis steps can be automated using a microtiter plate preparation robotic workstation. In this approach, the oligonucleotide sets are selectively eluted to individual wells in a (e.g., 96-well) microtiter plate. Then, these oligonucleotides are purified using an array of C18 pipette tips mounted on the robotic tool head, as illustrated in FIG. 25 . The reverse phase C18 purification requires two steps. First, the desired oligonucleotides with the trityl protecting group are retained in the C18 filter during the “catch” cycle, allowing undesired oligonucleotides and other salts to pass through. Next, during the “release cycle,” the trityl group is cleaved by an acid to release the oligonucleotides to another microtiter plate, which is transported and loaded into a thermal cycler for assembling short ssDNA 40mer oligonucleotides into an intermediate 500mer. The assembly step may be performed in a 96-well titer plate thermal cycler. The C18 purification step requires carefully controlling the fluidic flow to gain maximum yield. Modification to the tool head or control algorithm of the workstation can be utilized to satisfy the accurate flow control requirements. [0097] Each assembled 500mer pool is purified using another C18 array to remove the polymerase enzyme and then dispensed into three wells (pools) with equal volume to perform consensus filtering. Each pool undergoes complete digestion with one or more restriction enzymes. The digested pools of DNA are denatured and re-annealed using the cycler. The MutS filtering step can also be accomplished using parallel pipettes and fluid dispensing. The MutS pipette tips may be formed as shown in FIG. 26 . The flow velocity for the dispensing step should be tightly controlled. The consensus filtering steps may be repeated if necessary. Once the assembly step is complete, the filtered oligonucleotides are dispensed into a clean micro titer plate for subsequent assembly or short-term storage. [0098] Before the 500mers are assembled into the final 10K bp gene, a small volume of the individual 500mers can be sampled and sequenced. The retention of 500mer samples can be used for quality control. For example, if it is found that the final gene has an error in the sequence, only the particular 500mer responsible for the error needs to be resynthesized rather than the entire library of 500mers. The final assembly can combine all the individual 500mers with the necessary PCR reagents and proceed in a thermal cycler. If desired, a robotic system, similar, for example, to the Beckman Coulter Biomek, can be integrated with the automated gene synthesizer. [0099] A hybrid microfluidic fabrication technology may be used to provide both flexible integration and inexpensive manufacturing, preferably using liquid phase photopolymerization methods to fabricate post-synthesis fluidics features between two glass plates, and a top PDMS (polydimethysiloxane) layer to implement fluid control valve elements. It is desirable to reduce the synthesis chamber volume to reduce reagent cost. In the synthesis chamber, the volume is preferably reduced to ˜500 nl by using capillaries as synthesis cells. However, the reduction in release volume increases the difficulty of post-synthesis fluid handling. Pipette manipulation is more difficult with smaller volumes, but microfluidics provides a more suitable approach that can be easily integrated into the post processing steps. Microfluidics can also improve the concentration of the final product by two mechanisms: the reduction of material lost due to fewer fluid transfer steps, and the reduction of final assembly reaction volume. In the robotic approach, each 500mer assembly requires up to 14 transfers (if the consensus filter is repeated 3 times) of the oligonucleotides between microtiter plates, and each of these transfers is done with pipette tips. During these handling steps, the oligonucleotides may be lost due to residual transfer volumes. The microfluidics approach greatly reduces the amount of fluid handling, and hence the reagent costs. Furthermore, the final assembly steps can be performed in smaller volumes than previously possible, resulting in higher oligonucleotide concentrations in the final product without using complicated concentration steps. Individual functional components can be implemented and integrated into a microfluidic platform. Instead of storing the eluted oligonucleotides in wells and purifying them using pipette tips (20 to 100 μL volumes), flow-through elements can be used to purify and filter the synthesis product as it is eluted from the synthesis chamber. The μFT method as illustrated in FIG. 27 starts from a universal cartridge with fluidic access ports, using simple glass chambers that have access ports on the top side. The cartridge is filled with a pre-polymer mixture (a) and a mask is placed atop for UV exposure patterning (b). The mask is removed and the unpolimerized material flushed out (c), revealing the channel network. The device is finished with a top molded PDMS layer with valve structures implemented in it. Finally, the PDMS layer is bonded to the patterned glass substrate. FIG. 28 shows a simple fluidic chip designed for the purification, assembly, and amplification of eluted oligonucleotides. This chip contains all the major components necessary for post-synthesis processing, with only one pass through the consensus filter (optimization of the consensus filter may be carried out to achieve only one pass per assembly). After the microfluidic device is fabricated, the C18 and MutS filter chambers are filled with the correct glass bead materials. The glass beads are localized in these filter elements by using a simple restriction region as shown in FIG. 28 . The assembly and amplification chambers accomplish multiple tasks, including: heaters for thermal cycling, temperature sensors for thermal control, and active mixer for reagent mixing. A PDMS pinch-off valve may be incorporated with the rest of the structures for precise fluid control. [0100] In each 10 k bp assembly, multiple microfluidic chips preferably are operated simultaneously to achieve maximum efficiency. This can be done by minimizing the chip area for each assembly process and placing multiple copies of the system on the same wafer. However, this approach is limited by the volume requirements and the useable area on a substrate. Another approach is to use a 3D stackable architecture and arrange the individual assembly chips so that they share common fluidic interconnects. [0101] Dependent upon the chemistry utilized, many stages throughout the synthesis and assembly process can be assayed for quality control. Where photorelease chemistry is utilized, this allows for a spatial and temporal release of oligonucleotides. Therefore, it is possible to synthesize and leave a variety of “control” oligonucleotides tethered to each chip. A diagram of a control process is shown in FIG. 29 . If assembly of the target gene is unsuccessful, then the “control” set can be used to determine the precise step at which failure occurred. For example, a set of “control-assembly” oligonucleotides that successfully hybridize may initially be released and can flow through the region. If no assembly of this positive control occurs, then step-wise analysis of the process can begin. However, if the control oligonucleotides are successful in assembly, this implies that the target oligonucleotides themselves may be faulty and not efficient at assembly. At this point the bioinformatics software may be utilized to produce other oligonucleotide set options to attempt a re-assembly. In addition, other “control” oligonucleotides can also be included to aid in subsequent analysis. Assuming that “control-assembly” reaction fails, then a “control-synthesis” oligonucleotide may undergo hybridization to confirm oligonucleotide identity. This experiment would thereby ensure that the instrumentation and software for DNA synthesis and placement is in proper order. However, a positive hybridization result does not conclusively indicate that the identity of an oligonucleotide population is fully correct since wild-type truncated oligonucleotides may still be successful for hybridization. For example, if the target sequence to be synthesized were a sequence of several thymine bases followed by two adenine bases (TTTTTTAA), hybridization would likely still occur with the complementary anti-sense oligonucleotide (AAAAAATT) even if the major constituent were TTTTTT (truncate). In essence, it is the forgiving nature of hybridization that causes this method not to be precise enough for the purpose of verifying the amount of full-length oligonucleotide synthesized. For that reason, the “control” hybridized chip may be stripped and the “control-synthesis” oligonucleotide eluted. This product may then be quantitated using mass spectrometry and/or gel electrophoresis to reveal the amount and quality of DNA produced. [0102] There is currently great interest in the use of small molecule microarrays and high throughput identification of new bioactive compounds. Indeed, it is hoped that microarrays of ligands will accelerate chemical genomics in much the same way DNA microarrays have accelerated genomics. The small molecule microarrays can be formed either by physical spotting of compounds into arrays with robotics, assembly of DNA/RNA-small molecule conjugates into DNA arrays, or by in situ synthesis. A new approach to in situ synthesis is the use of photolabile protecting group chemistry for use in light directed combinatorial synthesis of small molecule arrays. [0103] The use of light-directed combinational chemistry has thus far been limited to the synthesis of linear polymers (DNA, polypeptides, etc.) due primarily to the lack of photolabile protecting groups that allow the independent, selective deprotection of multiple protecting groups on the same molecular framework. The ability to independently cleave multiple protecting groups using light would open the door for in situ light directed combinatorial chemistry to build drug-like small molecule libraries in arrays with the MAS. Although several approaches can be envisioned to solve this problem, many suffer drawbacks that make them unattractive. One approach involves the development of protecting groups that are sensitive to different wavelengths of light, and another uses photo-generated cleavage reagents. The former approach has difficulties associated with specificity of cleavage and demands specialized light sources; the latter suffers from a loss of spatial resolution due to the generation of diffusible chemical reagents. A preferred approach is a multiple orthogonal safety-catch photolabile (SCPL) protecting group that can be independently photocleavable with a 365 nm light source through the use of a chemical pre-activation step that converts a photo-inert protecting group to a photocleavable group. These latent photocleavable protecting groups enable a large variety of small molecule combinatorial chemistry to be accomplished using a MAS modified to allow the introduction of many independent reagents during the diversity introduction steps in the synthesis. In combination with a surface sensitive method for imaging the binding of unlabelled proteins to small molecule arrays, this platform enables high throughput (up to >10000 compounds/chip) synthesis and screening of small molecule combinatorial libraries to identify library members that selectively bind to proteins. [0104] In this approach, as illustrated with reference to FIGS. 30 and 31 , a suitably protected scaffold molecule is covalently tethered to a glass slide via a flexible linker. In the first cycle of combinatorial synthesis, one (of several independent) protecting groups is photochemically removed from a subset of the pixels on the slide, unveiling a reactive group on the scaffold molecule. A monomer with suitable reactivity to react with this group will be added to the surface of the array, adding diversity to a selected set of pixels, and this process is repeated with additional photodeprotection and monomer coupling cycles until all members of the array have been derivitized at the first position. A chemical activation step will then convert a second (photochemically unreactive) protecting group on the scaffold into a photocleavable group, enabling a second round of diversification. Third and fourth rounds are conducted as appropriate for the scaffold molecule. The key developments are a series of efficient, orthogonal SCPL-protecting groups for attachment to the scaffolds, and analytical methods to detect binding of biomolecules to small molecule microarrays and ultimately validation of the approach in biological screens. The phenacyl group is a preferred core structure in the SCPL-protecting groups as the mechanism of photocleavage depends upon the presence of an aryl ketone that undergoes photoexcitation to a triplet diradicaloid excited and subsequently cleaves. The ketone group is readily masked in multiple latent forms that are photoinert and can be converted to the ketone at the required time through chemical deprotection. Additionally, these groups need not contain any chiral centers, simplifying synthesis and characterization. These trimethoxyphenacyl derivatives have an absorption maximum at ˜375 nm which extends into the visible range, allowing the possibility of deprotections at both 360 nm and 400 nm, either directly or through the use of a sensitizer. [0105] A first scheme (Scheme 1) as shown in FIG. 31 has three potential SCPL-protecting groups and conditions for orthogonal activation of each of the SCPL-protecting groups. The latent ketone in S1-1 is protected as a dimethoxy ketal that can be hydrolyzed to the ketone under mild acidic conditions. S1-2 has a dithiane masking the ketone that can be deprotected with periodate. S1-3 has the ketone masked as an alkene that can be oxidatively cleaved by treatment with OsO4, N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide and periodate. All of these SCPL-protecting may be converted to the trimethoxyphenacyl group S1-4, allowing photocleavage at long wavelengths. [0106] At least three orthogonal SCPL-protecting groups can be synthesized. Along with the parent photolabile group, this provides four independent orthogonal photolabile protecting groups (direct photodeprotection plus three safety catch). The SCPL-protecting groups need only be orthogonal to one another within a linear sequence of activation and cleavage conditions, and thus each group need not be fully orthogonal to all others. A synthetic route is outlined in FIG. 32 and begins with commercially available trimethoxyacetophenone. Oxidation with diacetoxyiodobenzene in methanolic KOH directly provides the hydroxyl ketal S2-1. Conversion of S2-1 to the o-nitrophenyl (oNP) carbonate S2-2 provides the first reagent for introduction of a safety catch photolabile protecting group into amines and alcohols. The hydroxylketal S2-1 can be converted to the dithiane S2-3 with propanedithiol under Lewis acid catalysis. Conversion to the oNP-carbonate S2-4 provides a second reagent for introduction of a SCPL-protecting group onto amines and alcohols. Alternatively, the hydroxylated ketal can be hydrolysed to the ketone, protected with TBS-C1 and converted to the alkene S2-6 with a Wittig olefination. The alkene S2-6 can subsequently be deprotected and converted to the oNP-carbonate S2-7, providing a third reagent for the introduction of a SCPL-protecting group onto amines and alcohols. [0107] To provide a set of reagents, S2-1, S2-3 and S2-6 are converted to the active carbonates S2-2, S2-4, S2-7 for introduction into scaffold molecules. It should also be noted that S2-1, S2-3 and S2-6 can also be converted to esters for the protection of carboxylic acids. To characterize each of the SCPL-protecting groups, a series of protected benzylamines S3-1 are produced as shown in FIG. 33 . [0108] A suitably protected scaffold may be used to test up to three orthogonal SCPL-protecting groups. One scaffold may be based upon the dipeptide Lys-Glu. A synthetic route to this scaffold is shown in FIG. 34 . Fmoc-Asp(OA11)-OH is protected as the trimethoxy phenacyl ester with triethoxyphenacyl bromide and deprotected with diethylamine to give the amine S4-1. Boc-Lys-OMe is acylated with the dithiane carbonate S2-4 and deprotected with trifluoroacetic acid to give amine S4-2 which is subsequently acylated with S2-2 to give urethane S4-3. Hydrolysis of the methyl ester and coupling to amine 1 with EDCl/HOBt provides amine 4 for testing the orthogonality of the SCPL-protecting groups. [0109] Compound 4 is subjected to UV photolysis to deprotect the a-carboxyl of aspartic acid and coupled to benzylamine with PyAOP. Treatment with 5% trifluoroacetic acid can unveil the photolabile group protecting the α-amine of lysine. Photodeprotection and coupling with benzoyl chloride will cap the amine. Deprotection of the dithiane with periodate will activate the final safety-catch for photolysis and coupling to benzoyl chloride. The allyl ester of S4-4 can be deprotected with Pd to allow covalent attachment to amine terminated glass slides. Various fluorescent dyes may be used on the three sites on the Lys-Asp dipeptide for independent, orthogonal deprotection of the SCPL-protecting groups. Using a set of orthogonal SCPL-protecting groups, biologically interesting scaffolds can be chosen for the creation and screening of microarrayed combinatorial libraries through in situ synthesis. [0110] It is understood that the invention is not limited to the embodiments set forth herein as illustrative, but embraces all such forms thereof as come within the scope of the following claims.

Synthesis of long chain molecules such as DNA is carried out rapidly and efficiently to produce relatively large quantities of the desired product. The synthesis of an entire gene or multiple genes formed of many hundreds or thousands of base pairs can be accomplished rapidly and, if desired, in a fully automated process requiring minimal operator intervention, and in a matter of hours, a day or a few days rather than many days or weeks. Production of a desired gene or set of genes having a specified base pair sequence is initiated by analyzing the specified target sequence and determining an optimal set of subsequences of base pairs that can be assembled to form the desired final target sequence. The set of oligonucleotides are then synthesized utilizing automated oligonucleotide synthesis techniques. The synthesized oligonucleotides are subsequently selectively released from the substrate and used in a sequential assembly process.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims the benefit of the filing date of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/851,972, filed on Oct. 16, 2006, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The invention relates to spinal fusion implant devices for fusing adjacent vertebrae and, in particular, to implant devices positionable in the intervertebral space and fixed in place using a cement composition. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION [0003] The spine principally includes a series of vertebrae and spinal discs located in a space between adjacent vertebrae. The vertebrae are formed of hard bone while the discs comprise a comparatively soft annulus and nucleus. The discs support the vertebrae in proper position and enable the torso to be rotated and to bend laterally and anteriorly-posteriorly. The discs also act as shock absorbers or cushions when the spine is experiencing shock, such as during running or jumping. [0004] A variety of spinal conditions result in a person experiencing pain or limited physical activity and ability. More specifically, damage to vertebrae composing the spine and spinal discs between the vertebrae may occur as a result of trauma, deformity, disease, or other degenerative conditions. Some of these conditions can be life-threatening, while others cause impingement on the spinal cord resulting in pain and a lack of mobility. Removing the impingement, thus reducing swelling or pressure from the damaged or diseased tissue against the spinal cord, can relieve the pain and often promotes healing and return of normal nervous system functioning. However, the absence of proper medical care may lead to further damage and degeneration of spinal health and to permanent spinal cord damage. [0005] Damage to the spine often results in reduced physiological capability. For instance, damage to the disc or vertebra may allow the annulus to bulge, commonly referred to as a herniated disc. In more severe cases, the damage may allow the nucleus to leak from the annulus. In any event, such damage often causes the vertebrae to shift closer or compress, and often causes a portion of the disc to press against the spinal cord. [0006] One manner of treating these conditions is through immobilization of the vertebrae in a portion of the spine, such as two or more adjacent vertebrae, which is often beneficial in reducing or eliminating pain. Immobilization and/or fusion have been performed via a number of techniques and devices, and the type of injury often suggests a preferred treatment regime. [0007] One form of immobilization is known as spinal fusion surgery, in which two or more adjacent or consecutive vertebrae are initially immobilized relative to each other and, over time, become fused in a desired spatial relationship. For instance, rigid rods or plates may be attached to the spine to immobilize the spine for a sufficient length of time to allow fusion between the vertebrae and the intervertebral implant to take place and/or to allow boney ingrowth into the disc space. Desirably the vertebrae are relatively immobilized at the proper intervertebral distance, replicating the support characteristics of the healthy spine. An implant spacer may be placed between the vertebrae, which over time will fuse to both adjacent vertebrae or be entirely resorbed and replaced with bony growth. [0008] Spinal fusion surgery substantially reduces or eliminates the motion between vertebral segments, which thereby alleviates a source of pain in some patients. Although fusion treatments sacrifice rotation and flexion between the affected vertebrae such that some loss of movement and flexibility of the spine is experienced, the non-fused portions of the spine are largely able to compensate for most normal movement expected by a patient. Furthermore, the compression on the spinal cord due to the injury is reduced or eliminated, and the fused vertebrae protect the spinal cord from injury. The spinal fusion surgery can also be used to prevent or impede progressive deformity of the spine in some patients. Subjects in need of spinal fusion include those suffering from fractured vertebra, spondylolisthesis, protrusion or degeneration of the spinal disc, abnormal curvature of the spine (such as scoliosis or kyphosis), spinal tumor, spinal infection, or spinal instability. [0009] Currently, a number of fusion devices are known. Implantation of such devices may involve excavating a portion of one or both adjacent vertebrae to provide a volume for locating the device therein. Many fusion devices have surface features such as anchor members in the form of prongs, teeth, spikes, and the like, which extend away from upper and lower surfaces of the device for being embedded into the adjacent vertebrae. In order to locate the device within the intervertebral space, instruments may be used to spread the vertebrae apart. [0010] Some fusion devices are made from bio-resorbable materials, such as natural bone, hydroxyapatite, calcium phosphates, and other bone-like compositions Fusion devices comprising bio-resorbable materials can be integrated into adjacent bone over time eventually providing a single solid mass of bone, however devices prepared using such materials tend to have relatively weak compressive strengths. [0011] Stronger materials, such as polyetheretherketones (PEEK), may be used to manufacture fusion devices to provide increased strength. Surface features such as spikes and teeth made of such materials can penetrate vertebral bone to secure the device thereto. However, these stronger materials are not bio-resorbable. [0012] The purpose of the fusion procedure is to develop a lattice, matrix, or solid mass of bone joined with and extending between the adjacent vertebrae and through the intervertebral space. Eventually, the formed or developed bone and the vertebrae are joined to provide a somewhat unitary, incompressible structure that maintains the proper pre-fusion spatial relationship for the size to reduce or eliminate the impingement on the spinal cord. Accordingly implants formed of these stronger materials are left as a redundant structure which is unable to be absorbed by the body or replaced by bone growth and which acts as a boundary interface between the implant device and any resultant bone growth. While the effect of the boundary interface can be addressed by reducing the size of the implant so that more graft material can be packed into the intervertebral space around the implant, this can result in less secure implantation. [0013] Accordingly, there is a need for improved spinal fusion systems and for improved methods for performing spinal fusion surgery. There is also a need for implants that are compatible with body chemistry and physiology and that possess mechanical stability for hardness, compressive strength, flexural strength, and/or wear resistance, as well as controlled microstructure to develop functional gradients, controlled interfacial properties to maintain structural integrity in physiological conditions, and/or surface chemistry tailored to provide appropriate adhesion properties, chemical resistance, and lasting patient comfort. [0014] The present invention may be used to fulfill these, as well as other needs and objectives, as will be apparent from the following description of embodiments of the present invention. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0015] The invention provides for a device, systems and methods for fusing adjacent vertebral bodies. The device of the invention is variously referenced herein as the “implant,” “fusion implant,” “fusion device,” or “spinal fusion device” of the invention. [0016] The spinal fusion device of the invention is implanted within an intervertebral space between adjacent upper and lower vertebrae and secured to the vertebrae with cement. The fusion device comprises a body having upper and lower endplate facing surfaces for contacting adjacent vertebrae, with one or more sidewalls formed therebetween. The fusion device includes upper and lower endplate facing surfaces each having at least one opening for delivering cement material to adjacent contact surfaces of the vertebrae above and below the implant. Utilizing quick-setting cement compositions with the device can allow for almost immediate fusion of the vertebrae, thus, reducing or eliminating the need for adjuvant fixation devices such as screws, plates, and/or rods, while also simultaneously providing precise delivery of cement to contact surfaces between the fusion device and vertebrae. [0017] The openings in the spinal fusion device's upper and lower endplate facing surfaces are positioned and configured so that cement is directed only toward the vertebral surfaces in contact with the device, which prevents cement from escaping into the adjacent vertebral space, where it could cause potential injury by bonding to nerve tissue or other nearby tissues, or harden into sharp fragments that may damage said tissues. Eventually, the openings may also provide a pathway for bone from the adjacent vertebrae to grow into and fuse with the device. [0018] The spinal fusion device of the invention may optionally include one or more fill ports, such as one or more injection ports, configured to externally receive a cement material from a delivery device, such as a syringe or any other injection device. The fill port may be connected to one or more channels that lead to one or more openings through the exterior of the spinal fusion device. The spinal fusion device may also contain a hollow core that is a cavity for receiving cement from the fill port, with the cavity either leading directly to openings in the exterior of the implant or connected to one or more channels that lead to such openings. Generally, a syringe is used to dispense the cement material into the spinal fusion device using sufficient pressure so as to substantially fill the channel(s) and/or the hollow core and force the cement through the openings in the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces to contact the adjacent vertebrae. The fill port is preferably positioned on a lateral sidewall between the endplate facing surfaces so as to allow the implant to be injected with cement subsequent to insertion of the implant into the intervertebral space, but the fill port may also be used for cement injection prior to insertion of the implant into the intervertebral space, if desired. [0019] Fusion of the adjacent vertebrae is enhanced by injection of cement material into the spinal fusion device before and/or after insertion of the implant into the intervertebral space. The cement polymerizes in situ and either binds the spinal fusion device to the surface of or interdigitates into the endplate cortical bone and the exposed cancellous bone in the upper and lower vertebral bodies. The cement material polymerizes to fuse the implant to the upper and/or lower vertebral bodies. By injecting the cement material into the implant and subsequently forcing the cement to emanate outward from the implant to the vertebral surfaces that are in direct contact with the implant, a more precise application of cement is achieved than when cement is applied to the exterior of the vertebra and/or implant before or during implantation. The resulting continuous uniform cement connection between the vertebrae facilitates bone ingrowth and more secure fusion. [0020] The body of the spinal fusion device may be formed as a rigid structure with lateral sidewall surfaces that are impermeable to the cement and discrete openings through upper and lower endplate facing surfaces. A rigid spinal fusion device can be formed of any suitable load bearing, biocompatible material. Suitable materials include bioceramic materials, metal, inert polymers such as PEEK, resorbable polymers, resorbable polymer composites, bone grafts, and the like. [0021] Alternatively, the spinal fusion device may be made of flexible material that may be rolled or otherwise flexed and compacted to minimize volume for purposes of insertion and subsequently inflated with cement subsequent to insertion into the intervertebral space. Flexible spinal fusion devices may be made, for instance, of a mesh comprising of woven fibers or sheets of polyethylene, Teflon®, polyesters, lycra, nylon, rayon, cellulose, collagen and the like. More preferably, the flexible implant comprises resorbable sheets or polymers, such as those made of polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, polyglycolic/co-lactic acid polymers, polyurethanes, polyaryl carbonates, polytyrosine carbonates, polycaprolactones, polydioxanes, polyphosphazenes, polybutyric acids, polyvaleric acids, and the like. The structure of such a flexible mesh can form a selectively permeable surface through which cement is released to contact adjacent bone. In such cases, an impermeable cement barrier layer can be added to those surfaces of the device that will not contact the adjacent vertebrae, so that the release of cement is focused toward bone-contacting surfaces. Alternatively, or in addition, discrete openings may be provided through the flexible material to direct cement to adjacent vertebral surfaces. [0022] Any biocompatible cement composition may be used with the spinal fusion device, but preferred cements may be selected according to various parameters, especially setting time, binding strength, and flow characteristics. In addition it is preferred that the setting reaction of the cement is not exothermic, so that possible damage to adjacent tissues is minimized or eliminated. The cement preferably sets within minutes with a low exotherm and has a strength sufficient to adequately support the spine and simultaneously immobilize the implant and adjacent vertebrae. The viscosity of the cement when freshly mixed and injected into the implant should preferably allow the cement to flow out of the implant and into contact with the vertebrae in a controlled manner. Preferred cements will also be radiopaque, will rapidly set and cure, will maintain physiological pH and be biocompatible. Preferred cements include those described in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/500,798, which published as U.S. 20070032568 A1, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/968,462, both of which are specifically incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Other cements may also be used, such as cements based on the polymerizable acrylate resin polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), calcium phosphate cements, glass ionomer cements, and the like. The cement may also further comprise filler materials such as inert fillers or bioactive components that promote bone growth. Each component of the cement product can also, optionally, include additional materials. [0023] In another aspect, the invention provides a system for fusing adjacent upper and lower vertebrae using a spinal fusion implant device of the invention. The device is sized to fit in the intervertebral space between adjacent vertebrae and having a body in which a flow path is formed that has an inlet and which opens to an outlet or outlets that face at least one, and preferably both, of the adjacent vertebrae. Injectable cement can be injected through the inlet into the flow path and, thereby, directed to the upper and lower vertebra through the corresponding facing opening of the implant body. [0024] The system further includes injectable cement material with predetermined rapid setting characteristic so that setting of the cement fixes the implant body to the vertebrae in the intervertebral space. In addition, upon injection the preferred cement material has a viscosity that provides the cement material with desired flow characteristics through the flow path prior to setting. In certain embodiments, the system can further include a delivery device adapted to deliver the injectable cement material to the inlet of the implant body. The flow path and delivery device are configured so that the flow of the cement material is provided with sufficient pressure to generate flow of the cement through the flow path from the inlet of the body to the outlet or outlets so that the cement material sets substantially at the time it engages along the corresponding vertebra and prior to flowing beyond the implant body in the intervertebral space. [0025] In the methods of the invention, spinal fixation and stability are maintained or enhanced by inserting the fusion device between two adjacent vertebral bodies and injecting cement into one or more hollow cores in the fusion device. The injected cement fills the one or more hollow cores and contacts the surface of one or more adjacent vertebral bodies and, in some methods, interdigitates into the cancellous bone in the vertebral bodies, thereby achieving substantially immediate fixation and/or mechanical stability. By using cement to achieve mechanical stability, the invention can minimize or eliminate the need for additional fixation appliances, such as the pedicle rods and screws. Moreover, the invention can advantageously provide a uniform, homogenous connection between opposing vertebra to facilitate bony ingrowth. [0026] Thus, in certain embodiments, the fusion device of the invention is used in a standalone application that does not include the use of adjuvant fixation. In alternate embodiments, the fusion device can be used in conjunction with adjuvant fixation. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES [0027] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a fusion device of the invention [0028] FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a fusion device of the invention with two hollow cores for cement and a graft compartment. [0029] FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a fusion device of the invention with upper and lower hollow cores for cement as well as a graft compartment. [0030] FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a fusion device of the invention with two hollow cores for cement and a graft compartment. [0031] FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a cannula and a flexible fusion device of the invention with a flexible outer surface. [0032] FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a cannula and a flexible fusion device of the invention with a flexible outer surface that includes an impervious side wall and mesh top. [0033] FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a flexible fusion device of the invention with a flexible outer surface and a graft compartment. [0034] FIG. 8 is a perspective view of a flexible fusion device of the invention with a flexible outer surface that includes separate upper and lower hollow cores for cement as well as a graft compartment. [0035] FIG. 9 is a side view of a fusion device of the invention between a superior and an inferior vertebra. [0036] FIG. 10 is a perspective view of a fusion device of the invention configured for insertion by posterior surgical approach. [0037] FIG. 11 is a perspective view of a fusion device of the invention configured for insertion by posterior surgical approach. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0038] The spinal fusion device of the invention is used to maintain disc height between two adjacent vertebral bodies while bone forms between the two vertebrae. The device permits injection of cement into one or more hollow cores in the fusion device. The cement fills the one or more hollow cores and engages the vertebral body surfaces located on one or both sides of the implanted device. Once the cement has set, independent motion of the vertebrae is substantially or wholly eliminated. The device, systems and methods of the invention provide for reduced time for fixation and improved stability of the vertebral motion segment, thereby reducing or eliminating the need for adjuvant fixation. By reducing or eliminating the drilling, tapping or insertion of screws associated with adjuvant fixation, the invention provides for shorter spinal fusion procedures. In some embodiments, as boney spinal fusion occurs, the cement will resorb and act as a continuous scaffold for tissue ingrowth without the use any bone growth enhancement devices such as autograft material. In additional embodiments, the device further includes graft compartment into which autograft or other bone graft material can be placed. [0039] The spinal fusion device of the invention can have any suitable shape and comprise any suitable biocompatible material. Suitable shapes include, for example, shapes that are substantially a cylinder, a ring, a disc, a rectangle, a U-shape, a boomerang or the like that are sized for cervical, thoracic, or lumbar use. Suitable biocompatible materials include metal, plastic, resorbable polymers, resorbable polymer composites, bone graft material, and the like. [0040] Exemplary suitable materials for use in a rigid spinal fusion device of the invention include polyetheretherketones (PEEK), PEEK-calcium phosphate composites, PEEK-bone graft composites, hydroxyapatite, tricalcium phosphate, 316 stainless steel, duralloy, cobalt-cobalt chrome, titanium alloy such as Ti6Al4V alloys, polymers, plastic, resorbable polymers (i.e. polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, poly glycolic-co-lactic acid, polydioxane, polycaprolactoner), other resorbable polymer composites with calcium phosphates, allografts, bone grafts, and the like. In preferred embodiments, the rigid fusion device comprises densified or consolidated hydroxyapatite or tricalcium phosphate, in particular nanocrystalline materials as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,013,591, reissued as RE 39,196, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/635,402, which published as U.S. 2005/0031704 A1, the entire contents of all three of which are specifically incorporated by reference herein. In a more preferred, embodiment, the fusion device is made from nanocrystalline calcium phosphate NanOss™ (Angstrom Medica, Woburn, Mass.). Such a device is especially useful in the methods described herein, used in conjunction with injectable NanOss IsoFLEX™ Cement (Angstrom Medica, Woburn, Mass.). [0041] The implants of the invention desirably have a resorption time of about 1 year or more (e.g., about 3 years or more, about 6 years or more, or about 10 years or more). The rate of resorption will depend at least in part on the crystal size as well as the composition of the implant. Smaller crystal sizes will be resorbed more rapidly than larger crystal sizes. The desired resorption rate will depend on the application and the crystal size and composition can be tailored to match a desired resorption rate. [0042] FIG. 1 illustrates a spinal fusion device 100 of the invention, which can be inserted into the intervertebral space between upper and lower adjacent vertebrae during spinal fusion surgery. The outer surface 110 , 150 , 160 of the device 100 includes a sidewall 110 , which extends generally between an upper endplate facing surface 150 and a lower endplate facing surface 160 . Preferably, the upper endplate and lower endplate facing surfaces 150 , 160 include teeth structures 140 , which engage the vertebral surfaces directly above and below the device 100 to thereby resist dislocation within and/or expulsion from the intervertebral space. The sidewall surface 110 includes a fill port 130 . Fixation and stability of the adjacent vertebrae is enhanced by (i) inserting the implant 100 into an intervertebral space so that the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 150 , 160 contact the adjacent vertebral surfaces that are above and below the intervertabral space, respectively, and (ii) using an injection delivery device 135 to inject cement material through fill port 130 into hollow core 120 until cement fills the hollow core 120 and is directed through openings in the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 150 , 160 of the device to the vertebral surfaces that are, respectively, directly above and below the device 100 . After injection, the cement material sets, quickly fusing the device 100 to the upper and lower vertebrae. [0043] FIG. 9 illustrates a spinal fusion device 100 of the invention disposed within the intervertebral space between an upper vertebra 910 and a lower vertebra 920 . The sidewall 110 of the device includes a filler port 130 for injection of cement. The filler port 130 is depicted as being positioned close to the posterior lateral location of the spinal segment 910 , 920 . Generally, the devices of the invention are preferably positioned within the intervertebral space so that the filler port (or more generally, the portion of the device for receiving cement) is located at or near the point of insertion of the device into the intervertebral space. Such positioning facilitates delivery of cement to the device via the same surgical access used to insert the device. [0044] In another aspect, the spinal fusion implant includes a graft compartment for receiving bone graft material. The term bone graft material is used herein to refer to biological additives such as orthobiologics that promote bone replacement. Thus, bone graft material can include allografts, autografts, demineralized bone matrix, collagen, growth factors, and/or bone morphogenic proteins. [0045] FIG. 2 illustrates a spinal fusion device 200 with a graft compartment 260 and two hollow cores 220 , 230 , each of which extends from the upper endplate facing surface 270 to the lower endplate facing surface 280 . One or more internal walls 250 separate the hollow cores 220 , 230 from each other and from the graft compartment 260 . Upon insertion of the device 200 into the intervertebral space between adjacent vertebra, cement material can be independently injected into each of the two fill ports 240 in the sidewall 210 , to thereby independently control injection pressure, the amount of cement material, and/or the type of cement that is injected into each of the hollow cores 220 , 230 and that subsequently contacts each of the vertebral surfaces, respectively, which are directly above and below the device 300 . In further embodiments, the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 270 , 280 can include teeth structures (such as those illustrated in FIG. 1 ) to resist dislocation within and/or expulsion from the intervertebral space. [0046] FIG. 3 illustrates a spinal fusion device 300 of the invention that includes upper and lower hollow cores 320 , 330 , which direct injected cement material to the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 380 , 390 , respectively. The implant 300 includes a midline internal wall 340 , which separates the hollow cores 320 , 330 , and at least two fill ports 350 in the sidewall 310 . Thus, the device provides for the independent control of injection pressure, the amount of cement, and/or the type of cement that is injected into each of the upper and lower hollow cores 320 , 330 and that subsequently contacts each of the vertebral surfaces, respectively, which are directly above and below the device 300 . Additionally, as illustrated in FIG. 3 , the implant 300 includes a graft compartment 370 , which extends from the upper endplate facing surface 380 to the lower endplate facing surface 390 and which is separated from the hollow cores 320 , 330 by an internal wall 360 . In further embodiments, the upper endplate and lower endplate facing surfaces 380 , 390 can include teeth structures (such as those illustrated in FIG. 1 ) to resist dislocation within and/or expulsion from the intervertebral space. [0047] When cement is added to one or more hollow cores that generally surround one or more graft compartments (such as the generally concentric arrangement of hollow core(s) around a graft compartment illustrated in FIGS. 2 , 3 , 7 , and 8 ), the spinal fusion device of the invention advantageously provides a cement barrier that prevents the migration of loose bone chips or other graft material from the implant graft compartment, which can result in irritation or other damage to surrounding vertebral tissues. [0048] FIG. 4 illustrates a spinal fusion device 400 according to the invention. The device 400 has a sidewall 410 that generally extends between upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 470 , 480 and forms a substantially rectangular shape surrounding two hollow cores 420 , 430 . The hollow cores 420 , 430 are disposed laterally to each other and are separated by internal walls 450 and a central graft compartment 460 . The hollow cores 420 , 430 and the graft compartment 450 extends from the upper endplate facing surface 470 to the lower endplate facing surface 480 . Separate injection ports 440 in the sidewall 410 provide for the independent control of injection pressure, the amount of cement, and/or the type of cement that is injected into each of the hollow cores 420 , 430 and that contacts each of the vertebral surfaces, respectively, which are directly above and below the device. In further embodiments, the upper endplate and lower endplate facing surfaces 470 , 480 can include teeth structures (such as those illustrated in FIG. 1 ) to resist dislocation within and/or expulsion from the intervertebral space. [0049] The spinal fusion device of the invention can be configured for insertion into the intervertebral space between adjacent upper and lower vertebra using a posterior or posterior lateral surgical approach. FIGS. 10 and 11 , for example, illustrate devices of the invention suitable for insertion by a posterior or posterior lateral approach. [0050] FIG. 10 illustrates a spinal fusion device 1000 with an outer surface 1100 , 1200 , 1500 , 1600 having a substantially narrow rectangular shape. Using a posterior surgical incision, the insertion end 1100 of the device 1000 can be guided into the intervertebral space prior to positioning the trailing end 1200 in the intervertebral space, thereby allowing the fill port 1400 on the trailing end 1200 to remain accessible via the same posterior surgical incision. A delivery device can be inserted into the same posterior surgical incision to deliver cement to fill port 1400 until the cement fills the hollow core 1300 and is directed through openings in the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 1500 , 1600 to contact the upper and lower vertebral surfaces that are directly above and below, respectively, the device 1000 . An internal wall 1800 separates the graft compartment 1700 , which is for receiving bone graft material, from the hollow core 1300 . The graft compartment, preferably extends from the upper endplate facing surface 1500 to the lower endplate facing surface 1600 . In further embodiments, the upper endplate and lower endplate facing surfaces 1500 , 1600 can also include teeth structures (such as those illustrated in FIG. 1 ) to resist dislocation within and/or expulsion from the intervertebral space. [0051] FIG. 11 illustrates a spinal fusion device 2000 with an outer surface 2100 , 2200 , 2500 , 2600 having a substantially boomerang shape. Using a posterior surgical incision, the insertion end 2100 of the device 2000 can be guided into the intervertebral space prior to positioning the trailing end 2200 in the intervertebral space, thereby allowing the fill port 2400 on the trailing end 2200 to remain accessible via the same posterior surgical incision. A delivery device can be inserted into the same posterior surgical incision to deliver cement to fill port fill port 2400 until cement fills the hollow core 2300 and is directed through openings in the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 2500 , 2600 to contact the upper and lower vertebral surfaces that are directly above and below, respectively, the device 2000 . An internal wall 2800 separates the graft compartment 2700 , which is for receiving bone graft material, from the hollow core 2300 . The graft compartment, preferably extends from the upper endplate facing surface 2500 to the lower endplate facing surface 2600 . In further embodiments, the upper endplate and lower endplate facing surfaces 2500 , 2600 can also include teeth structures (such as those illustrated in FIG. 1 ) to resist dislocation within and/or expulsion from the intervertebral space. [0052] In particular embodiments, the spinal fusion device of the invention includes and insertion end that is smaller than the trailing end. This configuration facilitates insertion of the device, and it may also be used to maintain, improve, or restore the appropriate curvature of the spine. Thus, the configuration of the devices illustrated in FIGS. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 10 , and 11 can be modified, for example, by tapering or otherwise altering their sidewall surface, to include smaller insertion end relative to the trailing end. [0053] The spinal fusion device of the invention can also be configured to maintain, improve, or restore the appropriate lordotic angle in a patient's lumbar spinal region. In these configurations, the spinal fusion device's sidewall includes a taller portion to be positioned anteriorly in the lumbar intervertebral space and a shorter portion to be positioned posteriorly in the intervertebral space. In this context, taller and shorter refer to relative height, where height refers to the smallest distance between the lower endplate facing surface and the upper endplate facing surface at the anterior and posterior portions of the sidewall. Thus, the devices illustrated in FIGS. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 10 , and 11 can be modified, for example, by tapering or otherwise altering their sidewall surface, to include a taller anterior height and a shorter posterior height. In particular, the height of the anterior portion of the device can range from about 12 mm to about 20 mm. The height of the posterior portion the device is such that the device is said to provide a lordotic angle ranging from about 4 degrees to about 12 degrees. The lordotic angle of the device refers generally to the angle of the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces with respect to the other. The lordotic angle can also be calculated by drawing two lines that connect the points used to determine the anterior and posterior heights; Specifically, a first line is drawn that connects the two points used to determine height along the anterior and posterior portions of the upper endplate facing surface (these two points are disposed on the edge joining the upper endplate surface to the anterior sidewall or to the posterior sidewall portion used to determine anterior and posterior height, respectively), a second line is line is drawn that connects the two points used to determine height along the anterior and posterior portions of the lower endplate facing surface (these two points are disposed on the edge joining the lower endplate surface to the anterior sidewall or to the posterior sidewall portion used to determine anterior and posterior height, respectively), and the angle at which these two lines intersect is said to be the lordotic angle provided by the device. [0054] The spinal fusion device of the invention may also includes structures that facilitate gripping and manipulating the device, e.g., by a clamp on the end of an inserter. For example, a rigid spinal fusion device may include one or more notches on opposite portions of the sidewall. The notches can receive the jaws of a clamp head, which can thereby tightly grip an manipulate the fusion device. In another example, the device can include one or more slits into which one or more flat heads at the end of an inserter can be inserted. The slits act as sleeves for the inserter and provide a stable grip for manipulating the device. [0055] If desired, the spinal fusion device may include a plurality of outlets in the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces that are sized and positioned to allow cement material to flow from the hollow core and into contact with adjacent vertebral bone surfaces, which are directly above and below the device. The outlet size can be further selected to allow tissue ingrowth and should be from 100 microns to 3 mm in diameter, 250 microns to 2 mm in diameter and more preferably 500 microns to 1.5 mm in diameter. [0056] In alternative embodiments of the invention, a delivery device, such as a syringe or other injection device as are known in the art, containing cement material is positioned with its tip inserted into the outlet (i.e., instead of a filler port) to inject cement into the hollow core. The outlet or plurality of outlets allows cement to exit the hollow core as it is filled with cement. The exiting cement contacts the adjacent vertebral endplate and polymerizes to fuse the spinal fusion device to the endplate. [0057] In embodiments of the spinal fusion device of the invention that include one or more internal walls that separate one or more hollow cores and/or graft compartments and can contact the upper and/or lower vertebral surfaces when inserted in a vertebral space, such internal walls can include a roughened surface or surface porosity to mechanically interlock the cement to the device. Thus, for example, internal walls 250 in FIG. 2 , 360 in FIG. 3 , 450 in FIG. 4 , 1800 in FIG. 10 and 2800 in FIG. 11 can be fashioned to include a roughened surface or surface porosity at their surfaces that contact the upper and/or lower vertebral surfaces. [0058] The cement material can be injected into the spinal fusion implant device before and/or preferably after insertion of the implant into the intervertebral space. The implants of the invention can be inserted into the intervertebral space using conventional techniques and known tools, as well as using tools to distract the vertebrae to facilitate insertion of the implant into the intervertebral space. When the cement is injected into the implant prior to insertion of the implant into the intervertebral space, it is important that the implant be inserted prior to substantial polymerization (i.e., hardening) of the cement, preferably within about 2 minutes to within about 30 minutes of mixing the cement components. [0059] In a separate aspect, the invention also provides a flexible spinal fusion device with an outer surface that is made of a biocompatible flexible material. Suitable biocompatible flexible materials for the outer surface include polymer fibers such as polyethylene, Teflon®, polyesters, Lycra®, nylon, rayon, cellulose, and the like. Other suitable flexible materials can be composed of resorbable fibers or sheets, such as polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid, polylactic/polyglycolic acid copolymers, polypropylenefumarate, polypropyleneitaconate, polyhydroxybutyric acid, polyhydroxyvaleric acid, polycaprolactone, polyhydroxycarboxylic acids, polybutyrene succinate, polybutylene adipate, polytyrosine carbonates, polytyrosine carbonates, polydioxanes, collagen, chitosan, alginate, cellulose, starches, sugars, polypeptides, polyethylene glycol, vinyl pyrrolidones, acrylamides and methacrylates or any of their derivates, poly(valerolactone), poly(trimethylene carbonate), poly(imino carbonates), poly(tartonic acid), poly(13-malonic acid), aliphatic disisocyanate based polyurethanes, peptide-based polyurethanes, polyester or polyorthoester based polyurethanes, polyphosphazenes incorporating amino acid ester, glucosyl, glyceyl, lactate or imidazolyl side groups, and combinations thereof. [0060] Referring now to FIGS. 5 to 8 , flexible fusion devices 500 , 600 , 700 , 800 in accordance with a separate aspect of the invention are depicted. Generally, the flexible fusion device of the invention is compactable prior to filling with cement and/or bone graft material and expandable when filled with cement. In its compacted form, the flexible fusion device is suitable for delivery via minimally invasive procedures to the intervertebral space between two adjacent vertebra. Preferably, only portions of the flexible implant facing the vertebral endplates are permeable to cement. More specifically, it is preferable that at least one of the endplate facing surfaces is permeable to cement and that the sidewall or sidewalls are impermeable to cement. More preferably, the endplate facing surface is permeable due to the presence of a plurality of pores that are of sufficient diameter so as to allow passage of cement. In this regard, the pores can generally be from about 10 microns to about 5 mm in diameter. [0061] Advantageously, the flexible spinal fusion device of the invention can be inflated by injecting cement into one or more hollow cores to restore disc height. The devices can further include a graft compartment for receiving bone graft materials, which, as used herein, can include biological additives, such as orthobiologicals, including allografts, autografts, demineralized bone matrix, collagen, growth factors, or bone morphogenic proteins. The hollow core and/or graft compartments are preferably configured so that cement provides structural support across the entire length and width of the implant. [0062] FIG. 5 illustrates a flexible spinal fusion device 500 that includes an outer surface 510 , 530 , 540 made of flexible material, in accordance with another embodiment of the invention. The sidewall 510 is formed between an upper endplate facing surface 530 and a lower endplate facing surface 540 . The outer surface 510 , 530 , 540 can be pierced by a cannula 550 for injecting cement into the hollow core 520 , which is surrounded by the outer surface 510 , 530 , 540 . In preferred embodiments, the outer surface 510 , 530 , 540 is made of a sheet and a woven or mesh material that allows for varying degrees of permeability by the injected cement. For a cement having a particular viscosity, permeability can be controlled by weave or mesh density. Thus, the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 530 , 540 can be made of a relatively loose weave or mesh that allows injected cement to permeate from the hollow cavity 520 and contact the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces, respectively. The longitudinal outer surface 510 is preferably made from a denser weave or finer mesh that is impermeable to the cement, thereby restricting and directing the flow of cement towards the inferior and or inferior vertebral bodies. In this regard, it is further noted that cement permeability is a function of both (i) the quality (density or fineness) of a weave or mesh in the flexible material and (ii) the viscosity of the cement used. The flexible device 500 expands upon filling with cement, and eventually releases cement onto vertebral surfaces in contact with pores or openings in the vertebral facing surfaces 530 , 540 of the implant. Advantageously, the flexible implant can be filled to desired levels to occupy a predetermined volume and provide an implant of desired height and structural support. [0063] FIG. 6 illustrates another flexible spinal fusion device 600 according to the invention having an outer surface 610 , 630 , 640 made of flexible material. In this embodiment, the upper endplate facing surface 630 , the lower endplate facing surface 640 , and the sidewall 610 therebetween form a substantially disc shaped device 600 . The sidewall 610 can be pierced by a cannula 650 to inject cement into the hollow cavity 620 , which is surrounded by the outer surface 610 , 630 , 640 . Preferably sidewall 610 is made of material that is solid (yet flexible), that includes a cement barrier sheet, or that includes a sufficiently fine mesh or dense weave so as to make the sidewall 610 substantially impermeable to cement injected into the hollow core 620 . The upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 630 , 640 are made of a sufficiently open mesh or loose weave, which allows injected cement to permeate from the hollow core 620 towards the upper and lower endplates, respectively, of adjacent vertebral bodies. [0064] FIG. 7 illustrates yet another flexible spinal fusion device 700 according to the invention having an outer surface 710 , 730 , 740 made of flexible material. Cement can be injected into the hollow core 720 . The device 700 also includes a central graft compartment 760 for bone graft material, which is separated from the hollow core 720 by an inner wall 750 . The inner wall 750 is preferably a woven mesh barrier that is impermeable to cement injected into the hollow core 720 , yet permeable to body fluids. Alternatively, the inner wall 750 can be made of a sheet that is impermeable to both cement and body fluids. The upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 730 , 740 are made of an open mesh that (a) allows injected cement to permeate from the hollow core 720 through the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 730 , 740 , respectively, and towards upper lower adjacent vertebrae, respectively and (b) also permits the ingrowth of bone tissue from the vertebral body into the graft compartment 760 . In this regard, in some embodiments, it may be desirable to vary the density of the mesh or weave of the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 730 , 740 as between the portions that surround the hollow core 720 and the portions that surround the graft compartment 760 . [0065] FIG. 8 illustrates another flexible spinal fusion device 800 according to the invention having an outer surface 810 , 850 , 860 made of flexible material and that includes an upper hollow core 820 and a lower hollow core 830 , which are separated from each other by a midsection wall 840 . The device 800 also includes a central graft compartment 810 for bone graft material, which is separated from both hollow cores 820 , 830 by an interior wall 880 . Cement can be injected independently into each of the upper and lower cores 820 , 830 by way of separate cannulas 870 or separate insertions of the same cannula. When the upper and lower hollow cores 820 , 830 are separated by a cement impermeable a midsection wall 840 , the flexible fusion device 800 provides for the independent control of injection pressure, amount of injected cement, and types of injected cement for each hollow core. The upper and lower endplate facing surface 850 , 860 are made of an open mesh that (a) allows injected cement to permeate from each of upper and lower hollow cores 820 , 830 through the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 850 , 860 , respectively, and towards upper lower adjacent vertebrae, respectively and (b) also permits the ingrowth of bone tissue from the vertebral body into the graft compartment 810 . In this regard, in some embodiments, it may be desirable to vary the density of the mesh or weave of the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces 850 , 860 as between the portions that surround the hollow cores 820 , 830 and the portions that surround the graft compartment 810 . [0066] In other embodiments of the invention, a flexible spinal fusion device can further include one or more fill ports in the outer surface for injecting cement into the one or more hollow cores of the flexible device. In these embodiments, these flexible device does not require piercing the outer surface to inject cement. [0067] The flexible spinal fusion device is advantageous because it specifically contemplates and allows for a minimally invasive procedure for insertion into the intervertebral space. In this regard, the flexible implant is capable of being compacted to fit within a cannula and inserted through a cannula-sized incision and into the intervertebral space, which can be repaired once the flexible device is implanted. Upon positioning, the flexible implant can be filled with cement so that the implant expands to the desired volume in the intervertebral space. Cement material may be further injected into the flexible implant so that the cement permeates through the endplate facing surfaces of the device and contacts one or more of the adjacent vertebral endplates to facilitate fusion of the vertebrae as the cement sets. [0068] Generally, when a spinal fusion device of the invention includes multiple hollow cores, each cavity can be independently filled with the appropriate amount of cement needed to achieve mechanical stabilization of the vertebral motion segment. The use of separate injection ports in a device of the invention can also promote the maintenance of uniform injection pressure (for example in the superior and inferior hollow cavity), which, thereby, produces a more uniform cement fill in the space between vertebral bodies. [0069] The rigid spinal fusion devices of the invention can be formed of any suitable load bearing, biocompatible material. Suitable materials include bioceramic materials, stainless steel, cobalt chrome, titanium alloy such as Ti6Al4V alloys, polymers such as PEEK, resorbable polymers, resorbable polymer composites, bone grafts, and the like. [0070] Preferred bioceramics can be made by the methods described in RE 39,196 and U.S. application Ser. No. 10/635,402, which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. [0071] The implants of the invention desirably have a resorption time of about 1 month or more (e.g., about 3 months or more, about 6 months or more, or about 1 year or more). The rate of resorption will depend at least in part on the crystal size and the composition of the implant. Smaller crystal sizes will be resorbed more rapidly than larger crystal sizes. The desired resorption rate will depend on the application and the crystal size and composition can be tailored to match a desired resorption rate. In some applications, it is desired that the resorption time be about 6 months or more (e.g., about 1 year or more, or about 2 years or more). [0072] The cements useful in the invention include biocompatible, injectable cements that set in vivo with sufficient strength to provide mechanical stabilization of adjacent vertebrae. Properties of suitable cements can include one or more of the following: [0073] 1. A low exotherm, for example, an exotherm of less than 50° C. [0074] 2. Radiopacity [0075] 3. The ability to be injected through a narrow gauge needle or cannula such as those no larger than 1 gauge, 3 gauge, 5 gauge, 7 gauge, 8 gauge, 9 gauge, 10 gauge, 11 gauge, 12 gauge, 13 gauge, 14 gauge, or 15 gauge. Preferably, the cements are injectable through a narrow gauge needle or cannula less than about 1 gauge, more preferably less than about 3 gauge, 5 gauge, 7 gauge, 8 gauge, 9 gauge, 10 gauge, 11 gauge, 12 gauge, 13 gauge, 14 gauge, or 15 gauge. [0076] 4. Set times of less than 30 minutes, less than 25 minutes, less than 20 minutes, less than 15 minutes, less than 10 minutes, less than 5 minutes in vivo. Set time refers to the time it takes for a cement to first develop compressive strength. Compressive strength can be measured using compression testers or other suitable devices. Protocols for measuring set time and compression strength are known in the art and are described in, for example, ASTM F451 (Standard Specification for Acrylic Bone Cement), ASTM D695 (Test method for compressive properties of rigid plastics), and ASTM C773 (Standard Test Method for Compressive (Crushing) Strength of Fired Whiteware Materials). ASTM tests are published by ASTM International (West Conshohocken, Pa.). [0077] 5. A strength after setting for 1 hour of 10% of final cure strength in terms of compression, 20% of final cure strength, 30% of final cure strength, 40% of final cure strength, 50% of final cure strength, 60% of final cure strength, 70% of final cure strength, 80% of final cure strength, 90% of final cure strength and 100% of final cure strength. [0078] 6. A strength after setting for 6 hour of 10% of final cure strength in terms of compression, 20% of final cure strength, 30% of final cure strength, 40% of final cure strength, 50% of final cure strength, 60% of final cure strength, 70% of final cure strength, 80% of final cure strength, 90% of final cure strength and 100% of final cure strength. [0079] 7. Cure time, defined as time needed to achieve maximum compressive strength, of from about 5 minutes to 24 hours (e.g. about 5 minutes to 20 hours, about 5 minutes to 12 hours, about 5 minutes to 6 hours, about 5 minutes to 3 hours, about 5 minutes to 1.5 hours, about 5 minutes to 45 minutes). [0080] 8. a minimum compressive strength after curing of at least about 10 MPa, more preferably at least about 20 MPa, 30 MPa, 40 MPa, 50 MPa, 60 MPa, 70 MPa, 80 MPa, 90 MPa, 100 MPa, 125 MPa, 150 MPa, 175 MPa, 200 MPa, 250 MPa, or 300 MPa. [0081] 9. strength maintenance of at least about 5 percent to 100 percent of its initial strength (e.g. about 5 percent to 75 percent, about 5 percent to 50 percent, about 5 percent to 30 percent, about 5 percent to 15 percent) for at least about 24 months (e.g. about 18 months, about 12 months, about 6 months). [0082] 10. a pH of about 4 to about 8.5 (e.g. about 4 to about 8, about 5 to about 8) when aged in body fluids, simulated body fluids, DI water, TRIS Buffer, Saline Buffer, Ringer's Lactate, Phosphate Buffer Solution having a pH from about 4 to about 8.5 on the cement after submergence in the fluid for a minimum about 2 days (e.g. 4 days, about 1 week, about 1 month, about 1 year). [0083] 11. biocompatibility according to ISO 10993—“Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices.” [0084] Clinically used cements that can be used in conjunction with the devices of the invention include, for example, those based on the polymerizable acrylate resin polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and calcium phosphate cements. While either of these cements can be used with the devices of the invention, they are not always desirable. Although, PMMA may be strong enough for use in conjunction with the device in standalone application, its high exotherm and lack of osteoconductivity, osteoinductivity and resorbability make it undesirable for clinical applications where boney ingrowth and replacement are desirable clinical sequalae. Alternatively, calcium phosphate cements are osteoconductive and resorbable and be used to deliver osteoinductive agents, but they do not possess the strength for a standalone fusion applications, and thus may require the use of adjuvant fixation devices. [0085] Preferred cements include (1) polymer reinforced calcium phosphate cements; (2) composite cements such as PMMA cements comprising a filler such as glass, bone, or calcium phosphate; (3) composite cements containing (i) poly(meth)acrylate resins and (ii) a filler such as glass, bone, or calcium phosphate; (4) composite cements containing (i) isocyanate resins that are polymerized to polyurethanes or polyurea and (ii) a filler such as glass, bone, or calcium phosphate; (4) glass ionomer cements, and the like. One or more of the cement components can also, optionally, include additional materials, such as inert fillers or bioactive components that promote bone growth. These cements either improve upon the mechanical properties of calcium phosphate cements or upon the osteoconductivity and bone bonding ability of poly(metha)acrylate or isocyanate resins. [0086] The most preferred embodiments for the cement in standalone applications are cements that are mechanically robust and would allow for bone bonding, boney ingrowth and boney replacement. In preferred embodiments, the cement comprises an injectable cement described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/500,798, which published as US 20070032568 A1, and/or U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/968,462, filed on Aug. 8, 2007, the entire contents of both of which are specifically incorporated by reference herein. The cements described in these applications, generally include a first component and a second component. The first component comprises a polymerizable resin with an ethylenic unsaturated double bond. Alternatively, in addition to or instead of the ethylenic unsaturated double bond, the first component comprises a polymerizable resin that includes a suitable glycidyl ether; a suitable glycidyl ester; a suitable ester containing glycidyl ether; a suitable carbonate containing glycidyl ether; a suitable ester or carbonate containing isocyanate. Thus, the first component can also comprise of a mixture of ethylenic unsaturated double bonds, glycidyl groups or isocyanate groups. The second component includes a compound that includes more than one type of amine selected from the group consisting of a primary amine, a secondary amine, a tertiary amine, or a quaternary amine. Alternatively, the second component includes a compound comprising a suitable mercapto (—SH) group or acetoacetonate group. The compounds in the second component can be further functionalized with ester or carbonate groups. Among those described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/500,798, which published as US 20070032568 A1, and/or U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/968,462, the entire contents of both of which are specifically incorporated by reference herein, ore preferred cements include a first component that comprises at least one ethylenic unsaturated double bond and an epoxide, such as a glycidyl group, and, optionally, at least one ester or carbonate group. In these preferred cements, the second component includes a polyalkyleneimine, such as polyethyleneimine (PEI) or a derivative thereof, and, optionally the second component comprises a mixture of a polyalkyleneimine or a derivative thereof and a polyalkylamines, polyesteramines, fatty acid amines, lipopolyamines or derivatives thereof. [0087] Polymerizable resins suitable for the first component include acrylic resins. Suitable acrylic resins include methyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate, ethyl acrylate, ethyl methacrylate, propyl acrylate, propyl methacrylate, isopropyl acrylate, isopropyl methacrylate, 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (“HEMA”), hydroxypropyl acrylate, hydroxypropyl methacrylate, tetrahydrofurfuryl acrylate, tetrahydrofurfuryl methacrylate, glycerol mono- and di-acrylate, glycerol mono- and dimethacrylate, ethyleneglycol diacrylate, ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate, polyethyleneglycol diacrylate where the number of repeating ethylene oxide units vary from 2 to 30, polyethyleneglycol dimethacrylate where the number of repeating ethylene oxide units vary from 2 to 30, especially triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (“TEGDMA”), neopentyl glycol diacrylate, neopentylglycol dimethacrylate, trimethylolpropane triacrylate, trimethylol propane trimethacrylate, mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-acrylates and methacrylates of pentaerythritol and dipentaerythritol, 1,3-butanediol diacrylate, 1,3-butanediol dimethacrylate, 1,4-butanedioldiacrylate, 1,4-butanediol dimethacrylate, 1,6-hexane diol diacrylate, 1,6-hexanediol dimethacrylate, di-2-methacryloyloxethyl hexamethylene dicarbamate, di-2-methacryloyloxyethyl trimethylhexamethylene dicarbamate, di-2-methacryloyl oxyethyl dimethylbenzene dicarbamate, methylene-bis-2-methacryloxyethyl-4-cyclohexyl carbamate, di-2-methacryloxyethyldimethylcyclohexane dicarbamate, methylene-bis-2-methacryloxyethyl-4-cyclohexyl carbamate, di-1-methyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-trimethyl-hexamethylene dicarbamate, di-1-methyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-dimethylbenzene dicarbamate, di-1-methyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-dimethylcyclohexane dicarbamate, methylene-bis-1-methyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-4-cyclohexyl carbamate, di-1-chloromethyl-2-methacryloxyethylhexamethylene dicarbamate, di-1-chloromethyl-2-methacryloxyethyltrimethylhexamethylenedicarbamate, di-1-chloromethyl-2-methacryloxyethyldimethylbenzenedicarbamate, di-1-chloromethyl-2-methacryloxyethyldimethylcyclohexanedicarbamate, methylene-bis-2-methacryloxyethyl-4-cyclohexylcarbamate, di-1-methyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-hexamethylene dicarbamate, di-1-methyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-trimethylhexamethylene dicarbamate, di-1-methyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-dimethylbenzene dicarbamate, di-1-methyl-2-ethacryloxyethyldimethylcyclohexanedicarbamate, methylene-bis-1-methyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-4-cyclohexyl carbamate, di-1-chloromethyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-hexamethylenedicarbamate, di-1-chloromethyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-trimethylhexamethylenedicarbamate, di-1-chloromethyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-dimethylbenzene dicarbamate, di-1-chloromethyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-dimethylcyclohexane dicarbamate, methylene-bis-1-chloromethyl-2-methacryloxyethyl-4-cyclohexyl carbamate, 2,2′-bis(4-methacryloxyphenyl)propane, 2,2′-bis(4-acryloxyphenyl)propane, 2,2′-bis[4(2-hydroxy-3-methacryloxy-phenyl)]propane, 2,2′-bis[4(2-hydroxy-3-acryloxy-phenyl)propane, 2,2′-bis(4-methacryloxyethoxyphenyl)propane, 2,2′-bis(4-acryloxyethoxyphenyl)propane, 2,2′-bis(4-methacryloxypropoxyphenyl)propane, 2,2′-bis(4-acryloxypropoxyphenyl)propane, 2,2′-bis(4-methacryloxydiethoxyphenyl)propane, 2,2′-bis(4-acryloxydiethoxyphenyl)propane, 2,2′-bis[3(4-phenoxy)-2-hydroxypropane-1-methacrylate]propane, 2,2′-bis[3(4-phenoxy)-2-hydroxypropane-1-acrylate]propane, propoxylated (2) neopentylglycol diacrylate (Sartomer SR9003), isobornyl methacrylate (Sartomer SR423), aromatic acrylate oligomer (Sartomer CN137), aliphatic allyl oligomer (Sartomer CN9101), dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA), methylene bisacrylamide (MBA), dimethylaminopropylmethacrylamide, methacrylamidopropyltrimethylammonium chloride and the like. All products designated herein by reference to “Sartomer” and product number are available from Sartomer Company, Inc. (Exton, Pa.). [0088] Other suitable examples of polymerizable resins can include polymerizable groups selected from isopropenyl oxazoline, vinyl azalactone, vinyl pyrrolidone, styrene, divinylbenzene, urethane acrylates, urethane methacrylates, polyol acrylates, and polyol methacrylates. In certain embodiments, the first component can include polylactic acid (D and L), polyglycolic acid, polylactic/polyglycolic acid copolymers, vinyl group containing polyesters such as polypropylenefumarate and polypropyleneitaconate, polydioxane, poly(e-caprolactone), poly(valerolactone), poly(trimethylene carbonate), poly(tyrosine-carbonates) and poly(tyrosine-arylates), poly(imino carbonates), poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), poly(hydroxyvalerate), poly(tartonic acid), poly(b-malonic acid), polyhydroxycarboxylic acids, polybutyrene succinate, polybutylene adipate, aliphatic disisocyanate based polyurethanes, peptide-based polyurethanes, polyester or polyorthoester based polyurethanes, polyphosphazenes incorporating amino acid ester, glucosyl, glyceyl, lactate or imidazolyl side groups, collagen, chitosan, alginate, cellulose, starches, sugars, polypeptides, polyethylene glycol, vinyl pyrrolidones, acrylamides and methacrylates or any of their derivates or copolymers. In certain preferred embodiments, the first component comprises a resorbable material that is flowable at room temperature comprising polymerizable functional groups, such as vinyl group containing polyesters such as polypropylenefumarate and polypropyleneitaconate. [0089] Accordingly, preferred polymerizable resins for the first component include ethoxylated trimethylolpropane triacrylate, epoxy acrylate, modified epoxy acrylate (e.g., Sartomer CN115), bisphenol A epoxy methacrylate oligomer (Sartomer CN-151), aliphatic acrylate modifier (Sartomer MCURE 201 and Sartomer MCURE400), glycidyl acrylate of bis-phenol A and the diglycidyl methacrylate of bis-phenol A (bis-GMA). Useful epoxy-containing materials also include those which contain cyclohexene oxide groups such as the epoxycyclohexanecarboxylates, typified by 3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3,4-epoxycyclohexanecarboxylate, 3,4-epoxy-2-methylcyclohexylmethyl-3,4-epoxy-2-methylcyclohexane carboxylate, and bis(3,4-epoxy-6-methylcyclohexylmethyl) adipate. For a more detailed list of useful epoxides of this nature; see U.S. Pat. No. 3,117,099, incorporated herein by reference. [0090] Additionally, preferred polymerizable resins of the first component include (i) glycidyl esters of neodecanoic acid (ERISYS GS-110), of Linoleic Acid dimmer (ERISYS GS-120), both from CVC Specialty Chemicals (Moorestown, N.J.), other glycidyl ester such as diglycidyl separate, diglycidyl azelate, diglycidyl pimelate, diglycidyl adipate, diglycidyl succinate, diglycidyl oxalate, and olyglycidyl(meth)acrylate, and the like, (ii) glycidyl ethers such as poly[(phenyl glycidyl ether)co-formaldehyde], N,N-diglycidyl-4-glycidyloxyaniline ether, neopentyl glycol diglycidyl ether; Bisphenol A propoxylate (1 PO/phenol) diglycidyl ether, ARALDITE GY 281 (Bisphenol F epoxy resin with moderate viscosity), ARALDITE 506 (Bisphenol A epoxy resin), (ARALDITE products are from Huntsman, Woodlands, Tex.), castor oil triglycidyl ether (ERISYS GE-35), sorbitol polyglycidylether (ERISYS GE-60), trimethylpropane triglycidyl ether (ERISYS GE-30), 1,6-hexanediol diglycidyl ether (ERISYS GE-25), cyclohexanedimethanol diglycidyl ether (ERERISYS GE-22), 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether (ERISYS GE-21), (all ERISYS resins are supplied from CVC Specialty Chemicals (Moorestown, N.J.), trimethylolethane triglycidyl ether, (1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether), dibromo neopentyl glycol diglycidyl ether, neopentyl glycol diglycidyl ether, ethyleneglycol doglycidyl ether, polyglycidyl methacrylate, polyglycidyl acrylate, polyglycidylmethacrylate, polyglycidylacrylate, and the like, (iii) ester containing glycidyl ether groups such as CYRACURE UVR 6105 (3,4-epoxycyclohexylmethyl-3,4-epoxycyclohexane) from Dow-Union Carbide Corp (Danbury, Conn.), and the like, (iv) carbonate containing glycidyl ether groups such as DECHE-TOSU (oxirane-spiroorthocarbonate) from Midwest Research Institute (Kansas City, Mo.). [0091] The second component of the cement product includes a compound comprising more than one type of amine selected from the group consisting of a primary amine, a secondary amine, a tertiary amine, and a quaternary amine. Suitable compounds for the second component include aliphatic polyamines, aromatic polyamines, or mixtures thereof. Polyamines that can be used in the second component include phenylenediamine, ethylenediamine, triethylenetetramine, and a wide variety of other aliphatic and aromatic diamines that polymerize when mixed with the polymerizable resin of the first component. Suitable compounds for the second component include modified polyamino acids such as polylysines and imidazole-modified polylysines. Suitable polyamines can include branched dendrimers with multiple types of amines, such as polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers. [0092] Additional amine-containing compounds suitable for inclusion in the second component include monomers or oligomers further comprising ester, ether, amide, carbonate, urethane, or oxirane functional groups on the side chain or main chain. Preferred groups on the side chain or main chain include imide, imidine and isocyanate groups. Suitable amine-containing compounds of the of the second component can include, for example, oleylamine, stearylamine, 2-ethylhexylamine, ethylenediamine, propylenediamine, 1,6-hexamethylenediamine, aminoethanolamine, ethanolamine, propylenetriamine, butylenetriamine, diethylenetriamine, triethylenetetramine, tetraethylenepentamine, pentaethylenehexamine, menthanediamine, isophoronediamine, xylenediamine, tetrachloro-p-xylenediamine, methylenedianiline, diaminodiphenylsulfone, polyaniline, N-methylpiperazine, hydroxyethylpiperazine, piperidine, pyrrolidine, morpholine, diethanolamine, streptidine, stilbamidine, 2-deoxystreptamine, dapsone, p-diaminoazobenzene, 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl ether, and the like. Preferred suitable amine-containing compounds of the of the second component can include 1,4-diaminobutane, o-cyclohexanediamine, and m-phenylenediamine. [0093] Still other amine-containing compound suitable for use in the second component include biological amines such as guanidine, uracil, thymine, adenine, guanine, cytosine, xanthine and their respective biological nucleotides or derivatives thereof. Exemplary derivative nucleotides include 2,4-diamino-6-hydroxy-pyrimidine and 2,6-diaminopurine. The second component can include oligomers, polymers and copolymers of amino acids such as arginine, tyrosine, cysteine, or lysine. [0094] In addition to the compounds described herein, the second component can further include free amino acids, such as, arginine, tyrosine, cysteine, or lysine. These can enhance the curative hardening reaction of the second component with the first component. [0095] Preferred amine-containing compounds of the second component include polyalkyleneamines and derivatives thereof such as polyethyleneimine (PEI) and PEI derivatives, polypropyleneimine (PPI) and PPI derivatives, which typically include primary, secondary and tertiary amines. The PEI or PEI derivative can also include quaternary amines. PEI derivatives include ethoxylated PEI, hydroxyethoxylated PEI, and hydroxypropylated PEI. The PEI or PEI derivatives can be branched or linear. Preferably the PEI or the PEI derivative has a sufficiently low molecular weight that it is a liquid. For example, the PEI or PEI derivative can have an average molecular weight of less than 200 kDa, less than 150 kDA, less than 100 kDa, less than 90 kDa, less than 80 kDa, less than 70 kDa, less than 60 kDa, less than 50 kDa, less than 40 kDa, less than 30 kDa, less than 25 kDa, less than 20 kDa, less than 15 kDa, less than 10 kDa, less than 5 kDa or less than 2 kDa. The PEI or PEI derivative can have an average molecular of less than about 2 kDa and more than about 0.2 kDa. Preferably, the PEI or PEI derivative has an average molecular weight of less than 1 kDa and greater than 0.3 kDa. [0096] In preferred embodiments, the cement is also osteoconductive, osteoinductive and/or resorbable. Thus, as honey spinal fusion occurs, the cement can resorb and can act as scaffold that promotes tissue ingrowth without needing bone graft material, such as autograft material. Such cements can, however, also be used in conjunction with the spinal fusion device embodiments described herein, which include bone graft material in the one or more graft compartments. The chemistry of a suitable cement can be such that load bearing gradually shifts from the cemented vertebral construct to the bone growing in the disc space in preferred embodiments via the cement's inherent osteoconductivity, osteoinductivity and/or resorbability. [0097] Osteoconduction refers to the ability of a materials to serve as a scaffold on which bone cells can attach, migrate (meaning move or “crawl”), and grow and divide. Osteoconductive materials need to be adjacent to bone to “conduct” bone cells. In this way, the bone healing response is “conducted” through the graft site, in a manner that is generally reminiscent of electricity being conducted through a wire. Osteogenic cells generally work much better when they have a matrix or scaffold to attach to. Osteoinduction implies the recruitment of immature cells and the stimulation of these cells to develop into preosteoblasts and into mature, forming healthy bone tissue. Most, but not all of these signals are protein molecules called, as a group, “peptide growth factors” or “cytokines.” Common osteoinductive proteins include Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs), Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF), Platelet Derived Growth Factor (PDGF), Fibroblast Growth Factors (FGFs), Parathyroid Hormone Related Peptide (PTHrp), Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGFs), and Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-B). [0098] The combination of osteoconductivity, osteoinductivty and resorbability will manifest itself as boney apposition, ingrowth and replacement of the cement in vivo. By 6 months in vivo, the boney apposition to the cement directly adjacent to bone will be least 10% surface coverage, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, or 80%. By 18 months in vivo, at least 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% or 50% volume of cement previously occupied by the cement will have been replaced with bone. By 36 months in vivo, at least 10%, 25%, 50% or 75% volume of cement previously occupied by the cement will have been replaced with bone. [0099] In these cases, the chemistry of the cement is such that it can have osteoinductive and osteoconductive properties to facilitate honey ingrowth via tissue engineering methods. The cement can act as a scaffold by incorporating porosity into the cement via effervescing agent, such as sodium bicarbonate, or a more rapidly dissolving phase, such as sodium chloride salts, polyester microspheres. A more detailed description of methods for incorporating porosity is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/500,798, which published as US 20070032568 A1, and/or U.S. provisional application No. 60/968,462, filed on Aug. 8, 2007, the entire contents of both of which are specifically incorporated by reference herein. The porous cement should be mechanically robust enough to maintain the disc height as bone ingrowth occurs. [0100] Whether or not it has porosity, the fully cured cement has a minimum compressive strength of about 10 MPa, 20 MPa, 30 MPa, 40 MPa, 50 MPa, 60 MPa, 70 MPa, 80 MPa, 90 MPa, 100 MPa, 125 MPa, 150 MPa, 175 MPa, 200 MPa, 250 MPa, or 300 MPa or more; a minimum tensile strength of about 5 MPa, 10 MPa, 15 MPa, 20 MPa, 25 MPa, 30 MPa, 35 MPa, 40 MPa, 45 MPa, 50 MPa, 60 MPa, 70 MPa, 80 MPa, 100 MPa, 125 MPa, or 150 MPa or more; a minimum flexural strength of about 10 MPa, 15 MPa, 20 MPa, 25 MPa, 30 MPa, 35 MPa, 40 MPa, 45 MPa, 50 MPa, 60 MPa, 80 MPa, 1000 MPa, 125 MPa, 150 MPa, or 200 MPa or more; a minimum shear strength of about 10 MPa, 15 MPa, 20 MPa, 25 MPa, 30 MPa, 35 MPa, 40 MPa, 45 MPa, 50 MPa, 60 MPa, 80 MPa, 1000 MPa, 125 MPa, 150 MPa, or 200 MPa or more; and/or a minimum elastic modulus of about 300 MPa, 500 MPa, 700 MPa, 900 MPa, 1100 MPa, 1300 MPa, 1500 MPa, 1750 MPa, 2000 MPa, 2500 MPa, 3000 MPa, 3500 MPa, 4000 MPa, 5000 MPa, or 6000 MPa or more. [0101] Desirable mechanical strength properties include the following. Compressive strength can be from about 20 MPa to about 250 MPa, typically from about 50 MPa to about 250 MPa, and preferably about 50 MPa or more, about 100 MPa or more, or about 150 MPa or more. A preferred tensile strength is from about 10 to about 100 MPa (e.g., about 20 MPa or more, about 40 MPa or more, or about 60 MPa or more). A preferred shear strength is from about 30 MPa to about 150 MPa (e.g., about 50 MPa or more, about 80 MPa or more, or about 110 MPa or more). A preferred flexural strength is from about 20 MPa to about 100 MPa (e.g., about 30 MPa or more, about 40 MPa or more, or about 50 MPa or more). [0102] A preferred infinite compression fatigue is from about 20 MPa to about 150 MPa (e.g., about 40 MPa or more, about 70 MPa or more, or about 100 MPa or more). A preferred tensile fatigue is from about 5 MPa to about 40 MPa (e.g., about 10 MPa or more, about 20 MPa or more, or about 30 MPa or more). [0103] The compression modulus typically is in the range of about 20 MPa to about 5 GPa, preferably in the range of about 50 MPa to about 2 GPa, and more preferably in range of about 100 MPa to about 1 GPa. The deformation percentage ranges from about 10 percent to about 90 percent, preferably from about 20 percent to about 80 percent and more preferably from about 30 percent to about 50 percent. [0104] The different types of mechanical strengths can be measured according to tests known in the art, such as ASTM F451 (Standard Specification for Acrylic Bone Cement), ASTM D695 (Test method for compressive properties of rigid plastics), and ASTM C773 (Standard Test Method for Compressive (Crushing) Strength of Fired Whiteware Materials). ASTM tests are published by ASTM International (West Conshohocken, Pa.). [0105] The invention further provides a spinal fusion system that includes (a) a spinal fusion device of the invention and (b) a suitable amount of cement or cement components that, when mixed, form a suitable amount of cement that is sufficient to fill the hollow cavity of the fusion device and to contact the upper vertebral body; the lower vertebral body; or both the upper and the lower vertebral bodies that contact the implanted spinal fusion device. Suitable amounts of cement are further described herein. The system can also include bone graft material. Optionally, the system can include one or more adjuvant fixation devices. The systems of the invention can be packaged for commercial distribution and sale. Preferred systems of the invention can include (a) a spinal fusion device of the invention with a body formed from a resorbable material described herein, such as the densified or consolidated hydroxyapatite or tricalcium phosphate, in particular the nanocrystalline material, described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,013,591, reissued as RE 39,196, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/635,402, which published as U.S. 2005/0031704 A1, the entire contents of all three of which are specifically incorporated by reference herein, and (b) the preferred injectable cement embodiments as described herein and which are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/500,798, which published as US 2007/0032568A1, and/or U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/968,462, filed on Aug. 8, 2007, the entire contents of both of which are specifically incorporated by reference herein. [0106] The invention also provides spinal fusion methods that include inserting the fusion device of the invention between a superior and an inferior vertebral body of a subject in need of spinal fusion. The fusion device has any suitable shape to fit between adjacent vertebrae and has a sufficient height to maintain disc height between vertebrae. The implant may be shaped to fit a range of sizes of intervertebral spaces, such as ranging from cervical to lumbar intervertebral spaces. The endplate facing surfaces are preferably contoured to match the contour of the vertebral endplates so that the openings of the implant deliver cement to the vertebrae, not the intervertebral space surrounding the implant. To facilitate implantation, a surgeon may also cut or mill the vertebral endplate to provide a desired shape or contour. For example, if the surgeon prepares the endplates to be flat, it is preferred that the endplate facing surfaces are also flat. Likewise, if the endplates are prepared to be concave, it is preferred that the endplate facing surfaces are complementarily convex. It should be noted that endplates that are concave will generally retain the implant better since the device becomes cupped between the vertebrae. [0107] Generally, the fusion device of the invention can be inserted between two vertebra using an anterior, a lateral, or a posterior surgical approach to access the cervical, thoracic and lumbar regions of the spine. If the access is anterior, the patient can be placed in a slight to hyper-flexion. If the access is posterior, the patient can be placed in a slight to hyper-extension. If the access is lateral, the patient can be placed in a slight to hyper-lateral flexion. [0108] Spinal fusion surgery begins by accessing the disc space with a surgical incision that is preferably no more than about 30 cm in length, 25 cm in length, 20 cm in length, 15 cm in length, 10 cm in length, 8 cm in length, 6 cm in length, 4 cm in length, 2 cm in length, 1 cm in length, 8 mm in length, 6 mm in length, or 4 mm in length. [0109] Prior to implantation, surgical procedures are performed to prepare the intervertebral space between adjacent vertebrae. The nucleus and annulus of the disc may be substantially removed, or a portion of the annulus may be retained to assist in retaining the implant and/or cement, which will be discussed below. [0110] Generally, when the spinal fusion method includes a fusion device of the invention that does not have a flexible outer surface, the method includes removing the disc and preparing the endplates. The device is inserted into the prepared space, and the device can then be injected with cement as described herein. [0111] In some methods of the invention, the superior and/or the inferior vertebral body endplates are initially prepared so as to permit the cement, which is injected into the fusion device of the invention, to interdigitate with endplate cortical bone and/or with cancellous bone of the vertebral body. The vertebral endplates may be prepared with scraper or rasp and may also be shaped to resist expulsion of the implant. The endplates are naturally cup-like having a natural concavity in both the lateral direction and the anterior-posterior direction. Preparation of the endplates may include providing a desired contour to the vertebral surfaces within the intervertebral space; roughening and violating the vertebral surfaces to induce bleeding; and can include sufficiently thinning the endplates to permit permeation of blood through the endplates. [0112] Preferably, the endplates are thinned by removing about 0.5 to about 3 mm of the endplate to induce bleeding through the endplates. Inducing vertebral bleeding promotes bone growth from the vertebrae and between the fusion device and the vertebrae. The endplates may also be prepared by perforating the endplates to facilitate interdigitation of the endplates with cement. Preferably, the perforated endplates include holes in the range of about 10 microns to about 5 mm in diameter with a perforation density of at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, or 80% or more. [0113] The surgeon's decision whether to remove substantially all of the endplate or retaining the cortical hone will largely be dictated by the quality of the cancellous bone in the vertebrae. In certain instances, it may be desirable to retain substantially the entire endplate facing surface so that the implant body itself does not penetrate appreciably into the cancellous bone of the adjacent vertebral bodies. For example, the endplates should be substantially maintained for an osteoporotic patient. In other instances, it may be desirable to remove at least 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, or 80% of endplate to expose the underlying cancellous bone. For example, a patient with denser cancellous bone in the vertebrae (i.e. non-osteoporotic as measured by DEXA scan) can better tolerate the removal of the endplates. Exposure of the underlying cancellous bone will allow for more extensive interdigitation of the cement and a more stable vertebral motion segment. [0114] A fusion implant device according to the invention is then inserted between the prepared superior and inferior bodies. If the device includes a graft compartment, the method further includes placing bone graft material into the graft compartment. Once the implant and graft material are implanted within the intervertebral space, closely-matched contours between upper and lower contacting surfaces reduce the likelihood of bone subsidence around the implant by distributing compressive forces across the upper and lower endplate facing surfaces. A sufficient amount of cement is injected into the device so that the cement (a) fills the one or more hollow cores of the device and (b) permeates from the one or more hollow cores, contacts and, preferably, interdigitates with the prepared endplate cortical bone and/or cancellous bone. [0115] When the endplates have been prepared, preferably a sufficient amount of cement is injected into the fusion device so that a portion of the cement exits the fusion device to infiltrate the cancellous region of the adjacent vertebral bodies. More preferably, cement is injected to infiltrate the cancellous region of the disc to a predetermined extent, which is less than about 30 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space, even more preferably less than about 20 mm, less than about 10 mm, less than about 8 mm, less than 6 mm, less than about 5 mm, less than about 4 mm, less than about 3 mm, less than about 2 mm, or less than about 1 mm into the cancellous bone. Cement injection can be stopped once the suitable amount of cement has infiltrated into the cancellous region of the disc to the predetermined extent. [0116] Preferably, the volume of cement injected into the implant and bone is less than about 200 ml, more preferably less than about 175 ml, 150 ml, 100 ml, 75 ml, 50 ml, 25 ml, 15 ml, 10 ml or 5 ml. [0117] Cement injection can be conducted with a maximum pressure of 150 psi, 125 psi, 100 psi, 75 psi, 50 psi, 25 psi, 10 psi or 5 psi or less. Cement injection should [0118] Once the cement has set, independent motion of the fused vertebrae is substantially or wholly eliminated without the need for adjuvant fixation, such as attachment of plates or rods, or drilling, tapping, or insertion of screws. [0119] The outlet opening of the accumulation chamber is preferably maximized in size so that the cement material discharged therethrough is distributed over a large surface area along the facing vertebral surface. In a preferred form, the accumulation chamber can be an open ended chamber either at one or both of its axial ends so that the outlet opening thereof is the same size as the remainder of the chamber. For instance, with a chamber having a circular periphery in the implant body, the diameter of the chamber can be constant between the axial ends thereof including at the opening at one of the ends thereof. In this manner, the flow path for the cement including the narrow fill channel portion and the enlarged axially extending accumulation chamber is operable to fill and reinforce essentially the entire chamber of the implant body with settable cement and also to conduct the preferred rapid-setting cement composition to vertebral surfaces adjacent the chamber, fixing the vertebral surfaces and implant body together with cement material. [0120] In another method, a spinal fusion device of the invention made of flexible materials is inserted between a superior and an inferior vertebral body using a minimally invasive percutaneous procedure, for example, through a cannula. Generally, when a fusion implant is to be inserted, the disc is removed and the endplates are prepared as described above. When a flexible implant is to be inserted, the entire disc or the disc nucleus are removed and the endplates prepared, as described above. Moreover, due to the device's flexible material, the procedure can include a relatively small incision and use endoscopic instrumentation. The flexible fusion device can be inserted into the prepared space using an instrument that holds the device while it is pushed through the cannula. When the fusion device that includes an outer surface made of flexible material is placed in the disc space, the device can be injected with a sufficient amount of cement so that the cements fills one or more hollow cores in the device and permeates from the superior and/or inferior portion of the surface and contacts the adjacent vertebral body surface. Once the cement is injected and, preferably, once the cement has set, the patient can be placed in a neutral position. [0121] The percutaneous procedure to insert the flexible fusion device can be performed unguided or with surgical guidance, such as by fluoroscopy. Surgical guidance facilitates the determination of the suitable amount of cement to be injected. In these methods, cement is injected into the hollow cavity of the device, the cement then contacts both the superior and inferior endplates, which have been prepared to allow cement to infiltrate the cancellous bone region. Cement injection can be stopped once the suitable amount of cement has infiltrated into the cancellous region of the disc to a predetermined extent, for example, when cement has infiltrated less than about 1 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space, less than about 2 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space, less than about 3 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space, less than about 4 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space, less than about 5 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space, less than about 6 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space, less than about 8 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space, less than about 10 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space, less than about 20 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space or less than about 30 mm into the cancellous region of the disc space. [0122] A suitable amount of cement for injection preferably includes a volume of less than about 1 ml, less than about 2 ml, less than about 3 ml, less than about 4 ml, less than about 5 ml, less than about 6 ml, less than about 8 ml, less than about 10 ml, less than about 15 ml, less than about 20 ml, less than about 25 ml, less than about 50 ml, less than about 75 ml, less than about 100 ml, less than about 125 ml, less than about 150 ml, less than about 175 ml. Cement injection can be conducted with a maximum pressure of about 150 psi, 125 psi, 100 psi, 75 psi, 50 psi, 25 psi, 10 psi or 5 psi or less. Once a suitable amount of cement has been injected, the patient should preferably not be moved for at least 5 minutes, for at least 10 minutes, for at least 15 minutes, for at least 20 minutes, for at least 25 minutes, or for at least 30 minutes to allow enough time for the cement to become at least partially set before the patient is moved. [0123] Once the cement has set in the fusion device with and without the flexible wall, independent motion of the vertebrae is substantially or wholly eliminated. This can be confirmed with bench and ex-vivo biomechanical testing. The described spinal fusion procedure can be performed on a cadaver spine or synthetic vertebral analogues. Dissecting and retrieving only the device and the bone interdigitated with cement, this construct can be tested according to the standards set forth in ASTM F-2077 (Test Methods For Intervertebral Body Fusion Devices) published by ASTM International (West Conshohocken, Pa.). In preferred embodiments, testing will demonstrate that the device/tissue construct has a fatigue life of at least about 500,000, 1,000,000, 1,500,000, 2,000,000, 2,500,000, 3,000,000, 3,500,000, 4,000,000, 5,000,000, 7,500,000, 10,000,000, 15,000,000, 20,000,000, or 25,000,000 cycles under the following loads. For compressive loads, at least about 50 N, 100 N, 200 N, 300 N, 400 N, 500 N, 750 N, 1000 N, 1250 N, 1500 N, 1750 N, 2000 N, 2500 N, 3500 N, 4000 N, 5000 N, or 10,000 N. For torsionals loads, at least about 0.25 N-m, 0.5 N-m, 0.75 N-m, 1 N-m, 1.25 N-m, 1.5 N-m, 1.75 N-m, 2 N-m, 2.25 N-m, 2.5 N-m, 2.75 N-m, 3 N-m, 3.5 N-m, 4 N-m, 4.5 N-m, 5 N-m, 6 N-m, 8 N-m, or 10 N-m with a combined compressive load of at least about 5 N, 50 N, 100 N, 200 N, 300 N, 400 N, 500 N, 750 N, 1000 N, 1250 N, 1500 N, 1750 N, 2000 N, 2500 N, 3500 N, 4000 N, 5000 N, 10,000 N. For shear loads, at least about 50 N, 100 N, 200 N, 300 N, 400 N, 500 N, 750 N, 1000 N, 1250 N, 1500 N, 1750 N, 2000 N, 2500 N, 3500 N, 4000 N, or 5000 N. [0124] In addition, ex-vivo range of motion testing can be used to evaluate the fusion device of the invention (or a system that includes the device). The device can be inserted between two adjacent vertebral bodies in a cadaver spine or implanted in a live animal spine for 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 6 months, 12 months or 24 months. The stiffness of the device-tissue motion segment can be tested using the following general method, developed by McAfee, et. al., “Cervical disc replacement-porous coated motion prosthesis: a comparative biomechanical analysis showing the key role of the posterior longitudinal ligament,” Spine 15; 28(20):S176-85 (2003). The vertebral motion segment is cleaned of residual musculature with care taken to preserve all ligamentous attachments and operative motion site integrity. The cephalad and caudal ends of each specimen are secured in mounts, and plexiglass motion detection markers are placed on the specimen. Each marker is equipped with three non-co-linear light emitting diodes designed for detection by an optoelectronic motion measurement system (3020 OptoTrak System). To determine the multidirectional flexibility properties, six pure, unconstrained moments: flexion and extension (±4 Nm X-axis), left and right lateral bending (±4 Nm Z-axis), and left and right torsion (±4 Nm Y-axis) are applied to the superior end of the vertically oriented specimen while the caudal portion of the specimen remained fixed to a testing platform. A maximum applied moment of ±4 Nm is used for each loading mode and applied at a ramp rate of 3 degrees/second using a six degree of freedom spine simulator (6DOF-SS). A total of three load/unload cycles are performed for each motion with data analysis based on the final cycle. For the six main motions—corresponding to the moments applied—the operative level vertebral rotations (degrees) are quantified in terms of peak range of motion (ROM) and neutral zone (NZ). Peak ROM is defined as the peak displacement from the initial neutral position to maximum load, while neutral zone NZ represents the motion from the initial neutral position to the unloaded position at the beginning of the third cycle. [0125] When preferred embodiments of the device or systems of the invention are implanted and tested according to the foregoing ex-vivo range-of-motion test, the preferred embodiments feature a ROM for flexion and extension, left and right lateral bending and left and right torsion will be no more than 10 degrees, 8 degrees, 7 degrees, 6 degrees, 5 degrees, 4 degrees, 3 degrees, 2 degrees, 1 degree. [0126] After the fusion device and cement have been implanted for 6, 12 and 18 months, the device and the bone interdigitated with cement, this construct can be tested according to the standards set forth in ASTM F-2077, which can include testing in sheep or goat models for cervical or lumbar spinal fusion. In preferred embodiments, testing will demonstrate that the device/tissue construct has a fatigue life after 6, 12, or 18 months of implantation of at least about 500,000, 1,000,000, 1,500,000, 2,000,000, 2,500,000, 3,000,000, 3,500,000, 4,000,000, 5,000,000, 7,500,000, 10,000,000, 15,000,000, 20,000,000, 25,000,000 cycles under the following loads. For compressive loads, at least about 50 N, 100 N, 200 N, 300 N, 400 N, 500 N, 750 N, 1000 N, 1250 N, 1500 N, 1750 N, 2000 N, 2500 N, 3500 N, 4000 N, 5000 N, or 10,000 N. For torsionals loads, at least about 0.25 N-m, 0.50 N-m, 0.75 N-m, 1.00 N-m, 1.25 N-m, 1.50 N-m, 1.75 N-m, 2.00 N-m, 2.25 N-m, 2.50 N-m, 2.75 N-m, 3.00 N-m, 3.50 N-m, 4.00 N-m, 4.50 N-m, 5.00 N-m, 6.00 N-m, 8.00 N-m, or 10.00 N-m with a combined compressive load of at least about 5 N, 50 N, 100 N, 200 N, 300 N, 400 N, 500 N, 750 N, 1000 N, 1250 N, 1500 N, 1750 N, 2000 N, 2500 N, 3500 N, 4000 N, 5000 N, or 10,000 N. For shear loads, at least about 50 N, 100 N, 200 N, 300 N, 400 N, 500 N, 750 N, 1000 N, 1250 N, 1500 N, 1750 N, 2000 N, 2500 N, 3500 N, 4000 N, or 5000 N. [0127] After the fusion device and cement have been implanted for 6, 12 and 18 months, the range of motion as tested according to the foregoing ex-vivo range-of-motion test, the preferred embodiments feature a ROM for flexion and extension, left and right lateral bending and left and right torsion will be no more than about 10 degrees, 8 degrees, 7 degrees, 6 degrees, 5 degrees, 4 degrees, 3 degrees, 2 degrees, or 1 degree. [0128] All references, including publications, patent applications, and patents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicated to be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entirety herein. [0129] The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in the context of describing the invention (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning “including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the invention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention unless otherwise claimed. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention. [0130] Preferred embodiments of this invention are described herein, including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention. Variations of those preferred embodiments may become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. The inventors expect skilled artisans to employ such variations as appropriate, and the inventors intend for the invention to be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, this invention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.

The spinal fusion device ( 100 ) of the invention is implanted within an intervertebral space between adjacent upper and lower vertebrae and secured to the vertebrae with cement. The fusion device includes upper and lower endplate facing surfaces ( 150, 160 ) each having at least one opening ( 120 ) for delivering cement material to adjacent contact surfaces of the vertebrae above and below the implant. Utilizing quick-setting cement compositions with the device <:an allow for almost immediate fusion of the vertebrae, thus, reducing or eliminating the need for adjuvant fixation devices such as screws, plates, and/or rods, while also simultaneously providing precise delivery of cement to contact surfaces between the fusion device and vertebrae.

This is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/067,412, filed May 25, 1993, now abandoned, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/839,590, filed Feb. 21, 1992, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to substituted peptidyl derivatives useful in the treatment of inflammation in lung, central nervous system, kidney, joints, endocardium, pericardium, eyes, ears, skin, gastrointestinal tract and urogenital system. More particularly, this invention relates substituted peptidyl lactones and open forms thereof that are useful inhibitors of interleukin-1β converting enzyme (ICE). Interleukin-1β converting enzyme (ICE) has been identified as the enzyme responsible for converting precursor interleukin-1β (IL-1β) to biologically active IL-1β. Mammalian interleukin-1 (IL-1) is an immunoregulatory protein secreted by cell types as part of the inflammatory response. The primary cell type responsible for IL-1 production is the peripheral blood monocyte. Other cell types have also been described as releasing or containing IL-1 or IL-1 like molecules. These include epithelial cells (Luger, et al., J. Immunol. 127:1493-1498 (1981), Leet al., J. Immunol. 138:2520-2526 (1987) and Lovett and Larsen, J. Clin. Invest. 82:115-122 (1988), connective tissue cells (Ollivierre et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 141:904-911 (1986), Le et al, J. Immunol. 138:2520-2526 (1987), cells of neuronal origin (Giulian et al., J. Esp. Med. 164: 594-604 (1986) and leukocytes (Pistoia et al., J. Immunol. 136:1688-1692 (1986), Acres et al., Mol. Immuno. 24:479-485 (1987), Acres et al., J. Immunol. 138:2132-2136 (1987) and Lindenmann et al., J. Immunol 140:837-839 (1988). Biologically active IL-1 exists in two distinct forms, IL-1α with an isoelectric point of about pI 5.2 and IL-1β with an isoelectric point of about 7.0 with both forms having a molecular mass of about 17,500 (Bayne et al., J. Esp. Med. 163: 1267-1280 (1986) and Schmidt, J. Esp. Med. 160:772 (1984). The polypeptides appear evolutionarily conserved, showing about 27-33% homology at the amino acid level (Clark et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 14: 7897-7914 (1986). Mammalian IL-1β is synthesized as a cell associated precursor polypeptide with a molecular mass of about 31.4 kDa (Limjuco et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 83:3972-3976 (1986). Precursor IL-1β is unable to bind to IL-1 receptors and is biologically inactive (Mosley et al., J. Biol. Chem. 262:2941-2944 (1987). Biological activity appears dependent upon some form of proteolytic processing which results in the conversion of the precursor 31.5 kDa form to the mature 17.5 kDa form. Evidence is growing that by inhibiting the conversion of precursor IL-1β to mature IL-1β, one can effectively inhibit the activity of interleukin-1. Mammalian cells capable of producing IL-1β include, but are not limited to, karatinocytes, endothelial cells, mesangial cells, thymic epithelial cells, dermal fibroblasts, chondrocytes, astrocytes, glioma cells, mononuclear phagocytes, granulocytes, T and B lymphocytes and NK cells. As discussed by J. J. Oppenheim, et al. Immunology Today, vol. 7(2):45-56 (1986), the activities of interleukin-1 are many. It has been observed that catabolin, a factor that promotes degradation of cartilage matrix, also exhibited the thymocyte comitogenic activities of IL-1 and stimulates chondrocytes to release collagenase neutral proteases and plasminogen activator. In addition, a plasma factor termed proteolysis inducing factor stimulates muscle cells to produce prostaglandins which in turn leads to proteolysis, the release of amino acids and, in the long run, muscle wasting, and appears to represent a fragment of IL-1 with fever-inducing, acute phase response and thymocyte co-mitogenic activities. IL-1 has multiple effects on cells involved in inflammation and wound healing. Subcutaneous injection of IL-1 leads to margination of neutrophils and maximal extravascular infiltration of the polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN). In vitro studies reveal IL-1 to be a chemotactic attractant for PMN to activate PMN to metabolize glucose more rapidly to reduce nitroblue tetrazolium and to release their lysozomal enzymes. Endothelial cells are stimulated to proliferate by IL-1 to produce thromboxane, to become more adhesive and to release procoagulant activity. IL-1 also enhances collagen type IV production by epidermal cells, induces osteoblast proliferation and alkaline phosphatase production and stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone. Even macrophages have been reported to be chemotactically attracted to IL-1 to produce prostaglandins in response to IL-1 and to exhibit a more prolonged and active tumoricidal state. IL-1 is also a potent bone resorptive agent capable upon infusion into mice of causing hypercaleemia and incteas in bone resorptive surface as revealed by his to morphometry Sabatini, M. et al., PNAS 85: 5235-5239, 1988. Accordingly, disease states in which the ICE inhibitors of Formula I may be useful as therapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, infectious diseases where active infection exists at any body site, such as meningitis and salpingitis; complications of infections including septic shock, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and/or adult respiratory distress syndrome; acute or chronic inflammation due to antigen, antibody, and/or complement deposition; inflammatory conditions including arthritis, cholangitis, colitis, encephalitis, endocarditis, glomerulonephritis, hepatitis, myocarditis, pancreatitis, pericarditis, reperfusion injury and vasculitis. Immune-based diseases which may be responsive to ICE inhibitors of Formula I include but are not limited to conditions involving T-cells and/or macrophages such as acute and delayed hypersensitivity, graft rejection, and graft-versus-host-disease; auto-immune diseases including Type I diabetes mellitus and multiple sclerosis. ICE inhibitors of Formula I may also be useful in the treatment of bone and cartilage resorption as well as diseases resulting in excessive deposition of extracellular matrix. Such diseases include periodonate diseases interstitial pulmonary fibrosis, cirrhosis, systemic sclerosis, and keloid formation. ICE inhibitors of Formula I may also be useful in treatment of certain tumors which produce IL 1 as an autocrine growth factor and in preventing the cachexia associated with certain tumors. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Novel peptidyl derivatives of formula I are found to be potent inhibitors of interleukin-1β converting enzyme (ICE). Compounds of formula I are useful in the treatment of deseases including inflammation in lung, central nervous system, kidney, joints, endocardium, pericardium, eyes, ears, skin, gastrointestinal tract and urogenital system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The invention encompasses compounds of formula I. ##STR2## or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof: wherein Y is: ##STR3## X is S or O; m is 0 or 1; R 1 is (a) substituted C 1-6 alkyl, wherein the substituent is selected from (1) hydrogen, (2) hydroxy, (3) halo, (4) C 1-3 alkyloxy, (5) C 1-3 alkylthio, (6) phenyl C 1-3 alkyloxy, and (7) phenyl C 1-3 alkylthio; (b) aryl C 1-6 alkyl wherein the aryl group is selected from the group consisting of: (1) phenyl, (2) naphthyl, (3) pyridyl, (4) furyl, (5) thienyl, (6) thiazolyl, (7) isothiazolyl, (8) imidazolyl, (9) benzimidazolyl, (10) pyrazinyl, (11) pyrimidyl, (12) quinolyl, (13) isoquinolyl, (14) benzofuryl, (15) benzothienyl, (16) pyrazolyl, (17) indolyl, (18) purinyl, (19) isoxazolyl, and (20) oxazolyl, and mono and di-substituted aryl as defined above in items (1) to (20) wherein the substitutents are independently C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl amino, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 alkylthio, and C 1-6 alkylcarbonyl; R 2 is (a) tetra or penta substituted phenyl wherein the substitutents are individually selected from the group consisting of (1) C 1-3 alkoxy, (2) halo, (3) hydroxy, (4) cyano, (5) carboxy, (6) C 1-3 alkyl, (7) trifruoromethyl, (8) trimethylamino, (9) benzyloxy, (b) mono, di or tri substituted aryl wherein the aryl is selected from the group consisting of phenyl, 1-napthyl, 9-anthracyl and 2, 3, or 4 pyridyl, and the substituents are individually selected from the group consisting of (1) phenyl, (2) halo, (3) C 1-3 alkyl, (4) perfluoro C 1-3 alkyl, (5) nitro, (6) cyano, (7) C 1-3 alkylcarbonyl, (8) phenylcarbonyl, (9) carboxy, (10) aminocarbonyl, (11) mono and di C 1-3 alkylaminocarbonyl, (12) formyl, (13) SO 3 H, (14) C 1-3 alkyl sulfonyl, (15) phenyl sulfonyl, (16) formamido, (17) C 1-3 alkylcarbonylamino, (18) phenylcarbonylamino, (19) C 1-3 alkoxycarbonyl, (20) C 1-3 alkylsulfonamido carbonyl, (21) phenylsulfonamido carbonyl, (22) C 1-3 alkyl carbonylamino sulfonyl, (23) phenylcarbonylamino sulfonyl, (24) C 1-3 alkyl amino, (25) mono di and tri C 1-3 alkyl amino, (26) amino, (26) hydroxy, and (27) C 1-3 alkyloxy; AA 1 is independently selected from the group consisting of (a) a single bond, and (b) an amino acid of formula AI ##STR4## wherein R 7 is selected from the group consisting of: (a) hydrogen, (b) substituted C 1-6 alkyl, wherein the substituent is selected from (1) hydrogen, (2) hydroxy, (3) halo, (4) --S--C 1-4 alkyl (5) --SH (6) C 1-6 alkylcarbonyl, (7) carboxy, ##STR5## (9) amino carbonyl amino, (10) C 1-4 alkylamino, wherein the alkyl moiety is substituted with hydrogen or hydroxy, and the amino is substituted with hydrogen or CBZ, (11) guanidino, and (c) aryl C 1-6 alkyl, wherein aryl is defined as immediately above, and wherein the aryl may be mono and di-substituted, the substituents being each independently C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl amino, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 alkylthio, and C 1-6 alkylcarbonyl; AA 2 is an amino acid of formula AII ##STR6## AA 3 is an amino acid of formula AIII ##STR7## wherein R 8 and R 9 are each independently selected from the group consisting of (a) hydrogen, (b) substituted C 1-6 alkyl, wherein the substituent is selected from (1) hydrogen, (2) hydroxy, (3) halo, (4) --S--C 1-4 alkyl (5) --SH (6) C 1-6 alkylcarbonyl, (7) carboxy, ##STR8## (9) amino carbonyl amino, (10) C 1-4 alkylamino, wherein the alkyl moiety is substituted with hydrogen or hydroxy, and the amino is substituted with hydrogen or CBZ, (11) guanidino, and (c) aryl C 1-6 alkyl, wherein aryl is defined as immediately above, and wherein the aryl may be mono and di-substituted, the substituents being each independently C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl amino, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 alkylthio, and C 1-6 alkylcarbonyl. One class of this genus is the compounds wherein: R 1 is (a) substituted C 1-6 alkyl, wherein the substituent is selected from (1) hydrogen, (2) hydroxy, (3) chloro or fluoro, (4) C 1-3 alkyloxy, and (5) phenyl C 1-3 alkyloxy, (b) aryl C 1-6 alkyl wherein the aryl group is selected from the group consisting of (1) phenyl, (2) naphthyl, (3) pyridyl, (4) furyl, (5) thienyl, (6) thiazolyl, (7) isothiazolyl, (8) benzofuryl, (9) benzothienyl, (10) indolyl, (11) isooxazolyl, and (12) oxazolyl, and mono and di-substituted C 6-10 aryl as defined above in items (1) to (12) wherein the substitutents are independently C 1-4 alkyl, halo, and hydroxy; AA 1 is independently selected from the group consisting of (a) a single bond, and (b) an amino acid of formula AI ##STR9## wherein R 7 is selected from the group consisting of (a) hydrogen, (b) substituted C 1-6 alkyl, wherein the substituent is selected from (1) hydrogen, (2) hydroxy, (3) halo, (4) --S--Ci 1-4 alkyl (5) --SH (6) C 1-6 alkylcarbonyl, (7) carboxy, ##STR10## (9) C 1-4 alkylamino, and C 1-4 alkylamino wherein the alkyl moeity is substituted with an hydroxy, and (10) guanidino, (11) C 1-4 alkyloxy, (12) phenylC 1-4 alkyloxy, (13) phenylC 1-4 alkylthio, and (c) aryl C 1-6 alkyl, wherein the aryl group is elected from the group consisting of (1) phenyl, (2) naphthyl, (3) pyridyl, (4) furyl, (5) thienyl, (6) thiazolyl, (7) isothiazolyl, (8) benzofuryl, (9) benzothienyl, (10) indolyl, (11) isooxazolyl, and (12) oxazolyl, and wherein the aryl may be mono and di-substituted, the substituents being each independently C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl amino, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 alkylthio, and C 1-6 alkylcarbonyl; AA 2 is an amino acid of formula AII ##STR11## AA 3 is an amino acid of formula AIII ##STR12## wherein R 8 and R 9 are each independently selected from the group consisting of (a) hydrogen, (b) C 1-6 alkyl, wherein the substituent is selected from (1) hydrogen, (2) hydroxy, (3) halo, (4) --S--C 1-4 alkyl (5) --SH (6) C 1-6 alkylcarbonyl, (7) carboxy, ##STR13## (9) C 1-4 alkylamino, and C 1-4 alkyl amino wherein the alkyl moeity is substituted with an hydroxy, and (10) guanidino, and (c) aryl C 1-6 alkyl, wherein aryl is defined as immediately above, and wherein the aryl may be mono and di-substituted, the substituents being each independently C 1-6 alkyl, halo, hydroxy, C 1-6 alkyl amino, C 1-6 alkoxy, C 1-6 alkylthio, and C 1-6 alkylcarbonyl. Within this class are the compounds wherein AA1, AA2 and AA3, are each independently selected from the group consisting of the L- and D- forms of the amino acids including glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, serine, threonine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid, glutamine, lysine, hydroxy-lysine, histidine, arginine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, cysteine, methionine, ornithine, β-alanine, homoserine, homotyrosine, homophenylalanine and citrulline. Alternatively, within this class are the subclass of compounds wherein R 1 is C 1-3 alkyl; R 8 and R 9 are each individually (a) hydrogen, (b) C 1-6 alkyl, (c) mercapto C 1-6 alkyl, (d) hydroxy C 1-6 alkyl, (e) carboxy C 1-6 alkyl, (g) aminocarbonyl C 1-6 alkyl, (h) mono- or di-C 1-6 alkyl amino C 1-6 alkyl, (i) guanidino C 1-6 alkyl, (j) amino-C 1-6 alkyl or N-substituted amino-C 1-6 alkyl wherein the substituent is carbobenzoxy, (k) carbamyl C 1-6 alkyl, or (l) aryl C 1-6 alkyl, wherein the aryl group is selected from phenyl and indolyl, and the aryl group may be substituted with hydroxy, C 1-3 alkyl. Exemplifying the invention are the following compounds: (a)N-(N-phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-4-oxo-5-(2,6-bistrifluoromethylbenzoyloxy) pentanoic acid; (b)N-(N-phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-4-oxo-5-benzoyloxy pentanoic acid; and (c)N-(N-Acetyl-tyrosinyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-4-oxo-5-(pentafluorobenzoyloxy) pentanoic acid. This invention also concerns to pharmaceutical composition and methods of treatment of interleukin-1 and interleukin-1β mediated or implicated disorders or diseases (as described above) in a patient (including man and/or mammalian animals raised in the dairy, meat, or fur industries or as pets) in need of such treatment comprising administration of interleukin-1β inhibitors of formula (I) as the active constituents. Illustrative of these aspects, this invention concerns pharmaceutical compositions and methods of treatment of diseases selected from septic shock, allograft rejection, inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis in a patient in need of such treatment comprising: administration of an interleukin-1β inhibitor of formula (I) as the active constituent. Compounds of the instant invention are conveniently prepared using the procedures described generally below and more explicitly described in the Example section thereafter. ##STR14## The described compounds can be prepared as follows. An alloc protected aspartic acid β-ester can be converted to the corresponding diazomethylketone using isobutylchloroformate and N-methylmorpholine followed by excess diazomethane. The bromomethylketone can then be formed by treatment of the diazomethylketone with hydrobromic acid in ether. Bromomethylketones react with carboxylic acids in the presence of potassium fluoride in dimethylformamide to afford the corresponding presence of potassium fluoride in dimethylformamide to afford the corresponding acyloxymethylketone. The alloc group can then be removed, and the product coupled to a di, or tripepride using first tributyl tin hydride and bistriphenylphosphine palladium dichloride, and then ethyl dimethylaminopropyl carbodimide and hydroxybenzotriazole. The carboxyllic acid protecting group is then removed to afford the desired products. The compounds of the instant invention of the formula (I), as represented in the Examples hereinunder shown to exhibit in vitro inhibitory activities with respect to interleukin-1β. In particular, these compounds have been shown to inhibit interleukin-1β converting enzyme from cleaving precusor interleukin-1β as to form active interleukin-1β at a Ki of less than 1 uM. This invention also relates to a method of treatment for patients (including man and/or mammalian animals raised in the dairy, meat, or fur industries or as pets) suffering from disorders or diseases which can be attributed to IL-1/ICE as previously described, and more specifically, a method of treatment involving the administration of the IL-1/ICE inhibitors of formula (I) as the active constituents. Accordingly, disease states in which the ICE inhibitors of Formula I may be useful as therapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, infectious diseases where active infection exists at any body site, such as meningitis and salpingitis; complications of infections including septic shock, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and/or adult respiratory distress syndrome; acute or chronic inflammation due to antigen, antibody, and/or complement deposition; inflammatory conditions including arthritis, cholangitis, colitis, encephalitis, endocarditis, glomerulonephritis, hepatitis, myocarditis, pancreatitis, pericarditis, reperfusion injury and vasculitis. Immune-based diseases which may be responsive to ICE inhibitors of Formula I include but are not limited to conditions involving T-cells and/or macrophages such as acute and delayed hypersensitivity, graft rejection, and graft-versus-host-disease; auto-immune diseases including Type I diabetes mellitus and multiple sclerosis. ICE inhibitors of Formula I may also be useful in the treatment of bone and cartilage resorption as well as diseases resulting in excessive deposition of extracellular matrix such as interstitial pulmonary fibrosis, cirrhosis, systemic sclerosis, and keloid formation. ICE inhibitors of Formula I may also be useful in treatment of certain tumors which produce IL 1 as an autocrine growth factor and in preventing the cachexia associated with certain tumors. For the treatment the above mentioned diseases, the compounds of formula (I) may be administered orally, topically, parenterally, by inhalation spray or rectally in dosage unit formulations containing conventional non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, adjuvants and vehicles. The term parenteral as used herein includes subcutaneous injections, intravenous, intramuscular, intracisternal injection or infusion techniques. In addition to the treatment of warm-blooded animals such as mice, rats, horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, cats, etc., the compounds of the invention are effective in the treatment of humans. The pharmaceutical compositions containing the active ingredient may be in a form suitable for oral use, for example, as tablets, troches, lozenges, aqueous or oily suspensions, dispersible powders or granules, emulsions, hard or soft capsules, or syrups or elixirs. Compositions intended for oral use may be prepared according to any method known to the art for the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions and such compositions may contain one or more agents selected from the group consisting of sweetening agents, flavoring agents, coloring agents and preserving agents in order to provide pharmaceutically elegant and palatable preparations. Tablets contain the active ingredient in admixture with non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable excipients which are suitable for the manufacture of tablets. These excipients may be for example, inert diluents, such as calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, lactose, calcium phosphate or sodium phosphate; granulating and disintegrating agents, for example, corn starch, or alginic acid; binding agents, for example starch, gelatin or acacia, and lubricating agents, for example magnesium stearate, stearic acid or talc. The tablets may be uncoated or they may be coated by known techniques to delay disintegration and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby provide a sustained action over a longer period. For example, a time delay material such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate may be employed. They may also be coated by the techniques described in the U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,256,108; 4,166,452; and 4,265,874 to form osmotic therapeutic tablets for control release. Formulations for oral use may also be presented as hard gelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with an inert solid diluent, for example, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate or kaolin, or as soft gelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with water or an oil medium, for example peanut oil, liquid paraffin, or olive oil. Aqueous suspensions contain the active materials in admixture with excipients suitable for the manufacture of aqueous suspensions. Such excipients are suspending agents, for example sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxy-propylmethylcellulose, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, gum tragacanth and gum acacia; dispersing or wetting agents may be a naturally-occurring phosphatide, for example lecithin, or condensation products of an alkylene oxide with fatty acids, for example polyoxyethylene stearate, or condensation products of ethylene oxide with long chain aliphatic alcohols, for example heptadecaethyl-eneoxycetanol, or condensation products of ethylene oxide with partial esters derived from fatty acids and a hexitol such as polyoxyethylene sorbitol monooleate, or condensation products of ethylene oxide with partial esters derived from fatty acids and hexitol anhydrides, for example polyethylene sorbitan monooleate. The aqueous suspensions may also contain one or more preservatives, for example ethyl, or n-propyl, p-hydroxybenzoate, one or more coloring agents, one or more flavoring agents, and one or more sweetening agents, such as sucrose or saccharin. Oily suspensions may be formulated by suspending the active ingredient in a vegetable oil, for example arachis oil, olive oil, sesame oil or coconut oil, or in a mineral oil such as liquid paraffin. The oily suspensions may contain a thickening agent, for example beeswax, hard paraffin or cetyl alcohol. Sweetening agents such as those set forth above, and flavoring agents may be added to provide a palatable oral preparation. These compositions may be preserved by the addition of an anti-oxidant such as ascorbic acid. Dispersible powders and granules suitable for preparation of an aqueous suspension by the addition of water provide the active ingredient in admixture with a dispersing or wetting agent, suspending agent and one or more preservatives. Suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents are exemplified by those already mentioned above. Additional excipients, for example sweetening, flavoring and coloring agents, may also be present. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may also be in the form of oil-in-water emulsions. The oily phase may be a vegetable oil, for example olive oil or arachis oil, or a mineral oil, for example liquid paraffin or mixtures of these. Suitable emulsifying agents may be naturally-occurring gums, for example gum acacia or gum tragacanth, naturally-occurring phosphatides, for example soy bean, lecithin, and esters or partial esters derived from fatty acids and hexitol anhydrides, for example sorbitan monooleate, and condensation products of the said partial esters with ethylene oxide, for example polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate. The emulsions may also contain sweetening and flavoring agents. Syrups and elixirs may be formulated with sweetening agents, for example glycerol, propylene glycol, sorbitol or sucrose. Such formulations may also contain a demulcent, a preservative and flavoring and coloring agents. The pharmaceutical compositions may be in the form of a sterile injectable aqueous or oleagenous suspension. This suspension may be formulated according to the known art using those suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents which have been mentioned above. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally-acceptable diluent or solvent, for example as a solution in 1,3-butane diol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water, Ringer's solution and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. In addition, fatty acids such as oleic acid find use in the preparation of injectables. The compounds of formula (I) may also be administered in the form of suppositories for rectal administration of the drug. These compositions can be prepared by mixing the drug with a suitable non-irritating excipient which is solid at ordinary temperatures but liquid at the rectal temperature and will therefore melt in the rectum to release the drug. Such materials are cocoa butter and polyethylene glycols. For topical use, creams, ointments, jellies, solutions or suspensions, etc., containing the compounds of Formula (I) are employed. (For purposes of this application, topical application shall include mouth washes and gargles.) Dosage levels of the order of from about 0.05 mg to about 140 mg per kilogram of body weight per day are useful in the treatment of the above-indicated conditions (about 2.5 mg to about 7 gms. per patient per day). For example, inflammation may be effectively treated by the administration of from about 0.01 to 50 mg of the compound per kilogram of body weight per day (about 0.5 mg to about 3.5 gms per patient per day). The amount of active ingredient that may be combined with the carrier materials to produce a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host treated and the particular mode of administration. For example, a formulation intended for the oral administration of humans may contain from 0.5 mg to 5 gm of active agent compounded with an appropriate and convenient amount of carrier material which may vary from about 5 to about 95 percent of the total composition. Dosage unit forms will generally contain between from about 1 mg to about 500 mg of an active ingredient. It will be understood, however, that the specific dose level for any particular patient will depend upon a variety of factors including the activity of the specific compound employed, the age, body weight, general health, sex, diet, time of administration, route of administration, rate of excretion, drug combination and the severity of the particular disease undergoing therapy. The following Examples are intended to illustrate the preparation of compounds of Formula I, and as such are not intended to limit the invention as set forth in the claims appended, thereto. Additional methods of making compounds of this invention are known in the art such as U.S. Pat. No. 5,055,451, issued to Krantz et. al., Oct. 8, 1991 which is hereby incorporated by reference. EXAMPLE 1 N-(N-Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-5-benzoyloxy-4-oxopentanoic acid: STEP A ##STR15## N-Allyloxycarbonyl-3-amino-5-diazo-4-oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester To a solution of Alloc-aspartic acid β-t-butyl ester (6.23 g, 22.8 mmol) and 4-methyl morpholine (2.63 mL, 23.94 mmol) in 50 mL of freshly distilled dichloromethane at -10° C. was added freshly distilled isobutyl chloroformate (3.04 mL, 23.48 mmol). After 15 min, the solution was filtered and excess ethereal diazomethane was added. The mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 1 h and concentrated. The mixture was purified by MPLC on silica-gel (35×350 mm column, eluting with 25% ethyl acetate in hexane) to give the title compound as a pale yellow oil: 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ5.91 (m, 1H), 5.62 (br s, 1H), 5.31 (d, 1H), 5.24 (d, 1H), 4.61 (br d, 2H), 4.50 (m, 1H), 2.92 (dd, 1H), 2.60 (dd, 1H), 1.43 (s, 9H). STEP B ##STR16## N-Allyloxycarbonyl-3-amino-5-bromo-4-oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester To a solution of N-Allycarbonyl-3-amino-5-diazo-4-oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester in ether was added approximately one equivalent of 30% HBr in acetic acid. After 30 min, the solution was diluted with ether and washed three times with water. The combined organic layers were dried over magnesium sulphate, filtered, and concentrated. The product was purified by MPLC on silica-gel eluting with 20% ethyl acetate in hexane to afford the title compound as a colorless solid: 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ5.93 (m, 1H), 5.31 (d, 1H), 5.19 (d, 1H), 4.69 (t, 1H), 4.58 (br d, 2H), 4.29 (AB, 2H), 2.82 (dd, 1H), 2.63 (dd, 1H), 1.43 (s, 9H). STEP C ##STR17## N-(N-Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-5-benzoyloxy-4-oxopentanoic acid B-t-butyl ester To a solution of N-Allyoxycarbonyl-3-amino-5-benzoyloxy-4-oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester (266 mg, 0.679 mmol) and Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alanine (228 mg, 0.679 mmol) in 5 mL each of dichloromethane and DMF was added ˜20 mg of Pd(PPh 3 ) 2 Cl 2 followed by dropwise addition of tributyltin hydride (274 μL, 1.02 mmol). After 5 min, the mixture was cooled to 0° C. and hydroxybenzotriazole (138 mg, 1.02 mmol) and ethyldimethylaminopropyl carbodiimide (151 mg, 0.815 mmol) were added. After 16 hours, the mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate and washed three times with 1 N hydrochloric acid and three times with saturated sodium bicarbonate. The mixture was dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated. The product was purified by MPLC on silica-gel eluting with 1:1 ethylacetate:dichloromethane to afford the title compound: 1 H NMR (200 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ8.04 (br d, 2H), 7.72-7.10 (m, 8H), 5.13 (s, 2H), 4.78 (t, 1H), 4.4-4.1 (m, 2H), 3.0-2.5 (m, 6H), 2.01 (m, 1H), 1.45 (s, 9H), 1.38 (d, 3H), 0.90 (d, 3H), 0.85 (d, STEP D ##STR18## N-(N-Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-5-benzoyloxy-4-oxopentanoic acid N-(N-Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alanyl)-3-amino-5-benzyloxy-4-oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester was dissolved in trifluoroacetic acid. After 30 min, the mixture was concentrated to afford the title compound: 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD ) δ8.04 (d, 2H), 7.7-7.10 (m, 8H), 5.16 (AB, 2H), 4.78 (t, 1H), 4.33 (q, 1H), 4.12 (d, 1H), 3.0-2.5 (m, 6H), 2.01 (m, 1H), 1.38 (d, 3H), 0.89 (d, 3H), 0.84 (d, 3H). EXAMPLE 2 N-(N-Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-5-(2,6-bistrifluoromethylbenzoylory)-4-oxopentanoic acid STEP A ##STR19## N-Allyoxycarbonyl-3-amino-5-(2,6-bistrifluoromethylbenzoyloxy)-4-oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester Potassium fluoride (79 mg, 1.35 mmol) and N-Allyoxycarbonyl-3-amino-5-bromo-4-oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester (215 mg, 0.614 mmol) were stirred in 5 mL of DMF for 1 min. 2,6-Bistrifluoromethyl-benzoic acid (158 mg, 0.612 mmol) was added and the mixture stirred for 45 min at ambient temperature. The mixture was diluted with ether, washed three times with water, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated to afford the title compound: 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ8.10 (d, 2H), 7.89 (t, 1H), 5.94 (m, 1H), 5.32 (d, 1H), 5.25-5.1 (m, 3H), 4.63 (m, 1H), 4.59 (m, 2H), 2.83 (dd, 1H), 2.64 (dd, 1H), 1.43 (s, 9H). STEP B ##STR20## N-(N-Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-5-(2,6-bietrifluoromethylbenzoyloxy)-4-oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester To a solution of N-Allyoxycarbonyl-3-amino-5-(2,6-bistrifluoromethyl- benzoyloxy)-4-oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester (348 mg, 0.630 mmol) and Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alanine (212 mg, 0.630 mmol) in 5 mL each of dichloromethane and DMF was added ˜20 mg of Pd(PPh 3 ) 2 Cl 2 followed by dropwise addition of tributyltin hydride (254 μL, 0.95 mmol). After 5 min, the mixture was cooled to 0° C. and hydroxybenzotriazole (128 mg, 0.945 mmol) and ethyldimethylaminopropyl carbodiimide (145 mg, 0.756 mmol) were added. After 16 hours, the mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate and washed three times with 1 N hydrochloric acid and three times with saturated sodium bicarbonate. The mixture was dried over sodium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated. The product was purified by MPLC on silica-gel eluting with 30% ethylacetate in dichloromethane to afford the title compound: 1 H NMR (200 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ8.09 (d, 2H), 7.88 (t, 1H), 7.3-7.1 (m, 5H), 5.16 (AB, 2H), 4.77 (t, 1H), 4.45-4.1 (m, 2H), 3.0-2.5 (m, 6H), 2.01 (m, 1H), 1.43 (S, 9H), 1.38 (2d's, 3H), 0.95-0.80 (4d's, 6H). STEP C ##STR21## N-(N-Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-5-(2,6-bistrifluoromethylbenzoyloxy)-4-oxopentanoic acid N-(N-Phenylpropionyl-valinyl-alaninyl)-3-amino-5-(2,6-bistrifluoromethylbenzoyloxy)-4oxopentanoic acid β-t-butyl ester was dissolved in trifluoroacetic acid. After 30 min, the mixture was concentrated and the residue purified by MPLC on silica-gel eluting with a gradient of dichloromethane to 1% formic acid and 4% methanol in dichloromethane to afford the title compound as a colorless solid: 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CD 3 OD) δ8.10 (d, 2H), 7.89 (t, 1H), 7.3-7.1 (m, 5H), 5.3-5.0 (v br s, 2H), 4.72 (m, 1H), 4.33 (q, 1H), 4.11 (d, 1H), 2.91 (d, 2H), 2.81 (m, 2H), 2.57 (m, 2H), 1.99 (m, 1H), 1.35 (br s, 3H), 0.89 (d, 3H), 0.84 (d, 3H). EXAMPLE 3 N-(N-Acetyl-Tyrosinyl-Valinyl-Alaninyl)-3-amino-4-Oxo-5-Pentafluorobenzoyloxy pentanoic acid STEP A ##STR22## 3-Allyloxycarbonylamino-4-oxo-5-Bromopentanoic acid benzyl ester To a solution of N-alloc-β-benzyl aspartic acid (920 mg, 3.0 mmol>at 0° C. was added NMR (3.6 ml) and IBCF (0.395 mL, 3.6 mmol). The resulting mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 10 min followed by addition of CH 2 N 2 /ether and the mixture was stirred for 10 min. 48% HBr(10 mL) was added and the stirring was continued for 20 min. Ether (200 mL) was added and the mixture was washed with water (6×10 mL), Brine (10 mL) and dried over Na 2 SO 4 . The solvent was concentrated and the residue was chromatographed over silica (1:3, Ether:Hexane) to provide the Bromomethyl ketone 890 mg. 1 HNMR (CDCl 3 ), δ7.4-7.22 (5H, m), 5.9 (2H, m), 5.25 (2H, dx3), 4.75 (1H, m), 4.55 (2H, m), 4.15 (2 H, s) 2.95 (2H, dx4). STEP B ##STR23## 3-Allyloxycarbonylamino-4-oxo-5-Pentafluorobenzoyloxy pentanoic acid benzyl ester To the bromomethyl ketone compound (200 mg, 0.52 mmol) in DMF (5 ml) was added KF (1.144 mmol, 66.56 mg). The resulting mixture was stirred for 3 min. followed by addition of pentafluorobenzoic acid and the mixture was stirred for 1 h. Ether (100 ml) was added, the mixture was washed with aq. NaHCO 3 and dried over Na 2 SO 4 the solvent was concentrated and the residue was passed through a block of silica (1:1, ether:hexane) to provide the title compound (175 mg). 1 HNMR (CDCl 3 ), δ7.35 (5H,m), 5.9 (1H,m) 5.8 (1H,m), 5.25 (2H, dx4), 5.22 (2H, ABq), 5.12 (2H, S) 4.69 (1H,m), 4.58 (1H, d), 3.12 (1H, d), 2.85 (1H,d). STEP C ##STR24## N-(N-Acetyl-Tyrosinyl-Valinyl-Alaninyl)-3-amino-4-oxo-5-Pentafluorobenzoyloxy pentanoic acid benzyl ester To the N-alloc pentafluoro-benzyloxymethyl ketone (130 mg, 0.252 mmol) in CH 2 Cl 2 (3 mL) was added PdCl 2 (Ph 3 P) 2 (cat.) followed by addition of (Bu)3SnH (0.08mL). The mixture was stirred for 5 min. DMF (10 mL), AcTyr Val Ala (98 mg), HOBT (80 mg) and EDC 45.6 mg) respectively. The resulting mixture was stirred at room temperature over night. EtOAc (100 ml) was added and the mixture washed with aq. NaHCO 3 (10 mL). The solvent was concentrated and the residue was chromatographed over silica (95:5/CH2Cl2: MeOH) to provide the title compound (65 mg). 1 HNMR (CD 3 OD) δ7.3 (5H,m), 7.0 (2H, d), 6.67 (2H, m), 5.2 (1H, d), 5.15 (1H,s), 4.85 (2H, ABq), 4.55 (1H,m), 4.25 (1H, d), 4.15 (1H, d), 3.2-2.7 (5H, m), 2.05 (1H, m), 1.9 (3H, d), 1.35 (3H,d), 0.95 (6H, m). STEP D ##STR25## N-(N-Acetyl-Tyrosinyl-Valinyl-Alaninyl)-3-amino-4-Oxo-5-Pentafluorobenzoyloxy pentanoic acid To the benzyl ester (25mg) in MeOH (3 ml) was added 10% Pd/c (cat.) and the mixture was stirred under positive pressure of H 2 for 2 h. The mixture was filtered through Celite and the solvent was concentrate to give the title compound (14 mg) which was crystalized from acetone/hexane. 1 HNMR (CD 3 OD) δ7.05 (1H, d), 6.7 (1H, d), 4.9 (2H, ABq), 4.55 (1H, m), 4.3 (1H, m), 3.05-2.7 (4H, m), 2.05 (1H, m), 1.92 (3H, s), 1.34 (3H, m), 0.95 (6H, ,5). M/z M+K + (754.4), M+Na + (740.3, M +1 (718.2), 637.7, 645.6, 563.2, 546.2, 413.2, 376.4, 305.3, 279.2, 205.9, 177.8, 163.1 (base).

Novel peptidyl derivatives of formula I are found to be potent inhibitors of interleukin-1β converting enzyme (ICE). Compounds of formula I may be useful in the treatment of inflammatory or immune-based diseases of the lung and airways; central nervous system and surrounding membranes; the eyes and ears; joints, bones, and connective tissues; cardiovascular system including the pericardium; the gastrointestinal and urogenital systems; the skin and mucosal membranes. Compounds of formula I are also useful in treating the complications of infection (e.g., gram negative shock) and tumors in which IL 1 functions as an autocrine growth factor or as a mediator of cachexia. ##STR1##

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates generally to a driver tool apparatus, and more particularly to an improved means and method for the gripping, driving insertion and release of a broad range of connector and/or fixation elements. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] U.S. Pat. Appl. No. 2005/0120838 Gottlieb & Carroll discloses a driving tool with a driving element whose design comprises a single pair of two separate jaws with a rectangular outer peripheral cross-section separated by a gap or slit which extends to the tip of the driving element and that attempts to directly engage the socket in the head section of a fixation/screw element. This gap or slit between the two jaws of this prior art is cut in a parallel axis to each of the jaws. The two jaws are shaped so that the distal ends of each jaw taper in a convergent manner from the proximal ends of the jaws so that when they are inserted into the socket of the screw/bolt the two convergent jaws further converge (compress) towards each other creating a release angle between the two jaws and the socket. Therefore this prior art teaches a severely flawed design from an engineering perspective that in fact does not provide adequate gripping force (retention) of the jaws of its driving element in the socket of the screw/bolt. [0003] As described above, the cited prior art's driving element of its driver tool is also specifically limited to two and only two jaws, and said single pair of jaws are limited to an outer rectangular cross-sectional shape for insertion into a polygonal socket. [0004] As described above, the driving element of any improved driver tool is subjected to two stress forces when it is both: i. initially directly engaging (frictionally) the socket (in the head) of the screw/bolt. ii. driving (screwing) the screw/bolt into its target site. [0005] Engineering analysis as described above of the driver design of the cited prior art reveals that: i. insertion of a single set of two separate jaws into multiple sockets of different screws/bolts and ii. the driving of said bolts/screws by this prior art design result in: loss of frictional engagement of this driver tool upon insertion into sockets of screws/bolts and permanent collapse of the single pair of jaws of the driving element of this driver tool when attempting to drive said screws/bolts into their target sites. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0006] Reusable tool devices is provided for the secure gripping and driving of a broad range of connector and/or fixation elements such as screws or bolts. These tool devices can be produced in kits of various sizes and lengths and utilized for a broad range of applications in many fields. [0007] In some embodiments, a driver tool is provided, that includes a driver shaft having an axis of rotation for driving a fixation component; one or more driver elements protruding from the driver shaft and having a base region proximate the driver shaft and a distal region away from the driver shaft, wherein each driver element includes one or more pins suitable for inserting into a socket having one or more inside walls; one or more securing features on each driver element, wherein the securing features of a driver element, individually or collectively, frictionally engage the one or more inside walls of the socket using a spring force; wherein each securing feature includes one or more flexing arm(s) that are attached to a pin or a portion of a pin, each flexing arm having a protrusion extending in an outward direction and/or having an outside wall that forms an obtuse angle relative to the normal of the axis of rotation and in the direction of the body of the flexing arm(s) and each securing feature includes one or more slits in the driver element extending generally in the distal direction for receiving a portion of the flexing arm; one or more guide features along each flexing arm for guiding the driver element into the socket and compressing the flexing arm towards one of the slits for providing the spring force; wherein the driver tool includes a plurality of driver elements or includes a driver element having a non-circular shape; and wherein the securing features are arranged so that the torque force required for driving a fixation component is generally decoupled from the frictional force for engaging the socket of the fixation component. [0008] In a further embodiment, the driver tool is a multi-socket tool comprising two or more driver elements, each driver element is configured for fitting into a socket having a generally circular cross-section. [0009] In further embodiments, each driver element has a center, a pin that is divided into a first and a second flexing arm by the slit interposed between the first and second flexing arms; wherein the first flexing arm is closer to the axis of rotation than the second flexing arm, the slit direction in the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation is generally in the direction of rotation at the position of the driver element. [0010] In further embodiments, the separation distance between the flexing arms in the region near the base of the driver element is less than the separation distance between the flexing arms in the distal region of the driver element. [0011] In further embodiments, each flexing arm of the driver tool has a cross-section in the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation that is generally a circle segment, where a circle segment is defined by the area of a circle that is cut off by a chord. [0012] In further embodiments, the cross-section of the flexing arm changes at different distances from the driver shaft. [0013] In further embodiments, the each flexing arm has generally the same shape. [0014] In further embodiments, an axis in the base of the flexing arms is oriented in a distal direction that is generally parallel to the axis of rotation of the driver shaft. [0015] In further embodiments, the rotational force acting on each driver element for driving a fixation component is generally perpendicular to the frictional force for securing the driver element to the fixation component. [0016] In further embodiments, the driver tool includes a single driver element and the driver element has a non-circular shape for inserting into a socket of a fixation component having generally the same non-circular shape so that any rotational motion of the driver element about the axis of rotation of the driver shaft rotates the fixation component. [0017] In further embodiments, the driver slit is angled relative to the axis of rotation. [0018] In further embodiments, the flexing arm has a protrusion located near the distal region of the flexing arm and extending away from the center of the driver element. [0019] In further embodiments, the slit extends into the driver shaft. [0020] In further embodiments, the cross-section of driver element generally has the shape of a regular hexagon. [0021] In further embodiments, the cross-section of the driver element is generally uniform, except for the guide feature and the slit. [0022] In further embodiments, the driver element includes a vertical through slit section and a longitudinal through slit section for defining the flexing arm, wherein the flexing arm is a spring clip. [0023] In further embodiments, multiple sets of vertical and longitudinal through slit sections are incorporated in the driver element for defining multiple flexing arms, wherein each of the multiple flexing arms is a spring clip. [0024] In further embodiments, the guiding feature is a taper or curved region on the leading edge of the flexing arm, positioned so that the flexing arm is automatically compressed inward towards the slit when the driver element is inserted into a socket. [0025] According to some embodiments, a process is provided, that includes: providing a driver tool and a fixation component having one or more sockets; engaging each of the one or more driver elements of the driver tool by inserting each driver element into one of the sockets of the fixation component; rotating the driver tool so that the fixation component is rotated and/or driven into a component to which it becomes attached; disengaging the driver tool from the fixation component; wherein the step of engaging includes a step of compressing a flexing arm towards a slit so that the driver element can fit into the socket, wherein the flexing arm creates a spring force against a wall of the socket. [0026] In some embodiments, the step of rotating the driver tool creates a driving force on an internal wall of each of the sockets, wherein the driving force is perpendicular to the spring force. [0027] In further embodiments, the flexing arm returns to an initial position upon disengaging the driver tool from the fixation component. [0028] In further embodiments, the fixation component is a headless screw having a shaft and a bottom wall, wherein the bottom wall limits the depth of insertion of each driver element into a corresponding socket of the fixation component. [0029] According to yet further embodiments, a driver tool is provided, that may include: a driver shaft having an axis of rotation for driving a fixation component; a driver element protruding from the driver shaft and having a base region proximate the driver shaft and a distal region away from the driver shaft, wherein the driver element includes a pin suitable for inserting into a socket having one or more inside walls; one or more securing features on each driver element, wherein the securing features of a driver element, individually or collectively, frictionally engage the one or more inside walls of the socket using a spring force; wherein each securing feature includes a spring clip mechanism forming a flexing arm(s) that is attached to the pin or a portion of the pin, the flexing arm having a protrusion extending in an outward direction and/or having an outside wall that forms an obtuse angle relative to the normal of the axis of rotation and in the direction of the body of the flexing arm(s) and each securing feature includes one or more slits in the driver element extending generally in the distal direction for receiving a portion of the flexing arm; and one or more guide features along said flexing arm for guiding the driver element into the socket and compressing the flexing arm towards a slit for providing the spring force. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0030] The principles and operation of the system, apparatus, and method according to the present invention may be better understood with reference to the drawings, and the following description, it being understood that these drawings are given for illustrative purposes only and are not meant to be limiting, wherein: [0031] FIG. 1A is a schematic illustration of a side perspective of a negative tension prior art Socket driver pin element; [0032] FIG. 1B is a schematic illustration of a side perspective of an exemplary Socket driver pin element, according to some embodiments; [0033] FIG. 1C is a schematic illustration of a side perspective of an exemplary Socket driver pin element with an enhanced wedge, according to some embodiments; [0034] FIG. 1D is a schematic illustration of an angled perspective of a Multi-socket driver tool, according to some embodiments; [0035] FIG. 1E is a schematic illustration of a close up side perspective of a top section of a Multi-socket driver tool with 2 driver pins, according to some embodiments; [0036] FIG. 1 Fa is a schematic illustration of the bottom side of a double socket bolt, according to some embodiments; [0037] FIG. 1 Fb is a schematic illustration of the top side of a double socket bolt, according to some embodiments; [0038] FIG. 1G is a schematic illustration of a side perspective of a Multi-socket driver tool with 2 driver pins coupled to a double socket bolt, according to some embodiments; [0039] FIGS. 1H-1I are schematic illustrations of a flat perspective of a Socket driver element limiting flange, according to various embodiments; [0040] FIG. 1J is a schematic illustration of a raised perspective of a Socket driver element limiting flange, according to some embodiments; [0041] FIG. 2A is a schematic illustration of a side perspective of a Spring clip driver tool, according to some embodiments; [0042] FIG. 2B is a schematic illustration of a top perspective of a bolt associated with a Spring clip driver tool, according to some embodiments; [0043] FIG. 2C is a schematic illustration of a close up side view of a top section of a Spring clip driver tool, according to some embodiments; [0044] FIG. 2D is a schematic illustration of a close up angled view of a top/side section of a Spring clip driver tool, according to some embodiments; [0045] FIG. 2E is a schematic illustration of a close up top side angled view of a top section of a Spring clip driver tool, according to some embodiments; [0046] FIG. 2F is a schematic illustration of a side view of a top section of a Spring clip driver tool with two spring mechanisms, according to some embodiments; and [0047] FIG. 2G is a schematic illustration of a close up side view of a top section of a Spring clip driver tool with two spring mechanisms, according to some embodiments. [0048] It will be appreciated that for simplicity and clarity of illustration, elements shown in the drawings have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements may be exaggerated relative to other elements for clarity. Further, where considered appropriate, reference numerals may be repeated among the drawings to indicate corresponding or analogous elements throughout the serial views. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0049] The following description is presented to enable one of ordinary skill in the art to make and use the invention as provided in the context of a particular application and its requirements. Various modifications to the described embodiments will be apparent to those with skill in the art, and the general principles defined herein may be applied to other embodiments. Therefore, the present invention is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments. [0050] The secure gripping of multiple fixation/connector elements by a reusable driver tool so that these same elements can be driven (screwed) into a target bore (threaded or unthreaded) or a completely unprepared target site and the driver tool can then be rapidly and easily disengaged from the fixation/connector element (screw/bolt) without changing in any way the position of the fixation/connector element in the target site into which it has been inserted by the driver tool is an engineering challenge. [0051] It will be appreciated that a driver tool that is to enable improved functionality above the tools known in the art, must incorporate a driving element whose design allows for its insertion into a socket of the fixation/connector element located within the head portion or body of the fixation/connector element. [0052] It will be further appreciated that an improved driving tool should incorporate in its design a driving element whose outer side walls should adapt and fit as snugly as is possible when inserted multiple times into different internal side walls of the sockets of the multiple fixation/connector elements so as to provide adequate and direct frictional engagement of the driver tool to the fixation/connector elements. [0053] It will be further appreciated that the design of the driving element of the improved driver tool should be engineered to allow for multiple use of the tool (multiple driving) without loss of engagement (frictional fit) of the driving element in the socket of the fixation/connector element after repeated use of the driver tool to drive (screw) numerous different fixation/ connector elements (screw/bolts). Additionally, the driving element should be designed to enable rapid and easy release from the screw or bolt being inserted or extracted, when required, with negligible effect on the screw or bolt position. [0054] It will be appreciated that the driver element of the improved driver tool may be placed under stress forces when it is initially engaging (frictionally) by sliding into the socket of the screw/bolt, and when driving (screwing) the screw/bolt into its target site. [0055] According to some embodiments of the present invention, a driver element whose design maintains direct engagement (frictional fit) for only a few insertions of the driver tool into a few sockets of several screws/bolts has limited value to the user as it will require the user to purchase many such tools when placing numerous fixation/connector elements (screws/bolts). A driver tool whose design fails to allow for maintaining this snug engagement when the driver tool is used to actively drive (screw) multiple screws/bolts will also be of limited value to the user. [0056] Non-limiting embodiments of the invention include a one time or reusable improved driver tools which may include, in a first embodiment, a multi-socket driver tool, and in a second embodiment, a spring-clip socket driver tool, as described below. [0057] Other embodiments of the invention may have grasping elements such as hand-held grasping features or elements which differ from those described below. [0058] Reference is now made to FIGS. 1D-E and 1 G- 1 J, which are graphical illustrations of different views of a Multi-socket driver tool and associated bolts, according to some embodiments, for enabling multiple use of the driver tool without loss of engagement of the driving element in the socket of fixation/connector elements, and rapid release from the screw or bolt being inserted or extracted, when required, with negligible effect on the screw or bolt position. [0059] For example, Multi-socket driver tool 1 , includes Head section 1 a , Shaft body limiting flange 1 d , Driver shaft body 1 c , Socket driver element limiting flange le and Socket driver pin elements 1 b Multi-socket driver tool 1 features two or more sets of (i.e. multiple) flexing arms 1 b , whose outer peripheral cross-sectional shape is preferably substantially round with slits cut into each set of the driver pin elements 1 o , and where each driver pin element 1 o slides into a separate socket (whose cross-section preferably is correspondingly round) of a multiple socketed head of each fixation/connector element. As can be seen in one embodiment in FIG. 1C , Socket driver pin element slit if shows how each slit may be purposefully cut at a divergent angle to each half section of each pair of driver pins. Each multi-driver pin element 1 o is purposely milled so that each flexing arm 1 b diverges from the other. When these diverging engagement elements are inserted into its corresponding socket, each divergent angle slit allows for each set of flexing arms outer side walls to separately frictionally engage (via a spring action of each flexing arm of each pin) the internal side walls of each separate and corresponding socket of the multiple socketed head of each screw/bolt, without permanently collapsing each of the driver pin elements. [0060] In general, pin elements 1 o may be configured perpendicular to Socket driver element limiting flange le, however they may be angled as well. In general, slits if may be configured to be in parallel with one another. For example, as seen in FIG. 1D , each pin diverges in its angle from its proximal end, as can be seen in FIG. 1B , such that the resulting spring tensions when inserted into the socket of the screw/bolt cause the desired wedge effect. In still further embodiments slits if may be tapered as seen in FIG. 1C . [0061] As can be seen in FIG. 1E , the Angle Beta (β) of the distal end of slit 1 j of driver pin element and the Angle Alpha (α) of the proximal end of slit lm of driver element may both be varied to generate a specific required tension, for example, where the angle of 1 j is preferably greater than the angle of 1 m , to create a variable bending tension in pin elements 1 o . As can be seen, in general, proximal slit angle a may be smaller than distal slit angle β, resulting from the construction of split 1 f , in accordance with the elastic properties of the materials being used. In general, pins 1 o may be constructed from a metal or polymer, for example, a flexible metal or other material, to allow for rigidity balanced with bend-ability, to allow for controlled tension to be generated in accordance with the elasticity properties of the material being used. Of course, pins and/or slits may be constructed with various shapes, forms, materials and positions to generate required forces, in accordance with the requirements of the driver tool 1 . [0062] Ac can be seen in FIG. 1A , the prior art (Gottlieb, US Patent application # US2005120838A1) uses a convergent tapering means of his driver pin flexing arms 1 b ′ (polygonal jaws) of the driver element 1 o ′ and the slit 1 f between flexing arms 1 b ′ to try to develop wedge tension, however in this invention, inward or negative tapering is used, which works counter-actively thereby preventing engagement. As can be seen in FIGS. 1B-1C , the pin element flexing armss 1 b and/or slits if of the present invention may be configured to allow for outward or positive tapering, to allow for a wedge or grip effect to be generated, to support easy gripping of a bolt or screw. As can be seen, Diameter 5 of proximal end ( 10 ) of Driver pins element 1 o may generally be less than Diameter 6 of distal end of Driver pin elements 1 o , in contrast to the prior art. Further, using Imaginary line 8 extending from proximal end 10 of Driver pin element 1 o , the Divergent areas 7 of driver pin element 10 distal ends, in the present invention, is what generate spring forces against a socket being engaged, as opposed to Convergent area 9 of driver pin elements 1 o ′ distal ends in the prior art, which provides converging (opposite) tensions of its driver pin elements 1 o′. [0063] In accordance with a known engineering principle, a polygonal driver and socket design causes tension on all corners of the polygonal driver when inserted into the socket of the screw/bolt and used to drive said screw/bolt. The cited prior art, with its polygonal driver and socket design (with its single pair of jaws and single slit between said two jaws) adheres to the above cited engineering principle and causes tension on all corners of each of his polygonal jaws of his driver tool when his driver pin elements 1 o ′ are inserted into a polygonal socket of a screw/bolt, resulting in compressive tension and permanent collapse of the slit if between his two jaws in the torque driving direction 1 k when attempting to drive the screw/bolt with his driver tool. [0064] Further, as can be seen in FIG. 1D , Head section driver element 1 g may include a Head section diver element circumferential groove 1 h , to allow for the insertion of a ring securing mechanism, for example, a flexible “o” ring element (not shown), into the groove so that the head can be inserted in a ratchet type wrench (not shown) and secured to the wrench (i.e. so it doesn't fall out of the wrench). [0065] As can be seen in FIG. 1H , the axis of the slits 1 f in the respective driver pins of a non-preferred embodiment of the present invention are oriented parallel to an imaginary inner circle 1 n around the pins' axes. Such an orientation of the slits if however, would cause inevitable bending and damage to the set of pins 1 o when torque force drive direction 1 k would be acted on the set of pins 1 o by screwing in a screw using the driver tool 1 . [0066] As can be seen in FIGS. 1I-1J , the axis of each slit if of each driver pin element 1 o of the present invention should preferably be oriented (positioned) at a tangent to the imaginary inner circle 1 n around the pins' axes, or perpendicular to the direction of the length of the shaft, which preferably is equivalently perpendicular to the torque direction (movement) of the drive turning 1 k of the driver tool 1 . Further, slit if axis is further oriented so as to be tangent with the torque force load 1 k exerted on the individual pin elements 1 o . These orientations of the slit if between each set of flexing arms 1 b allows each pair of flexing arms 1 b of each driver pin 1 o to further resist compression when the driver tool 1 is inserted into the corresponding sockets of the screw/bolt and also when driving the screw/bolt, thereby enhancing the pins' 1 o rigidity and strength. [0067] The slits of each driver pin 1 o are also further aligned to be relatively or substantially parallel with each other plus or minus up to 5 degrees of offset with each other, depending on the tension requirements. This substantially parallel orientation of each of the slits if to each other allows each set of driver pins 1 o to work in unison so that the resulting load compression force generated by the torque on the multiple driver pins (when driving the screw/bolt) will not result in excessive bending of the two flexing arms of each of the driver pins 1 o (excessive bending of the pins would compromise their ability to grip subsequent screws/bolts) but rather assures that these same compression forces are in fact more or less equally distributed on each of the flexing arms 1 b of each set of driver pins 1 o. [0068] It is to be further appreciated that when one takes into consideration that each driver pin 1 o is preferably machined so as to be slightly offset in any direction by as little as 50 microns or possibly less in its location relative to the other driver pin 1 o this improved design creates a further wedging type grip of the screw/bolt when each driver pin 1 o is inserted into each corresponding socket of the screw/bolt. [0069] It is known in engineering that Torque (T)=2(F*L). This equation means that the driving torque load on a driving tool is equal to two times the Force multiplied by the Length (distance) from the center point between the two driver pin sets to the center of each driver pin set (see FIG. 1E ). The design of the present invention described above therefore provides an efficient tool for engaging and driving screws/bolts. [0070] As may also be seen in FIGS. 1I-1J , the center point 1 i between the two driver pin elements 1 o , also defining the Distance from center point to center 1 l of each driving pin 1 o as L, includes an Angled cut slit if of driver pin 1 o , to provide resistance to support the driving force in the direction 1 n of the Torque 1 k . Of course, other design elements, features or configurations may be used. [0071] It is to be further appreciated that more than two pin elements 1 o may be incorporated into the multi-socket driver tool 1 wherein each set of pin elements would individually engage a corresponding number of sockets of the screw/bolt. [0072] With reference to FIGS. 1 Fa- 1 Fb, the driver tools with multiple sockets may find particular benefits when employed with headless bolts/screws 2 and/or with generally short bolts or other connecting elements, may include, for example, screw or Bolt socket 2 a with its round internal cross-section, Bottom curved surface 2 b , Socket floor 2 c , Socket inner side wall 2 d , which is preferably unthreaded, Threaded outer side wall 2 e , and socket Top surface 2 f . Bottom surface 2 b , in some embodiments, may function as a stop or limit for the driver tool elements/pins. The bottom surface may be generally flat or may be curved (e.g., concave or convex). Of course, other shapes, design elements, features or configurations may be used. [0073] Based on the above consideration, the frictional engagement of the unique multi-socket driver pin elements of the present invention therefore do not permanently collapse as does the cited prior art when subjected to the repeated stresses both for initial frictional engagement of the improved driver tool into multiple screws/bolts and repeated driving (screwing) of multiple screws/bolts into target sites. [0074] This improved design also allows for the secure frictional engagement by this improved driver tool 1 of very shallow depth multiple sockets in the head of the screw/bolt 2 . This is highly useful where the length of the screw/bolt to be used is very short and does not allow for the machining of a standard depth socket into its top surface (i.e. As seen in FIG. 1F , this design can be used to frictionally engage and disengage with screws that are headless as well). [0075] The cross-sectional peripheral outer shape of each pin element of a multi-socket driver must be designed to be able to be inserted into a corresponding cross-sectional socket shape of a screw/bolt. Any shape may be used, however preferably a round shape may be used. In some embodiments, polygonal and curved shapes may be used, as may hexagonal, rectangular, and elliptical shapes. In general, such a multi-socket driver is easier to manufacture compared to a polygonal shaped driver. In addition, such a multi-socket driver generally requires far less accuracy for the user to position the multiple pins in the sockets compared a polygonal shaped driver. Moreover, such a multi-socket driver is preferably designed to withstand higher load forces than polygonal pins, in accordance with a known engineering principle. [0076] According to some embodiments of the present invention, a spring-clip socket driver tool features a built in shaped spring element incorporated into its driving element, where the driving element's main shaft may be round or polygonal in its outer peripheral cross-section, and where the spring element's general shape resembles a clip, though other embodiments may not resemble a clip. The clip-shaped spring element is preferably formed by cutting (for example by wire cutting) a specifically oriented angled open through slit through a specific section of the driver element of the spring-clip driver tool, as is illustrated in the drawings. The angled through slit is preferably designed to extend along a length of the driving element that terminates prior to the end section of the driver element. This design allows for the driving engagement of a solid core end section (without any spring element feature) of the driving element into the socket of the head of the screw/bolt, while separating the frictional engaging element (the spring clip element) from this solid core end driving section of the driving element. [0077] Reference is now made to FIGS. 2 A and 2 C- 2 E, which are graphical illustrations of different views of a Spring clip driver tool with associated bolts, according to some embodiments, for enabling multiple use of the driver tool without loss of engagement of the driving element in the socket of fixation/connector elements, and rapid release from the screw or bolt being inserted or extracted, when required. Spring clip driver tool 3 includes Driver shaft body 3 a , Spring clip element 3 b , Socket driver element tip section 3 c , Socket driver engagement element 3 d , through slit element 3 e , Driver shaft body through slit section 3 f , Spring clip longitudinal through slit section 3 g , Spring clip vertical through slit section 3 h , and Spring clip protruding bulge section 3 i . Further, in some embodiments, spring driver tool 3 includes Socket driver element beveled tip 3 j , Socket driver bottom surface 3 k , Driver shaft body limiting flange 3 l , Head section 3 m , Socket driver limiting flange 3 n , Spring clip outer side wall 3 o , and Socket driver tip side wall 3 p . Of course, other design elements, features or configurations may be used. [0078] In general, spring clip bulge 3 i is preferably formed by cutting away material from the Spring clip outer side wall 3 o , and leaving bulge 3 i to be smaller than the height of slit 3 g , such that 3 i will be fully engaged within the diameter of the engaged socket, so as to avoid excessive bending forces when engaged in said socket. Also while 3 i is collapsed in an engaged socket, there is substantially minimal tension on the spring clip element 3 b , as the clip elements, and specifically the 3 i , are substantially below the line of torque force when inserted into the socket of the screw/bolt, and are kept in place using bending force only, to keep an attached bolt or screw engaged, and leaving the outer walls of Socket driver element 3 d , including Socket driver tip 3 c and its side walls 3 p primarily exposed to the torque forces. Of course, slit size and shape and size and shape may be configured so as to optimize the desired spring effects and tensions, in accordance with the elastic properties of metal to be used. [0079] With reference to FIGS. 2F-2G , in additional embodiments, multiple slits may be configured in the shaft body 3 a of the Spring clip driver tool 3 extending into the socket driver element 3 d so as to machine multiple spring clip elements 3 b for the multiple sided engagement of multiple internal walls of the socket of a bolt/screw by the Spring clip driver tool 3 . Socket element tip section 3 c still maintains a solid core so as to still allow it to function primarily as an initial driving element of this embodiment of the Spring clip driver tool 3 . A variable number of spring clip elements may be incorporated into each improved driver depending on the size of the socket and length and weight of the screw/bolt to be used. [0080] With reference to FIG. 2B , screw or bolt 4 may include Head section 4 a , Socket 4 b , Threaded shaft 4 c , Unthreaded shaft 4 d , Socket inner side walls 4 e , and Socket floor 4 e . Of course, other design elements, features or configurations may be used. [0081] This improved design of the spring-clip socket driver tool allows for the partial separation of the two stress forces (frictional engaging and driving) that are placed on the driving element of the improved driver, wherein the spring clip element (or elements) of the driving element functions to primarily frictionally engage (by direct engagement) the inner side walls of the socket of the head of the screw/bolt and the solid core end of the driving element functions to primarily drive the screw/bolt. This improved design allows for the repeated frictional direct engagement of its unique spring clip driver element, which will not permanently collapse when subjected to the repeated stresses both for initial frictional engagement of the improved driver tool into variable depth polygonal shaped or even round shaped sockets of multiple screws/bolts. This improved driver tool's design also allows for the repeated driving (screwing) of multiple screws/bolts utilizing the spring clip socket driver tool described herein and its easy and rapid release from said socket when the driving of the screw/bolts have been accomplished. [0082] The foregoing description of the embodiments of the invention has been presented for the purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed. It should be appreciated by persons skilled in the art that many modifications, variations, substitutions, changes, and equivalents are possible in light of the above teaching. It is, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and changes as fall within the true spirit of the invention.

A driver tool apparatus is provided for the secure gripping, driving insertion, and release of a broad range of connect - or and/or fixation elements such as screws or bolts. These driver devices can be utilized for a broad range of applications in many fields. The driver tool, in some embodiments, may include a driver shaft; one or more driver elements protruding from the driver shaft and having a base region proximate the driver shaft and a distal region away from the driver shaft, wherein each driver element includes one or more pins suitable for inserting into a socket having one or more inside walls; and one or more securing features on each driver element.

RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a continuation of and claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Ser. No. 13/105,050 filed May 11, 2011 which is a continuation of and claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Ser. No. 10/815,294 filed Apr. 1, 2004, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,945,760 on May 17, 2011, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to improvements in signal processing systems, and more particularly to advantageous techniques for instruction execution to include translating storage device addresses prior to data access. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Signal processing systems, including those for video, audio and graphics, for example, use interface paths to transmit data from a media source or sources and/or a high capacity storage medium to a signal processing subsystem. The data received in the signal processing subsystem will typically be stored locally in a number of different patterns. From this local storage, the data will be accessed for algorithmic processing. These data patterns may not be in the best order for efficient algorithmic processing. In addition, when processing the data with a series of algorithms, each algorithmic stage of processing may produce results in a pattern that is not in an efficient order for the next stage of processing. The result is that a considerable amount of time can be spent by the processing system reordering data to fit the algorithms that are used. This inefficiency causes a loss in performance and an increase in power utilization. There are many signal analysis techniques that make use of matrix and data sorting operations and could make advantageous use of data swapping or exchange type operations. In a processor, a swap operation can be specified to read the contents of two registers and then write the data values to the swap address. For efficient programming when using register files or local memories, it can be advantageous to additionally provide the ability to swap contents of groups of locations. For example, swapping a block of data, providing the transpose of a matrix stored in either registers or memory, implementing permutations on a set of registers, and the like, are all examples of algorithmic capabilities which are desirable to efficiently support. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Among its several aspects, the present invention describes methods and apparatus for efficient reordering of data and performing data exchanges within a register file or memory or, in general, devices storing data that is accessible through a set of addressable locations. The present invention addresses problems, such as those noted above, while achieving a variety of advantages as discussed in further detail below. In one aspect of the present invention, an address translator is placed in the path of all or a selected set of address buses to a storage device to provide a programmable and selectable arrangement for translating the storage device addresses. The address translator may provide support for many permutation operations to be carried out on the order of the data resident in the storage device. The effect of this translation is that data stored in one pattern may be accessed and stored in another pattern or accessed, processed and stored in another pattern. In one aspect of the present invention, a processor system specifies input operands to be selected from translated addresses, result operands to be stored at translated addresses, or both of these types operations to occur together as defined by a processor instruction. The address translation operation may be carried out in a single processor cycle and need not involve the physical movement of data in swap operations which allows data to, in effect, be ordered more efficiently for algorithmic processing and therefore saves power. In another aspect of the present invention, the address translator can be specifically designed for a single type of address translation function, or it may be designed more generally to support multiple address translation functions. In a further aspect of the present invention, exemplary instructions for effectively using the address translation facility of the hardware are presented. In addition, address translation functions, in accordance with the invention, are shown to be useful in vector operations supporting flexible capabilities for efficient processing. Further, a new type of storage unit using built in address translation functions is also described herein. These and other features, aspects and advantages of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description taken together with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary processor showing a logical data flow using address translators in operand address paths for direct operand addressing instructions in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2A illustrates a 3-bit address translator with a complement bit A 2 function in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2B illustrates an address translation operation where the address line A 2 is complemented in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2C illustrates a programmer's view of a register file using address translation as depicted in FIG. 2B in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2D illustrates a processor subsystem having a Rx read port translator for translating instruction operand addresses to different addresses for reading addressable data from a register file in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary block load with address translation instruction for use in conjunction with address translators in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary register file indexing (RFI) VLIW processor with address translation functions in each VLIW execution slot and further illustrating an exemplary four stage pipeline in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates an ALU subsystem of the RFI VLIW processor of FIG. 4 with address translation functions in each operand address in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 6 illustrates a detailed view of RFI update logic for the Rt register file address including an address translator of a DSU subsystem in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 7A illustrates a two processing element (PE) subsystem from a ManArray 2×2 indirect very long instruction word (iVLIW) processor incorporating RFI and address translators in register file operand address paths in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 7B is a table illustrating an address translation pattern used in a data movement example for the processor of FIG. 7A in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 8A illustrates an exemplary register file or memory unit incorporating the address translation function and translation parameter state internally with a view of a read port in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 8B illustrates a storage unit with an optimized merging of an address translation function with location selection logic in each port of a two port storage unit in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 9 illustrates a general form of a two port storage unit illustrating the data flow paths in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 10A illustrates a 4×4 organization of data stored in memory in i,j order; and FIG. 10B illustrates a transpose of the 4×4 organization of data stored in memory in j,i order in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention now will be described more fully with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which several presently preferred embodiments of the invention are shown. This invention may, however, be embodied in various forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary processor 100 showing a logical data flow using address translators 139 , 151 , and 153 in operand address paths for direct operand addressing instructions. The processor uses a fetch, decode, and execute pipeline and has an instruction fetch control unit 102 that includes a program counter (PCntr), instruction memory address generation components, support for interrupts, branch control, eventpoints, and other suitable subsystems. The instructions fetched are decoded during a decode stage to determine the operations required by the instructions and also determines the operand addresses of data to be operated on that are stored in a storage device, such as a register file or memory. The instruction specified operations are accomplished during the execute stage of the pipeline. During the fetch stage, the instruction fetch control unit 102 generates an address, based on the PCntr, to a short instruction word (SIW) memory 104 that contains SIWs in order to fetch an instruction over instruction bus 106 . The fetched instruction is stored in instruction register (IR) 108 . The processor 100 includes a storage device such as a register file 110 accessible by a function execution unit 114 . A decode and control unit 118 decodes the opcode and control bits 120 of the instruction stored in the IR 108 . Further, the operation of the function execution unit 114 and the timing and control signals for the register file accessing and associated multiplexers are controlled by the decode and control unit 118 Instructions received into the IR 108 may include load, store, control, arithmetic, and similar type instructions. With a load instruction, data is read from data memory 124 , at an address 126 generated from information contained in the instruction in the IR and may be a translated address. For sake of simplicity of illustration, the store and load data memory address generation components and address path are not shown. Rather, the address generation components and operation are described for operand addresses to the processor's register file. It is noted that similar techniques may be used for data memory addressing such as for the data memory 124 . Once a data memory address has been generated, the data, read from data memory 124 , is provided to load data bus 128 . The addressed data is passed through multiplexer 130 , as selected by the write data path selector signal 132 , to the write port 134 of register file 110 for writing the selected data into the register file 110 at a register file target address specified by the load instruction either directly or in translated form as described further below. With a store instruction, data is read from register file 110 , at an address RyA′ 156 that is a translation of Ry 146 from the store instruction in the IR 108 applied to address bus RyA 138 as input to address translator 139 or is passed through address translator 139 and used directly. The data, read from register file 110 , is provided to register file read data port 140 connected to the write port of data memory 124 for writing the selected data into the data memory 124 at an address 126 that may be a translated address. For purposes of clearly describing the present invention, only load, store, and arithmetic instructions are described in further detail. An arithmetic instruction received in the IR 108 may contain, for example, three register file address fields, Rt 142 , Rx 144 , and Ry 146 that are supplied over RtA bus 150 , RxA bus 152 , and RyA bus 138 where address translators 151 , 153 and 139 , respectively, are located in the three operand address paths. Each operand address is five bits to allow full addressing range for the thirty two entry register file 110 . The opcode and control bits are supplied over OpA bus 154 to the decode and control unit 118 . Logically, the register file 110 read and write ports have associated port address inputs that are latched in port address registers 155 that are part of a decode register at the end of the decode stage of processor 100 . The output of the address translators RyA′ 156 , RxA′ 157 , and RtA′ 158 are latched and then provided to the address inputs to the register file 110 . The address translation occurs on each data transfer to or from the register file as specified by the instruction in IR 108 . The read data ports Rx 162 and Ry 140 provide input data to the function execution unit as specified by control signals 164 from the decode and control unit 118 . The function execution unit 114 produces a result output Rt 160 that is one of two data paths that share the register file's 110 write port 134 through multiplexer 130 . FIG. 2A illustrates an addressing subsystem 200 comprising an address translator 202 with address inputs 204 and outputs 206 for use in addressing eight locations requiring only three address lines. The exemplary three bit address subsystem 200 is a subset of the five bit address subsystems used for each operand address in the processor 100 of FIG. 1 . As an example, the address translator 202 can be described by way of an exemplary block exchange of four registers. Three address bit inputs 204 , A 0 , A 1 , and A 2 , are the inputs of the address translator 202 . In this block exchange example, the address translator 202 operates to complement address bit 2 (A 2 ) so that translator 202 produces on its outputs 206 , A 0 ′, A 1 ′, and A 2 ′ the translated values as follows A 0 ′=A 0 , A 1 ′=A 1 and A 2 ′=Ā 2 , where Ā 2 indicates that a value applied to the input address line A 2 is complemented. FIG. 2B shows a storage device 210 , such as a register file or small memory, containing eight physical data storage locations 212 with addresses A 0 ′, A 1 ′, and A 2 ′, 000 to 111 in a binary order as table 216 . Associated with these addresses 000-111 are location names R 0 -R 7 , respectively. For example, when address 000 is used implicitly or explicitly as an operand address by an instruction, the programmer assumes that R 0 is accessed, and when address 101 is used by an instruction, it is assumed that R 5 is accessed. Address inputs A 0 , A 1 , and A 2 , 000-111, in table 214 are inputs to an address translator component indicated by oval 218 . As seen in FIG. 2B , an access to address A 0 , A 1 , A 2 of 000 is converted to an A 0 ′, A 1 ′, A 2 ′ value of 100 (R 4 ) and all accesses to A 0 , A 1 , A 2 of 100 are converted to an A 0 ′, A 1 ′, A 2 ′ value of 000 (R 0 ). In effect, the registers R 0 and R 4 have been exchanged. All other registers are exchanged in like fashion as illustrated in FIG. 2B . The address translator 202 , as indicated by the dashed oval 218 for convenience, operates to complement address line A 2 and pass the other address lines, A 0 and A 1 , through. As can be seen by the arrows, each address input is translated to its new address value. In another view of this translation, FIG. 2C illustrates a programmer's view 220 of the register file 222 using address translation as depicted in FIG. 2B in which the address translator function 224 is hidden from the programmer. The programmer deals with register names and therefore the translation can be viewed from the programmers vantage as having the effect of a block-exchange of four registers per block while in actuality only the addresses used to access the data have been modified to cause the exchange without any physical data movement. From the programmer's view, after translation, the addressable order of registers can be accessed as shown in register file 222 . FIG. 2D illustrates a processor subsystem 230 having a Rx read port translator 232 for translating instruction operand addresses to different addresses for reading addressable data from a register file 238 . The processor subsystem 230 includes instruction register IR 231 , an address translator 232 , operating in one operand address bus 236 , port address register 239 , and a register file 238 . The address translator 232 receives as input the Rx address bus 236 from the instruction in the IR 231 , a control input 252 from a decode and control unit, such as decode and control unit 118 of FIG. 1 , and a load transition parameter input 248 for specifying the translator operations. The translator 232 generates translated outputs A 0 ′, A 1 ′, and A 2 ′ 234 which are latched at the end of a decode stage in port address register 239 . The port address register 239 is directly connected to the Rx read address port 240 of the register file 238 , where, for example, a 1 of 8 selector 241 decodes the binary input into one of eight selection signals 242 . An address translator function unit 243 is one of the components making up the Rx address translator 232 . Combinatorial logic, for example, that implement a translation operation, is located in the address translator function unit 243 . Since it is desirable to support a number of translation operations, a control input 244 is used to select a translation operation from a supported number of translation operations. The values placed on the control input 244 are provided by a translation parameter control unit 246 which receives translation parameters 248 from a number of sources including, for example, from a bit field in an instruction stored in the instruction register (IR) 231 , such as an opcode or specific control bits, or from a data path connected to a control register and decodes the control bits if they are in an encoded format. The translation parameter control unit 246 may also receive decode and control information 252 indicating, for example, whether an instruction is to use or not use the address translation function. Since there may be a need for a number of different translations, a mechanism to select among multiple translation options may be advantageously provided. There are multiple mechanisms for making such a selection. One mechanism is to use a mode control bit or bits to specify that selected addresses are to be translated according to the setting of the mode control for every instruction received while the mode control is active for translation. A preferable approach is to utilize control information in an instruction to control the translation of the addresses associated with the instruction and only for that instruction. Each instruction contains control information specifying the translation operation to be used for its execution. FIG. 3 shows an exemplary block load with address translation instruction 300 for use in conjunction with address translators. The exemplary block load instruction 300 uses a format having a two bit translation selection (Tsel) field 305 . The two bit Tsel field 305 specifies either a no-translation option or one of three translation choices. One of these choices may be to load a linear sequential ordering of data from a memory into a bit-reverse address pattern in a register file. A second choice may be to begin with a bit-reverse address sequence of data in memory and load it into a linear sequential ordering of data in a register file. For example, a block load operation can be specified by an instruction 300 , in opcode 310 , for which loading a block of up to 16 data items can be specified by encoding a block size in block size field 315 , with the target block of data beginning at Rt address 320 , in a register file, such as register file 110 . The block of data is to be loaded from a linear sequence of data located in a local data memory, such as data memory 124 , beginning at the address specified in the direct address field 325 , with Tsel field 305 being set for bit-reverse loads to the register file. Although only a limited number of address translation patterns have been presented thus far, the present invention contemplates mechanisms that support many translation patterns. A general way of specifying a pattern transformation is through a binary matrix where input translation parameter bits and input address bits are logically combined to produce a translated address. The translation parameter bits may be stored in a program loadable control register. For example, equation (1) below can be used to specify a permutation of an address using translation parameters {s, e} bits stored in a special purpose control register. ( A ⁢ ⁢ 0 ′ A ⁢ ⁢ 1 ′ A ⁢ ⁢ 2 ′ ) = ( s ⁢ ⁢ 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 1 s ⁢ ⁢ 2 s ⁢ ⁢ 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 3 s ⁢ ⁢ 4 s ⁢ ⁢ 5 e ⁢ ⁢ 1 s ⁢ ⁢ 6 s ⁢ ⁢ 7 s ⁢ ⁢ 8 e ⁢ ⁢ 2 ) × ( A ⁢ ⁢ 0 A ⁢ ⁢ 1 A ⁢ ⁢ 2 1 ) ( 1 ) where the input address is represented as a vector of binary bits A=(A 0 A 1 A 2 ), product operations are treated as ANDs, and sum operations are treated as XORs. Using equation (1), the translated output address is given as: A0′=s0A0⊕s1A1⊕s2A2⊕e0 A1′=s3A0⊕s4A1⊕s5A2⊕e1 A2′=s6A0⊕s7A1⊕s8A2⊕e2  (2) For example, to obtain a bit-reversed 3-bit address the {s, e} bit matrix would be as shown in {s, e} Matrix 1 below: s ⁢ ⁢ 0 = 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 1 = 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 2 = 1 e ⁢ ⁢ 0 = 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 3 = 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 4 = 1 s ⁢ ⁢ 5 = 0 e ⁢ ⁢ 1 = 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 6 = 1 s ⁢ ⁢ 7 = 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 8 = 0 e ⁢ ⁢ 2 = 0 Matrix ⁢ ⁢ 1 For implementation, a set of nine s-bits, s 0 -s 8 , and three e-bits, e 0 -e 2 , can be stored in a single 12-bit control register whose outputs are logically combined with the address lines according to equation (2). In another example, to shift a block of data as shown in FIG. 2C , the {s, e} bit matrix would be as shown in {s, e} Matrix 2 below: 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 Matrix ⁢ ⁢ 2 By using an {s, e} matrix of parameters, general and larger register files can be easily accommodated. For example, a 32 entry register file, such as register file 110 , would utilize five address lines A 0 -A 4 for each read and write port and would further require a 5×6 translation {s, e} matrix for each address translator, such as address translators 139 , 153 and 151 of FIG. 1 . Each translation {s, e} matrix requires 25-bits of storage for the 5×5 s-bits and 5 bits of storage for the 5 e-bits thereby requiring a 30-bit control register containing the s and e bits. In general, translation parameters are k by k s-bits and k e-bits for a k-bit address as shown in equation (3). ( A ⁢ ⁢ 0 ′ A ⁢ ⁢ 1 ′ ⋮ A ⁡ ( k - 1 ) ′ ) = ( s ⁢ ⁢ 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 1 … s ⁡ ( k - 1 ) e ⁢ ⁢ 0 sk s ⁡ ( k + 1 ) … s ⁡ ( 2 ⁢ ⁢ k - 1 ) e ⁢ ⁢ 1 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ s ⁡ ( k - 1 ) ⁢ k s ⁡ ( k - 1 ) ⁢ k + 1 … s ⁡ ( k - 1 ) ⁢ ( k + 1 ) e ⁡ ( k - 1 ) ) × ( A ⁢ ⁢ 0 A ⁢ ⁢ 1 ⋮ A ⁡ ( k - 1 ) 1 ) ( 3 ) A selection field in the instruction, such as the 2-bit Tsel field 305 , can specify one of a number of {s, e} bit control registers previously loaded with translation pattern bits. Vector operations are typically specified by a single instruction that initiates a series of operations on a set of data, such as the block load example discussed previously which can be considered a form of vector operation. A different mechanism may be utilized to obtain vector operations that are operable in conjunction with indirect very long instruction word (iVLIW) operations. For example, the approach described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,446,190, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, utilizes an indirect method of specifying the vector operations termed register file indexing (RFI). In the RFI approach, operands are accessed from a register file with a linear sequential programmable stride incrementing mechanism. This approach may be adapted to the present invention as illustrated in FIG. 4 . FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary register file indexing (RFI) VLIW processor 400 with address translation functions in each VLIW execution slot and further illustrating an exemplary four stage pipeline 402 . The four stage pipeline 402 , includes fetch stage 404 , predecode stage 408 , decode stage 412 , and execute stage 416 . Note that other pipelines are not precluded, such as the dynamic reconfigurable pipeline of the ManArray processor which for VLIW processing used a five or six stage pipeline including a fetch stage, predecode stage, decode stage, a single cycle execute stage or a two cycle execute stage, and a condition return stage. During fetch stage 404 , the program flow and pipeline controller (PFC) 420 initiates an instruction fetch cycle using an address from the program counter (PCntr) circuit 422 . The generated instruction address is supplied to a short instruction word (SIW) program memory (SIM) 424 and a SIW is read which is supplied to instruction memory bus 426 to the instruction register 1 (IR 1 ) 428 . At the end of the fetch cycle 404 a new instruction has been loaded into the IR 1 428 . In the predecode stage for VLIW accesses, the instruction in IR 1 428 , for example being an execute VLIW (XV) instruction, causes VLIW memory (VIM) controller (VMC) 430 to generate a VIM 432 address and read a VLIW supplied to VLIW bus 434 for loading into a VLIW instruction register (VIR) 436 . The VIR 436 consists of, for example, five instruction slot registers for a store, load, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), multiply accumulate unit (MAU), and data select unit (DSU) instructions. At the end of the predecode cycle for VLIW access, a new VLIW has been loaded into the VIR 436 . RFI enable is deter mined if the XV instruction encoding specifies RFI and also if subsequent RFI enabled XV instructions access the same Vim 432 address. During the decode stage for VLIW accesses, the VLIW from the VIR 436 is selected by the multiplexers 440 to five instruction decode units 444 where each instruction of the VLIW is decoded. The operand addresses for each of the five instructions are processed by a VLIW RFI and Translator subsystem 446 which processes each instruction slot individually in slot specific RFI and Translator subsystems which are more fully described in the discussion of FIGS. 5 and 6 below. The decoded instructions and modified operand addresses are then stored in five decode registers 448 by the end of the decode stage. In the execute stage for VLIW accesses, the decoded and enabled instructions are executed in five execute units 452 . Execute store unit 454 reads a specified register from the register file 456 and stores it into a local data memory 460 . Execute load unit 464 reads a memory location from the local data memory 460 and loads it into register file 456 . Execute ALU 468 reads up to two operands from register file 456 , operates on the two operands, and produces a result that is stored in register file 456 . Execute MAU 472 reads up to three operands from register file 456 , operates on the three operands, and produces a result that is stored in register file 456 . Execute DSU 476 reads up to two operands from register file 456 , operates on the two operands, and produces a result that is stored in register file 456 . At the end of the execute stage up to five execution operations have been completed. FIG. 5 shows an ALU subsystem 500 of the RFI VLIW processor 400 of FIG. 4 with address translation functions in each operand address. The ALU subsystem 500 includes an ALU execution unit 502 , such as Execute ALU 468 that is part of a larger multiple execution unit VLIW processor system. In FIG. 5 , each operand address 504 , 506 and 508 is received in a corresponding RFI and translator unit 514 , 516 and 518 , respectively. The RFI and translator units 514 , 516 and 518 also receive update control information 524 , 526 and 528 from an ALU decode, RFI, and translator control unit 530 . The RFI and translator units 514 , 516 , and 518 outputs are stored in port address registers 519 at the end of the decode pipeline stage, such as decode stage 412 . The ALU decode, RFI and translator control unit 530 responds to an RFI enable signal 532 generated in a VMC, such as VMC 430 , in response to received execute VLIW (XV) instructions containing RFI control information. The XV instruction initiates an RFI VLIW execution by reading a VLIW from VIM 432 . The VLIW includes an ALU instruction, received on VLIW ALU slot instruction bus 533 , part of VLIW bus 434 , and the ALU instruction is stored in ALU slot IR 534 , part of the VTR 436 . For illustrative purposes, the unit 530 includes internal RFT parameter and translator control registers. The registers are programmed to initialize the system for RFI operation, translator operation, or both. It is appreciated that the RFI and translator parameter control registers may be part of a general processor control register file located elsewhere in the processor. Independent of the location of the control registers, the parameter control bits are used in the RFI and translator units, 514 , 516 , and 518 . A vector RFI operation uses the instruction operand addresses 504 , 506 and 508 supplied by the instruction in slot IR 534 for the first access of operands from a block of operands in register file 536 through address ports 544 , 546 and 548 . The RFI addresses may be translated depending upon the slot instruction received. To further explain such RFI operation and RFi with address translation, a more detailed view of RFI update logic for the Rt register file address including address translator of a DSU subsystem is shown in FIG. 6 and more fully described below. The exemplary pipeline 402 is used to present the basic flow of vector RFI operations. It is noted that this choice of pipeline does not preclude the use of other pipelines, such as deeper pipelines for higher clock performance, and the like which can be adapted for providing address translation operations in accordance with the present invention. The pipeline 402 begins with a fetch of an XV instruction from SIM 424 and loaded into IR 1 428 . During the predecode stage 408 the operation of the XV instruction and RFI operation is determined, a VLIW is fetched from the VIM 432 , and each instruction from the VLIW is loaded into its own instruction register, such as DSU slot IR 602 , associated with its execution unit, such as execution unit 604 . During the decode stage 412 , each instruction in the VLIW is decoded. In the case of RFI operations, the operand address is updated via an RFI update unit 610 to prepare the next operand address that will be required for a RFI operation on a block of data. An update process, as described in greater detail in U.S. Pat. No. 6,446,190, utilizes a linear sequential addressing of data, with stride address incrementing available as an option. The operand addresses with no translation for the first register file access of the starting operands for the block of data are passed directly through from the slot instruction register 602 operand address fields, such as Rt( 5 ) field 614 , through multiplexer 616 through Rt address translator 634 to a port address register 618 which latches the address at the end of the decode cycle. When the next XV instruction is received with RFI enabled to access the same VIM 432 location as the previous XV accessed, the next operand address to be processed in the block of data has already been prepared during the previous XV RFI instruction's decode cycle and stored in a look ahead register, such as look ahead register 620 . For this next XV instruction, the operand address is selected from the look ahead register 620 via multiplexer 616 , through Rt address translator 634 without translation and latched in the port address register 618 at the end of the decode cycle. The operand address 624 is available during the execute cycle to access the operands from the register file 626 . A miscellaneous register file (MRF) data bus 646 provides access to a set of registers that store the RFI and translator parameters as well as other processor control and status bits. It is also desirable to provide a general addressing mechanism where the operands in a block of data may not be in a sequential order. One option for providing this capability is through the use of an address translator, such as described above with respect to equation (1), which can advantageously provide a discrete logic approach to general vector or RFI addressing, where the addressing sequence is non sequential, such as bit reverse addressing, permutation addressing, and other addressing patterns, for example. To this end, in FIG. 6 , address translator 634 is placed in output path 630 of multiplexer 616 . The Rt address translator 634 output 636 is connected to a port address register 618 whose output connects to the Rt address port 624 of register file 626 . This subsystem 600 uses an RFI update unit 610 to create a linear sequential stream of addresses using programmed stride increment values. This sequential stream of addresses provided through multiplexer 616 on output bus 630 , applied to the Rt address translator 634 for each translation type instruction, is translated to a desired address sequence and output on translator bus 636 . An instruction, such as the instruction stored in DSU slot IR 602 may contain a Tsel bit field 642 which is used to select a specific set of {s, e} bits that are provided on RFI and translator parameter bus 644 from the MRF data bus 646 where the RFI and translator parameters are accessed, in this example. With multiple pattern select control provided by the {s, e} bits, different addressing patterns may be chosen. A two processing element (PE) subsystem 700 from a ManArray 2×2 indirect very long instruction word (iVLIW) processor incorporating RFI and address translators in register file operand address paths is shown in FIG. 7A . In SIMD fashion, it is desired to transfer between the two PEs, PE 0 702 and PE 2 704 , two blocks of data stored in the PEs′ register files 714 and 716 . Both data blocks are stored in a sequential pattern in the register files of the PEs, but it is desired to send the blocks between the two PEs and place all even addresses in one block and all odd addresses in a different block according to the pattern shown in Table 765 of FIG. 7B , for a block size of 16 locations. A first block of data, addressed as shown in table 770 , is stored in sequential addresses 00000 to 01111 in PE 0 702 and this data is to be sent to PE 2 704 with the target being two blocks of data, with the even addresses of the first PE 0 block stored in PE 2 locations 00000 to 00111 and the odd addresses of the first PE 0 block stored in PE 2 locations 01000 to 01111, as shown in table 775 . The same transfer is to occur in the reverse direction between PE 2 704 and PE 0 702 at the same time. The address transformation equations for the five-bit Rt address RtA 0 -RtA 4 , based on using equation (3) with k=5, are shown in equation (4): RtA0′=s0RtA0⊕s1RtA1⊕s2RtA2⊕s3RtA3⊕s4RtA4⊕e0 RtA1′=s5RtA0⊕s6RtA1⊕s7RtA2⊕s8RtA3⊕s9RtA4⊕e1 RtA2′=s10RtA0⊕s11RtA1⊕s12RtA2⊕s13RtA3⊕s14RtA4⊕e2 RtA3′=s15RtA0⊕s16RtA1⊕s17RtA2⊕s18RtA3⊕s19RtA4⊕e3 RtA4′=s20RtA0⊕s21RtA1⊕s22RtA2⊕s23RtA3⊕s24RtA4⊕e4  (4) The {s, e} bits required to obtain the Table 1 765 transformation are shown in Matrix 3: ( s ⁢ ⁢ 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 1 s ⁢ ⁢ 2 s ⁢ ⁢ 3 s ⁢ ⁢ 4 e ⁢ ⁢ 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 5 s ⁢ ⁢ 6 s ⁢ ⁢ 7 s ⁢ ⁢ 8 s ⁢ ⁢ 9 e ⁢ ⁢ 1 s ⁢ ⁢ 10 s ⁢ ⁢ 11 s ⁢ ⁢ 12 s ⁢ ⁢ 13 s ⁢ ⁢ 14 e ⁢ ⁢ 2 s ⁢ ⁢ 15 s ⁢ ⁢ 16 s ⁢ ⁢ 17 s ⁢ ⁢ 18 s ⁢ ⁢ 19 e ⁢ ⁢ 3 s ⁢ ⁢ 20 s ⁢ ⁢ 21 s ⁢ ⁢ 22 s ⁢ ⁢ 23 s ⁢ ⁢ 24 e ⁢ ⁢ 4 ) = ( 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ) Matrix ⁢ ⁢ 3 The {s, e} bits are loaded into parameter registers that control the address transformation within the Rt address RFI and translator and units 740 and 742 . The Rt address RFI and translator and units 740 and 742 connect to the Rt port address registers 744 and 746 respectively, such as port address register 618 of FIG. 6 . The {s, e} parameter bits may be stored in registers located with the RFI parameter registers, such as in the MRF. If path delay is of concern, it is noted that equation (4) can be simplified using standard techniques which is not covered here since equivalent equations and their implementation can be generated using various types of logic gates and this may vary depending upon the processor cycle time and process technology chosen. Referring to FIG. 7A , the block move with address translation operation begins with an RFI enabled XV which causes PE exchange (PEXCHG) instructions to be fetched from the local PEs′ VIM over local instruction buses 710 and 712 and then latched in slot IR 706 and slot IR 708 . The Rx operands of the instructions are not translated, and standard sequential addressing is used to read the data operands in each PE. With each RFI XV for this block move operation, each data operand is sequentially read from register files 714 and 716 over the Rx read output ports 718 and 720 to the DSUs 722 and 724 , respectively. The DSUs 722 and 724 make the data available on the data paths 726 and 728 , respectively, to a cluster switch 730 . Each PE controls its portion of the cluster switch so that PE 0 's output path 726 is connected via the cluster switch multiplexers to PE 2 DSU input path 732 , and PE 2 's output path 728 is connected via the cluster switch multiplexers to PE 0 's DSU input path 734 . The DSUs connect via internal multiplexers the cluster switch input paths to the Rt output paths 736 and 738 . The Rt addressing for the data transferred is generated by the Rt address translators 740 and 742 which transform the sequential addresses output from a multiplexer associated with an RFI update unit, such as multiplexer 616 and RFI update unit 610 of FIG. 6 , according to the {s, e} bits of Matrix 3. This block move operation continues with each RFI enabled XV received until all 16 data elements are moved. Another aspect of the present invention, is achieved by including the address translator in the register file or memory unit thereby creating a storage unit a programmer would view as a pool of register or memory locations that can be manipulated by operations on storage unit addresses. Consider an exemplary storage subsystem 800 of FIG. 8A , illustrating aspects of a read port, which operates differently than the storage subsystem 238 shown in FIG. 2D . In FIG. 8A , if the storage unit 810 is used as a register file for example, the address translation {s, e} bits would be considered architectural state information of the storage subsystem and the address translation is considered to be operative for each instructions accessed, as indicated by the {s, e} bits. In FIG. 2D subsystem 230 , the address translation occurs only in operation for instructions that specify the address translation function. Other instructions, which don't specify an address translation function, use the register file or memory unit normally as sequentially addressed storage. In the storage subsystem 800 of FIG. 8A , all address inputs 815 are translated according to the translation settings 820 that govern how the addresses access data from the storage device 835 . It is noted that port address latches may be included internal to the storage unit 810 at the outputs of the address translators or external depending upon application. The storage subsystem 800 includes a storage unit 810 , showing only a read port path, with address inputs 815 , a load translation parameter input 820 and read port output Rx 825 . Timing and control signals are not shown, as they may vary depending upon the technology chosen for implementation and system design choices. Internal to the storage unit 810 are two basic units, the address translator 830 and a storage device 835 . The address translator 830 applies {s, e} bit state information to translate the address input for any access to the storage device 835 . It is noted that the {s, e} bit state information could be stored external to the storage subsystem 800 with separate signal lines provided to the storage subsystem from an external register without changing the operational characteristics of the storage subsystem. The {s, e} bit state information, whether locally maintained in an internal register or externally maintained in a separate register, is considered part of the storage subsystem. The translation function operates as previously described using the examples shown in equation (2) and equation (4), depending upon the number of address lines to be translated. The storage device 835 includes an address to location select device, such as a 1 of 8 selector 840 , and a storage array 845 containing the data. It is noted that a write port to the storage array would contain a similar address translator and require the same or a corresponding set of {s, e} bit translation parameter state information. The read port was used in FIG. 8A to focus on address translation functions and apparatus that could similarly be required on any read or write port to the storage subsystem. FIG. 8B illustrates a 2 port storage subsystem 850 in which a storage unit 855 comprises two address translator function units 860 and 865 , a transform parameter control unit 870 for holding the {s, e} bit state information, and a storage array 875 . A write data port 880 supplies data to be written at the specified translated address in the storage array 875 and a read data port 885 reads data from the specified translated address in the storage array 875 . The address translation function units 860 and 865 are merged with the location selection logic, such as the 1 of 8 selector 840 of FIG. 8A , providing an optimization of an implementation. It is further noted that the location selection logic could use Gray encoding or other suitable encoding of the address lines rather than using a sequential binary ordering as shown in FIG. 8B . This encoding choice is dependent upon optimization and functional requirements. Referring to the address translation function of moving a block of data described earlier and illustrated in FIGS. 2A-2D , in using the address translating memory, the operation of moving the data is emulated by the loading of the appropriate {s, e} bits that affect the address translators' operations. For the block move operation, the data does not move in the storage device as only the addressing mechanism is changed. To accomplish the swapping of four 32-bit registers in a processor without a swap instruction, would require reading the first block of four registers and storing them in a temporary set of four registers followed by the reading of the second set of four registers and storing them into the first set of four registers' location then reading the four temporary registers and storing them into the second set of registers' location. A total of twelve 32-bit read operations and twelve 32-bit write operations would be required and would take at least 12-cycles to accomplish. On a bit basis, 12×32, or 384 bits, would have to be read and 384 bits would have to be written to accomplish this operation. Using the techniques of the present invention, the whole operation can be accomplished in a single cycle and with no movement of the data, and only requiring the loading of 9 s-bits and 3 e-bits as per equation (2), thus demonstrating the effectiveness of the present techniques for low power and high performance. A storage device in accordance with the present invention may have a new input, the load translation parameter signals, as compared to existing storage devices such as register files and memories. In addition to data stored in the storage array, the address translation control registers are considered additional state that, for example, must be saved and restored on context switches. FIG. 9 illustrates a two port memory unit 900 including a write data port 910 and a read data port 915 , which may be 1, 4, 8, 9, 16, 32, 64, 128 or other bit width. A write port address 920 and a read port address 925 are each k lines for 2 k data memory 930 capacity. A load translation parameters input 935 is used to load k×k+k {s, e} bit translation state information. For example, with a k=10, 2 10 =1024 data locations of 64 bit data, and a load translation parameter input path width of 64 bits to the address translator 940 , it would require two load cycles to load the 110 {s, e} bits for each address port. A number of variations to reduce the setup loading overhead can be considered such as using common {s, e} bit state information for write and read pairs of ports, having separate e bit load cycles if the e bits do not change between translation patterns, minimizing the number of {s, e} bits when a limited selected set of transformations are used, and the like. As an example, consider a system that needs to support a transpose operation which is used in various algorithms such as the 2 dimension discrete cosine transform (2D-DCT) and requires other data reorganization steps, such as bit-reversed addressing for FFT algorithms. For this system, a memory 900 shown in FIG. 9 can be used with a capacity, for the purposes of this example, of 32 data locations of a data width required by the application, k=5 and a 32-bit load translation parameters data path 935 is used. The write port data 910 and read port data 915 are of a data width required by the application. For purposes of explanation, assume that a transpose of a 4×4 matrix of 16 data elements is required. The 4×4 data matrix as shown in data Matrix 4 1004 is stored in 16 sequential locations as shown in Table 1008 of FIG. 10A . Specifically, the 4×4 data matrix 4 1004 is sequentially loaded through a write port 910 of FIG. 9 with a write address translation, part of translator 940 , configured for sequential addressing, obtaining the sequential addressing order for the data as shown in Table 1008 . For this example, the algorithm requires a transpose operation to be performed on the data matrix such that after the transpose operation the data resides in a 4×4 logical order as shown in data Matrix 5 1024 and in memory as shown in Table 1028 of FIG. 10B . To accomplish the transpose operation without data movement, or reading and writing the data in the data memory 930 , the read port Rx {s, e} bit address transformation parameters as shown in {s, e} Matrix 6 below are loaded in a 30-bit parameter control register, part of translator 940 , and equation (4) is used with {s, e} Matrix 6 for the transpose operation. When data is read, the data will follow the output pattern of Table 1028 , which is in transpose order from the order as originally stored. This same memory unit can then be reconfigured by loading new {s, e} bit translation parameters to support, for example, bit-reverse addressing as well as other specified data patterns. ( s ⁢ ⁢ 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 1 s ⁢ ⁢ 2 s ⁢ ⁢ 3 s ⁢ ⁢ 4 e ⁢ ⁢ 0 s ⁢ ⁢ 5 s ⁢ ⁢ 6 s ⁢ ⁢ 7 s ⁢ ⁢ 8 s ⁢ ⁢ 9 e ⁢ ⁢ 1 s ⁢ ⁢ 10 s ⁢ ⁢ 11 s ⁢ ⁢ 12 s ⁢ ⁢ 13 s ⁢ ⁢ 14 e ⁢ ⁢ 2 s ⁢ ⁢ 15 s ⁢ ⁢ 16 s ⁢ ⁢ 17 s ⁢ ⁢ 18 s ⁢ ⁢ 19 e ⁢ ⁢ 3 s ⁢ ⁢ 20 s ⁢ ⁢ 21 s ⁢ ⁢ 22 s ⁢ ⁢ 23 s ⁢ ⁢ 24 e ⁢ ⁢ 4 ) = ( 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ) Matrix ⁢ ⁢ 6 While the present invention has been described in the context of a number of presently preferred embodiments, it will be recognized that the teachings of the present invention may be advantageously applied to a variety of processing systems, such as low power and high performances systems, and variously adopted consistent with the claims which follow.

Techniques are described for efficient reordering of data and performing data exchanges within a register file or memory, or in general, any device storing data that is accessible through a set of addressable locations. An address translator is placed in the path of all or a selected set of address busses to a storage device to provide a programmable and selectable means of translating the storage device addresses. An effect of this translation is that the data stored in one pattern may be accessed and stored in another pattern or accessed, processed and stored in another pattern. The address translation operation may be carried out in a single cycle, does not involve the physical movement of data in swap operations, allows data to effectively be ordered more efficiently for algorithmic processing and therefore saves power.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENTS AND APPLICATIONS [0001] U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/______, filed May 27, 2008, entitled “METHOD, APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS TO RETRIEVE GCRS FROM HISTORICAL DATABASE,” by Mestha et al.; [0002] U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/______, filed May 27, 2008, entitled “PRINTER PROFILING METHOD, APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS FOR DETERMINING DEVICE AND GAIN MATRIX VALUES,” by Maltz et al.; [0003] U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/______, filed May 27, 2008, entitled “METHODS, APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS FOR BLENDING MULTIPLE GCRS,” by Wang et al.; and [0004] U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/017,746, filed Jan. 22, 2008, entitled “METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR OPTIMUM BLACK COMPONENT DETERMINATION FOR GRAY COMPONENT REPLACEMENT” by Mestha et al. are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND [0005] In image production systems that produce images on a recording medium, such as printers, photocopiers, facsimile machines and other xerographic devices, it is desired to control, as closely as possible, the actual perceived color of the output images. One known method to optimize image color output is to provide a look-up-table (LUT) that translates received color signals into optimized color signals for printing, for example, on a printer. [0006] It is known, for example, that in three-color spaces, such as a Cyan-Magenta-Yellow (CMY) color space, gray color is made up of equal, or near-equal amounts of each one of the colors of the three-color space. Each color in a three-color space which is made up of non-negligible amounts of all three primary colors of the color space can be viewed as having a gray component. Expanding the three-color space to include Black (K) allows then, for most colors in the color space, for a black (K) component to be added in substitution for the gray component. In such a solution, a three-input, four-output LUT is needed. [0007] Adding black (K) as a fourth color in this manner usually saves cost, as black (K) ink is usually cheaper than colored ink, and allows more colors to be produced than were achievable with the original three primary colors. Controlled amount of black addition is considered useful for high quality printing. Having black gives better stability to prints in the presence of print variables (relative humidity, temperature, material latitude etc.,). Increased gamut for dark colors, as in DC8000, is also achieved with the addition of black toner. One major disadvantage in adding black is the excessive black in flesh tones, sky tones and other important tone scales can make these tone scales appear dirty/grainy or non-uniform with black toner. However, some key colors (e.g., flesh tones and sky tones) are sensitive to the addition of black and may not be perceived as optimal if too much black is added. The replacement of the inherent gray component of colors in a three-color space with a fourth, black (K) component is called gray component replacement (GCR) or under color removal (UCR). UCR is usually used when colors are near the neutral axis, such as, for example, the L* axis in L*a*b* space or the C=M=Y axis in CMY color space, GCR is similar to UCR, but can be used with colors throughout the color gamut, not just near or at neutral axes. The use of GCR and UCR is known to facilitate the production of pleasing color outputs, optimal gamut, and to improve constraints on area coverage. [0008] Traditionally, determination of the black (K) component in a target color system was done in an ad hoc way by experienced practitioners. This method has the disadvantages of requiring experienced personnel, being generally irreproducible, being costly, and being time-consuming. [0009] Another method used to transform colors in a three-dimensional color space, such as CMY color space, to a four-color color space, such as CMYK color space, is to determine the black (K) component by a one dimensional function that relates the black (K) component as a one-dimensional function of the other components. In the CMY color space, for example, the function K=min (C, M, Y) can be used. This method has the disadvantages of not producing sufficiently optimized colors for the entire color gamut, especially for specialized, or key, colors such as, for example, skin tones. [0010] In another method, a flexible method for estimating the black (K) component comprises (1) determining a maximum black (K) component, (2) adjusting the black (K) component amounts based on chroma, and (3) determining the other color components. In examples of this method, disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,502,579 to Kita et al, (Kita '529) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,636,290 to Kita et al. (Kita '290), input image signals are transformed by a four-input-three output controller to L*a*b* color space. The disclosure of each of Kita '529 and Kita '290 is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. A chroma determining means determines chroma signal C* from a* and b*. A UCR ratio calculation means calculates a UCR ratio a from the chroma signal C*. The L*a*b* and UCR ratio are then converted into the CMYK output. This method also has the disadvantages of not producing sufficiently optimized colors for the entire color gamut. [0011] In another method, disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,744,531 to Mestha et al. (Mestha), incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, consistent output across multiple devices is obtained. For a given device, received device independent image data are stored as target image data and also converted by a data adjustment subsystem to printable image data based on the color space of the device. The printable image data is printed. An image sensor senses the printed image data and outputs detected device independent image data to the data adjustment subsystem. The data adjusting subsystem compares the detected device independent image data with the stored target image data and, based on the comparison, determines adjustment factors that are used to conform the printable image data output by the data adjusting subsystem to colors mandated by the device independent image data. [0012] In R. Bala, “Device Characterization”, Chapter 5, Digital Color Imaging Handbook, Gaurav Sharma Ed., CRC Press, 2003, several methods for determining the black (K) component are reviewed. One method is black addition in which the black (K) component is calculated as a function of a scaled inverse of L*. In another method, the black (K) component is calculated as a function of the minimum value of the other color components, such as C, M, and Y for the CMY color space. In a third method, a three input-four output transform, subject to imposed constraints, is used to calculate the black (K) component. The constraints placed on the transform include requiring the sum of the color component values at a node to be less than a threshold. For example, in CMYK color space, C+M+Y+K would be constrained to be less than a threshold. A second constraint is to constrain K to be a subset of the range between the minimum and maximum allowed K values. [0013] Another method is discussed in (1) R. Balasubramanian, R. Eschbach, “Design of UCR and GCR strategies to reduce moire in color printing”, IS&TPICS Conference, pp. 390-393 (1999) and (2) R. Balasubramanian, R. Eschbach, “Reducing multi-separation color moire via a variable undercolor removal and gray-component replacement strategy”, Journ. Imaging Science & Technology, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 152-160, March/April, 2001. A UCR/GCR strategy is proposed that is optimized to reduce moire. In this method, the UCR/GCR strategy is to characterize moire as a function of the color components and to select optimized output color components when the moire function is minimized. [0014] It is desirable for high quality color printed images to not contain separation noise. Originally smooth images may not result in the same smoothness when printed due to non-uniqueness in the choice of CMYK separations since nodes that are in the neighborhood in the L*a*b* color space could be rendered using CMYK recipes that are far apart from each other. This can lead to formulation jumps. This problem is further intensified when the printer has nonlinearities that offer the possibility to reproduce a specific color (i.e., L*a*b*) with several CMYK recipes. In this disclosure are provided methods/apparatus/systems to derive an L*a*b* to CMYK LUT such that the transition between every neighborhood node in the LUT is smooth in the L*a*b* space as well as the CMYK space. INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE [0015] U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/959,824, filed Dec. 19, 2007, entitled “METHOD FOR CLASSIFYING A PRINTER GAMUT INTO SUBGAMUTS FOR IMPROVED SPOT COLOR ACCURACY,” by Mestha et al. is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. BRIEF DESCRIPTION [0016] In one aspect of this disclosure, a method of generating a multidimensional printer profile for a color printer is disclosed. The method comprises a) receiving a plurality of target colors associated with a device independent color space, each target color associated with a respective node of a device independent space; b) selecting a first group of the nodes to represent a recruiter set of nodes including a plurality of recruiter nodes; c) selecting a second group of the nodes to represent a candidate set of nodes, the candidate set of nodes including a plurality of candidate nodes, the candidate set not including any recruiter nodes; d) determining the nearest candidate node to each recruiter node; e) calculating the device dependent color space representation of the recruiter nodes; f) calculating the device dependent color space representation of the nearest candidate nodes to each respective recruiter node as a function of the device dependent color space representation of the respective recruiter node; and g) generating the multidimensional printer profile by associating the recruiter set of nodes with their respective device dependent color space representations and associating the candidate nodes with their respective device dependent color space representations. [0017] In another aspect of this disclosure, a printing apparatus controller is disclosed which comprises a computer-usable data carrier storing instructions that, when executed by the controller, cause the controller to perform a method for generating a multidimensional printer profile for a color printer, the method comprising a) receiving a plurality of target colors associated with a device independent color space, each target color associated with a respective node of a device independent space; b) selecting a first group of the nodes to represent a recruiter set of nodes including a plurality of recruiter nodes; c) selecting a second group of the nodes to represent a candidate set of nodes, the candidate set of nodes including a plurality of candidate nodes, the candidate set not including any recruiter nodes; d) determining the nearest candidate node to each recruiter node; e) calculating the device dependent color space representation of the recruiter nodes; f) calculating the device dependent color space representation of the nearest candidate nodes to each respective recruiter node as a function of the device dependent color space representation of the respective recruiter node; and g) generating the multidimensional printer profile by associating the recruiter set of nodes with their respective device dependent color space representations and associating the candidate nodes with their respective device dependent color space representations. [0018] In still another aspect of this disclosure, a printing system is disclosed which comprises a color printing device configured to receive data representative of a color image to be marked on a media substrate; and a controller operatively connected to the color printing device, the controller configured to access a multidimensional printer profile LUT associating a plurality of colorimetric nodes with respective printing device dependent color space data representations, the printing device dependent color space data representations generated by the method comprising a) receiving a plurality of target colors associated with a device independent color space, each target color associated with a respective node of a device independent space; b) selecting a first group of the nodes to represent a recruiter set of nodes including a plurality of recruiter nodes; c) selecting a second group of the nodes to represent a candidate set of nodes, the candidate set of nodes including a plurality of candidate nodes, the candidate set not including any recruiter nodes; d) determining the nearest candidate node to each recruiter node; e) calculating the device dependent color space representation of the recruiter nodes; f) calculating the device dependent color space representation of the nearest candidate nodes to each respective recruiter node as a function of the device dependent color space representation of the respective recruiter node; and g) generating the multidimensional printer profile by associating the recruiter set of nodes with their respective device dependent color space representations and associating the candidate nodes with their respective device dependent color space representations wherein the controller accesses the printer profile LUT to provide printing device dependent color space data representations to the color printing device for marking on the media substrate. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0019] FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a gamut mapping and printer system according to an exemplary embodiment of this disclosure. [0020] FIG. 2 illustrates a recruiting set of nodes according to an exemplary embodiment of this disclosure. [0021] FIG. 3 illustrates a recruiting set of nodes and corresponding candidate set of nodes according to an exemplary embodiment of this disclosure. [0022] FIG. 4 illustrates a method of node selection according to an exemplary embodiment of this disclosure. [0023] FIG. 5 illustrates the cooperation between recruiting and candidate nodes according to one aspect of this disclosure. [0024] FIG. 6 illustrates a former candidate node selected as a new recruiting node according to one aspect of this disclosure. [0025] FIG. 7 illustrates a state-feedback control system to generate CMYK recipes in cooperative neighbor mode according to an exemplary embodiment of this disclosure. [0026] FIG. 8 illustrates sensitivity plots for cyan levels according to one aspect of this disclosure. [0027] FIG. 9 illustrates sensitivity plots for magenta levels according to one aspect of this disclosure. [0028] FIG. 10 illustrates sensitivity plots for yellow levels according to one aspect of this disclosure. [0029] FIG. 11 illustrates sensitivity plots for black levels according to one aspect of this disclosure. [0030] FIG. 12 illustrates sensitivity plots for cyan levels according to one aspect of this disclosure. [0031] FIG. 13 illustrates sensitivity plots for magenta levels according to one aspect of this disclosure. [0032] FIG. 14 illustrates sensitivity plots for yellow levels according to one aspect of this disclosure. [0033] FIG. 15 illustrates sensitivity plots for black levels according to one aspect of this disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0034] Printer profiles are used to find the device values needed to make a specified color, and are generally three dimensional colorimetric to device look up tables (LUTs). The embodiments discussed therein use an L*a*b* to a CMYK device space, though other color spaces could be used, for example RGB, CIE Lab, etc. These tables are generally of the order of 33×33×33 levels or smaller, so interpolation is used for finding the device values for input colors not on the nodes. These tables will be used for processing images with tens of millions of pixels, so the interpolation method should be simple and fast. Consequently, the nodes are on a rectangular grid to make it easy to find a sub-cube that contains the desired color, and some variation of linear interpolation between the device values at the corners of this sub-cube is used to find the device values for the desired color. [0035] For the purpose of color correction using 3-dimensional lookup tables, a GCR strategy is derived. In basic terms as discussed in the background section, a GCR strategy involves suitably combining CMYK to provide pleasing color output, optimal gamut, constraints on area coverage, etc. See R. Bala, “Device characterization,” Chapter 5, Digital Color Imaging Handbook, Gaurav Sharma Ed., CRC Press, 2003; R. Balasubramanian, R. Eschbach, “Design of UCR and GCR strategies to reduce moire in color printing,” IS & T PICS Conference, pp. 390-393, (1999); and R. Balasubramanian, R. Eschbach, “Reducing multi-separation color moire via a variable undercolor removal and gray-component replacement strategy,” Journ. Imaging Science & Technology, Volume 45, No. 2, pp. 152-160, March/April 2001. Components of profile LUTs are described in S. Dianat, L K Mestha, A. Mathew, “Dynamic Optimization Algorithm for Generating Inverse Printer Maps with Reduced Measurements,” IEEE Int. Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, May 14-19, 2006, Toulouse, France. Inverse printer model P −1 is a mapping from uniformly/non-uniformly sampled device independent color space L*a*b* to device dependent color space. This is defined mathematically as P −1 : L*a*b*→CMYK. Out of gamut L*a*b* values are mapped to the boundary points of the printer's gamut using an appropriate gamut-mapping algorithm. [0036] It is desirable for high quality color printed images to not contain separation noise. Original smooth images may not result in the same smoothness when printed due to non-uniqueness in the choice of CMYK separations since nodes that are in the neighborhood in the L*a*b* color space could be rendered using CMYK recipes that are far apart from each other. This can lead to formulation jumps. This problem is further intensified when the printer has nonlinearities that offer the possibility to reproduce a specific color (i.e., L*a*b*) with several CMYK recipes. In this disclosure, we provide a method to derive an L*a*b* to CMYK LUT such that the transition between every neighborhood node in the LUT is smooth in the L*a*b* space as well as the CMYK space. The smoothness is preserved by using a neighbor detection algorithm in L*a*b* space. Neighboring pairs cooperate mutually by exchanging information in order to guarantee a smooth transition between them in the CMYK space. [0037] The creation of a L*a*b* to CMYK LUT can be performed via two different methods: (1) a LUT built on-line without previous smoothness, which creates a smooth LUT without any previous knowledge on all areas of the printer's gamut and (2) a LUT built on-line with previous smoothness, which contains a high resolution L*a*b* to CMYK table where smoothness has been previously applied to several areas of the printer's gamut. The details of both approaches is provided below. [0038] With reference to FIG. 1 , illustrated is a block diagram outlining a Lab to image output process according to an exemplary embodiment of this disclosure. [0039] The system includes a Lab input, a gamut mapping process 2 , an inverse printer model or inverse printer 4 to generate mapped Lab to CMYK and a printer model or printer which generates a Lab output. Error/accuracy is determined based on the difference between the Lab input and Lab output. [0040] The disclosed embodiments rely on the fact that if the CMYK A values of a particular node A is known, then it is possible to estimate the “closest” CMYK B values of the “closest” node B, with respect to node A, in terms of distance metrics in the L*a*b* space (e.g., deltaE2000 or deltaE CIE). This fact is very important for nonlinear printers that have the peculiarity of producing the same L*a*b* value by means of multiple CMYK values. When the multiple CMYK solution is present at the moment of deciding a CMYK recipe for a particular node, then the disclosed embodiments offer the possibility of selecting one CMYK out of the multiple solutions, which is in turn close to the CMYK recipe of a neighboring node. [0041] In order to create smooth LUTs, we define two groups that contain sets of L*a*b* values. The first group is called the “recruiting set” that contains one or more L*a*b* values with their respective CMYK values. The second group is called the “candidate set” that contains the in-gamut L*a*b* in the LUT. The goal of the recruiting set is to determine potential nodes from the candidate set that could become part of the recruiting set. The goal of the candidate set is to market themselves before the recruiting set in order to be recruited. [0042] First, an LUT without previous smoothness will be described. According to one exemplary embodiment of this disclosure, this can be implemented by applying the following steps: [0043] 1. Define a recruiting set R={1,2, . . . ,N} that contains N>=1 L*a*b* nodes. The location of these nodes in the L*a*b* space can be decided by the designer. One option is to allocate one or more nodes along the neutral axis. Other options could also be nodes along the brown axis; nodes on the boundary; nodes located in skin regions; etc. With reference to FIG. 2 , a set of recruiting nodes 10 , 12 , 14 , 16 , 18 , 20 and 22 are shown along the neutral axis. [0044] 2. Use a desired GCR to compute the CMYK values of any node in the recruiting set. [0045] 3. Define a candidate set C={1,2, . . . ,M} that contains M number of L*a*b* nodes. This list comes from all the nodes in the LUT. [0046] 4. Compute the metric L*a*b* distance between each node i ∈ R and j ∈ C. One metric that could be used here is the deltaE2000 formula. Another choice is deltaE CIE. For example, FIG. 3 illustrates distances between both recruiting and candidate nodes 34 , 36 , 38 and 40 . This only shows one way to process nodes contained in the candidate set in a certain way; however, this method is not restricted to this order. There is freedom in selecting the order in which nodes contained in the candidate set could be processed. [0047] 5. Determine the minimum distance, min dE2000ij, between a recruiting and candidate node. This node is denoted as j* (see FIG. 4 , reference character 50 ). [0048] 6. Compute the CMYK of closest node using as a starting point the CMYK of a node in the recruiting set (see FIG. 5 ). The recruiting process is neighbor driven since it always selects the nodes with the minimum distance between any recruiting and candidate nodes. Once a pair of nodes has been identified, then the cooperation takes place since the CMYK values of the recruiting set is shared with the candidate set. The candidate node may use a MIMO controller to iterate several times and converge to a new CMYK value that is close to its closest neighbor. This is possible since the candidate set computes the Jacobian, using the CMYK of the recruiting node, which supplies information about the local gradient of a neighboring color to the candidate node. By using the local gradient, the MIMO controller converges to the closest CMYK solution to the one that the recruiting node has. [0049] 7. The closest node identified in 5 now becomes part of the recruiting node set, i.e., R=R+{j*}, and no longer belongs to the candidate set, i.e, C=C−{j*} (see FIG. 6 , reference character 60 ). [0050] 8. Repeat process from 5 to 8 until set C is empty, that is, there are no more candidates to recruit. [0051] Notably, step 6 computes the Jacobian and controller's parameters using only local information of the recruiting node. These values remain fixed during the controller's iterations. Alternatively, the process may compute the Jacobian and controller's parameters at each iteration since this could better capture the nonlinearities present in the printer. This option will improve the ability of the controller to converge to the closest CMYK value. This can be especially important to implement when the nodes in the candidate set are scarce. [0052] Once this process is finished, all the information needed to build the LUT using the L*a*b* and CMYK values originally located in the recruiting set is available. [0053] Next is described how to construct an LUT with previous smoothness. This method actually builds upon the application of all steps described above for a high density LUT created in the candidate set. The motivation to use a high density LUT is to populate the printer's gamut with a relatively large number of nodes that are close enough to each other and where the benefits of sharing information can be exploited, which in turn, will result in a smooth LUT. Once this high resolution LUT is created, the following steps are implemented on-line: [0054] 1. Compute the metric L*a*b* distance between every node in the high definition LUT and every node contained in the LUT of interest. [0055] 2. Determine the minimum distance, min dE2000ij, in step 1. [0056] 3. Compute the CMYK of the closest node using as a starting point the CMYK of a node in the high definition LUT. [0057] 4. Repeat process from 1 to 4 until all nodes in the LUT of interest have computed their respective CMYK values. [0058] The sharing of information combined with control systems is used to implement tracking systems to compute the closest CMYK of the selected color in the candidate set to the CMYK of the color in the recruiting set. A MIMO state-feedback controller can update the CMYK recipe that will accurately reproduce the given target L*a*b* value (see FIG. 7 ). The system in FIG. 7 can be expressed as a state equation with the form: [0000] x ( k+ 1)= Ax ( k )+ Bu ( k ) [0059] where x(k) represents the measured or estimated L*a*b* values obtained from the inline/offline sensor or a printer model respectively at iteration k, A is the identity matrix, B is the Jacobian matrix computed around the initial CMYK value, and u(k) is the control law applied to the input of the printer. The Jacobian B is computed as follows: [0000] B = [ ∂ L ∂ C ∂ L ∂ M ∂ L ∂ Y  ∂ L ∂ K ∂ a ∂ C ∂ a ∂ M ∂ a ∂ Y  ∂ a ∂ K ∂ b ∂ C ∂ b ∂ M ∂ b ∂ Y  ∂ b ∂ K ] [0060] The control law is designed using MIMO state-feedback controllers. Thus, u(k)=−Ke(k), where e(k) is the error between the target L*a*b* and the measured or estimated L*a*b* at iteration k. The gain matrix, K, is derived based on the pole values specified such that closed loop shown in FIG. 7 is stable. [0061] Notably, the Jacobian and controller's parameters of the closest candidate node are only computed using local information of the recruiting node. These values remain fixed during all controller's iterations. As an alternative, it is suggested the Jacobian and controller's parameters can be computed at each iteration since this could better capture the nonlinearities present in the printer. This option will provide improved convergence to the closest CMYK value. This is especially important to implement when the nodes in the candidate set are scarce. Once this process is finished, all the information needed to build the LUT using the L*a*b* and CMYK values originally located in the recruiting set is present. [0062] Several plots are shown that confirm the embodiments disclosed herein can compute the closest CMYK of the selected color in the candidate set to the CMYK of the color in the recruiting set. Suppose initially there are 24 recruiting nodes along the neutral axis with values from L*a*b*=[15 0 0] to L*a*b*=[100 0 0]. The L* values for the recruiting nodes are uniformly incremented by 5 units. Then two colors in the candidate set are selected to support the disclosed findings, i.e., L*a*b* 1 =[56.65 6.42 6.5] (Color #1) and L*a*b* 2 =[68.23 6.43 6.49] (Color #2). Color #1 is first selected since the algorithm determines that it is the closest node (minimum deltaE2000 distance) to the node in the recruiting set with L*a*b*=[65 0 0] and CMYK=[128.97 97.42 101.78 0.07]. Sensitivity plots for [128.97 97.42 101.78 0.07] are shown in FIGS. 8-11 . [0063] With reference to FIGS. 8-11 , sensitivity plots for CMYK=[128.97 97.42 101.78 0.07] are shown. The stars indicate the nominal values whereas the circles indicate the points used to compute the Jacobian around the nominal point. [0064] Notably, in order to get the L*a*b* 1 =[56.65 6.42 6.5] values of the first color, the controller has to track the sensitivity plots shown in FIGS. 8-11 . This means the controller will iteratively modify the CMYK values until the desired L*a*b* values are reached. By following the trajectories provided by the sensitivity plots, it is apparent there is a unique CMYK solution for any candidate color; an important criteria to implement where neighboring colors are located in nonlinear region of the printer's gamut. The approximate CMYK=[123.6 139.5 118.5 43] values for color #1 could be inferred by the sensitivity plots; however, this will result in some inaccuracy since the plots do not account for any interactions between colors. The final CMYK values obtained using this approach are [111.01 111.47 112.27 1.19]. Thus, this node, color #1, will now be part of the recruiting set. [0065] Next color #2 is processed and the algorithm detects that it is close to the node that has L*a*b*=[56.65 6.42 6.5] and CMYK=[1 11.01 111.47 112.27 1.19], which is color #1 that has recently joined the recruiting team. Sensitivity plots for [111.01 111.47 112.27 1.19] are shown in FIGS. 12-15 . [0066] With reference to FIGS. 12-15 , sensitivity plots for CMYK=[111.01 111.47 112.27 1.19] are shown. The stars indicate the nominal values whereas the circles indicate the points used to compute the Jacobian around the nominal point. [0067] Notably, in order to get the L*a*b* 2 [68.23 6.43 6.49] values of the second color, the controller will iteratively modify the CMYK values until the desired L*a*b* values are reached. For this case, the approximate CMYK=[88 113.3 112 0] values for color #2 could be inferred by the sensitivity plots; however, this will again result in some inaccuracy since the plots do not account for any interactions between colors. The final CMYK values obtained using this approach are [100.03 103.33 104.10 0]. [0068] The two cases mentioned above show how a controller can be used to track the trajectories of neighboring nodes in such a way that the obtained new CMYK values are closest to the selected neighbor. It also shows that there exists only one feasible solution to the posed problem. [0069] The embodiments disclosed herein can achieve both a node's accuracy and smoothness in one step. The process only requires the L*a*b* and CMYK values of all the nodes in the recruiting set so there is no need to have a priori information from any GCR since this process naturally defines a smooth GCR. A multidimensional smoothing algorithm would be required to further smoothen the CMYK values of the nodes. Notably, the definition of this GCR could be done by only having one node in the recruiting set. The derivation of other GCR techniques usually starts by defining a smooth function for only black, which is applied to all colors inside the gamut. It then determines a CMY that along with the K value coming from the smooth function will match the L*a*b* value for that particular node. This is done in a greedy fashion since no information about neighboring colors is taken into account, so even though K is smooth, this could result in non-smooth transitions in the CMYK space between neighboring nodes. The Neighbor Driven approach seeks to smooth CMYK solutions for all nodes in the gamut. [0070] Described heretofore is how to derive an L*a*b* to CMYK LUT such that the transition between every neighborhood node in the LUT is smooth in the L*a*b* space as well as the CMYK space. Any smoothness is preserved by using both MIMO control algorithm and the neighbor detection algorithm in L*a*b* space. Cooperation between neighbors by implementing tracking algorithms provides a unique solution for the node contained in the candidate set. [0071] It will be appreciated that various of the above-disclosed and other features and functions, or alternatives thereof, may be desirably combined into many other different systems or applications. Also that various presently unforeseen or unanticipated alternatives, modifications, variations or improvements therein may be subsequently made by those skilled in the art which are also intended to be encompassed by the following claims.

This disclosure provides printing methods, apparatus, and systems to generate a multidimensional printer profile for a color printer. Specifically, the profile is generated by a method of selecting a recruiter set of nodes associated with a plurality of target color nodes and selecting a candidate set of nodes associated with a plurality of target color nodes. The candidate nodes and recruiting node cooperate to generate a printer profile.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application is a Divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/204,524 filed Mar. 11, 2014, now allowed, which claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/777,766 filed Mar. 12, 2013, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference in its' entirety. GOVERNMENT LICENSE RIGHTS [0002] This invention was made with Government support under Dept. of Agriculture—Agricultural Research Service Agreement No.: 58-0208-3-001 (Durable Coating-Embedded Adulticide (CEA), Larvicide (CEL) and Durable Dual-Action Lethal Ovitraps (DDALO) for Management of Dengue Vector Aedes albopictus and Other Container-Breeding Mosquitoes). The government has certain rights in this invention. FIELD OF INVENTION [0003] This invention relates to killing mosquitoes, and in particular to lethal containers, apparatus, devices, systems, coatings, compositions, formulas, applications and methods of using pesticide coatings to kill adult mosquitoes and their larvae, and in particular to containers coated internally with coating-embedded pesticides designed to hold water, to attract mosquitoes, and kill adult mosquitoes and their larvae, which include specific shaped containers, and applications of using the coating-embedded larvicide to various objects such as tokens, marbles, pebbles, stones, chips and the interior of various water-holding containers, such as flower pots, water-holding dishes used under plant pots, vases, bird baths, fountains, and other similar containers, and the like. BACKGROUND AND PRIOR ART [0004] Over the years, ovitrap type containers have been used and deployed to control mosquitoes. See for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,983,557 to Perich et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 6,185,861 to Perich; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,389,740 to Perich et al.; and Zeichner, Brian C. “The lethal ovitrap: a response to the resurgence of dengue and chikungunya”, U.S. Army Medical Journal, July-September 2011. These types of ovitraps have generally used a paper strip having insecticide that hangs within a cup filled with water up to a series of drain holes. The insecticide strip will hang into the water, with the intention of killing female mosquitoes as they land on the ovitrap to lay eggs. However, these types of Ovitraps have limitations due to the insecticide on the paper breaking down rapidly because of water contact, and also the trap is not designed to kill larvae. [0005] For example, these traps have lacked the use of a timed release of insecticide, and the water ended up breaking down the insecticide to become ineffective or not killing fast enough to prevent egg laying because of insecticide resistance in the mosquito population. A study in Key West, Fla. that used thousands of ovitraps ended up producing mosquitoes from these water filled containers. Additionally, the ovitraps only used an adulticide, which was not effective in killing mosquito larvae. [0006] Still furthermore, Mosquito ovitraps available in the market do not contain larvicide and only adulticide so if eggs are laid larvae can develop. The addition of larvicide would prevent that problem. [0007] Thus, the need exists for solutions to the above problems with the prior art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] A primary objective of the present invention is to provide dual action lethal containers, apparatus, devices, systems, applications and methods, which are used to kill adult mosquitoes and their larvae. [0009] A secondary objective of the present invention is to provide novel, long-lasting coatings, compositions and formulas that can be used to kill both adult mosquitoes and their larvae. [0010] A third objective of the present invention is to provide mosquito control devices and methods of using and coating water-holding containers, such as but not limited to flower pots, water holding dishes used under plant pots, vases, bird baths, and fountains coated internally with coating containing a mosquito larvicide. [0011] A fourth objective of the present invention is to provide mosquito control devices and methods of coating pebbles, stones, marbles and other types of objects coated with coating-embedded larvicide which can be added to water-holding containers. [0012] A fifth objective of the present invention is to provide mosquito control devices and methods of imbedding objects with durable coatings which releases the larvicide over time so that its action can be prolonged over the duration of a fully season. [0013] Long lasting insecticidal coatings used in the invention can prevent quick degradation of insecticidal activity as occurs when insecticides are applied directly to surfaces of lethal ovitraps. [0014] Use of slow release coatings encapsulates most insecticide so that pesticide exposure by humans is minimized when treated surfaces are accidentally contacted. [0015] Use of different active ingredients for elimination of adults and larvae can delay development of pesticide resistance in mosquito populations and provide more efficient control of disease vectors. [0016] Containment of insecticides within an ovitrap can minimize environmental contamination, non-target exposure and chances of accidental insecticide poisoning to humans and animals. [0017] Improvements over the Prior Art. [0018] The use of long-lasting insecticidal coating provides long-lasting control, as opposed to direct application of insecticides to internal surfaces of lethal ovitraps. The invention has the addition of larvicide to lethal ovitraps. A synergist can be added to the long-lasting coating to overcome insecticide resistance in mosquito populations. The coating not only can protect the insecticidal active ingredient, but also synergists from degradation over time. Additionally, a combination of both an adulticide and a larvicide with a different mode of action in a single coating could allow for easier manufacturing. [0019] Marketing Novelty. [0020] The dual action ovitrap can be sold both in the retail market, for use by homeowners who need to eliminate mosquitoes from their property, and professional market, for use by mosquito control districts, pest control operators, the armed forces, humanitarian institutions and others involved in the control of mosquitoes in different situations. [0021] The long-lasting insecticide coatings can be marketed for other uses where insect control is desired. Such coating could be used in external building walls, internal walls, and any other surfaces where mosquitoes and other pestiferous insects may rest and congregate. [0022] The insecticidal coatings can have colors incorporated that are attractive to mosquitoes. This dual action lethal ovitrap would be useful for control of mosquitoes that vector dengue, west Nile virus, yellow fever, and other pathogens. [0023] Embedding the insecticides in coatings within lethal ovitrap can protect the active ingredient and/or synergist from degradation by the water in the ovitrap, and results in slow release of the active ingredient over time to kill mosquitoes. If the mosquitoes lay eggs before they die, a larvicide also embedded in the coating, is protected from degradation, and slowly releases over time to kill any larvae that hatch from the mosquito eggs. The dual action of the ovitrap assures that the device will not produce mosquitoes as a result of degradation of the active ingredients. [0024] Further objects and advantages of this invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of the presently preferred embodiments, which are illustrated schematically in the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0025] FIG. 1 is a perspective left front side of a first embodiment dual action ovitrap container. [0026] FIG. 2 is a front view of the dual action ovitrap container of FIG. 1 . [0027] FIG. 3 is a top view of the dual action ovitrap container of FIG. 1 . [0028] FIG. 4 is a side cross-sectional view of the dual action ovitrap container of FIG. 2 along arrow 4 X. [0029] FIG. 5A is a right side view of another dual action ovitrap container. [0030] FIG. 5B is a cross-sectional view of the container of FIG. 5A along arrow 5 B. [0031] FIG. 6 is a front view of the dual action ovitrap container of FIG. 5 along arrow 6 X. [0032] FIG. 7 is a left side view of the dual action ovitrap container of FIG. 5 . [0033] FIG. 8 is a top view of the dual action ovitrap container of FIG. 5 along arrow 8 X. [0034] FIG. 9 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a flower pot. [0035] FIG. 10 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with water-holding dishes used under a plant pot. [0036] FIG. 11 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a water-holding vase. [0037] FIG. 12 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a water-holding bird bath. [0038] FIG. 13 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a water-holding fountain. [0039] FIG. 14 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with small objects in a water-holding storm-water inlet. [0040] FIG. 15 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with small objects that can be used with another water-holding area. [0041] FIG. 16 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings on wood surfaces, such as stalls and fences and walls. [0042] FIG. 17 is a graph of mosquito larval mortality after 0 -week aging with the average live mosquitoes on the vertical axis versus exposure time on the horizontal axis. [0043] FIG. 18 is a graph of mosquito larval mortality after 20-week aging with the average live mosquitoes on the vertical axis versus exposure time on the horizontal axis. [0044] FIG. 19 is a graph of percent of mosquito eggs on the vertical axis versus cavity size on the horizontal axis. [0045] FIG. 20 shows a bar graph of results of a two-way choice test for mosquito females placed in a small-cage with containers with CEA (0.7% permethrin) vs. control, both using unchlorinated water, with number of dead mosquitoes and percentage of eggs found in each treatment on the vertical axis. [0046] FIG. 21 shows a bar graph of results of a two-way choice test for mosquito females placed in a small-cage with containers with CEA (0.7% permethrin) vs. control, both with oak-leaf infusion water, with number of dead mosquitoes and percentage of eggs found in each treatment on the vertical axis. [0047] FIG. 22 shows a bar graph of a two-way ovitrap choice test with Aedes albopictus , with percentage of mosquitoes on the vertical axis versus the location where they were found. [0048] FIG. 23 shows percent adult mosquito emergence on the vertical axis versus coatings in which the larvicide pyriproxyfen was embedded at different rates. [0049] FIG. 24 shows percent adult mosquito emergence on the vertical axis versus two coatings in which the larvicide pyriproxyfen was embedded and applied to containers which were washed with different volumes of water. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0050] Before explaining the disclosed embodiments of the present invention in detail it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its applications to the details of the particular arrangements shown since the invention is capable of other embodiments. Also, the terminology used herein is for the purpose of description and not of limitation. [0051] A list of the components will now be described. 100 First embodiment container 110 narrow cap top on container 112 grate with openings 120 raised ribs 121 internal concave ribs 122 upper end of container 126 lower curved side edges 128 bottom of container 130 hook 140 sideway protruding raised opening 200 First embodiment container 210 narrow cap top on container 212 grate with openings 220 raised ribs 221 inner rib surfaces 222 upper end of container 226 lower curved side edges 228 bottom of container 230 hook 240 sideway protruding raised opening 300 flower pot 310 internal surface of pot 400 plant pot with water dish 420 dish 425 internal surface of dish 430 pot 500 vase 510 internal surface of vase 600 bird bath 610 internal surface of bowl 700 fountain 710 internal surface of fountain 800 coated objects for a storm water inlet 810 interior surface of storm water inlet 900 coated objects for another water holding container 910 interior surface of another container 1000 small mosquito control coated objects 1100 wood stalls and fences and walls and boxes [0090] FIG. 1 is a perspective left front side of a first embodiment dual action ovitrap container 100 . FIG. 2 is a front view of the dual action ovitrap container 100 of FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is a top view of the dual action ovitrap container 100 of FIG. 1 . FIG. 4 is a side cross-sectional view of the dual action ovitrap container 100 of FIG. 2 along arrow 4 X. [0091] Referring to FIGS. 1-4 , container 100 can have a modified pyramid shape with rounded sides. Insects such as mosquitoes can enter inside the container through grate 112 , and side raised opening 140 . The container 100 can include a raised side opening 140 so that water inside the container is maintained to be no higher than the bottom of the side opening 140 . Any water inside the container 100 can run out of side opening 140 . [0092] On the top of the container 100 can be an attachable cap such as a snap-on cap 110 . Alternatively the cap 110 can be threadably attached to the upper portion of the container 100 . A grate 112 within openings therethrough can be oriented at an inclined angle and be used to obstruct objects larger than insects, such as but not limited to leaves, branches, hands, fingers and the like, from entering container 100 . [0093] The narrow opening can create dead-air, high humidity conditions that mosquitoes prefer as oviposition and resting sites. A narrow opening can also prevent excessive rain from entering and rinsing larvicide from the interior of the ovitrap. The narrow opening also can prevent dilution of the larvicide and adulticide active ingredients which can slowly escape from the coatings in order to control mosquitoes. [0094] The inclined grate 112 opening increases the attractiveness of the trap for the mosquito. A horizontal oriented grate would not be as effective an attractant opening as an inclined grate. The inclined grate 112 also more closely replicates an opening in a tree which is usually not horizontal and the tree opening which can hold water is the most attractive hatching condition for attracting mosquitoes into the container 100 . [0095] A built on hook 130 , such as a loop, can be used to hang the container 100 in an elevated position such as but not limited to hanging the container 100 from a branch, under a tree, and the like. The novel ovitrap 100 can be deployed on a surface through bottom 128 or hanging by hook 130 from a support, as opposed to single-action ovitraps that need to be placed on a completely horizontal surface. The hook 130 offers many more opportunities for placement of ovitraps in locations that are more attractive to mosquitoes and protected from animal activities, as well as in conditions that prevent disturbances by children. [0096] Raised ribs 120 on the container 100 form concave curved stacked sections 121 inside the container 100 . The stacked concave interior surfaces 121 allow for an easier landing surface for the mosquitoes to land on and hatch. The ribs 120 and interior surfaces 121 are slightly inclined so that when water evaporates and goes down, each rib section 120 and corresponding interior surface 121 have a section above and below the water level. [0097] The ribs 120 and interior surfaces 121 have the effect of limiting the wind turbulence that can enter inside of the container 100 through the side opening 140 and grate 112 . Incoming wind can cause a Venturi effect inside the container 100 . The inside stacked concave rib sections 121 can reduce the Venturi effect and any turbulence inside the container 100 . This is very important since Mosquitoes prefer to lay eggs when there is less or no wind. [0098] The bottom 128 of the container 100 can be flat to allow for the container stability to stand on its' own on a ground or raised flat surface, with lower side curved edges 126 . [0099] The inside walls of the container can be coated with a single coating having both larvicide and adulticide described in reference to the tables below. The double coating can be coated on interior walls and the floor both below and above the water line formed from side opening 140 . [0100] The container 100 can be formed from molded plastic material such as those used to form water bottles and the like, with a rougher interior surface. [0101] The plastic container 100 can be pretreated in order to make the interior surface coatings rough and not too smooth, in order to provide cavities of approximately 150 to approximately 500 μm wide. [0102] Mosquitoes prefer to deposit eggs in indentations on the surface of containers. Laboratory testing for desired cavity sizes was done at the University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. in the summer of 2013, where the inventors modified wood surfaces (using popsicle sticks), and glued plastic mesh on top of the sticks. Six different sizes of mesh were tested, each being placed in a cup of water, which were placed in a lab cage where mosquitoes were present. The holes of the mesh became the sides of the cavities and the wood being the bottom of the cavities. The materials were left untreated, and testing and observations was completed to determine which mesh size was most desirable for the female mosquitoes to lay their eggs. Laboratory testing determined the highest results of killed mosquitoes occurred with mesh cavity having dimensions of approximately 250 μm wide. A range of approximately 150 to approximately 500 μm wide was also determined to cover desirable mesh size cavities. The term approximately can include +/−10%. The textured internal surfaces with formed cavities demonstrate that optimum resting and oviposition can be obtained by modifying the coatings accordingly. [0103] The interior walls surfaces of the containers 100 can be roughened into having textured surfaces with cavities by at least three different processes. [0104] One process can include using a plastic or material that inherently has a rough surface. The plastic can be formed from molds that form selected cavity sizes on the interior surfaces of the plastic container. [0105] Another process can include re-treating the interior surfaces of a container, such as plastic with a separate textured material coating that artificially forms a roughened surface. For example, a paintable primer, or a sprayable primer, and the like, can be used. The textured material coatings can be selected in order to create the selected cavity sizes based on applying those material coatings to the surfaces of the container. [0106] Mosquitoes can enter either by the top or the side entry into the container (which can have a partial bottle configuration. The mosquitoes have a choice of vertical and horizontal surfaces to rest, all of which are coated with insecticidal coating. Any coating and/or primer can be applied inside the container by various techniques such as but not limited to inserting a spray nozzle in the bottle and spraying aground to cover 360° internally below a selected level. [0107] A still another process can include adding additional grains such as but not limited to sand, acrylics, into the insecticide coating, which can then be coated to the interior surfaces of the container which forms a roughened surface, having the selected cavity sizes. Similarly, techniques to spray inside the container can include but are not limited to having any coating and/or primer can be applied by inserting a spray nozzle into the opening(s) of the container and spraying around to cover 360° internally below a selected level. [0108] The outside of the container 100 can have different colors. The exterior of container can be darkened to black, brown, and other dark colors that replicate a tree type structure. For example, a dark color attracts mosquitoes. [0109] The cap 110 can have a different color such as red that causes contrast with the dark color of the rest of the container 100 , which would replicate surfaces of the tree having wet and dry areas. Mosquitoes associate red and black to ideal tree surface locations. [0110] The side opening 140 and the grate opening also appear to replicate a tree surface along with the coloring of the container surface, which are attractive to mosquitoes. [0111] The inside of the container 100 can include a separate mosquito attractant either or both embedded into the coating or loose inside the container 100 . The attractant can include but it not limited to broken leaves, artificial and natural scents, contained or not in cloth, paper, or mesh bag similar to a teabag that can replicate moist wet areas that are normally attracted to mosquitoes. [0112] The object of the interior surface of the container with or without the attractant is to form an attractant environment and not a repellent environment for mosquitoes. [0113] Table 1 lists examples of adulticide and larvacidal coating ingredients that can be used in the interior coatings of the container 100 along with a range for each components and preferred percentage for combined adultacidal and larvacidal coating. [0000] TABLE 1 Preferred Main Choice Preferred Exemplary Ingredients Ingredients Range Amount Choice of Coating 83.0-99.9989%    98.59%  Acrylic paint Oil based paint Plastic polymer Choice of Adulticidal Active 0.001-5.0%  0.7% Ingredient: Pyrethroid insecticide Organophosphate insecticide Carbamate insecticide Permethrin   0.2-5.0% 0.7% (pyrethroid) Cypermethrin  0.02-5.0% 0.1% (pyrethroid) Deltamethrin  0.001-5% 0.06%  (pyrethroid) Bifenthrin  0.001-5% 0.06%  (pyrethroid) Chlorpyrifos   0.2-5.0% 0.5% (organophosphate) Propoxur   0.2-5.0% 0.5% (carbamate) Diazinon   0.2-5.0% 1.0% (organophosphate) Choice of Larvicidal Active 0.0001-2% 0.01%  Ingredient: Bacillus 0.0001-2% 0.01%  thuringiensis israelensis Methoprene 0.0001-2% 0.01%  Pyroproxifen 0.0001-2% 0.01%  Spinosad 0.0001-2% 0.01%  Choice of Synergist:  0-10.0% 0.7% Piperonyl Butoxide  0-10.0% 0.7% MGK-264  0-10.0% 1.4% Etofenprox   0-5.0% 0.7% Pyrethrins   0-5.0% 0.7% [0114] Table 2 lists the main components along with a range for each components and preferred percentage for an adultacidal coating. [0000] TABLE 2 Preferred Main Choice Preferred Exemplary Ingredients Ingredients Range Amount Choice of Coating 85.0-98.999%   98.6%  Acrylic paint Oil based paint Plastic polymer Choice of Adulticidal Active 0.001-5.0%  0.7% Ingredient: Pyrethroid insecticide Organophosphate insecticide Carbamate insecticide Permethrin (pyrethroid) 0.2-5.0% 0.7% Cypermethrin (pyre- 0.02-5.0%  0.1% throid) Deltamethrin (pyrethroid) 0.001-5%  0.06%  Bifenthrin (pyrethroid) 0.001-5%  0.06%  Chlorpyrifos 0.2-5.0% 0.5% (organophosphate) Propoxur (carbamate) 0.2-5.0% 0.5% Diazinon 0.2-5.0% 1.0% (organophosphate) Choice of Synergist:  0-10.0% 0.7% Piperonyl Butoxide  0-10.0% 0.7% MGK-264  0-10.0% 1.4% Etofenprox   0-5.0% 0.7% Pyrethrins   0-5.0% 0.7% [0115] Table 3 lists the main components along with a range for each components and preferred percentage for larvacidal coating. [0000] TABLE 3 Preferred Main Choice Preferred Exemplary Ingredients Ingredients Range Amount Coating (choice of one) 88.0-99.9999%    99.82%  Acrylic paint Oil based paint Plastic polymer Choice of Larvicidal Active 0.0001-2% 0.01% Ingredients: Bacillus 0.0001-2% 0.01% thuringiensis israelensis Methoprene 0.0001-2% 0.01% Pyroproxifen 0.0001-2% 0.01% Spinosad 0.0001-2% 0.01% Choice of 1-3 Synergists:  0-10.0%  0.7% Piperonyl Butoxide  0-10.0%  0.7% MGK-264  0-10.0%  1.4% Etofenprox   0-5.0%  0.7% Pyrethrins   0-5.0%  0.7% [0116] The interior surface coatings can include those described and used in related U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/866,656 to Koehler et al. which is assigned to the same assignee as that of the subject invention, and which is incorporated by reference in its' entirety. [0117] FIG. 5A is a right side view of another dual action ovitrap container 200 . FIG. 5B is a cross-sectional view of the container of FIG. 5A along arrow 5 B. FIG. 6 is a front view of the dual action ovitrap container 200 of FIG. 5 along arrow 6 X. FIG. 7 is a left side view of the dual action ovitrap container 200 of FIG. 5 . FIG. 8 is a top view of the dual action ovitrap container 200 of FIG. 5 along arrow 8 X. [0118] Referring to FIGS. 5A-8 , part numbers 210 , 212 , 220 , 221 , 222 , 226 , 228 , 230 , 240 correspond and function to similar part numbers 110 , 112 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 126 , 128 , 130 and 140 in the previous embodiment. In these figures, the bottom of the container 200 can have a length between the back and front of approximately 5 inches and a width between the left side and right side of approximately 4¾ inches, and a height between the bottom 228 and the upper end of the container 200 being approximately 4½ inches from the bottom 228 of the container 200 , with the upper end having a length of approximately 2⅛ inches and a width of approximately 2¾ inches. The parallel raised ribs 220 can be spaced apart from each other by approximately ½ inch and each rib can be approximately ½ inch thick, and can extend outward from the sides of the container 200 by approximately ⅜ of an inch. Each of the ribs 220 can be angled downward from the front of the container to the rear of the container. At the bottom 228 of the container 200 , the lowest rib can start approximately 1¼ inches from the front of the container 200 and angle downward to be approximately 1 inch from the rear of the container 200 . [0119] The ribs 220 and interior surfaces 221 have the effect of limiting the wind turbulence that can enter inside of the container 200 through the side opening 240 and grate 212 . Incoming wind can cause a Venturi effect inside the container 200 . The inside stacked concave rib sections 221 can reduce the Venturi effect and any turbulence inside the container 200 . This is very important since Mosquitoes prefer to lay eggs when there is less or no wind. [0120] The novel ovitrap internal incline plane rib surfaces offer both horizontal and vertical surfaces for female mosquitoes to oviposit and rest. This configuration makes these surfaces available to oviposition and resting regardless of the level of the water in the ovitrap. All of these surfaces can be coated with the coating-embedded larvicides and adulticides. [0121] The inclined grate 212 can have a generally oval shape with a width of approximately 2¾ inches. The sideway protruding opening 240 can be generally oval shape with a height of approximately 1⅛ inches and a width of approximately ⅞ inch. Other dimensions are shown in the figures. [0122] The coatings described above, and all their applications with the containers 100 , 200 can be used with other water holding containers, and objects. [0123] FIG. 9 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a flower pot 300 . The internal surface 310 can be coated with coatings containing a mosquito larvicide coatings. [0124] FIG. 10 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a water holding dishes 420 used under a plant pot 430 . The internal surface 425 of the dish 420 can be coated with coatings containing a mosquito larvicide coatings. [0125] FIG. 11 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a water holding vase 500 . The internal surface 510 of the vase 500 can be coated with coatings containing a mosquito larvicide coatings. [0126] FIG. 12 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a water holding bird bath 600 . The internal surface 610 of the bath bowl can be coated with coatings containing a mosquito larvicide coatings. [0127] FIG. 13 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a water holding fountain 700 . The internal surface 710 of the fountain can be coated with coatings containing a mosquito larvicide coatings. [0128] Additional mosquito control objects 1000 can be coated with larvicide such as but not limited to pebbles, stones, marbles and other types of objects coated with coating-embedded larvicide. These small coated objects can be placed in water holding containers such as but not limited to using untreated containers previously described or other types of containers so that the larvicide can leach out over time. [0129] Additionally, the interior coated water holding containers can also have the small coated objects 100 dropped inside the containers. [0130] FIG. 14 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a small coated objects 1000 in a water holding storm water inlet 800 . Alternatively internal surface areas 810 in the storm water inlet can also be coated with coatings containing mosquito larvicide coatings. The small coated objects can also be dropped into standing water in storm water inlets and the like so as to prevent those areas from becoming larvae breeding grounds. Also any other type of standing water can use the coated small objects dropped into the standing water. [0131] FIG. 15 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings with a small coated objects 1000 in another water holding container 900 such as an aquarium. Alternatively, internal surface areas 910 can also be coated with coatings containing mosquito larvicide coatings. [0132] FIG. 16 shows another embodiment of using the novel coatings on wood surfaces 1100 , such as wooden stalls for horses and fences and walls and boxes, and the like. Other surfaces that can become damp and wet, such as but not limited to other wood surfaces and the like, can also be treated with the coatings. [0133] FIGS. 17-24 show the results of testing using the containers and different coatings of the first two embodiments of the invention described above for killing mosquitoes. [0134] FIG. 17 is a graph of mosquito larval mortality over 0-week aging with amount of mosquitoes on the vertical axis versus exposure time on the horizontal axis. [0135] FIG. 18 is a graph of mosquito larval mortality over 20-week aging on the vertical axis versus exposure time on the horizontal axis. [0136] FIG. 19 is a graph of percent of mosquito eggs on the vertical axis versus cavity size on the horizontal axis. [0137] FIG. 20 shows a bar graph of results of a two-way choice test for mosquito females placed in a small-cage with containers with CEA (0.7% permethrin) vs. control, both using unchlorinated water, with number of dead mosquitoes and percentage of eggs found in each treatment on the vertical axis. [0138] FIG. 21 shows a bar graph of results of a two-way choice test for mosquito females placed in a small-cage with containers with CEA (0.7% permethrin) vs. control, both with oak-leaf infusion water, with number of dead mosquitoes and percentage of eggs found in each treatment on the vertical axis. [0139] FIG. 22 shows a bar graph of a two-way ovitrap choice test with Aedes albopictus , with percentage of mosquitoes on the vertical axis versus the location where they were found. [0140] FIG. 23 shows percent adult mosquito emergence on the vertical axis versus coatings in which the larvicide pyriproxyfen was embedded at different rates. FIG. 24 shows percent adult mosquito emergence on the vertical axis versus two coatings in which the larvicide pyriproxyfen was embedded and applied to containers which were washed with different volumes of water. [0141] Referring to FIGS. 17-18 , the placement of the larvicide pyriproxyfen in a coating does not prevent its action in preventing mosquito emergence, either with new material or material that had been aged for 20 weeks. In water that is in contact with the coating-embedded larvicide, or larvicide applied directly to the container without coating, mosquito larvae start to die as they reach the pupal stage. This shows that the coating does not interfere with the larvicide action. By embedding the larvicide pyriproxyfen in a coating, the mosquito killing action is protected from degradation for more than 20 weeks. [0142] Referring to FIG. 19 , mosquitoes ( Aedes aegyptii and Aedes albopictus ) preferred to lay eggs in cavities of 250 μm size, whereas smaller and larger cavities were not as preferred, and very large cavities (2000 μm) were even less preferred. This figure shows that a certain texture to the coating or container walls can make it a preferred oviposition site. [0143] Referring to FIGS. 20-22 , female mosquitoes were placed in cages where they had a choice of 2 containers filled with water to stimulate oviposition, one container with a coating-embedded adulticide (CEA) containing the adulticide permethrin, and the other container containing no insecticide. Reference to FIG. 20 , pure water was used, whereas reference to FIG. 21 , the water was mixed with oak-leaf infusion. In both tests, higher numbers of dead mosquito females were found in the adulticide-containing water, whereas greater number of eggs were found in containers with no insecticide. The presence of leaf infusion did not prevent the insecticidal action of the coating-embedded adulticide. [0144] Referring to FIG. 22 , adult female mosquitoes were found dead mostly in the container coated with coating-embedded adulticide, whereas few mosquitoes were found dead in the water-only control or the cage floor. This shows that once the adults contact the coating-embedded adulticide, they normally do not leave the container and die. Few mosquitoes that are able to fly away from the container with the coating-embedded adulticide also die later. [0145] Referring to FIG. 23 , three different coating were used to embed the larvicide pyriproxyfen at 3 different rates. Coatings were applied to plastic containers that were filled with water, before mosquito larvae were transferred to these containers. The addition of pyriproxyfen to different coatings produced similar results (no emergence of mosquitoes even at low pyriproxyfen content) while in the water standard, mosquito emergence was only inhibited at the high pyriproxyfen level. This shows that the different coatings can protect the action of pyriproxyfen. [0146] Several different formulae (polycrylic, Polyurethane and Latex paint) have been tested as coatings for the larvicide. All coatings performed well in preventing adult emergence from larvae added to water-holding containers coated internally with the coating-embedded larvicide even with 0.0001% of the active ingredient in the coating. Water treated with 0.01% rate is considered potable by the World Health Organization (WHO). [0147] Referring to FIG. 24 , two of the coating tested previously (refer to FIG. 23 ) were also tested for durability under high volume washing to see if they could stand under heavy rains. The coatings applied to plastic containers were subject to continuous washing with tap water for total volumes equivalent to 5×, 20×, and 50× the container volumes. After wards the containers were refilled with fresh water and mosquito larvae were added to the water. Adult emergence from the larvae was only observed in containers with coatings that contained no embedded larvicide. The larvicide embedded in both coatings prevented the emergence of adults, even when the coating was washed with 50× volume of water. Coatings prevent larvicide washing off, with up to 50 times the volume of water as contained in the ovitrap. Most larvicides are applied to water and disappear when containers are emptied and re filled either naturally by rain action or by other means. The coating constantly treats new water put in containers with enough larvicide to preserve the mosquito-killing action. Both polycrylic and polyurethane protect the action of pyriproxyfen larvicide when containers coated with these materials are subjected to washing. This shows that coating-embedded larvicide can survive extensive rain-water rinsing. [0148] The addition of larvicide kills any larvae that can emerge from eggs that females are able to lay before dying from exposure to adulticide in the lethal ovitrap. Field deployment of single-action lethal ovitrap allowed development of larvae which can lead to actual increase in the mosquito population. [0149] While the invention has been described, disclosed, illustrated and shown in various terms of certain embodiments or modifications which it has presumed in practice, the scope of the invention is not intended to be, nor should it be deemed to be, limited thereby and such other modifications or embodiments as may be suggested by the teachings herein are particularly reserved especially as they fall within the breadth and scope of the claims here appended.

Dual action lethal containers, systems and methods and novel compositions and formulas which are used to kill mosquitoes and their larvae. Generally pyramid shaped containers can have combined interior larvacidal and adultacidal coatings above and below a side opening in the container. A removable inclined grate cap can also allow for mosquitoes to enter into the container. Inclined stacked walls inside the container form attractive surfaces for mosquitoes to breed. Water-holding containers, such as flower pots, water holding dishes used under plant pots, vases, bird baths, and fountains and storm water inlets, can be coated with novel larvicide and/or adulticide coatings. Small objects can be coated with larvicide or larvicide and adulticide combination, which can be dropped in water-holding containers which can leach out pesticide over time which prevents mosquitoes from breeding in the water-holding containers.

TECHNICAL FIELD [0001] The present application relates generally to the technical field of project management and, in one specific example, to allow for tracking and managing projects. BACKGROUND [0002] Planning, organization and managing resources are required for the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives. Achieving project goals and objectives while adhering to quality, scope, time and budget constraints is one of the many challenges faced by project managers. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0003] Some embodiments are illustrated by way of example and not limitation in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which: [0004] FIG. 1 is screenshot of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) screen, according to an example embodiment, of a capacity planning tool used to enter the quarterly time frame of the project. [0005] FIG. 2 is a screenshot of a GUI screen, according to an example embodiment, of a capacity planning tool illustrating a capacity request queue. [0006] FIG. 3 is a screenshot of a GUI screen, according to an example embodiment, illustrating a capacity request form. [0007] FIG. 4 is a further detailed screenshot of a GUI screen shown in FIG. 3 , according to an example embodiment, illustrating the capability of choosing a concept for the capacity request. [0008] FIG. 5 is a further detailed screenshot of a GUI screen shown in FIG. 3 , according to an example embodiment, illustrating an update option control for capacity request. [0009] FIG. 6 is a screenshot of a GUI display, according to an example embodiment, that shows the quarterly budget allocation for various projects. [0010] FIG. 7 is screenshot of a GUI display shown in FIG. 6 , according to an example embodiment, which allows a budget administrator to enter the operations budget for a particular project and quarterly time frame. [0011] FIG. 8 is a screenshot of a GUI screen, illustrating a Project Management (PMO) Audit Report Tool for project management, according to an example embodiment. [0012] FIG. 9 is a screenshot of a GUI display, showing a Project Management Organization (PMO) Audit Report Tool is provided that includes flags to show status of various projects, according to an example embodiment. [0013] FIG. 10 is a screenshot of a GUI display, showing a menu used to generate an audit rule, according to an example embodiment. [0014] FIG. 11 is a screenshot of a GUI display, illustrating a Visual Roadmap Tool used to view a program including various projects, according to an example embodiment. [0015] FIG. 12 is a screenshot of a GUI display, showing a menu used to add ad-hoc milestones for the program shown in FIG. 11 . [0016] FIG. 13 is a screenshot of a GUI display, showing a menu to add/remove projects for the program shown in FIG. 11 . [0017] FIG. 14 is a screenshot of a GUI display, showing a visual roadmap of a project, according to some embodiments. [0018] FIG. 15 is a flow diagram illustrating the execution of an operation, according to an example embodiment, used to provide a capacity plan and display budget data. [0019] FIG. 16 is a flow diagram illustrating a Remote Email Approval Tool, according to an example embodiment, used to provide an approval system for project data using email approvals. [0020] FIG. 17 is a flow diagram illustrating the execution of an operation, according to an example embodiment, to provide a visual roadmap of a project that displays a roll-up view. [0021] FIG. 18 is a flow diagram illustrating the execution of an operation, according to an example embodiment, used to provide an audit flow and render project flags based on various audit rules. [0022] FIG. 19 shows a diagrammatic representation of a machine in the form of a computer system, according to an example embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0023] Example methods and systems to provide real-time project planning and tracking are described herein. In the following description, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of example embodiments. It will be evident, however, to one of ordinary skill in the art that the various embodiments may be practiced without these specific details. In some example embodiments, a system and method are shown that allow for the real-time project planning and tracking tool in an online environment that allows for resource allocation and determination to be made at the front end before resources are allocated to a particular project/task. The system and methods provided herein allow for visual representation of project time lines, project status and allows for the linking of various projects to determine if a particular project requires the completion of other projects before it can be scheduled to begin. [0024] FIG. 1 is screenshot 100 of a Graphical User Interface (GUI) screen, according to an example embodiment, showing a capacity planning tool used to enter the quarterly time frame of a chosen project. In some embodiments, screenshot 100 shows a dashboard area 110 activated by a control button “Dashboard” 120 . In some embodiments, Dashboard area 110 is configured to view the project planning tool by various quarters. Dashboard area 110 can be used to select for viewing a time frame (e.g., years namely 2007, 2008, and 2009 having quarters Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4); a particular project from a set of projects (e.g., Corporate, and Global) including tasks (e.g., Giving Works, World of Good, and Kijiji). Dashboard area 110 also includes a control button (shown as “GO”) that is used to activate the chosen time frames of particular projects displayed in screenshot 100 . Screenshot 100 further shows control buttons Capacity Request Queue 122 (described in FIG. 2 ), and Capacity Budget 124 . [0025] Screenshot 100 also shows a table 132 including regions 130 , 140 , 150 and 160 . In some embodiments, region 130 can be configured to list various projects along with their corresponding tasks. Region 140 and 150 correspond to quarters Q3 2008 and Q4 2008, respectively. In some embodiments, region 140 includes a listing for each project a set of columns indicating parameters such as a project development target budget 142 , an appropriation amount (capacity budget) 144 , a requested amount (capacity scope) 146 and a balance 148 , which is the difference between the appropriation amount 144 and the requested amount 146 . [0026] FIG. 2 is a screenshot 200 of a GUI screen, according to an example embodiment, of a capacity planning tool illustrating a capacity request queue. Screenshot 200 shows control buttons dashboard 120 , capacity request queue 122 , and capacity budget 124 and add button 210 . Screenshot 200 shows a list of projects for which appropriations of funds or resources are requested by various project managers. In some embodiments, the titles of the request for appropriation are listed in column 220 . In some embodiments, the names of the project for which the request is made are listed in column 230 . In some embodiments, the expected start dates of the projects are listed in column 240 . In some embodiments, the cost of the project is listed in column 250 . In some embodiments, the names of the requesting project managers or personnel are listed in column 260 . In some embodiments, the date of submission of the appropriation request is provided in column 270 . In some embodiments, the status of the appropriation requests requested by personnel listed in column 260 is listed in column 280 . A concept is a project that has not been scoped or assigned resources. It is essentially a project in the planning phase of the project life cycle. The CBOM details column provides a link to a Capacity Build of Materials detail screen. [0027] FIG. 3 is a screenshot 300 of a GUI screen, according to an example embodiment, illustrating a capacity request form 310 which is a window that can be opened by clicking the icon positioned on or near the appropriation request titled “Testing 2[14].” In some embodiments, window 310 is a drop down menu button 320 that expands to show different projects (GXTs), a title field 330 identifying the name of the appropriation request, a start date field 340 indicating the start date of the project, a description block 350 provided to record any particular information pertaining to the appropriation request or the project for which appropriation is requested, a status field 360 which can have any number of status designations such as “Active”, “Inactive”, “Terminated”, “Suspended” etc., to describe the status of the appropriation request. The “Verify” button allows the user to verify the Concept name within the Tracker database. The user can select a valid concept if results are returned. [0028] In some embodiments, window 310 can be used to select, change or add particular values for the various field of the appropriation and screen 300 can then be updated using update button 370 . [0029] FIG. 4 is a further detailed screenshot 400 of a GUI screen 300 as shown in FIG. 3 , according to an example embodiment, illustrating the capability of choosing a concept (such as a “project feature”) for the capacity request. Screenshot 400 shows window 310 including a drop down menu 370 that can be used to select a concept associated with the corresponding appropriation request. [0030] FIG. 5 is a further detailed screenshot 500 of a GUI screen 300 as shown in FIG. 3 , according to an example embodiment, illustrating an update option control 370 for capacity request. Screenshot 500 shows a detail window 310 including a field 380 having a concept selected and associated with the corresponding appropriation request. [0031] FIG. 6 is a screenshot 600 of a GUI display, according to an example embodiment, that shows a the quarterly budget allocation for various projects. Screenshot 600 shows a dashboard 610 including fields 612 , 614 and 616 corresponding to years 2007, 2008 and 2009, respectively. Dashboard 610 also includes a scrollbar 620 that may be used to scroll up or down for the selection of a particular project from the list of projects. Column 650 lists the various projects that are active for quarters Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 of year 2008. Columns 652 , 654 , 656 and 658 show the corresponding appropriation budgets provided for the various projects listed in column 650 . [0032] FIG. 7 is screenshot 700 of a GUI display 600 shown in FIG. 6 , according to an example embodiment, which allows a budget administrator to enter the operations budget for a particular project and quarterly time frame. Screenshot 700 shows a pop up window 710 that is generated by clicking on any of the cells under the Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 columns in fields 612 , 614 , and 616 . Window 710 provides for adding or editing the capacity budget. Typically this is done at the corporate or divisional level. The requested amounts are provided by the working group level. The working group can request changes in the appropriation amounts (capacity budgets) but cannot change the amounts directly. Working groups can change the “requested amount” based on their projections of what resources are needed to perform the project tasks. In some embodiments, by using window 710 , a new budget amount can be entered in the “Budget Amount” field. In some embodiments, a “Change Type” option is provided with a selection field 720 to select either of two settings namely “Increase” or “Decrease.” Window 710 also includes control buttons 740 and 750 that are used for activating the “Save” and “Reset” function, respectively. [0033] FIG. 8 is a screenshot 800 of a GUI display, illustrating a Project Management Organization (PMO) Audit Report Tool for project management, according to an example embodiment. Screenshot 800 shows a search field 810 including a drop down menu for a list of criteria; for example, Project, Project Managers, Dates of Projects, etc In some embodiments, the search includes a generic search field across any of the tools described herein. Field 820 is provided next to search field 810 to enter text used for searching against the criterion that was selected under search field 810 . Screenshot 800 also shows a Project Management Organization (PMO) audit report that has selection options such as Group (including the Project Manager or Product Manager), Manager (to select a particular manager), Resource (e.g. to select a particular software engineer), RASCI—the corporation's decision making process hierarchy (R—Responsible, A—Approver, S—Supporter, C—Consultant, I—Informed). For example; in a situation where there are 5 project managers working on a project, the Project Manager with the “R” designation is the primary contact and decision maker. In some embodiments, the tool also includes a “Due within weeks” drop down menu, and an “Audit Rules” drop down menu to select various audit rules that can be chosen to be applied for a given project or task. [0034] In some embodiments, screenshot 800 further shows control buttons for Pending/Overdue items 830 and At-Risk Projects status 840 . In some embodiments, selection of the various at-risk projects button shows a list of projects that are at risk that have their ID listed in column 844 , the title of projects listed in column 846 , and status field 848 . In some embodiments, status field 848 has three colored options (Color Green—representing no risk to the project, Color Yellow—representing that the project is potentially at risk in the near future, Color Red—representing that the project is currently at risk). [0035] FIG. 9 is a screenshot 900 of a GUI display, showing a Project Management Organization (PMO) Audit Report Tool is provided that includes flags to show status of various projects, according to an example embodiment. Screenshot 900 shows an audit report field including a drop down menus 910 , 920 , 930 , 940 , 950 and 960 to select a group, a manager, a resource, a RASCI—the corporation's decision making process hierarchy (R—Responsible, A—Approver, S—Supporter, C—Consultant, I—Informed) Screen shot 900 shows pending/overdue items field 980 and at-risk project field 990 , wherein the pending/overdue items field 980 has been selected. Selection of the pending/overdue items 980 field displays a list of project ID with various tasks against each ID, a status column corresponding to each task with appropriate completion dates (such as development date, operations date, quality assurance date) shown in further columns. In some embodiments, various flags are used to identify if the tasks do not conform to a set of audit rules selected using field 960 . In some embodiments, the flags are displayed for different categories or activities such as project plan, scope (resource or appropriation) assignment, development to quality assurance hand off, etc. In some embodiments, the flags are associated with project activities such as Project requirement Document (PRD), Architecture Review Board (ARB), Engineering Requirement Document (ERD) checklist, and Roll-out Plan (ROP). Project Requirements Document (PRD), Branch Registration (Source control management tool ClearCase uses branches as a way to develop and deploy software. Each project sub-feature is developed on a branch. Those branches are registered to sub-features within the tool. As a result, a release management personnel or department knows what software code is being deployed on any given week. Software Developers are required to register those branches by a certain date.) An open Sub-feature is a project sub-feature that has not been deployed to production. Once the sub-feature is on production, the sub-feature must be closed. Once all the sub-features of a project are closed, the project is considered completed. If a sub-feature is still open after it was released, the flag shows up in the Audit Tool. In some embodiments, a Merge Approval flag is provided to show whether the Quality Assurance department has signed-off on a sub-feature before it can merge to the main branch of corporation's code (essentially a release). [0036] In some embodiments, a PMO Audit Dashboard is included that provides a way to help project managers keep track of deadlines. In some embodiments, the project manager must make milestones to ensure that the project data is complete and up-to-date. In some embodiments, the PMO tool is designed to accommodate different groups with different milestones. In some embodiments, the primary interface of the PMO tool allows the user to select a project manager and project what milestones are approaching as well as milestones that are missed. In some embodiments, a flag with a red border means the milestone has passed and is unfulfilled. In some embodiments, a flag with no border means that it is due within the selected time frame. In some embodiments, clicking on the flag will take one directly to the data entry point for that task. Once, the task is completed, the flag will disappear after refreshing the data. [0037] FIG. 10 is a screenshot 1000 of a GUI display, showing a menu provided in the PMO Audit Report Tool used to generate an audit rule, according to an example embodiment. In some embodiments, the rules for the audit report can be defined for different groups. In some embodiments, the PMO audit report tool allows the user to input more rules without performing any source code changes. [0038] FIG. 11 is a screenshot 1100 of a GUI display, illustrating a Visual Roadmap Tool used to view a program including various projects, according to an example embodiment. In some embodiments, the Visual Roadmap Tool provides a hierarchy of analysis such that executives and/or other managers can see where and how a project is progressing. In some embodiments, the granularity of the details of the progress of projects can be varied. In some embodiments, a progress bar or counter (such as for e.g., Coding—20% complete etc.) is provided for each of the tasks monitored. In some embodiments, the visual roadmap tool visually represents all of the dependencies impacting a particular project which allows the user to better understand the business rules of that particular project. In some embodiment, the user of the tool can find a project for milestones that are due or overdue. In some embodiments, the user is capable of viewing any violations for a given project over a space of time the user selects. [0039] FIG. 12 is a screenshot 1200 of a GUI display, showing a menu used to add ad-hoc milestones for the program shown in FIG. 11 . In some embodiments of the user can manually enter a milestone at a folder level and choose to provide the data to the executive level. [0040] FIG. 13 is a screenshot 1300 of a GUI display, showing a menu to add/remove projects for the program shown in FIG. 11 . In some embodiments, the user can associate a project to a folder and allow it to be surfaced to the executive rollup level. [0041] FIG. 14 is a screenshot 1400 of a GUI display, illustrating a Visual Roadmap Tool used to provide a visual roadmap of a project, according to some embodiments. In some embodiments, the user can view the project start and end, plus selected or added milestones in a graphical timeline by selecting the folders that contain the projects. [0042] FIG. 15 is a flow diagram 1500 illustrating the execution of an operation, according to an example embodiment, used to provide a capacity plan and display budget data. Flow diagram 1500 includes a capacity budget block 1510 , which provides data to the project tables block 1520 and to the dashboard at block 1530 and the request form at block 1550 . At block 1530 , the operation receives data from the capacity budget (appropriation data) along with hardware request data (scope data or requested data) associated with a particular hardware request. The operation proceeds from block 1530 to block 1540 that provides for displaying of the budget data and the difference between the budget data and scope data (requested data). [0043] At block 1550 , in some embodiments, a request form receives data from block 1520 that include project tables, in order to view existing hardware requests. The operation proceeds from block 1550 to block 1560 . At block 1560 , operations architects (managers) can submit new requests or edit existing ones, wherein the requests can be tied to a project. In some embodiments, the various requests are linked to project tables at block 1520 . [0044] In some embodiments, during a budget administration operation, block 1570 receives capacity budget data. At block 1580 , in some embodiments, budget administrator can change the budget numbers for each of the various strategies and quarters. [0045] FIG. 16 is a flow diagram 1600 illustrating the operation of a Remote Email Approval Tool, according to an example embodiment, used to provide an approval system for project data using email approvals. [0046] In some embodiments, the process of approval includes the following: (a) a request is made to increase a budget item, (b) the tool takes the request and marks it “Pending Approval,” (c) an email is sent to the approver asking for approval, (d) the approver types “Approved” in the reply email, (e) the Remote Email Approval Tool receives the “Approved” message and updates the request to “Approved” in the system and consequently the budget item is updated to the new value that was approved. [0047] In some embodiments, block 1610 provides project data to block 1630 . At block 1630 , the operation provides for emails to be sent to an email system that allows an approver to receive an email regarding approval for a project. In some embodiments, block 1630 includes providing an approval email to be identified with a unique ID. At block 1640 , the operation provides for the approval emails sent from and to the approver to be collected and stored. At block 1650 , the operation provides for identifying the ID and word “Approved” in the return email. Additionally, block 1650 the operation provides for updating the database to show request was approved. [0048] FIG. 17 is a flow diagram 1700 illustrating the operation of a Visual Roadmap Tool, according to an example embodiment, to provide a visual roadmap of a project that displays a roll-up view. In some embodiments, block 1710 provides a table of audit rules. At block 1720 , the operation allows for receiving data from audit rules table to dynamically create SQL based on user and user group association. The operation proceeds from block 1720 to block 1730 , which includes project tables. The operation proceeds from block 1730 to block 1740 . At block 1740 , the operation loops over each dynamic query to build a result set for each user. In some embodiments, at block 1750 , the operation sends results as XML to visual interface and renders project flags for each rule. [0049] FIG. 18 is a flow diagram 1800 illustrating the execution of an operation, according to an example embodiment, used to provide an audit flow and render project flags based on various audit rules. In some embodiments, at block 1810 , the operation provides project tables. The operation proceeds from block 1810 to block 1820 . At block 1820 , the operation provides hierarchical project data from database in XML format. The operation proceeds from block 1820 to block 1830 . At block 1830 , the operation provides for a team lead to modify folder structure and add projects for the roll-up view (for the executives). The operation proceeds from block 1830 to block 1840 . At block 1840 , the operation provides for ad-hoc milestones to be created at each folder level to surface key milestones for groups of projects. The operation further proceeds from block 1840 to block 1850 . At block 1850 , the operation provides for the project data to be displayed as rolled up for executive view. Example Storage [0050] Some embodiments may include the various databases for capacity budget ( 1510 ), project tables ( 1520 , 1730 , 1810 ), project data ( 1610 ), and project related emails ( 1620 ) as being relational databases, or in some cases On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP) based databases. In the case of relational databases, various tables of data are created, and data is inserted into and/or selected from these tables using Structured Query Language (SQL) or some other database-query language known in the art. In the case of OLAP databases, one or more multi-dimensional cubes or hypercubes containing multidimensional data, which data is selected from or inserted into using a Multidimensional Expression (MDX), may be implemented. In the case of a database using tables and SQL, a database application such as, for example, MYSQL™, SQLSERVER™, Oracle 81™, 10G™, or some other suitable database application may be used to manage the data. In the case of a database using cubes and MDX, a database using Multidimensional Online Analytic Processing (MOLAP), Relational Online Analytic Processing (ROLAP), Hybrid Online Analytic Processing (HOLAP), or some other suitable database application may be used to manage the data. These tables or cubes made up of tables, in the case of, for example, ROLAP, are organized into a RDS or Object Relational Data Schema (ORDS), as is known in the art. These schemas may be normalized using certain normalization algorithms so as to avoid abnormalities such as non-additive joins and other problems. Additionally, these normalization algorithms may include Boyce-Codd Normal Form or some other normalization or optimization algorithm known in the art. A Three-Tier Architecture [0051] In some embodiments, a method is described as implemented in a distributed or non-distributed software application designed under a three-tier architecture paradigm, whereby the various components of computer code that implement this method may be categorized as belonging to one or more of these three tiers. Some embodiments may include a first tier as an interface (e.g., an interface tier) that is relatively free of application processing. Further, a second tier may be a logic tier that performs application processing in the form of logical/mathematical manipulations of data inputted through the interface level, and communicates the results of these logical/mathematical manipulations to the interface tier and/or to a backend or storage tier. These logical/mathematical manipulations may relate to certain business rules, or processes that govern the software application as a whole. A third, storage tier, may be a persistent or non-persistent storage medium. In some cases, one or more of these tiers may be collapsed into another, resulting in a two-tier or even a one-tier architecture. For example, the interface and logic tiers may be consolidated, or the logic and storage tiers may be consolidated, as in the case of a software application with an embedded database. This three-tier architecture may be implemented using one technology, or as will be discussed below, a variety of technologies. This three-tier architecture, and the technologies through which it is implemented, may be executed on two or more computer systems organized in a server-client, peer-to-peer, or some other suitable configuration. Further, these three tiers may be distributed between more than one computer system as various software components. Component Designs [0052] Some example embodiments may include the above described tiers, and processes or operations that make them up, as being written as one or more software components. Common to many of these components is the ability to generate, use, and manipulate data. These components, and the functionality associated with each, may be used by client, server, or peer computer systems. These various components may be implemented by a computer system on an as-needed basis. These components may be written in an object-oriented computer language such that a component oriented, or object-oriented programming technique can be implemented using a Visual Component Library (VCL), Component Library for Cross Platform (CLX), Java Beans (JB), Enterprise Java Beans (EJB), Component Object Model (COM), Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM), or other suitable technique. These components may be linked to other components via various Application Programming interfaces (APIs), and then compiled into one complete server, client, and/or peer software application. Further, these APIs may be able to communicate through various distributed programming protocols as distributed computing components. Distributed Computing Components and Protocols [0053] Some example embodiments may include remote procedure calls being used to implement one or more of the above described components across a distributed programming environment as distributed computing components. For example, an interface component (e.g., an interface tier) may reside on a first computer system that is located remotely from a second computer system containing a logic component (e.g., a logic tier). These first and second computer systems may be configured in a server-client, peer-to-peer, or some other suitable configuration. These various components may be written using the above-described object-oriented programming techniques and can be written in the same programming language or in different programming languages. Various protocols may be implemented to enable these various components to communicate regardless of the programming language(s) used to write them. For example, a component written in C++ may be able to communicate with another component written in the Java programming language through use of a distributed computing protocol such as a Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA), a Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), or some other suitable protocol. Some embodiments may include the use of one or more of these protocols with the various protocols outlined in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, or the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol stack model for defining the protocols used by a network to transmit data. A System of Transmission Between a Server and Client [0054] Some embodiments may use the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) basic reference model or Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol stack model for defining the protocols used by a network to transmit data. In applying these models, a system of data transmission between a server and client, or between peer computer systems is described as a series of roughly five layers comprising: an application layer, a transport layer, a network layer, a data link layer, and a physical layer. In the case of software having a three-tier architecture, the various tiers (e.g., the interface, logic, and storage tiers) reside on the application layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack. In an example implementation using the TCP/IP protocol stack model, data from an application residing at the application layer is loaded into the data load field of a TCP segment residing at the transport layer. The TCP segment also contains port information for a recipient software application residing remotely. The TCP segment is loaded into the data load field of an IP datagram residing at the network layer. Next, the IP datagram is loaded into a frame residing at the data link layer. This frame is then encoded at the physical layer, and the data is transmitted over a network such as the Internet, Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN), or some other suitable network. In some cases, the word “internet” refers to a network of networks. These networks may use a variety of protocols for the exchange of data, including the aforementioned TCP/IP. These networks may be organized within a variety of topologies (e.g., a star topology) or structures. A Computer System [0055] FIG. 19 shows a diagrammatic representation of a machine in the example form of a computer system 1900 within which a set of instructions for causing the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein may be executed. A server may be a computer system. In alternative embodiments, the machine operates as a standalone device or may be connected (e.g., networked) to other machines. In a networked deployment, the machine may operate in the capacity of a server or a client machine in server-client network environment, or as a peer machine in a peer-to-peer (or distributed) network environment. The machine may be a Personal Computer (PC), a tablet PC, a Set-Top Box (STB), a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), a cellular telephone, a web appliance, a network router, switch or bridge, or any machine capable of executing a set of instructions (sequential or otherwise) that specify actions to be taken by that machine. Further, while only a single machine is illustrated, the term “machine” shall also be taken to include any collection of machines that individually or jointly execute a set (or multiple sets) of instructions to perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein. Example embodiments can also be practiced in distributed system environments where local and remote computer systems that are linked (e.g., either by hardwired, wireless, or a combination of hardwired and wireless connections) through a network both perform tasks. In a distributed system environment, program modules may be located in both local and remote memory-storage devices (see below). [0056] The example computer system 1900 includes a processor 1902 (e.g., a Central Processing Unit (CPU), a Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) or both), a main memory 1901 and a static memory 1906 , which communicate with each other via a bus 1908 . The computer system 1900 may further include a video display unit 190 (e.g., a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)). The computer system 1900 also includes an alphanumeric input device 1956 (e.g., a keyboard), a User Interface (UI) cursor controller 1911 (e.g., a mouse), a disk drive unit 1916 , a signal generation device 1953 (e.g., a speaker) and a network interface device (e.g., a transmitter) 1920 . [0057] The disk drive unit 1916 includes a machine-readable medium 1946 on which is stored one or more sets of instructions 1917 and data structures (e.g., software) embodying or used by any one or more of the methodologies or functions described herein. The software may also reside, completely or at least partially, within the main memory 1901 and/or within the processor 1902 during execution thereof by the computer system 1900 , the main memory 1901 and the processor 1902 also constituting machine-readable media. [0058] The instructions 1917 may further be transmitted or received over a network 1926 via the network interface device 1920 using any one of a number of well-known transfer protocols (e.g., Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Secure Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTPS)). [0059] In some embodiments, a removable physical storage medium is shown to be a single medium, and the term “machine-readable medium” should be taken to include a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralized or distributed database, and/or associated caches and servers) that store the one or more sets of instructions. The term “machine-readable medium” shall also be taken to include any medium that is capable of storing, encoding, or carrying a set of instructions for execution by the machine and that cause the machine to perform any of the one or more of the methodologies described herein. The term “machine-readable medium” shall accordingly be taken to include, but not be limited to, solid-state memories, optical and magnetic media, and carrier wave signals. Market Place Applications [0060] Some example embodiments include a Capacity Planning Tool which enables project managers the ability to determine the amount of available capacity (for e.g., human resources, appropriation amounts) for a project. This available capacity may be quantified in the form of labor, cost, time, hardware availability, electrical power availability, and other types of applicable resources. [0061] Some example embodiments include an Executive Rollup Tool which provides a software application interface that allows for a project manager to review milestones, wherein these milestones may be filtered based upon the needs of the project manager. Additionally, a color coding method may be utilized to show or denote progress of a particular project. [0062] Some examples embodiments include a Visual Roadmap Tool that provides a rollup feature akin to a file tree/directory structure. Using this rollup feature progress of a project can be determined using a varying (increasing/decreasing) granularity level via providing a breakdown of the project progress. [0063] Some example embodiments include a PMO audit Tool that displays unattained milestones for a project, and provides associated audit capabilities for the project manager. In addition, various color coding methodologies are provided that can be used to denote particular milestones that are either met, not met or in jeopardy of being met. [0064] Some example embodiments include a Remote Email Approval Tool that provides project managers and executives interested in a particular project to receive email, SMS, or other electronic method to receive updates of project progress, audits, and the like. In some embodiments, the approver can approve projects using a mobile device such as a Blackberry®. Further, approval may be sought for moving forward with certain milestones using email, SMS etc. [0065] The Abstract of the Disclosure is provided to comply with 37 C.F.R. § 1.72(b), requiring an abstract that allows the reader to quickly ascertain the nature of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims. In addition, in the foregoing Detailed Description, it can be seen that various features are grouped together in a single embodiment for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed embodiments require more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of a single disclosed embodiment. Thus the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate embodiment.

In one example embodiment, a system and method is shown that includes receiving a plurality of appropriation amounts and corresponding requested amounts associated with a project. The system and method also includes tabulating the plurality of received appropriation amounts and requested amount data in a budget table. Further, initiating an approval request for a requested amount may also be implemented. In an additional embodiment, the system and method include sending the approval request to one or more approvers using an email system. Further, the system and method includes receiving an approval response from the approvers using the email system. Moreover, the system and method includes updating the budget table to indicate the status of the approval request.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is the National Stage filing under 35 U.S.C. 371 of International Application No. PCT/KR2013/001526, filed on Feb. 26, 2013, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. Nos. 61/605,767, filed on Mar. 2, 2012 and 61/609,897, filed on Mar. 12, 2012, the contents of which are all hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to the scanning method and apparatus of a station (STA) and, more particularly, to a method and an apparatus for performing active scanning by an STA. 2. Related Art A recent Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology is basically evolving into three directions. There are Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802.11ac and IEEE 802.11ad as efforts to further increase the transfer rate on the extension line of the existing WLAN evolution direction. IEEE 802.11ad is a WLAN technology using a 60 GHz band. Furthermore, a wide area WLAN that utilizes a frequency band of less than 1 GHz in order to enable wider area transfer than that of the existing WLAN in distance is recently emerging. The wide-area WLAN includes IEEE 802.11af that uses a TV White Space (TVWS) band and IEEE 802.11ah that uses a 900 MHz band. A main object of the wide-area WLANs is to extend extended range Wi-Fi services as well as the smart grid and a wide-area sensor network. Furthermore, the existing WLAN Medium Access Control (MAC) technology is problematic in that an initial link setup time is very long according to circumstances. In order to solve such a problem and in order for an STA to rapidly access an AP, IEEE 802.11ai standardization is recently in progress actively. IEEE 802.11ai is a MAC technology for handling a rapid authentication procedure in order to significantly reduce the initial setup and association time of a WLAN. Standardization activities for IEEE 802.11ai have been started as a formal task group on January, 2011. In IEEE 802.11ai, in order to enable a rapid access procedure, a discussion on the simplification of procedures in such fields AP discovery, network discovery, Time Synchronization Function (TSF) synchronization, authentication & association, and a procedure convergence with a higher layer is in progress. From among them, ideas, such as procedure convergence using the piggyback of a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), the optimization of a full Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) using a concurrent IP, and efficient and selective Access Point (AP) scanning, are being actively discussed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to provide the active scanning method of a station (STA). Another object of the present invention is to provide an apparatus for performing the active scanning method of a station (STA). An active scanning method in a WLAN according to an aspect of the present invention for achieving the aforementioned object of the present invention may includes the steps of receiving, by an Access Point (AP), a probe request frame comprising an AP identifier, determining whether or not the AP is a target AP or a non-target AP based on the AP identifier, and performing back-off for the transmission of a probe response frame from a second interval after a first interval of a minimum channel interval expires if the AP is the non-target AP, wherein the AP may be the target AP if the AP identifier is indicative of the AP, the AP may be the non-target AP if the AP identifier is not indicative of the AP, the minimum channel interval may be a minimum time used to scan each channel, and the minimum channel interval may include the first interval and the second interval. A step of performing the back-off for the transmission of the probe response frame in the first interval if the AP is the target AP may be further include. The probe request frame may include a first interval use field indicative of whether the first interval is used or not. The probe request frame further may include at least one first interval time field comprising information about a period assigned as the first interval. The step of performing the back-off for the transmission of the probe response frame from the second interval after the first interval of the minimum channel interval expires if the AP is the non-target AP may include overhearing whether or not the probe response frame is transmitted by the target AP during the first interval if the AP is the non-target AP and sending the probe response frame during the second interval if whether or not the probe response frame is transmitted by the target AP is not overheard during the first interval. Information about the AP identifier may be at least one of at least one Basic Service Set IDentification (BSSID), at least one Service Set IDentification (SSID), a mesh ID, a Homogeneous Extended Service Set IDentifier (HESSID), and a network ID. An AP for performing active scanning in a WLAN according to another aspect of the present invention for achieving the aforementioned object of the present invention may includes a processor. The processor may be configured to determine whether or not an AP is a target AP or a non-target AP based on an AP identifier included in a received probe request frame and to perform back-off for the transmission of a probe response frame from a second interval after a first interval of a minimum channel interval expires if the AP is the non-target AP. The AP may be the target AP if the AP identifier is indicative of the AP. The AP may be the non-target AP if the AP identifier is not indicative of the AP. The minimum channel interval may be a minimum time used to scan each channel, and the minimum channel interval may include the first interval and the second interval. The processor may be configured to perform the back-off for the transmission of the probe response frame in the first interval if the AP is the target AP. The probe request frame may include a first interval use field indicative of whether the first interval is used or not. The probe request frame further may include at least one first interval time field comprising information about a period assigned as the first interval. The processor may be configured to overhear whether or not the probe response frame is transmitted by the target AP during the first interval if the AP is the non-target AP and to send the probe response frame during the second interval if whether or not the probe response frame is transmitted by the target AP is not overheard during the first interval. Information about the AP identifier may be at least one of at least one Basic Service Set IDentification (BSSID), at least one Service Set IDentification (SSID), a mesh ID, a Homogeneous Extended Service Set IDentifier (HESSID), and a network ID. A phenomenon in which probe response frames are crowded within a short time is prevented by distributing an interval in which the probe response frames received by a station (STA). Furthermore, the time that is taken for an STA to perform active scanning can be reduced. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a conceptual diagram illustrating the configuration of a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN); FIG. 2 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning procedure; FIG. 3 is a conceptual diagram illustrating a method of sending a probe request frame; FIG. 4 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a conceptual diagram illustrating a probe request frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating a method of performing active scanning in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating a wireless apparatus to which an embodiment of the present invention may be applied. DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 is a conceptual diagram illustrating the configuration of a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN). FIG. 1(A) illustrates the configuration of an infrastructure network according to Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802.11. Referring to FIG. 1(A) , the WLAN system may include one or more Basic Service Sets (BSSs) 100 and 105 . Each of the BSSs 100 and 105 is a set of an AP and an STA, such as an Access Point (AP) 125 and a Station STA1 100 - 1 that are successfully synchronized with each other and are capable of communicating with each other. The BSS is not a concept indicative of a specific area. The BSS 105 may include one or more STAs 105 - 1 and 105 - 2 that may be associated with a single AP 130 . An infrastructure BSS may include at least one STA, the APs 125 and 130 providing distribution service, and a Distribution Systems (DS) 110 coupling a plurality of APs. The DS 110 may implement an Extended Service Set (ESS) 140 by coupling some BSSs 100 and 105 together. The ESS 140 may be used as a term indicative of a single network over which one or more APs 125 and 230 are connected through the DS 110 . APs included in a single ESS 140 may have the same Service Set IDentification (SSID). A portal 120 may function as a bridge for performing connection between a WLAN network (i.e., IEEE 802.11) and another network (e.g., 802.X). In an infrastructure network, such as that of FIG. 1(A) , a network between the APs 125 and 130 and a network between the APs 125 and 130 and the STAs 100 - 1 , 105 - 1 , and 105 - 2 may be implemented. However, a network may be configured between STAs so that the STAs may perform communication even without the APs 125 and 130 . A network configured between STAs so that the STAs may perform communication without the APs 125 and 130 is defined as an Ad-Hoc network or an independent Basic Service Set (BSS). FIG. 1(B) is a conceptual diagram illustrating an independent BSS. Referring to FIG. 1(B) , the Independent BSS (IBSS) is a BSS that operates in Ad-Hoc mode. The IBSS does not include a centralized management entity because it does not include an AP. That is, in the IBSS, STAs 150 - 1 , 150 - 2 , 150 - 3 , 155 - 4 , and 155 - 5 are managed in a distributed manner. In the IBSS, all the STAs 150 - 1 , 150 - 2 , 150 - 3 , 155 - 4 , and 155 - 5 may be mobile STAs, and they form a self-contained network because they cannot access a distribution system. An STA is a specific function medium, including Medium Access Control (MAC) that complies with the rules of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standard and a physical layer interface for a radio medium, and may be used as a meaning including both an AP STA and a non-AP STA in a broad sense. An STA may be called as various names, such as a mobile terminal, a wireless device, a Wireless Transmit/Receive Unit (WTRU), User Equipment (UE), a Mobile Station (MS), a mobile subscriber unit, or simply a user. FIG. 2 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning procedure. Referring to FIG. 2 , the active scanning procedure may be performed in accordance with the following steps. (1) An STA 200 determines whether it is ready to perform a scanning procedure. The STA 200 may perform active scanning, for example, after a probe delay time expires or until specific signaling information (e.g., PHY-RXSTART.indication primitive) is received. The probe delay time is delay generated before a probe request frame 210 is transmitted when the STA 200 performs active scanning. The PHY-RXSTART.indication primitive is a signal transmitted from a physical (PHY) layer to a local Medium Access Control (MAC) layer. The PHY-RXSTART.indication primitive may signal information indicative that a PLCP Protocol Data Unit (PPDU) including a valid PLCP header has been received in a Physical Layer Convergence Protocol (PLCP) to the MAC layer. (2) The STA 200 performs basic access. In the 802.11 MAC layer, some STAs may share a radio medium using, for example, a Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) that is a contention-based function. The DCF is an access protocol, and can prevent a collision between STAs through a back-off method using Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). The STA 200 may send the probe request frame 210 to APs 260 and 270 using a basic access method. (3) The STA 200 may include information (e.g., information about a Service Set IDentification (SSID) and a Basic Service Set IDentification (BSSID)) for specifying the APs 260 and 270 , included in an MLME-SCAN.request primitive, in the probe request frame 210 , and may send the probe request frame 210 . The BSSID is an indicator for specifying an AP, and may have a value corresponding to the Medium Access Control (MAC) address of the AP. A Service Set IDentification (SSID) is a network name for specifying an AP that may be read by a person who operates an STA. The BSSID and/or the SSID may be used to specify an AP. The STA 200 may specify an AP based on information for specifying the APs 260 and 270 included in the MLME-SCAN.request primitive. The specified APs 260 and 270 may send probe response frames 250 and 240 to the STA 200 . The STA 200 may include the information about the SSID and the BSSID in the probe request frame 210 and sending the probe request frame 210 by unicasting, multicasting, or broadcasting the probe request frame 210 . A method of unicasting, multicasting, or broadcasting the probe request frame 210 using the information about the SSID and the BSSID is additionally described with reference to FIG. 3 . For example, if an SSID list is included in the MLME-SCAN.request primitive, the STA 200 may include the SSID list in the probe request frame 210 and send the probe request frame 210 . The APs 260 and 270 may receive the probe request frame 210 , may determine an SSID included in the SSID list included in the probe request frame 210 , and may determine whether or not to send the probe response frames 240 and 250 to the STA 200 . (4) The STA 200 resets a probe timer to 0 and then drives the probe timer. The probe timer may be used to check a minimum channel time ‘MinChanneltime’ 220 and a maximum channel time ‘MaxChanneltime’ 230 . The minimum channel time 220 and the maximum channel time 230 may be used to control the active scanning operation of the STA 200 . The minimum channel time 220 may be used to perform an operation for changing a channel in which the STA 200 performs active scanning. For example, if the STA 200 has not received the probe response frames 240 and 250 until the minimum channel time 220 , the STA 200 may change a scanning channel and perform scanning in another channel. If the STA 200 has received the probe response frames 240 and 250 until the minimum channel time 220 , the STA 200 may wait until the maximum channel time 230 and process the received probe response frames 240 and 250 . The STA 200 may detect a PHY-CCA.indication primitive until the probe timer reaches the minimum channel time 220 , and may determine whether or not the probe response frames 240 and 250 have been received by the STA 200 prior to the minimum channel time 220 . The PHY-CCA.indication primitive includes information about the state of a medium, and may be transmitted from the physical layer to the MAC layer. The PHY-CCA.indication primitive may provide notification of the state of a current channel using a channel state parameter called ‘busy’ if the channel is not available, and may provide notification of the state of a current channel using a channel state parameter called ‘idle’ if the channel is not available. If the PHY-CCA.indication is detected as being busy, the STA 200 may determine that the probe response frames 240 and 250 received by the STA 200 are present. If the PHY-CCA.indication is detected as being idle, the STA 200 may determine that the probe response frames 240 and 250 received by the STA 200 are not present. If the PHY-CCA.indication is detected as being idle, the STA 200 may set a Net Allocation Vector (NAV) to 0 and scan a next channel. If the PHY-CCA.indication is detected as being busy, the STA 200 may perform processing on the probe response frames 240 and 250 received after the probe timer has reached the maximum channel time 230 . After processing the received probe response frames 240 and 250 , the STA 200 may set a Net Allocation Vector (NAT) to 0 and scan a next channel. Hereinafter, in an embodiment of the present invention, to determine whether the probe response frames 240 and 250 received by the STA 200 are present or not may include determining the state of a channel using the PHY-CCA.indication primitive. (5) If all channels included in a channel list ‘ChannelList’ are scanned, the MLME may signal an MLME-SCAN.confirm primitive. The MLME-SCAN.confirm primitive may include BSSDescriptionSet including all pieces of information that have been obtained in the scanning process. If the STA 200 uses an active scanning method, the STA 200 needs to perform monitoring for determining whether the parameter PHY-CCA.indication is busy or not until the probe timer reaches a minimum channel time. Accordingly, although a probe response frame has been received from an AP specified through the probe request frame 210 prior to the minimum channel time, there is a problem in that unnecessary channel monitoring continues to be performed until the minimum channel time is reached. Furthermore, although a probe response frame has been received from a specified AP, unnecessary delay in performing active scanning may occur because processing on a probe request frame received after wait until the probe timer reaches a maximum channel time is performed. FIG. 3 is a conceptual diagram illustrating a method of sending a probe request frame. FIG. 3 discloses a method of broadcasting, multicasting, and unicasting a probe request frame. FIG. 3(A) is a method of broadcasting, by an STA 300 , a probe request frame 310 . The STA 300 may include a wildcard SSID and a wildcard BSSID in the probe request frame 310 , and may broadcast the probe request frame 310 . The wildcard SSID and the wildcard BSSID may be used as identifiers indicative of all APs 305 - 1 , 305 - 2 , 305 - 3 , 305 - 4 , and 305 - 5 that are included in the coverage of the STA 300 . If the STA 300 includes the wildcard SSID and the wildcard BSSID in the probe request frame 310 and sends the probe request frame 310 , the APs 305 - 1 , 305 - 2 , 305 - 3 , 305 - 4 , 305 - 5 that have received the probe request frame 310 transmitted by the STA 300 may send probe response frames to the STA 300 in response to the received probe request frame. If the APs 305 - 1 , 305 - 2 , 305 - 3 , 305 - 4 , and 305 - 5 that have received the broadcasted probe request frame 310 send the probe response frames to the STA 300 within a specific time in response to the received probe request frame 310 , there may be a problem in that the STA 300 has to receive and process too many probe response frames at once. FIG. 3(B) is a method of unicating, by an STA 320 , a probe request frame 330 . Referring to FIG. 3(B) , if the STA 320 unicasts the probe request frame 330 , the STA 320 may send the probe request frame 330 including information about a specific SSID/BSSID of an AP. The STA 320 may send the probe response frame to only an AP 325 that belongs to APs that have received the probe request frame 330 and that corresponds to a specific SSID/BSSID. FIG. 3(C) is a method of multicasting, by an STA 340 , a probe request frame 360 . Referring to FIG. 3(C) , the STA 340 may include an SSID list and a wildcard BSSID in the probe request frame 360 and send the probe request frame 360 . APs 350 - 1 and 350 - 2 that belong to APs that have received the probe request frame 360 and that correspond to SSIDs included in the SSID list included in the probe request frame may send probe response frames to the STA 340 . When an STA unicasts/multicasts a probe request frame as in FIGS. 3(B) and 3(C) , there may be a case where a probe response frame may not be received from an AP corresponding to an SSID that is specified in the probe request frame transmitted by the STA. In such a case, the STA that has not received the probe response frame waits until a minimum channel time, changes a scanning channel to another channel, and performs scanning in another channel. That is, unnecessary delay in performing active scanning may occur because the STA that has not received the probe response frame from the specified AP may change a scanning channel only after it waits until the minimum channel time. Accordingly, an active scanning method according to an embodiment of the present invention discloses a method of reducing unnecessary delay generated when an STA performs active scanning and rapidly associating the STA with an AP. Furthermore, there is disclosed a method for solving a problem in that an STA receives too many probe response frames in a specific time interval in an existing active scanning method. FIG. 4 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 discloses a method of receiving, by an STA 400 , a probe response frame from a specified at least one target AP 410 only in a first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , that is, a set time interval, if the STA 400 specifies at least one AP that will send a probe response frame and sends a probe request frame 430 to the specified at least one AP. Hereinafter, in an embodiment of the present invention, if an STA unicasts or multicasts a probe request frame using information for specifying an AP, such as an SSID, an SSID list, or a BSSID, the specified AP is called a target AP. The remaining APs not specified by the probe request frame are called non-target APs. Referring to FIG. 4 , the STA 400 may specify the target AP 410 that will respond to the transmitted probe request frame 430 , and may send the probe request frame 430 to the specified target AP 410 . For example, the STA 400 may include information for specifying an AP, such as an SSID or an SSID list, in the probe request frame 430 , and may send the probe request frame 430 . The STA 400 may specify the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 that belongs to a minimum channel time 440 as an interval in which a probe response frame is received from the target AP 410 only, and may use the specified first minimum channel time 440 - 1 . That is, the STA 400 may define some specified interval that belongs to the minimum channel time 440 and in which the probe response frame is received from the target AP as the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , and may define intervals, belonging to the minimum channel time 440 other than the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , as a second minimum channel time 440 - 2 . A first interval, that is, another term, may be used as the same meaning as the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , and a second interval, that is, another term, may be used as the same meaning as the second minimum channel time 440 - 2 . That is, in an embodiment of the present invention, the terms called the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 and the second minimum channel time 440 - 2 are used and described, but the first interval and the second interval may be interpreted as being the same meanings. The first minimum channel time 440 - 1 may mean a time interval that is preferentially used for the target AP 410 to send a probe response frame 415 and for the STA 400 to receive the probe response frame 415 from the target AP 410 . That is, in the first minimum channel time, the target AP may perform back-off for sending the probe response frame. In the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , the STA 400 may receive the probe response frame 415 from only the target AP 410 that has been specified through the probe request frame 430 . After the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , the STA 400 may receive a probe response frame 425 even from a non-target AP 420 that is not specified through the probe request frame 430 . The probe request frame 430 including information about the target AP 410 may be transmitted to the non-target AP 420 in addition to the target AP 410 . The probe request frame 430 may include information about the first minimum channel time, for example, information about whether the first minimum channel time is used or not and information about the time that is set as the first minimum channel time. FIG. 5 is a conceptual diagram illustrating a probe request frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 5 , the probe request frame may include first minimum channel time information field ‘FirstMinChannel information field’ 510 including information about whether or not a first minimum channel time is used. For example, the first minimum channel time information field 510 may be assumed to operate on or off as flag information. If the first minimum channel time information field is on, an AP that has received a probe request frame may obtain information indicative that an STA will receive a probe response frame from a target AP using the first minimum channel time. If the first minimum channel time information field is off, an AP that has received a probe request frame may obtain information indicative that an STA does not use the first minimum channel time. If the first minimum channel time is used, the time assigned as the first minimum channel time is a predetermined value, and may have a value smaller than the minimum channel time. A field including information about whether or not the first minimum channel time (or the first interval) is used may be called a first interval use field. As another method, the first minimum channel time field 510 may include information about the time assigned as the first minimum channel time. A target AP that has received the probe request frame may send a probe response frame to an STA within the time assigned as a first minimum channel time based on information about the time assigned as the first minimum channel time included in the first minimum channel time field 510 . Information about a second minimum channel time may also be included in the probe request frame. That is, the probe request frame may include a field including information about a period (or an interval) that is assigned as a first minimum channel time (or a first interval). Furthermore, the probe request frame may information for specifying an AP. For example, at least one BSSID, at least one SSID, a mesh ID, a Homogeneous Extended Service Set IDentifier (HESSID), or a network ID (e.g., a roaming consortium ID) may be used as the information for specifying an AP. An STA may specify an AP that will send a probe response frame by including information about at least one AP ID of the IDs in the probe request frame and then sending the probe request frame. Such information about an AP ID may be included in the identifier field of a target AP ‘Indication of target AP field’ 500 and transmitted. The names of the fields disclosed in FIG. 5 are arbitrary, and other names may be used. Furthermore, the information included in the field disclosed in FIG. 5 may be transmitted in various information formats in such a manner that the information is included in a field not an independent field and transmitted. (2) After sending the probe request frame 430 , the STA 400 monitors the probe response frame 415 received from the target AP 410 during the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 . (3) If the STA 400 receives the probe response frame 415 from the target AP 410 within the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , the STA 400 may be associated with the target AP 410 by performing an authentication and association process along with the target AP 410 . In the case of the existing active scanning method, if the STA 400 receives a probe response frame from an AP within the minimum channel time 440 , the STA 400 waits until a maximum channel time 450 is reached and then performs processing on the received probe response frame. Accordingly, unnecessary delay is generated in performing active scanning. If the active scanning method disclosed in the present invention is used, however, the STA 400 may preferentially receive the probe response frame 415 from the target AP 410 in the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , and may directly perform an authentication and association procedure along with the target AP 410 . Accordingly, unnecessary delay generated in active scanning can be reduced because the STA 400 does not need to unnecessarily wait until the maximum channel time 450 . Furthermore, in the case of the existing active scanning method, the availability of a channel was monitored using the PHY-CCA.indication primitive until the minimum channel time 440 . In the active scanning method disclosed in the present invention, however, an unnecessary monitoring section can be reduced because a section in which the availability of a channel is monitored using the PHY-CCA.indication primitive is limited to the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 and monitoring is performed on the channel. In another embodiment, if a signal received from another AP (e.g., the non-target AP 420 ) has an SNR better than that received from the target AP 410 , in order to select the signal having the better SNR, the STA 400 may wait until the maximum channel time 450 without performing an authentication and association procedure along with the target AP 410 , and may process the received probe response frames 415 and 425 after the maximum channel time 450 . If the probe response frame 415 is not received from the target AP 410 within the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , the STA 400 may change a scanning channel to another channel and perform a scanning procedure. In another method, the STA 400 may additionally determine whether or not the probe response frame 415 transmitted by the non-target AP 420 is received until the minimum channel time 440 . An embodiment of the present invention to be described later discloses a method of additionally determining whether or not the probe response frame 425 transmitted by the non-target AP 420 is received until the minimum channel time 440 . If the STA 400 uses a method of receiving the probe response frame 415 from the target AP 410 in the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , a phenomenon in which probe response frames are simultaneously received within a specific time interval can be prevented and the STA 400 can be rapidly associated with the target AP 410 because the SAT 400 preferentially receives the probe response frame 415 of the target AP 410 . (4) If the STA 400 does not receive the probe response frame 415 from the target AP 410 in the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , the STA 400 may determine whether or not a probe response frame is received until the minimum channel time 440 . Hereinafter, in an embodiment of the present invention, a time interval in which whether or not a probe response frame is received is determined by determining whether or not the probe response frame is received is determined is called the minimum channel time 440 . The STA 400 may receive the probe response frame 425 from the non-target AP 420 after the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 . If the STA 400 does not receive a probe response frame from the target AP 410 and the non-target AP 420 until the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 , the STA 400 may change a scanning channel to another channel and perform a scanning procedure. That is, if the second minimum channel time (i.e., the second interval) is started after the first minimum channel time, the non-target AP 420 may perform back-off for sending the probe response frame. A case where the probe response frame 415 is not received from the target AP 410 in the first minimum channel time 440 - 1 may be generated, for example, in a case where the STA moves. If an STA is associated with an AP installed by the user of the STA indoors and then moved outdoors, the STA is unaware of information about the AP included in the coverage of the STA. In such a case, if the STA specifies an AP and sends a probe request frame to the specified AP, the STA is unable to receive a probe response frame from the specified AP. Accordingly, the STA may receive a probe response frame from a non-target AP other than a target AP after a first minimum channel time, and may perform association with the non-target AP. If the STA 400 receives the probe response frame 425 from the non-target AP 420 , the STA 400 may perform an authentication and association procedure along with the non-target AP 420 that has sent the probe response frame 425 after the minimum channel time 440 expires. Alternatively, the STA 400 may wait until the maximum channel time 450 , may receive an additional probe response frame if the additional probe response frame is transmitted, may perform processing on the received probe response frame after the maximum channel time 450 expires, and may perform an authentication and association procedure. (5) If the STA 400 does not receive a probe response frame during the minimum channel time 440 , the STA 400 may change a scanning channel to another channel and perform the aforementioned procedure of (1)-(4) again. The various embodiments described with reference to FIG. 4 are disclosed in detail below with reference to FIGS. 6 to 8 . FIG. 6 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 discloses a method of preferentially receiving, by an STA 600 , a probe response frame 615 from a target AP 610 within a first minimum channel time 606 and performing an authentication and association procedure along with the target AP 610 . Referring to FIG. 6 , the STA 600 may send a probe request frame 625 including the SSID of the target AP 610 . The target AP 610 that belong to APs that have received the probe request frame 625 and that corresponds to the SSID may send the probe response frame 615 in the first minimum channel time 606 . The STA 600 may receive the probe response frame 615 from the target AP 610 and perform an authentication and association procedure along with the target AP 610 . A non-target AP 620 may overhear whether or not the probe response frame 615 is transmitted by the target AP 610 . If the probe response frame 615 is transmitted by the target AP 610 based on a result of the overhearing, the non-target AP 620 may not send a probe response frame to the STA 600 . If such a method is used, an unnecessary probe response frame can be prevented from being transmitted to the STA 600 . Furthermore, the non-target AP 620 may send the probe response frame 615 to the STA 600 regardless of whether or not the probe response frame 615 is transmitted by the target AP 610 . A non-target AP may be aware of whether or not a probe response frame is transmitted by a target AP based on an interface between APs instead of overhearing the probe response frame. If the STA 600 does not receive the probe response frame 615 in the first minimum channel time 606 , the STA 600 may wait for a probe response frame, transmitted after the first minimum channel time 606 , until a minimum channel time 603 , or may change a scanning channel to another channel after the first minimum channel time 606 and perform scanning ( 650 ) in another channel. FIG. 7 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 discloses a method of performing, by an STA 700 , an authentication and association procedure along with a non-target AP 720 if the STA 700 receives a probe response frame 730 from the non-target AP 720 within a minimum channel time 703 without receiving a probe response frame from a target AP 710 in a first minimum channel time 706 . Referring to FIG. 7 , the STA 700 may receive the probe response frame 730 from the non-target AP 720 within the minimum channel time 703 . If the STA 700 receives the probe response frame 730 from the non-target AP 720 within the minimum channel time 703 , the STA 700 may immediately perform an authentication and association procedure along with the non-target AP 720 that has sent the probe response frame 730 , or may wait until a maximum channel time 709 and perform an authentication and association procedure along with an AP that has sent the probe response frame 730 . The target AP 710 may send a probe response frame within the minimum channel time 703 after the first minimum channel time 706 expires. In such a case, the STA 700 may preferentially process the probe response frame transmitted by the target AP 710 and perform an authentication and association procedure along with the target AP 710 . FIG. 8 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 discloses a case where an STA 800 has not received a probe response frame within a minimum channel time 803 . If the STA 800 has not received a probe response frame within the minimum channel time 803 , the STA 800 may change a channel in which active scanning is performed to another channel, and may perform scanning. FIG. 9 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 9(A) to 9(C) are conceptual diagrams illustrating a method of sending, by a target AP 910 and non-targets AP 920 and 930 , a probe response frame if the target AP 910 and the non-target APs 920 and 930 are present in the coverage of the probe request frame of an STA 900 . Referring to FIG. 9(A) , the STA 900 may send a probe request frame 905 that includes information capable of specifying an AP, such as the SSID of the target AP 910 . The probe request frame 905 may also be transmitted to the non-target APs 920 and 930 in addition to the target AP 910 specified through the SSID. The probe request frame 905 may include information related to a first minimum channel time. The target AP 910 and the non-target APs 920 and 930 may obtain information about timing at which a probe response frame has to be transmitted to the STA 900 based on the information related to the first minimum channel time that is included in the received probe request frame 905 . Referring to FIG. 9(B) , only a target AP 910 may send a probe response frame 915 to an STA 900 during a first minimum channel time. The target AP 910 may send the probe response frame 915 to the STA 900 within the first minimum channel time. If the STA 900 receives the probe response frame 915 from the target AP 910 within the first minimum channel time and immediately performs authentication and association along with the target AP 910 , the STA 900 may not receive a probe response frame transmitted after the first minimum channel time. In another embodiment, in order to additionally overhear whether or not an AP that sends a probe response frame having a better SNR is present, the STA 900 may receive an additional probe response frame for a time that has been predetermined in order to perform authentication and association. (3) After the first minimum channel time, non-target APs 920 and 930 send probe response frames 925 and 935 . After the first minimum channel time, the non-target APs 920 and 930 may send the probe response frames 925 and 935 to the STA 900 . For example, if an STA is externally moved, an AP different from an AP previously registered with the STA needs to be used. In such a case, if the SSID of a specific AP is specified and a probe request frame is unicasted, there is a good possibility that the STA may not receive the probe response frame from the specified AP because the STA is unaware of the SSID of the external AP. In such a case, the STA 900 may receive the probe response frames 925 and 935 from the non-target APs 920 and 930 other than the target AP 910 , and may perform authentication and association. If the target AP 910 and the non-target APs 920 and 930 do not send the probe response frames 925 and 935 to the STA 900 during a minimum channel time, the STA 900 may change a channel in which scanning is performed to another channel. In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, if the target AP 910 sends the probe response frame 915 , the non-target APs 920 and 930 may overhear the probe response frame 915 transmitted by the target AP 10 and not send the probe response frames 925 and 935 . FIG. 10 is a conceptual diagram illustrating an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 10 , if an STA 1000 receives a probe response frame 1015 from a target AP 1010 with which the STA 1000 wants to be associated, an additional time may be assigned so that the STA 1000 does not need to receive a probe response frame from the non-target APs 1020 and 1030 . For example, in the case of an AP shared in a specific office, there is a possibility that the signal of the AP may be the greatest within the office. Accordingly, if the target AP 1010 sends the probe response frame 1015 and performs authentication and association, other non-target APs 1020 and 1030 may not need to send probe response frames. The STA 1000 may send a specific probe request frame to the target AP 1010 , and the target AP 1010 may send the probe response frame 1015 to the STA 1000 within a first minimum channel time. In this case, the non-target APs 1020 and 1030 may overhear the probe response frame 1015 transmitted by the target AP 1010 . If the non-target APs 1020 and 1030 overhear the probe response frame 1015 transmitted by the target AP 1010 , the non-target APs 1020 and 1030 may not send probe response frames even after the first minimum channel time. If such a method is used, an unnecessary operation of generating and sending, by the non-target APs 1020 and 1030 , probe response frames can be reduced. A phenomenon in which the STA 1000 unnecessarily receives probe response frames can be prevented because the STA 1000 may not receive an unnecessary probe response frame. FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating a method of performing active scanning in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 11 , an STA monitors whether or not a probe response frame transmitted by a target AP is received for the first minimum channel time (step S 1100 ). The STA may send a probe request frame including information about the target AP and information related to the first minimum channel time. The target AP and a non-target AP may receive the probe request frame transmitted by the STA. The target AP may preferentially send the probe response frame to the STA within the first minimum channel time, and the non-target AP may send a probe response frame to the STA after the first minimum channel time. The STA may monitor only the probe response frame transmitted by the target AP in the first minimum channel time. Since the target AP preferentially sends the probe response frame and the non-target AP additionally sends the probe response frame in the remaining time interval, a phenomenon in which the probe response frames are crowded and received in a specific time interval can be prevented because the probe response frames can be distributed and received. The STA determines whether or not the probe response frame transmitted by the target AP has been received in the first minimum channel time (step S 1110 ). If, as a result of the determination, the probe response frame has been received from the target AP in the first minimum channel time, the STA processes the probe response frame transmitted by the target AP and performs an authentication and association process (step S 1120 ). The STA may receive the probe response frame from the target AP in the first minimum channel time. In such a case, the STA may perform an authentication and association step along with the target AP right before a maximum channel time expires. If such a method is used, the delay of active scanning, that is, an existing problem generated because a received probe response frame is processed after the probe response frame is received until the maximum channel time, can be reduced. If the probe response frame is transmitted by the target AP, the non-target AP may overhear the probe response frame transmitted by the target AP. If the non-target AP has overheard the probe response frame transmitted by the target AP, the non-target AP may not send the probe response frame even after the first minimum channel time. In an embodiment different from step S 1120 , if the probe response frame transmitted by the target AP is received in the first minimum channel time, the STA may additionally receive a probe response frame transmitted after the first minimum channel time, and may perform an authentication and association procedure. The STA monitors whether or not a probe response frame is transmitted during a minimum channel time (step S 1130 ). The non-target AP may send the probe response frame to the STA even after the first minimum channel time. If the target AP does not send the probe response frame in the first minimum channel time, the STA may monitor the transmission of an additional probe response frame up to the minimum channel time. The STA may monitor whether or not a probe response frame is transmitted during the minimum channel time (step S 1140 ). If the probe response frame is transmitted within the minimum channel time, the STA may perform an authentication and association procedure based on the received probe response frame (step S 1150 ). If the probe response frame is transmitted within the minimum channel time, the STA may immediately perform the authentication and association procedure based on the received probe response frame. In another method, the STA may wait until the maximum channel time without performing an authentication and association procedure. If an additional probe response frame is transmitted within the maximum channel time, the STA may receive the additional probe response frame, may process a probe response frame received after the maximum channel time expires, and may perform an authentication and association procedure. If a probe response frame is not received during the minimum channel time, the STA may change a scanning channel to another channel and perform active scanning (step S 1160 ). FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating a wireless apparatus to which an embodiment of the present invention may be applied. The wireless apparatus 1200 is an STA capable of implementing the aforementioned embodiments, and may be an AP or non-AP STA. The wireless apparatus 1200 may include a processor 1220 , memory 1240 , and a Radio Frequency (RF) unit 1060 . The RF unit 1260 is connected to the processor 1220 , and may send/receive radio signals. The processor 1220 implements the functions, processes and/or methods proposed by the present invention. For example, the processor 1220 may be implemented to perform an active scanning method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The processor 1220 may be implemented to determine whether an AP is a target AP or a non-target AP based on an AP identifier included in a received probe request frame. If the AP is a non-target AP, the processor 1220 may be implemented to perform back-off for the transmission of a probe response frame from a second interval after a first interval of a minimum channel interval expires. Furthermore, if the AP is a non-target AP, the processor 1220 may be implemented to overhear whether or not a probe response frame has been transmitted by the target AP during the first interval. If whether or not a probe response frame has been transmitted by the target AP is not overheard during the first interval, the processor 1220 may be implemented to send a probe response frame during the second interval. That is, the processor 1220 may be implemented to perform the aforementioned embodiments of the present invention. The processor 1220 may include Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), other chipsets, logic circuits, data processing devices and/or converters for mutually converting baseband signals and radio signals. The memory 1240 may include Read-Only Memory (ROM), Random Access Memory (RAM), flash memory, memory cards, storage media and/or other storage devices. The RF unit 1260 may include one or more antennas for sending and/or receiving radio signals. When an embodiment is implemented in software, the aforementioned scheme may be implemented using a module (process or function) which performs the aforementioned functions. The module may be stored in the memory 1240 and executed by the processor 1220 . The memory 1240 may be present inside or outside the processor 1220 , and may be connected to the processor 1220 using a variety of well-known means.

A device and method for active scanning are disclosed. The active scanning method in a wireless LAN can comprise the steps of: allowing an AP to receive a probe request frame containing an the AP identifier; determining whether the AP is a target AP or a non-target AP on the basis of the AP identifier; and performing back-off for the transmission of a probe response frame from a second interval after a first interval is terminated in a minimum channel interval when the AP is a non-target AP. Therefore, the present invention can prevent probe response frames from flooding a STA in a short period of time by distributing intervals in which probe response frames are received to the STA. In addition, the time used by the STA to perform active scanning can be reduced.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/748,361, filed Dec. 30, 2003, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/3047,200, filed Nov. 26, 2002, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/059,507, filed Jan. 29, 2002, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/176,481 Oct. 21, 1998, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/955,590, filed Oct. 22, 1997, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT [0002] Not applicable REFERENCE TO A “MICROFICHE APPENDIX” [0003] Not applicable BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0004] 1. Field of the Invention [0005] The present invention relates generally to an engine that produces energy through a process known as Cavitation and Associated Bubble Dynamics, and specifically to a method and apparatus for a combustion engine that uses bubbles within a fluid as the combustion chamber and for providing the combustion thereof. More particularly, the present invention relates to combustion-type engines that require compression and not spark ignition as part of the combustion process. Even more particularly, the present invention relates to an improved combustion engine that uses a fuel source in the form of a combustible fluid material having been mechanically influenced to provide gas bubbles that are rather small and which bubbles contain a combination of oxygen, water and the burnable fuel matter in vapor form. The term “micro-combustion chamber” as used herein is referring to such small gas bubbles. The bubble combustion process creates an expansion that produces force for driving a pair of rotating members within the chamber. These members have vanes that are so positioned that expansion of the combusting matter contained within the bubbles causes these two particular rotating members to rotate in opposite directions relative to one another, therefore, generating torque that is transmitted to a shaft through a gearing arrangement. [0006] 2. General Background of the Invention [0007] Combustion engines are well known devices for powering vehicles, generators and other types of machinery. Some engines require a spark ignition. Some engines such as diesel type engines only require compression for combustion to occur. [0008] Combustion diesel engines use one or more reciprocating pistons to elevate the pressure within a corresponding cylinder in order to achieve combustion. [0009] Among the disadvantages of such engines are inefficiencies caused by heat losses, frictional losses and unharnessed (wasted) work due to the reciprocation of each piston. For example, in a eight cylinder engine, only one cylinder is producing power at any given moment while all eight cylinders are constantly contributing to frictional losses. The reciprocation of each piston also results in unwanted vibration and noise. In addition, due to the relatively low combustion temperatures in such reciprocating piston engines, excessive pollutants such as particulates and carbon monoxide are produced by these engines. [0010] Furthermore, reciprocating piston engines require refined fuel such as gasoline made from cracking of oil that is performed in refineries and costly to produce. Such engines also require complex fuel injection or carbureation systems, camshafts, electrical systems and cooling systems that can be expensive and difficult to maintain. [0011] Accordingly, there is a need for more efficient, smoother running and lower emission alternative fuel engines for use in vehicles, generators, and other machinery. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] It is an object of the present invention to overcome one or more of the problems described above. [0013] In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, a method for increasing the pressure of a fluid in a combustion engine is provided. The method comprises the steps of: creating a bubble of gaseous material within a fluid; elevating the pressure within the bubble to a level such that the temperature inside the bubble reaches a flash point; and obtaining combustion within the bubble. [0014] In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, a method for generating torque on a rotating shaft is provided. The method comprises the steps of: providing a chamber connected to the shaft for rotation therewith, the chamber having a fluid inlet and a fluid outlet; feeding a fluid into the chamber, the fluid including at least one gaseous bubble; elevating the pressure within the bubble to a level such that the temperature inside the bubble reaches a flash point; and producing combustion within the bubble to elevate the pressure of fluid in the chamber, thereby driving fluid through certain member vanes producing torque and then out through the chamber fluid outlet. [0015] In accordance with yet another aspect of the present invention, a combustion engine comprises a pump, a fluid reservoir, a drive shaft having a passage therein, and a high pressure chamber fixedly attached to the drive shaft for rotation therewith. [0016] The high pressure chamber contains a compression drive unit including one or more compression drives blades fixedly attached on the drive shaft, a combustion channel unit rotatably journalled on the drive shaft and containing one or more combustion channels, an impulse drive unit including one or more impulse drives blades rotatable journalled on the drive shaft, and a planetary gear set. [0017] The planetary gear set includes a ring gear fixedly attached to one of two end plates that are fixedly attached to the drive shaft for rotation therewith, a sun gear fixedly attached to the impulse drive unit for rotation therewith, and one or more planet gears. Each planet gear is rotatable journalled on the combustion channel unit at a location radially intermediate the sun gear and the ring gear and in meshing engagement with the sun gear and the ring gear. [0018] Therefore, the present invention provides a combustion engine of improved configuration that burns matter contained within small bubbles of a fluid stream, combust these bubbles and produces torque on the shaft. [0019] The apparatus includes a housing with an interior for containing fluid in a reservoir section. A rotating drive shaft is mounted in the housing and includes a portion that extends inside the housing interior above the fluid reservoir. [0020] A chamber is mounted on the drive shaft within the housing interior for rotation therewith. [0021] The chamber includes a power generating system or unit that is positioned within the chamber interior for rotating the drive shaft when fluid flow and bubble combustion take place within the chamber interior. Fluid is provided to the power generating unit via circulation conduit that supplies fluid from the reservoir to the chamber power generating system preferably via a bore that extends longitudinally through the drive shaft and then transversely through a port and into the chamber. [0022] Within the chamber, the fluid follows a circuitous path through various rotating and non-rotating parts. These parts include at least three rotating members each with vanes thereon, the respective vanes being closely positioned with a small gap therebetween so that when the rotating members are caused to rotate in a given rotational direction, the bubbles are compressed and combustion of the material in the small bubbles occurs and torque is produced. [0023] A starter is used to preliminarily rotate the shaft and initiate fluid flow. The fluid flow centrifugally causes the respective internal chamber members to rotate. The respective rotating members are so configured and geared, that when they are rotated, they will rotate at different speeds and in relative opposite rotational directions due to the force cause by the fluid flow, however, they will try to rotate in the same direction due to the force cause by the gearing. These conflicting forces configure a fluid flow design that provides a high pressure zone and produces bubble compression. Bubble combustion occurs when two things happen. First, the bubble critical compression produces a sufficiently high temperature in the bubble nucleus to initiate burn. Second, the bubble pressure is lowered. These two steps define one complete combustion cycle. The bubble high pressure and low pressure points occur at the interface between two of the rotating members. The bubble combustion occurs just before the bubble leaves the compression pressure zone. The bubble combustion will apply force in two different fields of direction. This combustion process produces a net expansion force that causes the blades of the two interfacing members to separate and, thereby, causes the two interfacing members proper to rotate in opposite rotational directions. [0024] A gear mechanism is used to transfer the rotary power from both of the two rotating members to the drive shaft. [0025] It is to be understood that both the foregoing generally description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed. Additional features and advances of the invention will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be apparent from the description or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention will be realized and attained by the apparatus and method particularly pointed out in the written description and claims hereof, as well as, the appended drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0026] For a further understanding of the nature, objects, and advantages of the present invention, reference should be made to the following detailed description and read in conjunction with the following drawings, wherein like reference numerals denote like elements and wherein: [0027] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0028] FIG. 2 is another perspective view of the preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0029] FIG. 3 is a partially cutaway front elevational view of the preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0030] FIG. 4 is a partial top view of the preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention illustrating the chamber, flinger plate, and drive shaft; [0031] FIG. 5 is a sectional view taken along lines 5 - 5 of FIG. 4 ; FIG. 6 is a sectional view taken along lines 6 - 6 of FIG. 5 ; [0032] FIG. 7 is a sectional view taken along lines 7 - 7 of FIG. 5 ; [0033] FIG. 8 is a sectional view taken along lines 8 - 8 of FIG. 5 ; [0034] FIG. 9 is a fragmentary enlarged view of the vane and combustion interface, an enlargement of a portion of FIG. 7 that is encircled in phantom lines; [0035] FIG. 10 is a partial perspective exploded view of the preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention illustrating the combustion channels unit and impulse drive unit portions thereof; [0036] FIG. 11 is a perspective fragmentary view of the preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention illustrating the compression drive unit; [0037] FIG. 12 is a perspective exploded partially cutaway view of the preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention illustrating the working parts mounted on the drive shaft; [0038] FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a second embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0039] FIG. 14 is another perspective view of the second embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0040] FIG. 15 is a partially cut away front elevational view of the second embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0041] FIG. 16 is a partial top view of the second embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention illustrating the chamber, flinger plate, and drive shaft; FIG. 17 is a sectional view taken along lines 17 - 17 of FIG. 16 ; [0042] FIG. 18 is a sectional view taken along lines 18 - 18 of FIG. 17 ; [0043] FIG. 19 is a sectional view taken along lines 19 - 19 of FIG. 17 ; [0044] FIG. 20 is a sectional view taken along lines 20 - 20 of FIG. 17 ; [0045] FIG. 21 is a sectional view taken along lines 21 - 21 of FIG. 17 ; [0046] FIG. 22 is a sectional view taken along lines 22 - 22 of FIG. 17 ; [0047] FIG. 23 is an enlarged fragmentary view of the second embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention showing an enlargement of a portion of FIG. 20 and combustion that takes place at an interface between the torque drive blades and combustion channel blades; [0048] FIG. 24 is a partial exploded perspective view of the second embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0049] FIG. 25 is a fragmentary sectional elevational view of the alternate embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention illustrating fluid flow and combustion at the interface between torque drive blades and combustion channel blades; [0050] FIG. 26 is a perspective view of the third embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0051] FIG. 27 is another perspective view of the third embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0052] FIG. 28 is a partially cut away front elevation view of the third embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0053] FIG. 29 is a schematic view of the third embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0054] FIG. 30 is a partial, sectional view of the third embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0055] FIG. 31 is a sectional view taken along lines 31 - 31 of FIG. 30 ; [0056] FIG. 32 is a sectional view taken along lines 32 - 32 of FIG. 30 ; [0057] FIGS. 33-33A are sectionals view taken along lines 33 - 33 of FIG. 30 , FIG. 33A being a partial enlargement of FIG. 33 ; [0058] FIG. 34 is an exploded perspective view of the third embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0059] FIG. 35 is a sectional view of a fourth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0060] FIG. 36 is a sectional view taken along lines 36 - 36 in FIG. 35 ; [0061] FIG. 37 is a perspective view of a fifth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0062] FIG. 38 is another perspective view of the fifth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0063] FIG. 39 is a partial sectional elevation view of the fifth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention taken along lines 39 - 39 of FIG. 1 ; [0064] FIG. 40 is a fragmentary elevation view of the fifth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0065] FIG. 41 is a sectional view of the fifth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0066] FIG. 42 is a sectional view taken along lines 42 - 42 of FIG. 41 . [0067] FIG. 43 is a partial sectional view of the fifth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0068] FIG. 44 is a fragmentary view of the fifth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; [0069] FIG. 45 is a sectional view taken along lines 45 - 45 of FIG. 41 ; [0070] FIG. 46 is a sectional view taken along lines 46 - 46 of FIG. 41 ; and [0071] FIG. 47 is an exploded, partial perspective view of the fifth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0072] FIGS. 1-4 show generally the preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention designated generally by the numeral 10 in FIGS. 1, 2 , and 3 . Combustion engine 10 has an enlarged housing 11 with an interior 14 . The housing 11 is comprised of upper and lower sections including a lower reservoir section 12 and an upper cover section 13 . [0073] Fluid 15 is contained in the lower portion of reservoir section 12 as shown in FIG. 3 , the fluid 15 having a fluid level 16 that is well below chamber 28 and drive shaft 24 . The fluid can be most any combustible fluid including automatic transmission fluid, hydraulic fluid, vegetable oil, corn oil, peanut oil, for example. A plurality of feet 17 can be used to anchor housing 11 to a pedestal, mount, concrete base, or like structural support. A pair of sealing mating flanges 18 , 19 can be provided respectively on housing sections 11 , 12 to form a closure and seal that prevents leakage during use. [0074] A pair of spaced apart transversely extending beams 20 , 21 such as the I-beams shown, can be welded to housing reservoir section 12 providing structural support for supporting drive shaft 24 and its bearings 22 , 23 . The drive shaft 24 is to be driven by a rotating member contained within chamber 28 as will be described more fully hereinafter. For reference purposes, drive shaft 24 has a pair of end portions including starter end portion 25 and fluid inlet end portion 26 . Drive shaft 24 carries chamber 28 and flinger plate 27 . [0075] In FIG. 4 , the chamber 28 including its cylindrically-shaped wall portion 50 and its circular end walls 51 , 52 is mounted integrally to and rotates with shaft 24 . Similarly, flinger plate 27 is connected integrally to and rotates with shaft 24 . The flinger plate 27 is used to aerate the liquid 15 after it has been transmitted to chamber 28 and exists therefrom through a plurality of jets 90 (see FIG. 5 ). The fluid exits via jets 90 and 15 strikes the flinger plate 27 which is rotating with shaft 24 during use. Plate 27 throws the fluid 15 radially away from plate 27 due to the centrifugal force of plate 27 as it rotates with shaft 24 . [0076] The circulation of fluid 15 through the apparatus 10 begins at reservoir section 12 wherein a volume of liquid 15 is contained below fluid surface 16 as shown. The complete travel of fluid 15 through the apparatus 10 is completed when fluid exits chamber 28 and strikes flinger plate 27 , being thrown off flinger plate 27 as shown by arrow 61 in FIG. 5 to strike housing 11 and then drain to reservoir section 12 of housing 11 . This exiting of fluid 15 from chamber 28 so that it strikes flinger plate 27 creates very small bubbles in fluid 15 that will be the subject of combustion when that aerated fluid 15 again enters chamber 28 via shaft 24 bore 55 as will be described more fully herein. [0077] In FIGS. 1-3 , fluid 15 from reservoir section 12 is first pumped with pump 33 to flow outlet line 32 . This is accomplished initially with a starter motor 42 that rotates shaft 24 . The rotating shaft 24 then rotates pump 33 using power take off 36 . [0078] Fluid is transferred from reservoir section 12 via outlet port 35 to suction line 34 . Fluid flows from suction line 34 to pump 33 and then to flow outlet line 32 . The fluid then flows through control valve 31 to flow inlet line 30 . A bypass line 40 enables a user to divert flow at control valve 31 so that only a desired volume of fluid enters flow inlet line 30 and hollow bore 55 of shaft 24 at rotary coupling 29 . Once fluid 15 is transmitted to bore 55 , it flows into the interior 71 of chamber 28 for use as a source of combustion as will be described more fully hereinafter. Shaft 24 is connected to flow inlet line 30 with a rotary fluid coupling 29 . Power take off 36 can be in the form of a pair of sprockets 37 , 38 connected to pump 33 and drive shaft 24 respectively as shown in FIG. 2 . A chain drive 39 can be used to connect the two sprockets 37 , 38 . Rotation of the drive shaft 24 thus effects a rotation of the pump 33 so that fluid will be pumped from reservoir section 12 of housing 11 via lines 30 , 32 to bore 53 of shaft 24 once starter motor 42 is activated. If fluid 15 is to be bypassed using bypass 40 , it is simply returned to reservoir section 12 via bypass line 40 and port 41 . [0079] Starter motor 42 can be an electric or combustion engine for example. The motor 42 is mounted upon motor mount 43 . Shaft 24 provides a sheave 44 . Motor drive 42 has a sheave 45 . A sheave 46 is provided on clutch 53 . The sheaves 44 , 45 , 46 are interconnected with drive belt 49 . Clutch 53 also includes a sheave support 47 and a lever 48 that is pivotally attached to mount 43 and movable as shown by arrow 54 in FIG. 1 . [0080] In order to initiate operation, fluid is pumped using pump 33 and motor 42 from reservoir 15 into bore 55 of shaft 24 and then into transverse port 56 . Fluid 15 is picked up by compression drive blades 76 and is centrifugally thrown around and across to combustion channel blades 83 (see arrows 80 , 81 ). Fluid at arrow 81 strikes combustion channel blades 83 and rotates them clockwise in relation to starter 24 end of drive shaft 24 . Continued fluid flow in the direction of arrow 81 causes fluid 15 to hit vanes 63 of impulse drive unit 60 , rotating unit 60 counter clockwise in relation to the starter end 24 of shaft 24 . [0081] Fluid then returns along the impulse drive unit 60 to exit channels 101 (see arrow 84 ). Since there are only two channels 101 , some fluid 15 recirculates to blades 76 . Fluid exiting channels 101 enters reservoir 102 and then exits chamber 28 at outlet jets 90 to strike flinger plate 27 . At plate 27 the liquid 15 is thrown by centrifugal force to housing 11 where it drains into reservoir section 12 . [0082] In order to start the engine 10 , the user cranks the starter motor 42 until drive shaft 24 rotates to a desired RPM. On an actual prototype apparatus 10 , the starter motor 42 is cranked until the drive shaft 24 reaches about 1600 RPM's. At that time, the small air bubbles (containing oxygen and vapor from the fluid 15 ) begin to burn at the combustion site designated as 62 in FIG. 9 so that the shaft 26 is driven. When the matter in these bubbles begins to burn, the bubbles expand. In FIG. 9 , vanes 63 , 83 on two rotary parts 60 , 65 capture this expansion. The vanes 63 , 83 are so positioned and shaped that the rotary parts 60 , 65 rotate in opposite directions. These two rotary parts are the impulse drive unit 60 and the combustion channels unit 65 . These rotary parts 60 and 65 are part of a mechanism contained within chamber 28 . [0083] The inner workings of chamber 28 are shown more particularly in FIGS. 4-8 . Shaft 24 supports chamber 28 . The chamber 28 end plates 51 , 52 are rigidly fastened to shaft 24 and rotate therewith. In FIG. 5 , the starter end 25 of shaft 24 has an externally threaded portion 66 that accepts lock nut 67 . Lock ring 68 bolts to end plate 52 at bolted connections 69 . Key 70 locks lock ring 68 and thus end plate 52 to shaft 24 . Such a lock ring 68 and lock nut 67 arrangement is used to affix end plate 51 to the fluid inlet end portion 26 of shaft 24 . [0084] The combination of end plates 51 , 52 and cylindrical canister 50 define an enclosure with an interior 71 to which fluid is transmitted during use for combustion. Fluid that enters shaft bore 55 passes through transverse passageway 56 in the direction of arrow 57 to interior 71 of chamber 28 . Bearing 72 is mounted on shaft 24 in between end plates 51 , 52 . Sleeve 73 is mounted on bearing 72 . Transverse openings through shaft 24 , bearing 72 and sleeve 73 define transverse flow passage 56 . [0085] Impulse drive unit 60 ( FIGS. 5 and 10 ) is rotatably mounted with respect to shaft 24 , being journalled on shaft 24 at transverse passageway 56 . A plurality of preferably four radially extending flow outlet openings 74 enable flow to continue on a path extending radially away from shaft 24 as shown by arrows 75 in FIG. 5 . The flow the passes through blades or vanes 76 of compression drive unit 77 , a part that is affixed to end plate 51 at bolted connections 78 . Bearings 79 can form a load transfer interface between compression drive unit 77 and sleeve 73 . The fluid 15 passes over vanes 76 of compression drive unit 77 and radially beyond vanes 76 as shown by arrow 80 in FIG. 5 due to centrifugal force as shaft 24 and chamber 28 are rotated (initially by starter motor 42 ). Bearing 96 rotatably mounts compression channels unit 65 to sleeve 59 . [0086] Fluid 15 travels from compression drive blades 76 across cavity 82 in the direction of arrows 80 , 81 to combustion channel blades 83 of combustion channels unit 65 . Continued fluid flow brings fluid 15 to and through the blades or vanes 63 of impulse drive unit 60 . [0087] Combustion occurs at the interface of combustion channel blades 83 and the impulse drive blades 63 . These respective blades 63 and 83 are very close together (see FIGS. 7 and 9 ) so that severe turbulence causes rapid compression of these bubbles 79 and combustion of their contents (fluid 15 vapor and oxygen). The combustion of the matter within these bubbles 79 causes rapid expansion. This combination of expansion and the shapes of the blades 63 , 83 drives the impulse drive unit 60 and combustion channel unit in opposite rotary directions (see FIG. 9 ). [0088] When viewed from the starter end 25 of shaft 24 (see FIGS. 7 and 9 ) the impulse drive unit 60 rotates counter clockwise and the combustion channels unit 65 rotates counter clockwise. A mix of incoming fluid (arrow 76 in FIG. 5 ) and outgoing fluid (arrow 84 in FIG. 5 ) occurs at 85 before fluid 15 exits chamber 28 at fluid outlet jets 90 in plate 51 as shown by arrows 91 . [0089] Combustion channel unit 65 is bolted to combustion channel inner housing 84 and rotates with it. This assembly of unit 65 and housing 84 are bolted to planet gear mounting plate 85 and rotates therewith. Bolted connection 86 affixes planet gear mounting plate 85 , combustion unit inner housing 84 and combustion channels unit 65 together. [0090] A plurality (preferably four) planet gears 87 are rotatably mounted ninety degrees (90°) apart to planet gear mounting plate at rotary bushings 95 . Ring gear 89 is bolted at connections 94 to end plate 52 and rotates therewith. [0091] When viewed from the starter end 25 of shaft 24 , the planet gear mounting plate 85 rotates clockwise (see FIG. 12 ) during combustion as do the combustion channel unit 65 and combustion channel inner housing 84 all bolted together as an assembly. However, because of the planetary gearing 87 , 88 , 89 these parts 65 , 84 , 85 rotate slower than shaft 24 . [0092] Sun gear 88 is mounted to impulse drive unit 63 with sleeve 59 . Sun gear 88 can connect to sleeve 59 at bolted connections 92 . A splined connection 93 can connect sleeve 59 to impulse drive unit 63 . Thus, combustion at the impulse drive unit blades 63 (see FIG. 9 ) rotates the impulse drive unit 60 counter clockwise (relative to shaft 24 starter end 25 ) and sleeve 59 connects that counter clockwise rotation to sun gear 88 . [0093] Power to drive shaft 24 is generated as follows. Rotational directions are in relation to the starter end 25 of shaft 24 (see FIG. 12 ). Impulse drive unit 60 and combustion channels unit 65 rotate in opposite rotational directions once the starter motor generates rotation of shaft 24 and initiates fluid flow to a rotational speed of about 1600 rpm. Fluid pumped with pump 33 enters shaft bore 57 and chamber 28 interior via transverse passageway 56 . Fluid 15 flow travels over blades 76 of compression drive unit 77 (see arrows 79 , 80 , 81 ) to the interface between blades 63 and 83 (see FIG. 9 ). Initially, fluid flow generated by pump 33 causes fluid 15 flow in the direction of arrows 81 ( FIGS. 5, 8 , and 9 ) to rotate impulse drive unit 60 in a counter clockwise direction and combustion channels unit 65 in a clockwise direction. Once rotational speed of shaft 24 reaches about 1600 rpm, the material in bubbles 79 in between blades 63 of impulse drive unit 60 and blades 83 of combustion channel unit 65 burns. [0094] Compression of the bubbles 79 at this interface 62 between blades 63 and 83 causes combustion of the fluid vapor-oxygen mixture inside each bubble 79 much in the same way that compression causes ignition and combustion in diesel type engines without the necessity of a spark. In FIG. 9 , the gap 100 in between blades 63 and 83 is very small, being about 40 mm. [0095] Fluid 15 return to reservoir section 12 is via flow channels 101 in drive unit 60 and then to annular reservoir 102 that communicates with jets 90 . Reservoir 102 is defined by generally cylindrically shaped receptacle 103 bolted at 104 to end wall 51 . A loose connection is made at 105 in between receptacle 103 and impulse drive unit 60 . Arrows 106 show fluid flow through impulse drive unit 60 flow channels 101 to reservoir 102 . [0096] If impulse drive unit 60 and sun gear 88 rotate counter clockwise and the planet gears 87 (and the attached planet gear mounting plate 85 , combustion unit inner housing 84 and combustion channels unit 65 ) rotate clockwise, the ring gear 89 and right end plate 52 (mounted rigidly to shaft 24 ) rotate clockwise at a faster rotary rate than impulse drive unit 60 and sun gear 88 due to the planetary gear ( 87 , 88 , 89 ) arrangement. This can be a 3-1 gear ratio. [0097] The engine 10 of the present invention is very clean, not having an “exhaust” of any appreciable amount. Residue of combustion is simply left behind in the fluid 15 . [0098] FIGS. 13-25 show a second embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention designated generally by the numeral 110 in FIGS. 13, 14 , and 15 . Combustion engine 110 has an enlarged housing 111 with an interior 114 . The housing 111 is comprised of upper and lower sections including a lower reservoir section 112 and an upper cover section 113 . [0099] Fluid 115 is contained in the lower portion of reservoir section 112 as shown in FIG. 15 , the fluid 115 having a fluid level 116 that is well below chamber 128 and drive shaft 124 . The fluid can be any combustible fluid including automatic transmission fluid, hydraulic fluid, vegetable oil, corn oil, or peanut oil, for example. A plurality of feet 117 can be used to anchor housing 111 to a pedestal, mount, concrete base, or like structural support. A pair of sealing mating flanges 118 , 119 can be provided respectively on housing sections 112 , 113 to form a closure and seal that prevents leakage during use. [0100] A pair of spaced apart transversely extending beams 120 , 121 such as the I-beams shown, can be welded to housing reservoir section 112 providing structural support for supporting drive shaft 124 and its bearings 122 , 123 . The drive shaft 124 is to be driven by a rotating member contained within chamber 128 as will be described more fully hereinafter. For reference purposes, drive shaft 124 has a pair of end portions including starter end portion 125 (right end portion) and fluid inlet end portion 126 (left end portion). Drive shaft 124 carries chamber 128 and flinger plate 127 . [0101] In FIGS. 15-16 , the chamber 128 including its cylindrically-shaped wall portion 150 and its circular end walls 151 , 152 is mounted integrally to and rotates with shaft 124 . Similarly, flinger plate 127 is connected integrally to and rotates with shaft 124 . The flinger plate 127 is used to aerate the liquid 115 after it has been transmitted to interior 171 of chamber 128 and exits therefrom through a plurality of jets 190 (see FIGS. 15, 16 , 17 ). The fluid 115 exits via jets 190 and strikes the flinger plate 127 which is rotating with shaft 124 during use. Plate 127 throws the fluid 115 radially away from plate 127 due to the centrifugal force of plate 127 as it rotates with shaft 124 . [0102] The circulation of fluid 115 through the apparatus 110 begins at reservoir section 112 wherein a volume of liquid 115 is contained below fluid surface 116 as shown. The complete travel of fluid 115 through the apparatus 110 is completed when fluid exits chamber 128 and strikes flinger plate 127 , fluid 115 being thrown off flinger plate 127 as shown by arrows 161 in FIG. 17 to strike housing 111 and then drain to reservoir section 112 of housing 111 . This exiting of fluid 115 from chamber 128 so that it strikes flinger plate 127 creates very small bubbles in fluid 115 that will be the subject of combustion when that aerated fluid 115 again enters chamber 128 via shaft 124 bore 155 as will be described more fully herein. [0103] In FIGS. 13-15 , fluid 115 from reservoir section 112 is first pumped with pump 133 to flow outlet line 132 . This pumping is accomplished initially with a starter motor 142 that rotates shaft 124 . The rotating shaft 124 then rotates pump 133 using power take off 136 . [0104] Fluid is transferred from reservoir section 112 via outlet port 135 to suction line 134 . Fluid flows from suction line 134 to pump 133 and then to flow outlet line 132 . The fluid 115 then flows through fluid control valve 131 to flow inlet line 130 . A bypass flow line 140 enables a user to divert flow at control valve 131 so that only a desired volume of fluid enters flow inlet line 130 and hollow bore 155 of shaft 124 at swivel or rotary fluid coupling 129 . Once fluid 115 is transmitted to bore 155 , it flows into the interior 171 of chamber 128 for use as a source of combustion. [0105] Shaft 124 is connected to flow inlet line 130 with rotary fluid coupling 129 . Power take off 136 can be in the form of a pair of sprockets 137 , 138 connected to pump 133 and drive shaft 124 respectively as shown in FIG. 14 . A chain drive 139 can be used to connect the two sprockets 137 , 138 . Rotation of the drive shaft 124 thus effects a rotation of the pump 133 so that fluid will be pumped from reservoir section 112 of housing 111 via lines 130 , 132 to bore 155 of shaft 124 once starter motor 142 is activated. If fluid 115 is to be bypassed using bypass 140 , it is simply returned to reservoir section 112 via bypass line 140 and flow port 141 . In this manner, the quantity of fluid 115 flowing to interior 171 can be controlled. [0106] The configuration and inner workings of chamber 128 are shown more particularly in FIGS. 15-17 . Shaft 124 supports chamber 128 . The chamber 128 end wall plates 151 , 152 and canister wall 150 are rigidly fastened to shaft 124 and rotate therewith. In FIG. 17 , the starter end 125 of shaft 124 has an external threads 167 that accepts lock nut 168 . Lock ring 169 bolts to end plate 152 at bolted connections 161 . Key 165 locks lock ring 169 and thus end plate 152 to shaft 124 . Such a lock ring 169 and lock nut 168 arrangement is also used to affix end plate 151 to the fluid inlet end portion 126 of shaft 124 . [0107] Starter motor 142 can be an electric or combustion engine for example. The motor 142 is mounted upon motor mount 143 . Shaft 124 provides a sheave 144 . Motor drive 142 has a sheave 145 . A sheave 146 is provided on clutch 153 . The sheaves 144 , 145 , 146 are interconnected with drive belt 149 . Clutch 153 also includes a sheave support 147 and a lever 148 that is pivotally attached to mount 143 and movable as shown by arrow 154 in FIG. 13 . [0108] When motor 142 is started and clutch 153 engaged, shaft 124 rotates sprocket 138 and (via chain 139 ) sprocket 137 . The sprocket 137 activates and powers pump 133 to pump fluid 115 from outlet line 134 to line 132 and through line 130 to swivel (e.g. a deublin swivel) fluid coupling 129 mounted on shaft 124 . Fluid 115 enters bore or fluid flow channel 155 to port 156 and then to an accumulation or pre-ignition chamber 172 . Chamber 172 is preferably always filled with fluid 115 . [0109] In order to initiate operation, fluid is pumped using pump 133 and motor 142 from reservoir 115 into bore 155 of shaft 124 and then into transverse port 156 as shown by arrows 157 . Fluid discharged from port 156 enters annular chamber 160 . Fluid then enters chamber 171 via port 188 . [0110] Fluid at arrows 180 , 181 strikes compression-impulse drive blades 183 and the fluid rotates with them counterclockwise in relation to starter end 125 of drive shaft 124 . Continued fluid flow in the direction of arrow 181 , 182 causes fluid 115 to hit combustion channel blades 163 and then torque blades 166 . As shown in FIG. 25 fluid 115 carries a large number of small bubbles 179 to blades 183 , 163 , 166 . The compression-impulse drive blades 183 are so angled (i.e. blade pitch), that they act as a pump to pitch up fluid in chamber 172 and drive it into combustion channel blades 163 that are a part of and rotate with combustion channel blades housing 170 (see arrows 180 , 181 , 182 in FIG. 17 ). [0111] In order to start the engine 110 , the user cranks the starter motor 142 until drive shaft 124 rotates to a desired r.p.m. On an actual prototype apparatus 110 , the starter motor 142 is cranked until the drive shaft 124 reaches about 1500-1600 r.p.m. At that time, the small air bubbles 179 (containing oxygen and vapor from the fluid 115 ) begin to burn at the combustion site, designated as 162 in FIGS. 17 and 23 so that the shaft 124 can be driven. [0112] When the matter contained in these bubbles 179 begins to burn, the bubbles 179 expand. In FIGS. 17, 23 and 25 , blades or vanes 163 , 166 on two rotary parts capture this expansion. The blades or vanes 163 , 166 are so positioned and so shaped that two rotary parts rotate at different rotational speeds to compress and ignite the bubbles as one vane 163 closely engages another vane. These two rotary parts are the drive sleeve 164 carrying blades 166 and the combustion channels blade housing 170 carrying blades 163 . These rotary parts 164 and 170 are part of the mechanism contained within chamber 28 . The blades 163 and housing 170 are connected to a set of planet gears 174 (i.e. left planet gears) and a ring gear 173 (i.e. right ring gear). [0113] The concept of the apparatus 110 of the present invention is to provide an internal energy source (i.e. combustion at site 162 in FIGS. 23-25 ) in order to put torque on the main drive shaft 124 so that the engine apparatus 110 continues to run from the generated energy of internal combustion. Because of the gearing provided by the assembly of ring gears 173 , 186 and planet gears 174 , 176 and sun gears 175 , 185 the blades 166 rotate faster than blades 163 . The close spacing between blades 163 , 166 (about 0.030 inches) compresses bubbles 179 at combustion site 162 as each bubble 179 is pinched and compressed in between passing blades 163 , 166 . Ignition is thus a function of compression of each bubble 179 , somewhat analogous to the compressive ignition of a diesel engine. [0114] The right ring gear 173 and right sun gear 175 on the output side (right side) rotate at a faster speed than the output (right side) planet gear 176 . The right planet gears are connected to right end wall 152 . The wall 152 is attached rigidly to shaft 124 . [0115] On the left side, planet gear 174 is rotatably mounted to mounting plate 177 with shaft 184 . Plate 177 is rigidly mounted to (e.g. bolted) and rotates with combustion channel blades housing 170 (see FIG. 25 ). Note that the housing 170 thus carries both the left planet gears 184 using plate 177 and the right (output) ring gear 173 using plate 189 . When the left planet gear 184 is driven, the right ring gear 173 is simultaneously driven. [0116] When the left sun gear 185 is driven, the right sun gear 175 is also driven, because the sun gears 175 , 185 are connected to and rotate with the drive sleeve 164 that rotates independently of main drive shaft 124 . The left ring gear 186 runs at same speed of shaft 124 because it is bolted to thrust wall 206 and thus to chamber 128 at canister wall 150 . Bushing 207 is positioned in between thrust wall 206 and drive sleeve 164 . [0117] Plant gear (right) 176 and compression-impulse drive blades 183 run at the same rotational speed as drive shaft 124 . If the shaft 124 is rotating at an index speed of 1 r.p.m., the left ring gear 186 and right planet gear 170 also rotate at 1 r.p.m. If the ring gear 186 is rotating at 1 r.p.m., the left planet gear 174 will rotate about the shaft at 33 % slower rotational speed i.e. 0.66 r.p.m. The planet gear 174 will rotate several times about its own rotational axis as it rotates 0.66 r.p.m. relative to the rotational axis of the shaft. Stated differently, the planet gear mounting plate 177 carrying left planet gears 174 will rotate 0.66 r.p.m. for each 1.0 r.p.m. of shaft 124 . [0118] The result of this gearing is that sun gears 175 , 185 connected together with drive sleeve 164 will rotate at about 1.5 r.p.m. for each 1.0 r.p.m. of shaft 124 when planet mounting plate 177 is caused by fluid flow to rotate at about the same speed as shaft 124 . [0119] Fluid 115 carries small bubbles 179 that will burn at combustion site 162 . The interface at combustion site 162 is a very small dimension of about 0.030 inches of spacing between blades 163 and 166 , that designated spacing indicated by arrow 178 in FIG. 23 . [0120] Once the starter motor reaches about 1600 r.p.m., a stream of fluid 115 containing bubbles 179 which have been impulsed by blades 183 is introduced at interface 162 (combustion site) to generate combustion. The combustion produces an expansion that rotates blades 166 (and everything connected to blades 166 ) counterclockwise (see arrow 159 in FIG. 17 ) when looking at the starter end 125 of drive shaft 124 . These additional parts that rotate with blades 166 include drive sleeve 164 and sun gears 175 , 185 . [0121] Combustion channel blades housing 170 is a rotary member that is fastened at bolted connection 205 to plate 189 (see FIGS. 17 and 25 ). Plate 189 is bolted to ring gear 173 at bolted connection 192 as shown in FIG. 17 . The assembly of combustion channel blades housing 170 , the combustion channel blades 163 , plate 189 , and ring gear 173 rotate as a unit. The compression-impulse drive blades 183 are mounted to and rotate with rotary member 191 that is mounted for rotation upon cylindrical sleeve 193 that is also connected for rotation to right planet gear mounting plate 194 . Thrust bearing assembly 195 forms an interface in between the two afore described rotating assemblies. One such assembly includes rotating member 191 , sleeve 193 , and planetary gear mounting plate 194 . The other rotating assembly includes combustion channel blades housing 170 , plate 189 , and ring gear 173 . Each of the planet gears 174 , 176 provides a planet gear shaft 184 that attaches it to an adjacent mounting plate 177 or 194 . [0122] As fluid 115 reaches the combustion site 162 (see FIGS. 23 and 25 ), the fluid 115 continues movement in the direction of arrows 196 from blades 163 to combustion site 162 . Fluid 115 then flows through and below blades 166 in FIG. 23 . After combustion occurs, the fluid 115 enters annular chamber 197 and port 198 . Flow divider 158 separates chambers 160 , 200 . Some of the fluid flows through port 199 into annular chamber 200 as shown in FIG. 25 . Other flow, as indicated by arrow 201 , returns to chamber 172 . One or more longitudinally extending channels 202 are provided in drive sleeve 164 for channeling fluid from annular chamber 200 into reservoir 187 as shown in FIGS. 17 and 25 . This flow of fluid from torque blades 166 to jets 190 is shown by arrows 203 in FIG. 17 . Fluid exiting reservoir 187 is dispensed by jets 190 against flinger plate 127 as indicated by arrows 204 in FIG. 17 . [0123] FIGS. 26-34 show a third embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention designated generally by the numeral 210 . Combustion engine 210 includes a housing 211 having a reservoir section 212 and a cover 213 that is removably attached to the reservoir section 212 . The interior 214 of housing 211 is partially filled with fluid 215 , the fluid level being indicated by arrow 216 . Housing 211 can be provided with a plurality of feet 217 . [0124] In order to perfect a fluid seal between reservoir section 212 and cover 213 , a pair of peripheral mating flanges 218 , 219 are provided. The flange 218 is on the reservoir section 212 . The flange 219 is on the cover section 213 . [0125] In FIG. 28 , a pair of beams 220 , 221 support bearings 222 , 233 respectively. Bearings 222 , 223 support drive shaft 224 . Drive shaft 224 has a starter end portion 225 and a fluid inlet end portion 226 . In this application, directions of rotations of various parts will be referred to as either clockwise rotation or counterclockwise rotation. These rotations are always in reference to a viewer standing at the starter end portion 225 of shaft 224 and looking at the machine from the starter end portion 225 . [0126] Flinger plate 227 is attached to shaft 224 and rotates therewith. The flinger plate 227 receives fluid that exits cylindrical cannister 250 via nozzles 280 . As the fluid exits the chamber 228 , it strikes flinger plate 227 and is hurled against the walls of housing 11 because of centrifugal force. Fluid is added to housing 211 at rotary fluid coupling 229 as shown in FIGS. 28 and 29 . In FIG. 29 , a flow chart of the fluid flow is schematically shown. The fluid 215 is first screened and/or filtered at screen filter 240 and then enters one of the flow outlet pipes 232 A or 232 B. Hydraulic pumps 233 A, 233 B pump fluid to flow divider 234 . Valves 231 A, 231 B control the amount of fluid that enters flow lines 230 or 235 . The flow lines 232 B, 235 define a recirculation flow line that simply routes fluids back to the reservoir section 212 . The valve 231 A determines the amount of fluid that is routed via flow line 230 to rotary coupling 229 and then to chamber 228 . [0127] Hydraulic pumps 233 A, 233 B are preferably hydraulically driven using power takeoff 236 . Power takeoff 236 includes sprockets 237 A, 237 B and chain drive 239 . Vertical support 238 carries flow divider 234 and valves 231 A, 231 B. Flow ports 241 A, 241 B transmit fluid to and from housing 211 . Port 241 A communicates with flow line 232 A. Port 241 B communicates with flow line 232 B. [0128] In FIGS. 26 and 28 , starter motor 242 is shown contained upon motor mount 243 . A plurality of sheaves 244 , 245 , 246 are connected by belt 249 as shown. Lever 248 is provided for tightening the belt 249 . Sheave support 247 interconnects lever 248 with sheave 246 . A user pulls upon the lever 248 in the direction of arrow 254 in order to tighten the belt 249 and impart energy from starter motor 242 to shaft 224 , rotating the shaft until combustion occurs within chamber 228 . [0129] Chamber 228 includes an outer enclosure defined by cylindrical cannister wall 250 and circular end walls 251 , 252 . The chamber 228 is connected to shaft 224 and rotates therewith when the clutch 253 comprised of starter motor 242 , sheaves 244 - 246 and belt 249 is engaged. When the shaft 224 is rotated, the power takeoff 236 engages the pumps 233 A, 233 B to begin pumping fluid 215 . The fluid enters shaft flow channel 255 and transverse passageway 256 , fluid flowing in the direction of arrow 257 . In FIG. 30 , the connection between chamber 228 and shaft 224 is shown as including an externally threaded portion 266 of shaft 224 that receives lock nut 267 and lock ring 268 . A bolted connection 269 fastens lock ring 268 to end plate 252 . A similar connection is formed between end plate 251 and shaft 224 next to flinger plate 227 . Chamber 228 and shaft 224 rotate clockwise (viewed from starter motor 242 ) as one fixed assembly. The shaft 242 is set in bearings 222 , 223 ( FIG. 28 ). [0130] In FIG. 34 , an exploded view of the chamber 228 is shown with the cylindrical cannister wall 250 removed for clarity. FIG. 30 shows the internal parts of chamber 228 . [0131] In the exploded view of FIG. 34 , and in the sectional view of FIG. 30 , the left end plate 251 and right end plate 252 are shown attached to shaft 224 . Left planet gears 262 are rotatably mounted to left end plate 251 at shafts 281 using fasteners 282 . Right ring gear 263 is fastened (eg. bolted) to right end plate 252 . [0132] The left ring gear 260 drives the right planet gears 264 . The left sun gear 261 rotates counter clockwise as shown in FIG. 34 . The left end plate 251 rotates clockwise as shown in FIG. 34 with shaft 224 . The left sun gear 261 rotates counter clockwise and is connected to the reaction blades 265 . The left ring gear 260 rotates faster than shaft 224 , and is connected to the pump blades 270 . The pump blades 270 are connected to left ring gear 260 and rotate faster than shaft 224 . [0133] Reaction blades 265 are connected to left sun gear 261 with sleeve 288 and rotate counter clockwise to shaft 224 . Pump blades wall 292 is mounted to pump blades 270 (see FIG. 30 ). The wall 292 acts as a baffle for fluid flow so that fluid traveling from shaft bore 294 through port 293 travels to pump blades 270 and then follows arrows 296 to the periphery of pump blades 270 , around the periphery of wall 292 to the periphery of turbine blades 273 , in between turbine blades 273 (see FIG. 33A ) to reaction blades 275 . Sleeve 228 has annular space 313 that collects return fluid exiting reaction blades 265 and transmits such effluent fluid to nozzles 280 via reservoir 298 . [0134] Left sun gear 261 can be integrally connected to reaction blades 265 at sleeve 288 as shown in the sectional view of FIG. 30 . Bearing 287 forms an interface between sleeve 288 and clam shell housing 259 . Turbine 271 is a rotating structure that includes turbine blades 273 and sleeve 283 . Bearing 284 forms a rotary interface between sleeve 283 and clamshell housing 259 . Clamshell 259 can be comprised of left clamshell half 285 and right clamshell half 286 . The halves 285 and 286 are connected together (eg. welded) at their respective peripheries. Right sun gear 289 is fastened (eg. bolted) to right clamshell half 286 using fasteners (eg. bolts) 290 . [0135] When filled with fluid, the mere rotation of the chamber 228 will cause the pump blades 270 to centrifugally drive the turbine 271 , which is connected to the right planet gears via plate 272 . The right planet gears 264 will in turn drive the right ring gear 263 that is mounted on the right end plate 252 which is connected to the shaft 224 . The aforementioned rotations result when the reaction blades 265 rotate counter clockwise. [0136] In FIGS. 30 and 31 - 34 , fluid enters bore 294 of shaft 224 and flows to lateral flow port 293 (see FIGS. 30-31 ). Flow then passes from port 293 via channel 295 (see arrows 296 ) in sleeve 288 to pump blades 270 and in between clamshell 259 left half 285 and plate 292 that is fastened to blades 270 . [0137] Following arrows 296 in FIG. 30 , fluid travels to pump the periphery of blades 270 , then to the periphery of turbine blades 273 and then to reaction blades 265 . As shown in FIG. 34 , turbine blades 273 and reaction blades 265 travel in opposite rotational directions so that micro-bubbles 274 traveling with the fluid are combusted at the interface, such combustion designated by the reference numerals 275 in FIG. 34 . [0138] By causing the micro bubbles 274 to combust at 275 on the leading edge of the reaction blades 265 (see FIG. 34 ), the fluid will accelerate down the pitch of the reaction blades 265 toward the shaft 224 turning the reaction blades 265 counter clockwise as shown by arrow 277 in FIG. 34 . The fluid then exits reaction blades 265 through ports 314 to annular space 313 to thrust jets 280 going from a high pressure containment to a low pressure zone, striking flinger plate 227 . Hence, the chamber 228 is driven by micro-bubble 274 combustion at 275 and thrust. [0139] The micro-combustion chamber heat engine 210 needs no outside mechanical grounding. The turbine blades 273 rotate in the direction of arrow 278 and eventually rotate right end plate 252 . The reaction blades 265 rotate in the direction of arrow 277 to rotate pump blades 270 . The centrifugal force produced by the rotation of the chamber 228 causes the fluid to flow over the different blades inside the chamber. The fluid moves the blades 273 and 265 and the blades 273 , 265 move the connected gears (planet and sun). [0140] By adding a net energy gain through micro-bubble combustion, the apparatus 210 continually energizes the fluid through a continuous stream of bubble 274 burn 275 . In addition, since the bubble 274 is the combustion chamber, engine size can be scaled down to micro technology without compromising power output and without producing any noticeable amount of CO or CO 2 . [0141] Fluid exiting reaction blades 265 flows through ports 314 to annular space 313 to channel 291 and then to reservoir 298 that is surrounded by reservoir wall 297 and then exits chamber 228 at nozzle jets 280 , striking flinger plate 227 to aerate the fluid and produce micro-bubbles. Additional micro-bubbles form in the fluid when it travels from flinger plate 227 and strikes the canister wall 250 . [0142] FIGS. 35-36 show a fourth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention, wherein the chamber 300 replaces the chamber 228 of the third embodiment 210 . In FIGS. 35-36 , certain parts attached to left end plate 251 are provided that redirect fluid flow exiting chamber 228 . Otherwise, the working parts of chamber 228 are the same as those shown in FIG. 30 . In FIG. 35 , the new parts are those to the left of left sun gear 261 and include generally plate 301 , bearing 302 , rotating member 303 and peripheral member 310 . [0143] Rotating member 303 is preferably integral with sleeve 288 . Thus, member 303 replaces reservoir wall 297 of the embodiment of FIG. 30 . Jets 280 and reservoir 298 are also eliminated. Planet gears 262 are now ( FIG. 35 ) mounted upon plate 301 at planet gear mounts 299 instead of to end wall 251 . End wall 251 and plate 301 are affixed together using bolted connections 308 . [0144] Expander plate 303 rotates with sleeve 288 and sun gear 261 . Plate 301 is bolted to end plate 251 (eg. with bolted connections 311 ) and with peripheral member 310 being positioned as shown in FIG. 35 in between end plate 251 and plate 301 . Bearing 302 defines an interface between sleeve 288 and plate 301 . [0145] During use, fluid flows via ports 304 to channels 302 in expander plate 303 (see FIG. 30 ). Fluid then enters chamber 306 . Because plate 303 rotates in the direction of arrow 313 and member 310 rotates in the direction of arrow 313 , fluid entering chamber 306 builds up back pressure until chambers 306 align with chambers 307 . Once fluid from chamber 306 mixes with chamber 307 , rotational speeds of members 303 , 310 increase. Fluid then exits chamber 297 via channels 308 , tube 309 and nozzles 312 . [0146] FIGS. 37-47 show generally the fifth embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention, designated generally by the numeral 315 in FIGS. 37, 38 , and 39 . Combustion engine 315 has an enlarged housing 316 with an interior 319 . The housing 316 is comprised of upper and lower sections including a lower reservoir section 317 and an upper cover section 318 . [0147] Fluid 320 is contained in the lower portion of reservoir section 317 as shown in FIG. 39 , the fluid 320 having a fluid level 321 that is well below chamber 333 and drive shaft 329 . The fluid 320 can be most any combustible fluid including automatic transmission fluid, hydraulic fluid, vegetable oil, corn oil, peanut oil, for example. [0148] A plurality of feet 322 can be used to anchor housing 316 to a pedestal, mount, concrete base, or like structural support. A pair of sealing mating flanges 323 , 324 can be provided respectively on housing sections 317 , 318 to form a closure and seal that prevents leakage during use. [0149] A pair of spaced apart transversely extending beams 325 , 326 such as the I-beams shown, can be welded to housing reservoir section 317 providing structural support for supporting drive shaft 329 and its bearings 327 , 328 . The drive shaft 329 is to be driven by a rotating member contained within chamber 333 as will be described more fully hereinafter. For reference purposes, drive shaft 329 has a pair of end portions including starter end portion 330 and fluid inlet end portion 331 . [0150] In FIGS. 39-40 , the chamber 333 including its cylindrically-shaped wall portion 355 and its circular end wall plates 356 , 357 is mounted integrally to and rotates with shaft 329 . Cylindrically shaped wall portion 355 has a plurality of fluid outlet jets 332 that enable fluid to exit chamber 333 . The fluid 320 that exits chamber 333 via jets 332 strikes the inside surface 366 . The fluid 320 is thrown radially away from wall portion 355 due to the centrifugal force of wall portion 355 as it rotates with shaft 329 . [0151] The circulation of fluid 320 through the apparatus 315 begins at reservoir section 317 wherein a volume of fluid 320 is contained below fluid level 321 as shown in FIG. 39 . The travel of fluid 320 through the apparatus 315 is completed when fluid 320 exits chamber 333 via jets 332 and is thrown against inner surface 366 of housing 316 and then draining to reservoir section 317 of housing 316 . This exiting of fluid 320 from chamber 333 so that it strikes housing 316 inner surface 366 creates very small bubbles in fluid 320 that will be the subject of combustion when that aerated fluid 320 again enters chamber 333 via shaft 329 flow channel 360 and radial passageway 361 as will be described more fully herein. [0152] In FIGS. 37-41 , fluid 320 from reservoir section 317 is first pumped with positive displacement rotary fluid pump 338 to flow outlet line 337 . Pumping of fluid 320 is accomplished initially with a starter motor 347 that rotates shaft 329 . The rotating shaft 329 then rotates pump 338 using power take off 341 . [0153] Fluid 320 is transferred from reservoir section 317 via outlet port 340 to suction line 339 . Fluid 320 flows from suction line 339 to pump 338 and then to flow outlet line 337 . The fluid 320 then flows through control valve 336 to flow inlet line 335 . A bypass line 345 enables a user to divert flow at control valve 336 so that only a desired volume of fluid 320 enters flow inlet line 335 and hollow bore 360 of shaft 329 at rotary coupling 334 . Once fluid 320 is transmitted to bore 360 , it flows via radial passageway 361 into the interior 319 of chamber 333 for use as a source of combustion as will be described more fully hereinafter. [0154] Shaft 329 can be connected to flow inlet line 335 with a rotary fluid coupling 334 . Power take off 341 can be in the form of a pair of sprockets 342 , 343 connected to pump 338 and drive shaft 329 respectively as shown in FIG. 38 . A chain drive 344 can be used to connect the two sprockets 342 , 343 . Rotation of the drive shaft 329 thus effects a rotation of the pump 338 so that fluid 320 will be pumped from reservoir section 317 of housing 316 via lines 335 , 337 to channel 360 of shaft 329 once starter motor 347 is activated. If fluid 320 is to be bypassed using bypass 345 , it is simply returned to reservoir section 317 via bypass line 345 and port 346 . [0155] Starter motor 347 can be an electric motor or internal combustion engine for example. The motor 347 is mounted upon motor mount 348 . Shaft 329 provides a sheave 349 . Motor drive 347 has a sheave 350 . A sheave 351 is provided on clutch 358 . The sheaves 349 , 350 , 351 are interconnected with drive belt 354 . Clutch 358 also includes a sheave support 352 and a lever 353 that is pivotally attached to mount 348 and movably as shown by arrow 359 in FIG. 37 . [0156] To start the engine 315 , the user cranks the starter motor 347 until drive shaft 329 rotates to a desired RPM. On an actual prototype apparatus 315 , the starter motor 347 is cranked until the drive shaft 329 reaches about 1000-1600 RPM's. The starter motor 347 thus initiates operation, by activating pump 338 to pump fluid 320 from reservoir 317 into flow channel 360 of shaft 329 and then into transverse passage way 361 . [0157] Radial passageway 361 communicates with annular chamber 362 of hub 363 . Hub 363 has a central opening 364 that receives shaft 329 so that hub 363 closely fits shaft 329 , but spins with respect to, shaft 329 . Hub openings 365 are circumferentially spaced, radially extending openings in hub 363 that enable fluid 320 to flow from annular chamber 363 of hub 363 to the annular chamber 373 that is radially positioned away from hub openings 365 and that is sandwiched between clamshell housing 371 and hub 363 . [0158] Clamshell housing 371 is rotatably mounted to hub 363 using bearings 374 , 375 . Compression drive blades 369 are fixedly attached to clamshell housing 371 . Sun gear 376 attaches to hub 377 . Hub 377 has central opening 378 that is sized and shaped to closely fit shaft 329 . Hub 377 also carries reaction blades 379 . Hub 368 connects planet gears 381 to combustion channel blades 380 . Hub 368 has central opening 382 that is sized and shaped to fit the outer surface 383 of hub 377 . [0159] In FIGS. 45 and 47 each planet gear 381 attaches to hub 368 with a planet gear shaft 384 . Each planet gear 381 is engaged by sun gear 376 and ring gear 385 . Ring gear 385 is attached to and rotates with chamber 333 . Ring gear 385 can be attached (e.g. bolted) to plate wall 357 . [0160] Angled thrust tube 370 is mounted on clamshell housing 371 next to combustion site 367 . As shown in FIGS. 41, 42 , 43 , 44 and 47 , the thrust tube 370 is angled so that when combustion occurs in the small bubbles that are carried in fluid 320 at combustion site 367 , expanding fluid exits tube 370 as schematically illustrated by arrow 386 in FIG. 44 , rotating clamshell housing 371 in the direction of arrow 372 in FIG. 42 . Small air bubbles (containing oxygen and vapor from the fluid 320 ) are conveyed to and begin to burn at combustion site 367 in FIG. 41 . When the matter in these bubbles begins to combust, the bubbles expand. In FIG. 41 , a thrust tube (or tubes) 370 capture this expansion. The thrust tube 370 is so positioned and shaped that it rotates clamshell housing 371 in the direction of arrow 372 . [0161] Using starter motor 347 , shaft 329 is initially rotated in a clockwise direction as indicated by arrow 387 in FIG. 37 . Rotation of shaft 329 also rotates housing 333 and ring gear 385 in the same clockwise direction as viewed in FIG. 37 . In the sectional view of FIG. 45 , the rotation of ring gear 385 is indicated by arrow 388 . Arrow 389 shows the direction of rotation for each planet gear 381 . [0162] Arrow 390 shows the rotation of sun gear 376 . When shaft 329 is driven by starter motor 347 , sun gear 376 drives the reaction blades 379 to rotate in the same direction as sun gear rotation arrow 390 . Combustion channel blades 380 rotate in the same direction as ring gear 385 and in an opposite direction from reaction blades 379 (see FIGS. 42, 43 and 44 ). [0163] Fluid 320 that flows through bore 360 to radial passageway 361 divides into two flow components, (see arrows 391 , 392 in FIG. 41 ) following the path of least resistance so that some fluid 320 flows to reaction blades 379 and some fluid 320 flows to compression drive blades 369 (see FIGS. 41, 42 ). [0164] Once the chamber 333 is filled with fluid 320 , the fluid 320 becomes pressurized because pump 338 tries to transmit more fluid 320 into chamber 333 than can be discharged from chamber 333 , and the pressurized fluid 320 begins to push on the blades 379 , 380 . The pitch of the blades 379 , 380 attempt to channel the fluid 320 as it flows between the blades 379 and then 380 (see FIGS. 43, 44 ). The sun gear 376 rotates in the direction of arrow 390 as compared to arrow 388 of ring gear 388 . As fluid 320 leaves compression drive blades 369 , it collides with fluid 320 exiting combustion channel blades 380 . These colliding fluid streams carry very tiny bubbles filled with a combination of vapor of the fuel (fluid 320 ) and oxygen. They are compressed sufficiently to cause combustion inside each bubble. The expanding gas produced by combustion of the tiny bubbles in fluid 320 attempts to exit clamshell housing 371 via angled thrust tube 370 , rotating clamshell housing 371 in the same direction as chamber 333 (see arrow 393 in FIG. 46 ). [0165] As combustion of small bubbles occurs at combustion site 367 , motor 347 is no longer needed as the sole drive for shaft 329 . Rather, the rotating clamshell housing 371 and its drive blades 369 rotate as the bubble combustion causes expanding gas to exit tube 370 . [0166] Because of the gearing of FIG. 45 , the combustion channel blades 380 rotate at a slower speed. The faster rotating compression drive blades 369 attempt to pump fluid back across combustion site 367 in the direction of the combustion channel blades 380 . However, fluid 320 continues to inflow via channel 360 , passageway 361 and annular chamber 362 to blades 379 and 380 . The fluid 320 that is pumped by rotating blades 369 on clamshell housing 371 pumps against blades 380 and rotates them in the same direction as arrow 393 (see FIGS. 41, 42 , and 46 ). Blades 380 are connected to planet gears 381 . As the planet gears move in the direction of arrow 388 , sun gear 376 rotates in the direction of arrow 390 . The ring gear 385 is driven by planet gears 381 to rotate and drive shaft 329 that is attached to ring gear 385 via chamber 333 and wall plate 357 . [0167] The following table lists the parts numbers and parts descriptions as used herein and in the drawings attached hereto. PARTS LIST Part Number Description  10 combustion engine  11 housing  12 reservoir section  13 cover  14 interior  15 fluid  16 fluid level  17 feet  18 flange  19 flange  20 beam  21 beam  22 bearing  23 bearing  24 drive shaft  25 starter end portion  26 fluid inlet end portion  27 flinger plate  28 chamber  29 rotary fluid coupling  30 flow inlet line  31 fluid control valve  32 flow outlet line  33 pump  34 suction line  35 flow port  36 power take off  37 sprocket  38 sprocket  39 chain drive  40 bypass flow line  41 flow port  42 starter motor  43 motor mount  44 sheave  45 sheave  46 sheave  47 sheave support  48 lever  49 belt  50 cylindrical canister  51 circular end wall plate  52 circular end wall plate  53 clutch  54 arrow  55 shaft flow channel  56 transverse passageway  57 arrows  58 bushing  59 sleeve  60 impulse drive unit  61 arrow  62 combustion site  63 impulse drive blades  65 combustion channels  66 externally threaded portion  67 lock nut  68 lock ring  69 bolted connection  70 key  71 interior  72 bearing  73 sleeve  74 flow outlet opening  75 arrow  76 blades  77 compression drive unit  78 bolted connection  79 bubbles  80 arrow  81 arrow  82 cavity  83 combustion channel blades  84 combustion channel unit inner housing  85 planet gear mounting plate  86 bolted connection  87 planet gear  88 sun gear  89 ring gear  90 fluid outlet jet  91 arrow  92 bolted connection  93 splined connection  94 bolted connection  95 rotary bushing  96 bearing 100 gap 101 flow channel 102 reservoir 103 receptacle 104 bolted connection 105 connection 106 arrow 110 combustion engine 111 housing 112 reservoir section 113 cover 114 interior 115 fluid 116 fluid level 117 feet 118 flange 119 flange 120 beam 121 beam 122 bearing 123 bearing 124 drive shaft 125 starter end portion 126 fluid inlet end portion 127 flinger plate 128 chamber 129 rotary fluid coupling 130 flow inlet line 131 fluid control valve 132 flow outlet line 133 pump 134 suction line 135 outlet port 136 power take off 137 sprocket 138 sprocket 139 chain drive 140 bypass flowline 141 flow port 142 starter motor 143 motor mount 144 sheave 145 sheave 146 sheave 147 sheave support 148 lever 149 drive belt 150 cylindrical canister wall 151 circular end wall plate 152 circular end wall plate 153 clutch 154 arrow 155 shaft flow bore 156 transverse port 157 arrow 158 flow divider 159 shaft rotation arrow 160 annular chamber 161 bolted connection 162 combustion site 163 combustion channel blade 164 drive sleeve 165 key 166 torque blade 167 external threads 168 lock nut 169 lock ring 170 combustion channel blades housing 171 interior 172 pre-ignition chamber 173 right ring gear 174 left planet gear 175 right sun gear 176 right planet gear 177 planet gear mounting plate 178 arrow 179 bubbles 180 arrow 181 arrow 182 arrow 183 compression-impulse drive blade 184 planet gear shaft 185 left sun gear 186 left ring gear 187 reservoir 188 port 189 plate 190 jets 191 rotary member 192 bolted connection 193 sleeve 194 planetary gear mounting plate 195 thrust bearing assembly 196 arrows 197 chamber 198 port 199 port 200 annular chamber 201 arrow 202 channels 203 arrow 204 arrow 205 bolted connection 206 thrust wall 207 bushing 210 combustion engine 211 housing 212 reservoir section 213 cover 214 interior 215 fluid 216 fluid level 217 feet 218 flange 219 flange 220 beam 221 beam 222 bearing 223 bearing 224 drive shaft 225 starter end portion 226 fluid inlet end portion 227 flinger plate 228 chamber 229 rotary fluid coupling 230 flow inlet line 231A fluid control valve 231A fluid control valve 232A flow outlet pipe 232B flow outlet pipe 233A pump 233B pump 234 flow divider 235 recirculation line 236 power takeoff 237A sprocket 237B sprocket 238 vertical support 239 chain drive 240 screen filter 241A flow port 241B flow port 242 starter motor 243 motor mount 244 sheave 245 sheave 246 sheave 247 sheave support 248 lever 249 belt 250 cylindrical canister wall 251 circular end wall 252 circular end wall 253 clutch 254 arrow 255 shaft flow channel 256 transverse passageway 257 arrow 258 turbine 259 clam shell 260 left ring gear 261 left sun gear 262 planet gear 263 right ring gear 264 right planet gear 265 reaction blade 266 externally threaded portion 267 lock nut 268 lock ring 269 bolted connection 270 pump blade 271 turbine 272 planet gear plate 273 turbine blade 274 micro-bubble 275 combustion of bubble 276 arrow 277 arrow 278 arrow 279 pump blade wall 280 nozzle thrust jet 281 planet gear shaft 282 fastener 283 sleeve 284 bearing 285 left clamshell half 286 right clamshell half 287 bearing 288 sleeve 289 right sun gear 290 fastener 291 flow channel 292 plate 293 flow port 294 bore 295 channel 296 arrow 297 reservoir wall 298 reservoir 299 planet gear mount 300 chamber 301 plate 302 bearing 303 expander plate 304 port 305 channel 306 chamber 307 chamber 308 channel 309 tube 310 peripheral member 311 bolted connection 312 nozzle 313 annular space 314 ports 315 combustion engine 316 housing 317 reservoir section 318 cover 319 interior 320 fluid 321 fluid level 322 feet 323 flange 234 flange 325 beam 326 beam 327 bearing 328 bearing 329 drive shaft 330 starter end portion 331 fluid inlet end portion 332 fluid outlet jet 333 chamber 334 rotary fluid coupling 335 flow inlet line 336 fluid control valve 337 flow outlet line 338 pump 339 suction line 340 outlet port 341 power take off 342 sprocket 343 sprocket 344 chain drive 345 bypass flow line 346 flow port 347 starter motor 348 motor mount 349 sheave 350 sheave 351 sheave 352 sheave support 353 lever 354 belt 355 cylindrical wall 356 circular end wall plate 357 circular end wall plate 358 clutch 359 arrow 360 shaft flow channel 361 radial passageway 362 annular chamber 363 hub 364 central opening 365 opening 366 housing inner surface 367 combustion site 368 hub 369 compression drive blades 370 angled thrust tube 371 clamshell housing 372 arrow 373 annular chamber 374 bearing 375 bearing 376 sun gear 377 hub 378 hub central opening 379 reaction blades 380 combustion channel blades 381 planet gear 382 central opening 383 outer surface 384 planet gear shaft 385 ring gear 386 arrow 387 arrow 388 arrow 389 arrow 390 arrow 391 arrow 392 arrow 393 arrow [0168] The foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only; the scope of the present invention is to be limited only by the following claims.

A torque transferring device is provided having a rotating drive shaft and planetary gear sets that are linked to a rotating chamber, keyed to the drive shaft, to turbomachinery within the chamber. Fluid is fed to the chamber through an axial passage in the drive shaft and is compressed by a number of mechanisms, including set of pump blades, turbine and reaction blades initially driven by the drive shaft and its starter motor. Bubbles within the fluid are subjected to high pressures causing combustion to occur within the bubbles. Additional pressure created by the combustion of the bubbles drives the fluid to exert a torque on the drive shaft through the gearing mechanism, thereby generating power.

The present invention provides and claims two key aspects related to the SSRIs. Firstly, it provides for stabilizing pharmaceutical composition comprising the acid labile SSRIs including duloxetine and secondly it provides an oral liquid pharmaceutical composition comprising SSRI including duloxetine. It specifically provides for an oral pharmaceutical composition comprising duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives like salts, isomers, complexes, polymorphs, hydrates or esters thereof and at least one buffering agent. The invention also includes a process for preparing such a formulation and a method for treating a mammal in need of by administering a pharmaceutical composition of duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives like salts, isomers, complexes, polymorphs, hydrates or esters thereof and at least one buffering agent wherein the administering step consists of a single dosage form. Invention further discloses a pharmaceutical composition comprising duloxetine wherein there is very little or none of 1-Napthol is present. Yet another aspect of the present invention provides for the oral liquid composition comprising duloxetine. The invention further discloses an oral liquid pharmaceutical composition comprising duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable derivative Feelings of intense sadness and despair, mental slowing and loss of concentration, pessimistic worry, lack of pleasure, self-deprecation, and variable agitation clinically characterize major depression. Physical changes also occur include insomnia or hypersomnia; altered eating patterns; decreased energy and libido; and disruption of the normal circadian and ultradian rhythms of activity and many endocrine functions. At molecular level, the diffuse connections of neurotransmitter serotonin may affect many basic psychological functions such as anxiety mechanisms and the regulation of mood, thoughts, aggression, appetite, sex drive and the sleep/wake cycle. Serotonin is one of the most abundant neurotransmitters, originating in neurons deep in the midline of the brainstem, plays an important role in the regulation of mood and a key role in the treatment of depression. Psychotropic agents can be placed into four major categories: Antianxiety-sedative agents, antidepressants (mood-elevating agents), antimanic or mood stabilizing drugs and neuroleptic drugs. Of these, antidepressants are used to treat moderate to severe depressive illnesses. They are also used to help in treating the symptoms of severe anxiety, panic attacks and obsession problems. They may also be used to help people with chronic pain, eating disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. Yet, the treatment of depression relies on a varied group of antidepressant therapeutic agents, in part because clinical depression is a complex syndrome of widely varying severity. The commonly used antidepressants include tricyclic antidepressants that primarily act by inhibiting nor-epinephrine & variably serotonin transport into nerve endings, thus leading to sustained facilitation of noradrenergic and perhaps serotonergic function in the brain. The newer classes of antidepressants, the inhibitors of monoamine oxidase, increase the brain concentrations of many amines and are also commonly used. Diagnosis and treatment of depression have advanced recently, stimulated by serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which are both effective antidepressants and also are powerfil anti-anxiety agents. SSRIs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and, thus, increase the concentration of this neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. The mechanism of action for the SSRIs is believed to be the blocking of the uptake pump action on the pre-synaptic neuron. This increases the amount of serotonin in the synaptic cleft and at the postsynaptic serotonin receptor site, resulting in greater postsynaptic serotonin stimulation. Most widely prescribed serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) include citalopram, fluoxetine, zimelidine, sertraline, venlafaxine, fluvoxamine, paroxetine, and the like. Duloxetine is amongst the newer drugs in the class of SSRI inhibitors. Modifying the norepinephrine reuptake is another class of drugs, which used to inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine and thus produce an antidepressant effect. A further advancement in this area is agents like tomoxetine hydrochloride a selective inhibitor of norepinephrine uptake which is marketed as Straterra®, by Eli Lilly for the treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children. Duloxetine is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and its molecular structure is shown below: Duloxetine ((S)—N-methyl-3-(1-naphthyloxy)-3-(2-thienyl) propan-1-amine) Duloxetine is a selective serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SSNRI) and is available as a white to slightly brownish white solid and is soluble in water. Although the exact mechanisms of the antidepressant and central pain inhibitory action of duloxetine in humans are unknown, the antidepressant and pain inhibitory actions is believed to be because it causes serotonergic and noradrenergic activity in the CNS. Duloxetine has no significant affinity for dopaminergic, adrenergic, cholinergic or histaminergic receptors in vitro. Duloxetine does not inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO). Duloxetine undergoes extensive metabolism, but the major circulating metabolites have not been shown to contribute significantly to the pharmacologic activity of duloxetine. Compounds such as Duloxetine have a dual mechanism of action as they selectively inhibit the uptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. Compounds belonging to the genus class, of which duloxetine is a species have been used for treating a variety of disorders which have been linked to decreased neurotransmission of serotonin and norepinephrine in mammals including obesity, depression, alcoholism, pain, loss of memory, anxiety, smoking, and the like. Duloxetine is (+)-N-methyl-3-(1-naphthalenyloxy)-2-thiophenepropanamine, and is commonly used as its hydrochloride salt. Duloxetine chemically is a secondary amine whereas others from SSNRIs for e.g. venlafaxine and milnacipran are tertiary amines. Although these agents are structurally unrelated, they have similar mechanism and pharmaco-dynamic characteristics. These agents are claimed to be at least as effective as tricyclic antidepressants but with lower toxicity, and more efficacious than SSRIs. It bears structural similarity to flextime and duloxetine. Eli Lilly markets duloxetine, under the trade name of Cymbalt ar , markets as a delayed release capsule formulation comprising enteric-coated pellets of the drug. It is indicated for the treatment of major depressive disorder and for the treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain. Duloxetine is acid labile, and acid hydrolysis of its ether linkage results in a thienyl alcohol and 1-naphthol. 50% of a dosage is hydrolyzed to 1-naphthol within one hour at a pH of 1.0, which is achieved under fasting conditions. At a pH of 2.0, 10% of the dosage degrades to 1-Naphthol in one hour and at a pH of 4.0, 10% degradation would take up to 63 hours. The reaction scheme showing the conversion of duloxetine to 1-naphthol and its thienyl derivative is shown below. Typically such acid sensitive compounds have been formulated with enteric coated pellets to protect them from degradation. Enteric coatings have been used for many years to arrest the release of the drug from orally ingestible dosage forms. Depending upon the composition and/or thickness, the enteric coatings are resistant to stomach acid for required periods of time before they begin to disintegrate and permit slow release of the drug in the lower stomach or upper part of the small intestines. Some of the existing art described below disclose different enteric coating formulations: U.S. Pat. No. 6,897,205 discloses an invention related to a multi-particulate drug form for uniform release of an active pharmaceutical ingredient in the small intestine and in the large intestine, comprising at least two forms of pellets A and B having different polymer coatings. The inner polymer coating of pellet form A comprises a methacrylate copolymer whereas the outer polymer coating is an enteric coating, which rapidly dissolves only above pH 5.5, of a methacrylate copolymer which contains acidic groups and has, for example, acrylic acid, but preferably methacrylic acid, residues. The polymer coating of pellet form B comprises a methacrylate copolymer. Upon oral ingestion the capsule shell dissolves allowing the contents in the capsule to be exposed to the gastric contents. Due to the presence of fluids in the stomach, exposed particles become moistened. If the moist particles do not stick together, they will disperse into the gastric contents and may begin to enter the duodenum based on the size distribution and other factors, which control the gastric transit time. However, if the particles become tacky upon moistening, they may stick together as one or more lumps. In this case, such lumps may behave as large particles and their gastric emptying time will be variable depending upon the size and the strength of the lumps formed. Hence, such a dosage form would not behave as a true multi-particulate system. U.S. Pat. No. 4,786,505 (Lovgren et al) discloses a pharmaceutical preparation containing omeprazole together with an alkaline reacting compound or an alkaline salt of omeprazole optionally together with an alkaline compound as a core material in a tablet formulation. The core is then enterically coated. The use of the alkaline material, which can be chosen from such substances as the sodium salt of carbonic acid, are used to form a “micro-pH” around each omeprazole particle to protect the omeprazole which is highly sensitive to acid pH. The powder mixture is then formulated into enteric-coated small beads, pellets, tablets and may be loaded into capsules by conventional pharmaceutical procedures. U.S. Pat. No. 5,837,291 to Shin-etsu Chemical Co., Ltd. discloses a method of preparing an enteric preparation coated with a non-solvent enteric coating agent without drying, said method comprising applying to a solid dosage form a non-solvent coating composition consisting essentially of a fine powder polymeric enteric coating agent while spraying a liquid plasticizer therefor. It also provides an enteric preparation wherein the solid dosage form is granules or parvules of the active ingredient, said liquid plasticizer is triethyl citrate. The '291 patent claims an enteric preparation wherein the particle diameter of said fine powder enteric coating agent is 10 micrometers or less. The enteric coating agent used in the invention is hydroxypropylnethyl cellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), because it has a low softening temperature and superior film forming properties. U.S. Pat. No. 6,224,910 assigned to Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. provides a high drug load enteric coated pharmaceutical composition which includes a core comprised of a medicament which is sensitive to a low pH environment of less than 3, such as 2′,3′-dideeoxyinosine (ddl), which composition is preferably in the form of bead lets having an enteric coating formed of methacrylic acid copolymer, plasticizer and an additional coat comprising an anti-adherent. The so-called bead lets have excellent resistance to disintegration at pH less than 3 but have excellent drug release properties at pH greater than 4.5. A novel method of making said pharmaceutical composition is also disclosed. U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,202 assigned to E.R. Squibb & Sons, Inc. discloses enteric coated pharmaceutical compositions utilizing neutralized hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate polymer (HPMCP) coating. The pharmaceutical compositions disclosed comprise an acid labile medicament core, a disintegrant, and one or more buffering agents to provide added gastric protection in addition to the enteric coating, as well as the enteric coating and a plasticizer. The pharmaceutical composition may also include one or more lactose, sugar or starch fillers. U.S. Pat. No. 6,224,911 assigned to Syntex LLC, discloses a process for preparing enteric coated pharmaceutical dosage forms, which comprises combining in water anionic polymers, plasticizers, one or more optional excipients, and a volatile base to form an aqueous enteric coating dispersion; and coating an uncoated pharmaceutical dosage form with the aqueous dispersion. Thus, the absorption of a drug as it passes through the alimentary canal can be controlled by enteric coating the pharmaceutical with a substance which will at certain pH values retard release of the drug while at other pH values promote disintegration and/or leaching of the drug from the dosage form. For example, a coat comprised of an anionic polymer such as cellulose acetate phthalate prevents premature disintegration of the pharmaceutical in the acidic environment of the stomach and promotes rapid release of the drug in the intestine. The U.S. Pat. No. 4,377,568 describes a description of aqueous alcoholic enteric coating dispersions. However, organic solvents have to be recycled and can result in contamination of the enteric coat. When water is used to prepare an enteric coating dispersion, a detackifier and glidant (e.g., talc) may be needed to avoid sticking or clumping of the pharmaceutical dosage forms during the application process. However, none of the formulations discussed teach a non-enteric-coated dosage forms wherein the drug could be enterally administered to a patient who may be unable and/or unwilling to swallow capsules, tablets or pellets, nor does it teach a convenient form which can be used to make an omeprazole or other proton pump inhibitor solution or suspension. To the nest of our knowledge, no acid sensitive antidepressant has ever been formulated for preparing oral liquid form. One more disadvantage with the enteric coated dosage form is the absorption of the drug starts from the intestine thus the area of absorption is comparatively very less, and if the release is not instant in the basic pH, a delay in release and consequently a delay in absorption can happen. An example is omeprazole in which the core tablet is coated with an inert coating and then enteric coated. In recent months, antidepressants like duloxetine are being increasingly used as an antidepressant in elderly population. It is also used as an agent to calm agitated patients—particularly in the long term nursing facilities due to its sedative and anti-anxiety properties. Many of these elderly patients are very old and smaller in body weights and may require titrated doses of duloxetine, to account for their body weights and diminished metabolic capabilities. In addition for geriatric population having other concomitant disabilities like difficulty in swallowing a liquid formulation is easy to administer. Despite the availability of different technologies for liquid formulations of antidepressants, there is a clinical need for better preparations that are simple, stable and manufactured by expedient manufacturing process and palatable for all elderly, pediatric and psychiatric patients. Liquid oral solutions are composed of many types of formulations, both aqueous and non-aqueous, including solutions, suspensions, and emulsions. Oral solutions are mixtures of one or more solutes dissolved in a suitable solvent or mixture of mutually miscible solvents. In pharmaceutical terms, solutions are defined as “liquid preparations that contain one or more soluble chemical substances, usually dissolved in water”. Liquid oral preparations are useful for obvious reasons. Firstly, it is preferable for patients either with physical disabilities or incapacitated. Secondly patient compliance is often a problem with oral solid dosage forms, especially with young children and senior citizens. Thirdly, liquid compositions would help a pharmacist to dispense the correct amount of drug without resorting to sub-division of a larger dosed tablet into pieces. Fourthly, as solutions are homogenous, the medication is uniformly distributed throughout the preparation. This apart, drugs are absorbed in their dissolved state, the rate of absorption of oral dosage forms usually decreases in the following order: aqueous solution>aqueous suspension>tablets or capsules. A drug administered in solution is immediately available for absorption from the gastrointestinal tract and is more rapidly and efficiently absorbed than the same amount of drug administered in a tablet or capsule. Yet, the only limitation for solution dosage form is that usually the drug substances are less stable in liquid media than solid dosage forms. The stabilization however is well attempted in literature using different techniques. Prior art formulations disclose compositions and manufacturing process for oral liquid products incorporating antidepressants. These mainly relate to sertraline, paroxetine, fluoxetine, citalopram, etc. Examples of patents describing such formulations are as follows: U.S. Pat. No. 6,727,283 (Pfizer Inc.) describe a non-aqueous liquid pharmaceutical concentrate composition of sertraline or its salts thereof for oral administration. This patent describes essentially non-aqueous liquid pharmaceutical concentrate composition for oral administration containing sertraline or its salts thereof and one or more pharmaceutical excipients. The invention also provides a method of using this concentrate composition to treat or prevent a variety of diseases or conditions. The patent further points out that to be essentially non-aqueous according to the patent, no water are directly added to the final drug product. Finally, the patent states that about 10% is the upper limit of the amount of water that may be present in the oral concentrate. In this patent, sertraline or its salts are dissolved in a non-aqueous vehicle, such as alcohol and glycerin. However, the use of non-aqueous vehicles and in particular alcohol should be minimized, as it is unacceptable to some patients. In addition, the use of non-aqueous vehicles may not be economical and requires additional settings during manufacturing process due to environmental considerations. WO 2005/034910A1 (Ranbaxy Laboratories Inc.) describes pharmaceutical composition of sertraline comprising sertraline or a pharmaceutical salt thereof and water. The water is present at an amount that is greater than about 10% w/w to about 40% w/w of the composition. The addition of water was done to the composition to improve the taste of the solution and to produce an economical and environmental friendly composition. U.S. Pat. No. 5,811,436 (SmithKline Beecham plc) describe an oral liquid pharmaceutical composition comprising paroxetine hydrochloride with Amberlite IRP-88 resin. The oral liquid is prepared in a conventional manner by mixing paroxetine hydrochloride and AMBERLITE IRP-88 together in an aqueous medium, along with other excipients. The resin complex improves solubility of paroxetine and helps in masking the bitter taste of the drug. Yet, there may be incompatibility problems with resin complexes at times. Also, if the free drug even in micro quantities is found in the liquid, the bitterness of the drug would make the product not palatable; particularly to pediatric and elderly patients. EP1304109 (Sherman et al) describes oral liquid composition of paroxetine or its pharmaceutical salts thereof comprising paroxetine along with a basic compound to raise the pH of the composition above 7. The said paroxetine liquid is considered to be stable above pH 7 and the bitterness of paroxetine can be overcome by adding a basic compound to raise pH up to 8-10. However, Duloxetine present a different kind challenge to inventors because of its instability to acidic conditions. It belongs to the class of 3-aryloxy-3-substituted propanamines which are potent inhibitors of both serotonin and norepinephrine uptake. Compared to SSRIs, Duloxetine has a shorter onset of action because of its effects on both 5HT and NE. Duloxetine is acid labile at pH below 2.5. It is well absorbed after oral administration of capsules containing enteric-coated pellets, with a median time to maximum concentration (T max ) of 6 hours, it is highly protein bound (>90%), and it exhibits a mean plasma elimination half-life of 12.1 hours. Duloxetine is metabolized to several inactive metabolites in the liver via CYP1A2 and CYP2D6. The U.S. Pat. No. 5,023,269 patent claims compounds belonging to this class and the compound duloxetine has also been claimed in this patent. The invention also provides pharmaceutical formulations comprising a compound of the above formula and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent or excipient therefor. The formulation discussed under examples under formulation 7 of the '269 patent provides an example of a suspension of duloxetine succinate with sodium carboxy methylcellulose as a suspending agent. The other excipients in the suspension include syrup base, benzoic acid solution, flavor, color and water. U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,276 assigned to Eli Lilly discusses duloxetine, in the form of enteric pellets of which the enteric layer comprises hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate succinate. Duloxetine is (+)-N-methyl-3-(1-naphthalenyloxy)-2-thiophenepropanamine, and is commonly used as its hydrochloride salt. Early dosage form and clinical development of duloxetine showed that it is advisable to formulate it in an enteric form, due to the stability characteristics of duloxetine in acidic solutions, that a pellet formulation was more desirable than a tablet, based on bioavailability studies which showed more consistent plasma profiles were obtained after pellet administration, and that certain difficulties arose in preparing conventional enteric formulations. Most importantly, duloxetine was found to react with many enteric coatings to form a slowly- or even insoluble coating. Because of this unexpected cross-reactivity, formulations in pellet form were found to have a disadvantageous drug-releasing profile and low bioavailability. Further, it was found to be particularly difficult to prepare an enteric formulation with higher levels of drug loading which did not allow some release of duloxetine in acid environments, thus creating a possibility or probability that drug would be released in the stomach, contrary to the desired method of administration. The invention of the U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,276 was addressed to solve the above and other problems, and provided a superior enteric formulation of duloxetine, by using hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate succinate as the enteric-coating polymer. The enteric dosage forms have been employed because it is very important that these drugs not be exposed to gastric acid prior to absorption. Although these drugs are stable at alkaline pH, they are destroyed rapidly as pH falls. Therefore, if the micro encapsulation or the enteric coating is disrupted (e.g., trituration to compound a liquid, or chewing the capsule), the drug will be exposed to degradation by the gastric acid in the stomach. Thus the instability of duloxetine at acidic pH is a known problem, which has been addressed for the capsule dosage form by enteric coating of drug loaded duloxetine pellets with hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate succinate as the enteric-coating polymer. The U.S. Pat. No. 5,362,886, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,491,243, both assigned to Eli Lilly, provide for stereo specific process for the synthesis of a key intermediate in the synthesis of duloxetine. Since duloxetine is prone for degradation at lower pH that normally prevail in stomach and such a degradation results in 1-Naphthol, which is known to be very toxic and cause several side effects, the stabilization of duloxetine in solution form is a key formulation challenge. Since, there is a need for stabilized formulation comprising duloxetine or its derivative that is free from 1-Naphthol, an oral dosage stable form comprising duloxetine with acceptable taste would be a valuable addition to the existing formulations, providing greater choice for both prescriber and patient. In addition, an oral liquid dosage form is also a preferred alternative dosage form for patients suffering from mixed psychiatric disorders, particularly, schizophrenic patients. I.e. the formulation can be administered to the patient with other liquid preparations like fruit juices, pulp, aerated drinks, etc. (with or without dilution), without the knowledge of the patient. The liquids also provide ease of administration to depressive and psychosis patients by evading choky sensation in the mouth. To this end, the present invention discloses a simple, stable, palatable oral pharmaceutical composition for treatment of depression and other related psychotropic disorders. The said composition comprises duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivatives in a formulation comprising at least one buffering agent and optionally other suitable pharmaceutical excipients. Particularly, the composition is made by simple manufacturing process and thus brings the advantage of simple composition with easy process. Conventionally antidepressants have unacceptable taste and the present formulation also achieves in overcoming this unacceptable taste to yield a stable formulation for oral administration. The present invention further discloses an oral liquid pharmaceutical composition comprising duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a pharmaceutical composition including an aqueous solution/suspension of duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salts, isomers, complexes, polymorphs, hydrates or esters thereof and at least one buffering agent and optionally at least one pharmaceutical excipient. The present invention further provides a method for treating a mammal in need by administering to a patient a pharmaceutical composition including an aqueous solution/suspension of duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salts, isomers, complexes, polymorphs, hydrates or esters thereof and at least one buffering agent wherein the administration step consists of a single dosage of said pharmaceutical composition. The preferred concentration of duloxetine for use in oral suspensions is from 0.3 mg/ml to 3.0 mg/ml. The invention further provides kits utilizing the inventive dry dosage forms herein to provide for the easy preparation of a liquid composition from the dry forms. A further object of the present invention is a method for preparing a pharmaceutical composition including an aqueous solution/suspension of duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable salts, isomers, complexes, polymorphs, hydrates or esters thereof and at least one buffering agent. A still further object of the instant invention is to provide for a stable formulation comprising duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative that result in very little or no amount of 1-Naphthol. Yet another aspect of this invention is it provides for the first time an oral liquid composition comprising duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The term “duloxetine” refers to duloxetine base, its salt, or solvate or derivative or isomer or polymorph thereof. Suitable compounds include the free base, the organic and inorganic salts, isomers, isomer salts, solvates, polymorphs, complexes etc. Duloxetine and its salts or isomers may readily be prepared as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,023,269; 5,362,886; and 5,491,243. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable derivative” means various pharmaceutical equivalent isomers, enantiomers, complexes, salts, hydrates, polymorphs, esters etc of duloxetine. The term “Alkali” refers to the Group IA metals including Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, Francium etc. The term “Alkaline Earth” refers to the Second Group metals like Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and Radium etc. The use of the term “solution” includes solutions and/or suspensions of the duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives like salts, isomers, complexes, polymorphs, hydrates or esters. The term “liquid” includes solutions; suspensions or solids ready mix, dispersions that are reconstituted prior to administration, of the duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives. The “effective amount” for purposes herein thus determine by such considerations as are known in the art. The amount must be effective to achieve improvement, including but not limited to, clinical symptoms, improved survival rate, more rapid recovery, or improvement or elimination of systems and other indicators as are selected as appropriate measures by those skilled in the art. The “method” for purposes herein means solution/suspension can be administered in various ways. It should be noted that the duloxetine solution/suspension can be administered as the compound or as the pharmaceutically acceptable derivative and can be administered alone or in combination with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. The compounds can be administered orally or enterally. The formulations can be made more palatable by adding flavorings such as chocolate, sweetener, root beer, and others. The “sweetener” means any organic compounds that provide sweet taste to added pharmaceutical materials to make them palatable. This would include natural sugars, artificial sweeteners, natural extracts and any material that initiates sweet sensation in a mammal. The term “solubilizer” refers to an agent or compound that aids in solubilizing the active pharmaceutical ingredient and includes examples like polyethylene glycol and its derivatives, Cremophors®, Lutrols® and the like. The term “Group IA” means all metals of Group IA of the periodic table The term “Group II” hereafter means all the metals of Group II of the period table. The term “composition” includes but not limited solutions and/or suspensions, dispersions, concentrates, ready mix, powders, granules comprising duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof and at least one alkali or alkaline earth metal and optionally one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. For the purposes of this application, “buffering agent” shall mean any pharmaceutically appropriate weak base or strong base (and mixtures thereof) that, when formulated or delivered with (e.g., before, during and/or after) the duloxetine, functions to protect duloxetine from degradation sufficient to preserve the bioavailability of the duloxetine administered The inventive composition comprises dry formulations, solutions and/or suspensions of the duloxetine or its derivatives. As used herein, the terms “suspension” and “solution” are interchangeable with each other and mean solutions and/or suspensions of the duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative A pharmaceutical composition, including an aqueous solution/suspension, of duloxetine or its pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof, and at least one buffering agent. Although sodium bicarbonate is the preferred buffering agent employed in the present invention, to protect duloxetine against acid degradation many other weak and strong bases (and mixtures thereof) can be utilized. The buffering agent is administered in an amount sufficient to substantially achieve the above functionality. Therefore, the buffering agent of the present invention must only elevate the pH of the stomach sufficiently to achieve adequate bioavailability of the drug to effect therapeutic action. Accordingly, examples of buffering agents include, but are not limited to, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium lactate, magnesium glucomate, aluminum hydroxide, aluminum hydroxide/sodium bicarbonate co precipitate, a mixture of an amino acid and a buffer, a mixture of aluminum glycinate and a buffer, a mixture of an acid salt of an amino acid and a buffer, and a mixture of an alkali salt of an amino acid and a buffer. Additional buffering agents include sodium citrate, sodium tartarate, sodium acetate, sodium carbonate, sodium polyphosphate, potassium polyphosphate, sodium pyrophosphate, potassium pyrophosphate, disodium hydrogenphosphate, dipotassium hydrogenphosphate, trisodium phosphate, tripotassium phosphate, sodium acetate, potassium metaphosphate, magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium carbonate, magnesium silicate, calcium acetate, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium cholride, calcium hydroxide, calcium lactate, calcium carbonate, calcium bicarbonate, and other calcium salts. Apart from those specifically disclosed in this invention, a person skilled in the art could add various additives, which enhance the stability, sterility, and isotonicity of the compositions. Additionally, antimicrobial preservatives, antioxidants, chelating agents, and buffers can also be added without deviating from the essence of this invention. Further thickening agents, such as methyl cellulose, in order to reduce settling the duloxetine or derivatives thereof from the suspension still further “various “solubilizor” can also be added The invention encompasses a pharmaceutical composition comprising duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative and a buffering agent in any form with any other base. The formulations of the present invention can be manufactured in a concentrated form, such as an effervescent tablet, so that upon reaction with water, the aqueous form of the present invention would be produced for oral or enteral administration. It is determined that the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention is prepared by mixing duloxetine or its derivative thereof with a buffering agent, including but not limited to a bicarbonate salt of an alkali or alkaline Earth metal. Preferably, duloxetine powder or granules, which can be obtained from an enteric-coated capsule, are mixed with a sodium bicarbonate solution to achieve a desired final duloxetine concentration. The concentration of duloxetine in the solution/suspension can range from approximately 0.3 mg/ml to approximately 7.0 mg/ml. The preferred concentration for the duloxetine in the solution/suspension ranges from approximately 1.0 mg/ml to approximately 4.0 mg/ml with 2 mg/ml being the standard concentration. The pharmaceutically effective carrier of an oral liquid includes the bicarbonate salt of an alkali or alkaline earth metal and it can be prepared by mixing the bicarbonate salt of an alkali or alkaline earth metal, preferably sodium bicarbonate or magnesium carbonate, with water. The concentration of the bicarbonate salt of an alkali or alkaline earth metal in the composition generally ranges from approximately 0.5 percent to approximately 60.0 percent. More preferably, the concentration of the bicarbonate salt of an alkali or alkaline earth metal used could be from about 7.5 percent to about 12.5 percent. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, sodium bicarbonate is the preferred salt of an alkali or alkaline earth metal and is present in a concentration of approximately 8 to 10 percent. More specifically, the amount of sodium bicarbonate 8.4% used in the solution of the present invention is approximately 1 mEq (or mmole) sodium bicarbonate per 2 mg duloxetine, with a range of approximately 0.2 mEq (mmole) to 5 mEq (mmole) per 2 mg of duloxetine. Further magnesium bicarbonate is another preferred salt of an alkali or alkaline earth metal and is present in a concentration of approximately 6-12 percent and more specifically in the range between from about 7 to about 1 percent In the present invention, a preferred embodiment is that enterically coated duloxetine particles are obtained from delayed release capsules (Eli Lilly); additionally duloxetine active pharmaceutical ingredient can also be used. The coated duloxetine particles are mixed with a solution of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO.sub.3), which dissolves the enteric coating and forms a duloxetine solution/suspension as per the present invention. It is imperative that the enteric-coated pellets of duloxetine must be allowed to completely breakdown in the suspension vehicle or carrier prior to administration. There are very significant pharmacokinetic advantages for the duloxetine solution/suspension over standard time-release duloxetine capsules including: 1) a decreased drug absorbance time (.about.10 to 90 minutes) following administration for the duloxetine solution versus (.about.2-6 hours) following administration for the enteric coated pellets; 2) the NaHCO.sub.3 solution protects the duloxetine from acid degradation prior to absorption; 3) the NaHCO.sub.3 acts as an antacid while the duloxetine is being absorbed; 4) and the solution/suspension can be easily administered through an existing indwelling tube without clogging, for example, nasogastric or other feeding tubes (jejunal or duodenal) including small bore needle catheter feeding tubes. The pharmaceutical composition including the duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative thereof in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier comprising a buffering agent, including for example, a bicarbonate salt of an alkali or alkaline earth metal, can be used for the treatment of for treating a variety of disorders which have been linked to decreased neurotransmission of serotonin and norepinephrine in mammals including obesity, depression, alcoholism, pain, loss of memory, anxiety, smoking, compulsive disorders, and/or neuropathic pain etc The administration and dosing of Duloxetine solution or suspension or a tablet or a capsule is in accordance with good medical practice, taking into account the clinical condition of the individual patient, the sight and method of administration, scheduling of administration, and other factors known to medical practitioners. The dosage range of duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivatives thereof can range from approximately 2 mg/day to approximately 100 mg/day. The standard daily dosage is typically 20 mg duloxetine in 10 ml of solution. The present invention utilizes a pharmacological formulation of the duloxetine solution/suspension for orally administering a patient in need. A pharmacological formulation of the duloxetine solution/suspension utilized in the present invention is preferably administered enterally. This can be accomplished, for example, by administering the solution/suspension via a nasogastric tube or other indwelling tubes. Administering large quantities of sodium bicarbonate is critical disadvantage and in order to overcome that disadvantage, the duloxetine solution of the present invention is administered in a single dose, which does not require any further administration of bicarbonate following the administration of the duloxetine solution. The formulation of the present invention is given in a single dose, which does not require administration of bicarbonate either before administration of the duloxetine or after administration of the duloxetine. Hence, the present invention eliminates the need to pre- or post-dose with additional volumes of water and sodium bicarbonate. The amount of bicarbonate administered via the single dose administration of the present invention is less than the amount of bicarbonate that needs to be administered to prevent duloxetine degradation. The amount of sodium bicarbonate used in the solution/suspension of the present invention is approximately 1 mEq (or mmole) sodium bicarbonate per 2 mg duloxetine, with a range of approximately 0.75 mEq (mmole) to 1.5 mEq (mmole) per 2 mg of duloxetine. The pharmaceutical composition suitable for making a solution/suspension or a solid dosage according to the present invention can further include an effervescing agent to aid in the dissolution of the pharmaceutical composition in the aqueous solution. Though in the present invention the effervescing agent is sodium bicarbonate, a person skilled in art would know to use other agents which are also a part of this invention. The resultant duloxetine solution is stable at room temperature for several weeks and inhibits the growth of bacteria or fungi. It is also provided a pharmaceutical composition including the duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivatives thereof with bicarbonate in a solid form, which can be dissolved in a prescribed amount of aqueous solution to yield the desired concentration of duloxetine and bicarbonate. This would immensely reduce the cost of production, shipping, and storage since no liquids is shipped (reducing weight and cost) and hence there is no need to refrigerate the composition or the solution. The resultant solid composition can be formulated into a liquid and then used to provide dosages for a single patient over a course of time or for several patients. The present invention further includes a pharmaceutical composition for making a solution/suspension which comprises duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative thereof and buffering agent preferably a bicarbonate salt of an alkali or alkaline earth metal in a form convenient for storage, whereby when the composition is placed into a aqueous solution, the composition dissolves yielding a solution/suspension suitable for enteral administration to a subject. The pharmaceutical composition is in a solid form prior to dissolution in the aqueous solution. The duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative thereof and buffering agent, for example bicarbonate, can be formed into a tablet, capsules, or granules, by methods well known to those skilled in the art. The following examples illustrate the invention and they do not any way limit the scope of the invention. A person skilled in the art would easily modify the process for manufacturing the said pharmaceutical composition or could modify the composition with similar materials and finally a person skilled in the art could modify the method of administering the said composition of this invention. Oral Liquid Pharmaceutical Composition The oral liquid pharmaceutical composition of this instant invention comprises duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative thereof and a buffering agent preferably bicarbonate salt of an alkali or alkaline Earth metal. Its representative composition is shown in Table I 1. Composition Example 1 Duloxetine Oral Liquid Composition TABLE 1 Pharmaceutical Composition Ingrediant Amount Duloxetine  20 mg Water  10 ml Sodium 8.4 mg Bicarbonate Optional excipients may be added to the composition and the quantity of sodium bicarbonate may adjusted to ensure that its concentration is 8.4% Example 2 Duloxetine Liquid Composition TABLE 2 S. No Ingredient Qty/5 mL in mg 1. Duloxetine HCl 22.45 2. Solubilizer 25.00 3. Sucrose 900.00 4. Methyl paraben 1.00 5. Propyl paraben 0.10 6. Sodium bicarbonate q.s 7. Flavor q.s 8. Color q.s 9. Purified water q.s 6. Sodium citrate q.s The amount of sodium bicarbonate was sufficient enough to be 8.4% Example 3 Duloxetine Two Component Liquid Composition TABLE 3 S. No Ingredient Qty/5 mL in mg Powder blend 1. Duloxetine HCl 22.45 2. Sucrose 900.00 Syrup base 3. Solubilizer 25.00 4. Methyl paraben 1.00 5. Propyl paraben 0.10 6. Sodium Bicarbonate q.s 7. Flavor q.s 8. Color q.s 9. Purified water q.s 10 Sodium citrate q.s The amount of sodium bicarbonate was sufficient enough to be 8.4% Also included in the instant invention are solid form preparations, which are intended for conversion, shortly before use, to liquid form preparations for oral administration. Such liquid forms include solutions, suspensions, and emulsions. These preparations may contain, in addition to the active component, colorants, flavors, stabilizers, buffers, artificial and natural sweeteners, dispersants, thickeners, solubilizing agents, and the like. 2. Process of Preparing Oral Liquid Composition Example 4 The preparation of duloxetine solution/suspension was achieved by mixing 10 ml of 8.4% sodium bicarbonate with the contents of a 20 mg capsule of duloxetine to yield a solution/suspension having a final duloxetine concentration of 2 mg/ml The enteric-coated pellets of duloxetine must be allowed to completely breakdown, by setting aside reaction mixture for about.30 minutes (agitation is helpful). The duloxetine in the resultant preparation is partially dissolved and partially suspended. The preparation should have a milky white appearance with fine sediment and should be shaken before using. The solution/suspension was not administered with acidic substances. Alternatively, another method of preparing an oral liquid composition of duloxetine is by mixing 20 mg of duloxetine or its derivative with 975 mg of sodium bicarbonate powder and compounded into tablets, by standard methods known in the art, optionally with one or more pharmaceutical excipients. The tablet is then dissolved to water to adjust the sodium bicarbonate amount to be 8.4% following above process A high-pressure liquid chromatography study was performed that has demonstrated that this preparation of simplified duloxetine suspension maintains >90% potency for seven days at room temperature. The pH of the oral liquid composition was between from about 5.5 to about 12.0 and more preferably it was between 7.0 and 9.0 The preparation of Example 1 was investigated for bacterial and fungal contamination for thirty days when stored at room temperature. The oral liquid composition remained free from such contamination (see Table 4). TABLE 4 Time 24 Control 1 hour hours 2 day 7 day 14 day Conc(mg/ml) 1.99 2.01 1.94 1.96 1.97 1.98 Stability of simplified duloxetine solution at room temperature (25. degree C.) Values are the mean of three samples 3. Method of Administration Example 5 Duloxetine solution/suspension was administered to patient by preparing it, a patient's nurse, using the following instructions: 1. Empty the contents of one or two 20 mg duloxetine capsule(s) into an empty 10 ml syringe (with 20 gauge needle in place) from which the plunger has been removed. (duloxetine delayed-release pallets or capsules) 2. Replace the plunger and uncap the needle. 3. Withdraw 10 ml of 8.4% sodium bicarbonate solution (or 30 ml if 60 mg duloxetine is used) and mix it with appropriate amount of duloxetine. The resultant preparation should contain 2 mg duloxetine per ml of 8.4% sodium bicarbonate and suitable dosage is administered to the patient. Dosages of duloxetine are well known in the art, and the skilled practitioner will readily sbe able to determine the dosage amount required for a subject based upon weight and medical history. 4. Clinical Studies Oral relative bioavailability of duloxetine, from test duloxetine hydrochloride liquid formulation (a)) equivalent to 60 mg (2 mg/ml) in comparison with conventional release enteric coated duloxetine hydrochloride 60 mg tablet formulation (c) was investigated in healthy adult males. A total of 11 subjects were enrolled in the study and all of them completed the study. The investigations included two treatment phases and were separated by washout period of 21 days. Both the treatment phases were of 24 hours duration each. 1. Duloxetine liquid formulation of instant invention ((60 mg duloxetine in 30 ml of 8.4% of Sodium Bicarbonate (a) prepared as per Example 1) 2. Duloxetine 60 mg ((Reference formulation (c)) Subjects were randomized to receive one of the above two regimens as randomly assigned by Latin Square and each subject crossed to each regimen according to the randomization sequence until all subjects have received all two regimens (with twenty one week separating each regimen). Blood samples were centrifuged within 2 hours of collection and the plasma were separated and frozen at −10° C. or lower until assayed HPLC Analysis was carried out using stand techniques known to the person skilled in art using duloxetine and internal standard (NC-34) were used. As expected by the inventor, there is more rapid absorption of formulations (a) compared to the enteric-coated granules of formulation (c) as shown in table 3. It was observed that maximum mean plasma duloxetine concentrations following single dose oral administration of instant liquid formulation were between 10-90 minutes compared to the maximum mean plasma concentrations of 6 hours for enteric coated duloxetine solid dosage forms. Studies are under way to determine bioequivalence of the test product. He duloxetine is highly variable drug and hence would require a larger number of subjects to accommodate such variable nature of drug. The mean plasma concentration-time profile is in Table 5 TABLE 5 Min a (oral liquid) ng/ml c (reference) ng/ml 0 0 10 110 30 380 45 580 60 450 120 190 12 180 90 25 300 25 31 360 15 54 480 15 48 600 10 38 720 10 32 840 10 26 1440 25 Oral Solid Pharmaceutical Composition The present invention also provides an oral solid pharmaceutical composition comprising duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative thereof and a buffering agent. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers for such a composition could be the ones well known to those who are skilled in the art. The choice of carrier will be determined, in part, both by particular composition and by the particular method used to administer the composition. Accordingly, there are a wide variety of suitable formulations of the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention. The non-limiting examples of buffering agents which could be utilized in such tablets disclosed earlier include alkali metal salts that include sodium bicarbonate, alkali earth metal salts such as calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, calcium lactate, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium acetate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, magnesium silicate, magnesium aluminate, aluminum hydroxide or aluminum magnesium hydroxide. Alkali earth metal salts useful for making an antacid tablet is calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonateand the preferred one being calcium carbonate. There are a number types of solid dosages that can be manufactured in concentrated forms, such as compression tablets, suspension tablets and effervescent tablets or powders, such that upon reaction with water or other diluents, the aqueous form of the present invention is produced for oral, enteral or parenteral administration. The solid formulation of the present invention, In addition to the suspension tablet, can also be in the form of a powder, a tablet, a capsule, or other suitable solid dosage form (e.g., a pelleted form or an effervescing tablet, troche or powder), that creates the inventive solution in the presence of diluent or upon ingestion. For example, the water in the stomach secretions or water which is used to swallow the solid dosage form can serve as the aqueous diluent as efficiently as claimed in this invention Although the tablets of this invention are primarily intended as a suspension dosage form, the granulations used to form the tablet may also be used to form rapidly disintegrating chewable tablets, lozenges, troches, or swallow able tablets. Therefore, the intermediate formulations as well as the process for preparing them provide additional novel aspects of the present invention. The term “suspension tablets” as used herein refers to compressed tablets which rapidly disintegrate after they are placed in water, and are readily dispersible to form a suspension containing a precise dosage of duloxetine. The suspension tablets of this invention comprise, in combination, a therapeutic amount of duloxetine, a buffering agent, and a disintegrant. More particularly, the suspension tablets comprise about 20 mg duloxetine and about 1-20 mEq of sodium bicarbonate The term “compressed tablet” generally refers to a plain, uncoated tablet for oral ingestion, prepared by a single compression or by pre-compaction tapping followed by a final compression. The compression tablets of this invention comprise, in combination, a therapeutic amount of duloxetine and a buffering agent. The more specific form of this invention is the suspension tablet comprising about 20 mg duloxetine and about 1-20 mEq of sodium bicarbonate Apart from the suspension tablets, the effervescent tablets and powders are also prepared in accordance with the present invention. Effervescent salts have been used to disperse medicines in water for oral administration. Effervescent salts are granules or coarse powders containing a medicinal agent in a dry mixture, usually composed of sodium bicarbonate, citric acid and tartaric acid. When the salts are added to water, the acids and the base react to liberate carbon dioxide gas, thereby causing “effervescence.” 1. Oral Solid Pharmaceutical Composition Example 6 The various forms oral solid pharmaceutical composition comprising duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivatives thereof and a buffering agent are shown in following tables an the examples are non-limiting and are only intended for illustrative purposes are in Tables 6, 7, 8 and 9 TABLE 6 20 mg Tablet Formula mg Duloxetine 20 Sodium bicarbonate 250 Calcium lactate 170 Calcium glycerophosphate 180 Starch 15 Aspartame calcium (phenylalanine) 0.5 Colloidal silicon dioxide 12 Peppermint 3 Croscarmellose sodium 12 Dextrose 10 Mannitol 3 Maltodextrin 3 Pregelatinized starch 3 TABLE 7 20 mg Rapid Dissolution Tablet Mg Formula mg Duloxetine 20 Sodium bicarbonate 500 Calcium lactate 170 Calcium Hydroxide 50 Calcium glycerophosphate 180 Croscarromellose Sodium 12 TABLE 8 Reconstitution Powder Formula mg Duloxetine 20 Sodium bicarbonate 500 Calcium lactate 170 Glycerine 200 Calcium glycerophosphate 180 Calcium Hydroxide 50 TABLE 9 Effervescent Tablets and Granules mg Duloxetine 20 Citric acid 850 Potassium Carbonate 320 Sodium bicarbonate 990 2. Processes of Manufacturing Oral Solid Pharmaceutical Composition Example-7 A fast disintegrating tablet is prepared by mixing slurry of 150 g of crosscaromellose in 1.5 kg of de-ionized water with 45 g of Duloxetine in a mixer bowl forming a granulation which is then placed in a travy and dried at 70° C. for three hours. The dry granulation is then placed in a blender, and to it is added 750 g of 85% microcrystalline cellulose co-processed with 15% of a calcium, sodium alginate complex and 750 g of microcrystalline cellulose. 18 g of magnesium stearate is added after blending the above mixture and mixed for 5 minutes. The resulting mixture is compressed into tablets on a standard tablet press. The tablets, each containing 20 mg of duloxetine have an average weight of about 1.5 g; have low friability and rapid disintegration time. Prior to immediate oral administration, this formulation may be dissolved in an aqueous solution containing a buffering agent. It is also possible alternatively to swallow the suspension tablet with a solution of buffering agent. In both cases, the preferred solution is sodium bicarbonate 8.4%. Besides above procedures, it further possible to mix sodium bicarbonate powder (about 975 mg per 20 mg dose of duloxetine (or an equipotent amount of other duloxetine derivative and is compounded directly into the tablet. Water or sodium bicarbonate (preferably 8.4%) are used to dissolve such tablets or swallowed whole with an aqueous diluent Effervescent Tablets and Granules were prepared using standards techniques known to persons skilled in the art. For Example: From one 20 mg duloxetine capsule, granules were emptied into mortar and pestle to prepare fine powder. A homogeneous mixture of effervescent duloxetine powder was obtained by diluting the above powdered duloxetine with about 958 mg sodium bicarbonate USP, about 832 mg citric acid USP and about 312 mg potassium carbonate USP. This powder reacted with the 60 ml water to create effervescence resulting in a bubbling solution of duloxetine with sodium citrate and potassium citrate as principal antacids. The pH of the oral liquid composition prepared using any of the solid dosages was between from about 5.5 to about 12.0 and more preferably it was between 7.0 and 9.0. Persons skilled in the art of pharmaceutical compounding would know that it is possible by using above ratios of ingredients to manufacture bulk, which in turn can be pressed into tablets using standard binders and excipients. The effervescent agents activated by using water to create the desired solution 3. Clinical Studies A total of 11 subjects were enrolled in the study and all of them randomly received duloxetine formulations in the following forms 1. Duloxetine 60 mg capsules of instant invention (Prepared by loading duloxetine in gelatin capsules and dispersing it with appropriate quantity of Sodium Bicarbonate (b)) 2. Duloxetine 60 mg (Reference formulation (c) The investigations included two treatment phases wherein each phase was separated by washout period of 21 days. Subjects were randomized to receive one of the above two regimens as randomly assigned by Latin Square and each subject crossed to each regimen according to the randomization sequence until all subjects have received all two regimens (with twenty one week separating each regimen). Blood samples were centrifuged within 2 hours of collection and the plasma were separated and frozen at −10° C. or lower until assayed. HPLC Analysis was carried out using stand techniques known to the person skilled in art using duloxetine and internal standard (NC-34) were used. Studies are under way to determine bioequivalence of the test product. He duloxetine is highly variable drug and hence would require a larger number of subjects to accommodate such variable nature of drug. As expected by the inventor, there is more rapid absorption of formulation (b) compared to the enteric-coated formulation (c) and the maximum mean plasma concentration was between from about 10 to about 90 minutes as shown in Table 8. TABLE 10 Hours b (oral solid) c (reference) 0 0.25 16 0.5 33 0.75 50 1 65 1.5 53 2 42 12 4 40 31 6 33 54 8 25 48 10 18 38 12 16 32 14 15 26 24 16 25

The invention provides for the first time an oral liquid composition of duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivatives like salts, isomers, complexes, polymorphs, hydrates or esters thereof. The duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative is present from about 2 mg to approximately 200 mg; and a buffering agent was used to stabilize the acid sensitive duloxetine. The composition has duloxetine from about 0.1 meq to about 2.5 mEq per mg of duloxetine. The invention further discloses an oral liquid composition of duloxetine or its pharmaceutically equivalent derivative wherein the degradation product 1-Naphthol is less than 0.01%. Also provided is a method for treating of major depressive disorder and or diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain comprising administering to a mammal in need of such treatment a therapeutically effective amount of a composition.

RELATED APPLICATION This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/735,314, filed Dec. 12, 2000 now U.S. Pat. No. 6,811,551, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/170,831filed on Dec. 14, 1999. This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/170,831 entitled Method for Reducing Myocardial Infarct by Application of Intravascular Hypothermia, the entire disclosure of such provisional application being expressly incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to the field of cardiac therapy, and more particularly to the intravascular application of hypothermia to prevent or reduce myocardial infarct resulting from myocardial ischemia. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION When the normal blood supply a person's heart muscle is disrupted, the person may suffer what is commonly termed a heart attack. Heart attacks are one of the major health problems in the world. In the United States alone there are over 1.1 million heart attacks a year. Of those 1.1 million victims, about 250,000 die within 1 hour. However, those that survive the initial heart attack generally subsequently receive treatment. In fact, about 375,000 of those heart attack victims will make it to a hospital for treatment within 1 hour; about 637,000 will make it to a hospital for treatment within 4 hours. Unfortunately, when treated using current methods, heart attacks often result in serious and permanent damage to the heart muscle. In fact, it is estimated that about 66% of the MI patients do not make a complete recovery, but rather suffer permanent injury to cardiac muscle cells. An effective treatment that minimizes permanent damage to the heart as a result of the heart attack would be of great value to these patents. In a typical heart attack, there is a blockage in an artery that provide blood to some of the cardiac muscle cells, so the cells in the affected portion of the heart (termed the area at risk) experience ischemia, or a lack of adequate blood flow. This ischemia results in an inadequate supply of oxygen for the muscles and inadequate removal of waste product of muscle activity such as CO 2 , lactic acid or other by-products of metabolism. These substances may therefore reach toxic concentrations and thus, in turn, cause serious long-term consequences such as the breakdown of the cell walls, release of toxic enzymes or the like, and ultimately result in the death of many or all of the cardiac muscle cells in the area at risk. The ischemia, however, is not always permanent. In fact, if the heart attack does not result in the immediate death of the individual, the ischemia is generally reversed either spontaneously or with medical intervention. If the ischemia is a result of blockage of an artery by a blood clot, the clot may spontaneously dissolve in the ordinary course of time due to the body's own natural thrombolytics, and blood may again flow to the affected area. Alternatively, medical treatment may restore blood flow. Such medical treatments include administration of thrombolytic drugs, such as tPA, to dissolve blood clots in the vessels of the heart to restore blood flow, balloon angioplasty, where an interventional cardiologist steers a catheter with a balloon on the end into the clogged artery and inflates the balloon to open the artery, coronary stenting, where an interventional cardiologist steers a catheter with a stent on it into the clogged vessel and expands the stent to place what amounts to a scaffold into the vessel with the blockage to hold the vessel open, or coronary by-pass surgery where a blood vessel is harvested from elsewhere in the patient's body and is attached around a blocked coronary artery to restore blood to the ischemic tissue distal of the blockage. These treatments may be applied individually or in concert with one or more of the other treatments. Generally if the ischemic event is for a short period of time or oxygenated blood is available to the affected tissue from another blood supply, for example from collateral arteries or even from blood within the heart cavity, some or all of the muscle cells in the area at risk may survive and ultimately recover much or all of their function. However, if the period of ischemia is long enough and severe enough, the cardiac muscle cells in the area at risk may in fact die as a result of the ischemic insult. The area of dead tissue resulting from this cell death is called an infarct and the area may be said to be infarcted. Unlike many cells in the body, for example, skeletal muscle cells, cardiac muscle cells do not significantly regenerate. Thus an infarcted region of cardiac muscle cells will generally be a permanently non-functioning portion of the patient's heart. This will result in decreased overall heart function, which may lead to systemic vascular insufficiency, congestive heart failure, and even death. It is thus of great importance to minimize the amount of infarct that results from cardiac ischemic events. Infarct may result from heart attacks as described above, and may also result from myocardial ischemic events as the result of other causes and may even be predicable. For example, in so-called beating heart by-pass surgery, the surgeon stops the heart for short periods of time to sew grafts onto the surface of the heart. In such a procedure, the heart is deprived of blood during the time that circulation is stopped, and unless protected, infarct can result from this ischemic event. Another common interventional procedure, cardiac balloon angioplasty, also disrupts the blood supply to part of the heart and results in predictable ischemia. In balloon angioplasty of the heart, an interventional cardiologist inserts a balloon catheter into the vasculature of the heart with the balloon deflated. The balloon is placed at a location where the interventionalist wants to dilate the vessel, and then inflates the balloon against the walls of the vessel. When the balloon is inflated, it fills the vessel in question and blocks most if not all blood from flowing through that vessel. In this way, it creates an area of ischemia downstream from the balloon, which ischemia persists for as long as the balloon is inflated. Although attempts have been made to relieve this ischemia by means of catheters that allow perfusion from one side of the balloon to the other during inflation (so called auto-perfusion balloons), these have generally proven to be inadequate. It is also sometimes the case that during or after angioplasty the dilated vessel is either dissected or goes into spasm. If the vessel spasms shut or is dissected, the blood supply to all the tissue vascularized by the artery in question suffers severe ischemia and potential infarct. In such cases the patient is generally taken to a surgical suite and open chest by-pass is performed. Until the by-pass is successfully completed, the area at risk remains starved of blood. Medical practitioners have attempted to reduce the infarct resulting from the ischemic events suffered during beating heart surgery and angioplasty with drugs and through a technique known as preconditioning. Drugs, for example adenosine and RheothRx, have been tried, and although under some circumstances they may have some effect, they have ultimately proven generally inadequate for one reason or another. In preconditioning, the cardiac muscle is subjected to short periods of ischemia, for example two or three episodes of 5 minutes of ischemia followed by reperfusion, prior to the angioplasty or other anticipated procedure that will expose the heart to a more prolonged ischemic event. This has been found to reduce the infarct size resulting from the prolonged subsequent ischemia somewhat, but is difficult to perform safely, requires a complex set-up and is an invasive procedure. Importantly, precondition must occur well in advance of the ischemic event. For all these reasons it is generally not a useful procedure, and because it necessarily must occur in advance of the anticipated ischemic event, it is unsuitable for treating ischemia due to heart attacks that have already occurred or are in process. Under ordinary circumstances, the temperature of the body and particularly that of the blood is maintained by the body's thermoregulatory system at a very constant temperature of about 37° C. (98.6° F.) sometimes referred to as normothermia. The amount of heat generated by the body's metabolism is very precisely balanced by the amount of heat lost to the environment. The circulating blood serves to keep the entire body and particularly the heart, at normothermia. Deep hypothermia (30° C. or lower) has long been known to be neuroprotective, and believed to be cardioprotective as well. More recently, the advantage of mild hypothermia (only as low as 32° C. or even as warm as between 35° C. and normothermia) to ischemic cardiac tissue has been recognized, either before and/or during an anticipated ischemic event such as may occur in beating heart surgery or coronary angioplasty, during an ischemic event such as a heart attack in progress, or soon after an ischemic event such as a heart attack that has already occurred. No satisfactory method of achieving this mild cardiac hypothermia in the human clinical setting, however, has been available before this invention. In rabbits, ice bags or ice-filled surgical gloves have been applied directly to the heart in an open-chest procedure. This method is clearly very invasive, clumsy and lacks control over the level of hypothermia applied. Other attempts have been made using cooling blankets or externally applied ice bags or iced blankets. These methods are slow, lack adequate control over the patient temperature, are not directed to the heart muscle and therefore are not effective in the human clinical setting to adequately reduce cardiac temperature, especially in obese patients. Another method of achieving cardiac hypothermia has been proposed, that of pericardial lavage using a two-lumen catheter, with the distal ends of both lumens (one input and one outflow) sealed inside the pericardial sack. A cold solution such as cold saline is circulated within the pericardial sack to cool the heart muscle. While this method is rapid and directed to the cardiac muscle, it is highly invasive, requires surgical access to the pericardial sack which generally requires either an open chest procedure or a thoracotomy, involves piercing the pericardial sack, and introducing superfluous fluid into the pericardial sack of a beating heart, all with the attendant risks. If used, it requires the full surgical suite and delicate and highly skilled surgical technique. The surgical invasion of the pericardial sack is generally not acceptable to practitioners. Thus, although mild cardiac hypothermia provides protection against infarct resulting from a cardiac ischemic event, the existing methods of achieving cardiac hypothermia are inadequate and unacceptable; a better method of achieving mild hypothermia of the heart that is fast, controlled and less invasive is needed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a method for inducing controlled hypothermia of the heart, using an intravascular heat exchange device in the nature of a catheter. The intravascular heat exchange device is inserted into the vasculature of a mammalian patient and is thereafter utilized to cool blood that is flowing to the patient's heart. In this manner, hypothermia of the myocardium is achieved. Myocardial hypothermic treatment in accordance with this invention may be useable to prevent or lessen myocardial infarction in patient's who are suffering from acute myocardial ischemia. Also, the myocardial hypothermic treatment in accordance with this invention may be useable to prevent, deter, minimize or treat other types of damage to the myocardium such as toxic myocardial damage that can occur during or after administration of certain cardiotoxic drugs or exposure to cardiotoxic agents. Also, the myocardial hypothermic treatment in accordance with this invention may be useable to prevent, deter, minimize or treat certain cardiac disorders such as cardiac arrhythmias and the like. The heart is the body's pump to pump blood throughout the body. A normal heart pumps blood at a rate of 3 liters per minute per square meter and the average human is 1.7 square meters, so the average heart pumps about 5.1 liter of blood per minute for entire life of the person. Under normal conditions, the blood is maintained at a very constant temperature of 37° C., and this in turn keeps the heart (and the rest of the body) at a very constant temperature of 37° C. The heart temperature is maintained by both the temperature of the arterial blood and the venous blood, in addition to the small amount of arterial blood that is re-circulated through the coronary arterial tree to feed the heart muscle (estimated to be 4% of the total circulation) the average heart pumps about 306 liters of blood per hour, blood that is all circulated through the heart cavities. Therefore cooling the venous blood that enters the heart will effectively cool the heart by direct contact with the cardiac muscle in the cardiac cavities. As may be seen, cooling the venous blood in the vena cava also effectively cools the arterial blood that is circulated through the cardiac arteries. After being cooled in the vena cava, the blood first enters the right atrium, is then pumped through the lungs (which expose the blood to air at room temperature which is generally less than normothermia), from whence it is returned to the left atrium, and then to the left ventricle. The left ventricle pumps the oxygenated blood to the body through the aorta, and the first arteries to branch off the aorta are the coronary arteries. Thus the blood will be circulated through the arterial tree of the heart without ever having picked up metabolic heat from the rest of the body. The heart is thus cooled both by direct contact with the cooled blood and by having the cooled blood circulated through the coronary arteries before picking up metabolic heat from the outlying capillary beds. Described herein is a method for reducing the size of any infarct that results from a cardiac ischemic event by inserting a cooling catheter having a heat exchange region into the vasculature of a patient, placing the heat exchange region into the blood stream flowing to the heart, cooling the blood as it passes the heat exchange region and thus directing cooled blood to the heart muscle before, during and/or after an ischemic event for a sufficient length of time to reduce the temperature of the heart. The method advantageously is practiced by placing the heat exchange region of the catheter into the patient's vena cava, either the inferior vena cava (IVC) or the superior vena cava (SVC), and the heat exchange region may even be placed partially or totally within the heart itself. The cooling catheter may be introduced into the patient in any acceptable means, for example percutaneously through the femoral vein into the IVC or via the internal jugular vein into the SVC, by surgical cut-down, or by surgical placement in a patient with an open chest. The cooling of the cardiac muscle is advantageous if performed after a cardiac ischemic event, for example a heart attack, and is advantageous if performed before an anticipated ischemic event, for example before or during coronary angioplasty or beating heart surgery, and if performed during an ischemic event, for example during a heart attack in progress or during an angioplasty or beating heart surgery. The cooling of the blood may be done by a cooling catheter having various acceptable types of cooling regions, for example a cooling catheter with a balloon for receiving the circulation of heat transfer fluid that is cooled outside of the body of the patient. Of particular value is the efficiency of a multi-lobed heat exchange balloon. Other heat exchange elements, however, are also useful in this method. For example, flexible metallic heat exchange regions or heat exchange regions with multiple heat exchange elements would be acceptable for practicing the patented method. While the heart may experience some harmful effects of when subjected to very deep hypothermia such as arrhythmia's at temperatures below 30° C., profound reduction of infarct resulting from ischemia may be experienced as a result of mild hypothermia of only a few degrees below normothermia, for example hypothermia as mild as 35° C. or above, thereby enjoying the benefits of hypothermia while avoiding the harmful effects of deep hypothermia. Therefore cooling the heart to mild levels of hypothermia above 32° C. is preferred in this method. These temperature targets, of course, will vary somewhat from patient to patient, and from circumstance to circumstance. Beside the level of hypothermia, the time during which the hypothermia is administered may vary according to the circumstances. For example, the heart may be cooled for a short period of time and then rewarmed, or may be cooled and maintained in a cooled condition for some period of time. For example, a heart attack victim may have the cardiac muscle cooled for an hour, while the hypothermia may be applied during beating heart surgery for several hours. The heart may also be selectively cooled. That is, the blood directed to the heart may be cooled immediately before being directed to the heart, for example, when the blood is in the IVC, and the blood directed to the rest of the body after leaving the heart may be warmed, for example by a warming catheter in the descending aorta or warming blankets on the skin of the patient. The method of this invention tends to result in a core body temperature that is several degrees warmer than the cardiac temperature achieved, at least initially, and this difference can be accentuated and prolonged by the use of warming blankets or other means to warm the blood of the patient after the cooled blood has left the heart of the patient. These and other objects and advantages of the invention can be better understood with reference to the drawings and the detailed description of the embodiments of the invention described below. BRIEF DISCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a depiction of a heat exchange catheter in the vasculature of a patient with the heat exchange region of the catheter located in the vena cava of the patient. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of the shaft of a heat exchange catheter. FIG. 3 shows a side view of the heat exchange region of a heat exchange catheter as assembled. FIG. 4 shows the shaft member of the heat exchange catheter of FIG. 3 . FIG. 5 shows the balloon configuration of the catheter assembly of FIG. 3 . FIG. 6 is a view of a portion of the heat exchange catheter of FIG. 3 illustrating outflow of heat exchange fluid. FIG. 7 is a view of a portion of the catheter of FIG. 3 illustrating inflow of exchange fluid. FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view of the shaft of FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 taken along the line 8 - 8 . FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view of the balloon of FIG. 5 taken along the line 9 - 9 . FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional view of the catheter of FIG. 3 taken along the line 10 - 10 . FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view of the catheter of FIG. 3 taken along the line 11 - 11 . FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of the catheter of FIG. 3 taken along the line 12 - 12 . FIG. 13 is an illustration of a heat exchange balloon having a spiral shaped heat exchange region in place in the IVC. FIG. 14 is an illustration of a bellows shaped heat exchange region in place in the IVC. FIG. 15 is an illustration of a flexible metal heat transfer region with spiral shaped heat transfer fins and radial heat transfer fins on the surface of the heat exchange region, said heat exchange region in place in the IVC. FIG. 16 is an enlarged side view of the heat transfer region of the catheter of FIG. 15 . FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional view of the heat transfer region of FIG. 15 . FIG. 18 . is an illustration of a heat exchange catheter having a heat exchange region comprising multiple heat exchange elements in place in the vena cava. FIG. 19 is an illustration of a heat exchange catheter inserted into a patient via an internal jugular vein insertion, with the heat exchange region in place in the SVC. FIG. 20 is a graph of the body temperature during cooling as measured at different locations in the body. FIG. 21 is a flow chart depicting the steps of the method as described in the detailed description. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention comprises a method of cooling the beating heart to protect myocardial tissue from infarct as a result of ischemia. The heart is cooled by placing a heat exchange catheter having a heat exchange region in contact with blood flowing to the heart, for example, blood in the IVC, cooling the heat exchange region to a temperature lower than that of the blood, for example circulating saline at 2° C. through the heat exchange region to cool the heat exchange region to about 2° C. thereby cooling the blood to a temperature below normothermia, and maintaining the cooling for a long enough time to reduce the temperature of the heart. In intravenous cooling such as that described in the previous paragraph, a heat exchange region is placed in the bloodstream and maintained at a lower temperature than the blood. The rate of cooling blood by means of a heat exchange region in contact with flowing blood depends on a number of factors. One is the difference in temperature between the blood and the heat exchange region in contact with that blood. Other factors include the specific heat of the blood, the amount of surface area of the heat exchange region in contact with the blood, and the heat transfer coefficient between the blood and the surface of the heat exchange region. Certain other factors may also effect the efficiency of heat transfer between the heat exchange region and the colloidal fluid that is blood, such as turbulent flow (see e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 5,624,392 to Saab, col. 11, II. 56-60) to enhance heat exchange. Where the heat exchange region is cooled by the circulation of heat exchange fluid, counter-current flow between the blood and the heat exchange fluid is important so that the heat exchange fluid flows through the heat exchange region in a direction opposite that of the blood flow. In this way, the warm blood flows over the warmest part of the heat exchange region first toward the coldest part of the heat exchange region. It has been found that a balloon heat transfer catheter of the type described below with the heat exchange region placed in contact with blood flowing in the IVC is a satisfactory method of practicing this invention, although other heat exchange catheters with other types of heat exchange regions are within the scope of the invention. Essentially all the blood flow into the heart cavities flows through the vena cava, the IVC below the heart and the SVC above the heart. It is estimated that in the ordinary human ⅔ of the total venous return to the heart flows through the IVC and ⅓ through the SVC. The vena cava is a large vessel; in the human patient, the IVC is generally about 200 millimeters long and generally ranges between about 160 millimeters and 260 millimeters. In diameter it varies somewhat over that length, but averages about 21 millimeters in diameter. Cooling blood flowing through the vena cava provides an effective way of inducing mild hypothermia to the heart. Blood flowing through the vena cava is flowing directly to the heart cavities. It cools the heart directly by contact with the heart muscle. The blood that feeds the cardiac arteries would also generally be relatively cool since blood cooled in the vena cava travels only to the lungs before being pumped through the cardiac arteries. In the lungs the blood is exposed to air at ambient temperature which is usually below normothermia, and the blood does not travel through the rest of the body where it would pick up metabolic heat. Because large volumes of blood are cooled by the method of the invention, the temperature of the entire body may be somewhat depressed, that is the patient may experience what is sometimes called whole body hypothermia. Although it is generally the case the body functions most efficiently at normothermia, some whole body hypothermia is acceptable and in some situations may even by therapeutic. In any event, as the example detailed below describes, the temperature of the body core other than the cardiac muscle tends to lag the hypothermia experienced by the cardiac muscle, and this results in even shallower hypothermia than that experienced by the cardiac muscle. It is often the case that the application of cooling to the heart with the heat exchange region of the cooling catheter in the vena cava tends to be fairly short, perhaps an hour or less, so the core cooling experienced by the whole body while practicing this method is generally not harmful. FIG. 1 shows a heat exchange catheter 10 having a heat exchange region 12 located in the IVC 14 of a patient. The heat exchange region is maintained at a temperature below that of the blood, perhaps as cold as 0° C., so that blood flowing past the heat exchange region gives off heat to the heat exchange region and thus is cooled. The cooled blood, indicated by arrows in FIG. 1 , flows into the heart 16 and cools the heart. The balloon heat exchange catheter may be placed in the vasculature of a patient by for example, percutaneously inserting it using the well known Seldinger technique into the femoral vein 18 and advancing it toward the heart until the heat exchange region 12 is located the vena cava of the patient. In one preferred method, a balloon heat exchange catheter has a heat exchange region comprising a balloon with mechanisms for circulating cold saline through the balloon as the heat exchange fluid. The balloon is percutaneously placed into the femoral vein and advanced to locate the heat exchange balloon in the IVC. As shown in FIG. 2 , the shaft 18 of the heat exchange catheter has three lumens therein, an inflow lumen 20 for the flow of heat exchange fluid to the heat exchange region, an outflow lumen 22 for the flow of heat exchange fluid from the heat exchange region, and a working lumen 24 that may be used for a guide wire or the administration of medicaments from the proximal end of the catheter through the distal end of the catheter. The inflow lumen is in fluid communication with the distal end of the balloon; the outflow lumen is in fluid communication with the proximal end of the balloon. The heat exchange fluid is circulated from outside the body, down the inflow lumen to the distal end of the balloon, through the balloon, and back out the outflow lumen. In this example this results in the heat exchange fluid flowing in the opposite direction of the blood, i.e. counter-current flow. This counter-current heat exchange between flowing liquids is the more efficient means of exchanging heat. By controlling the temperature of the saline, the temperature of the balloon may be controlled. The saline may be cooled outside the body by, for instance, an external heat exchanger 26 , to cool the saline to as low as 0° C. The balloon is thereby cooled to as low as 0° C., at least at the point where the heat exchange fluid first begins to exchange heat with the blood. As will be readily appreciated, a temperature gradient is established along the length of the balloon. Where the heat exchange fluid first enters the balloon, the balloon is at its coldest. If the heat exchange fluid is at 7° C. for example, when it exits the central lumen and enters the balloon, the surface of the balloon will be essentially 7° C. At that point, if the blood is at normothermic, that is 37° C., the DT would be 30° C. and the blood would give off heat through the balloon to the heat exchange fluid. It should be noted that not all the heat exchanged between the blood and the heat exchange fluid will be at the heat exchange region. Some heat may be exchanged between the blood flowing in the femoral vein and the vena cava so the temperature at the coldest point on the heat exchange region may be as warm as 7° C. even if the saline is cooled by the external cooler to as cold as 0° C. It is preferable to exchange the maximum amount of heat in the IVC near the heart by means of the heat exchange region, but the blood in the femoral vein and IVC which may exchange heat with the shaft of the catheter ultimately flow past the heat exchange region and into the heart, so that heat exchanged by this portion of the heat exchange catheter also serves somewhat to cool the heart. Therefore, in evaluating the performance of the catheters used in the preferred embodiments of this invention, the temperature at the inlet to the heat exchange catheter, that is soon after it leaves the external heat exchanger, and the temperature at the outlet of the heat exchange catheter, that is just before it enters the external heat exchanger, in conjunction with the flow rate of heat exchange fluid in the catheter, can give a useful estimate of the heat exchanged with the blood directed to the heart, although it would include both the heat exchanged at the heat exchange region and heat exchanged along the shaft. For example, in the multi-lobed heat exchange catheter described in detail below, the temperature at the inlet may be measured at about 4° C. and the temperature at the outlet at about 11° C. The flow rate in the catheter may be about 450 ml/min. This indicated a total heat exchange of about 220 watts of energy, a performance adequate for practicing the method of this invention. It should be noted that the exchange of heat from the body may be controlled by controlling the external heat exchanger. For example, if maximum temperature reduction were desired, maximum power to the heat exchange region would result in the coldest possible heat exchange fluid and thus the largest DT between the heat exchange fluid and the blood. Once the target temperature had been reached and the number of watts needed to be removed from the blood to maintain the target temperature was less, the watts transferred from the body could be reduced by reducing the power to the external heat exchanger. This would in turn increase the temperature of the heat exchange fluid as it left the external heat exchanger and entered the catheter, which would decrease the DT between the blood and the heat exchange fluid, and thus reduce the watts removed from the bloodstream. The external heat exchanger may be, for example, a hot/cold plate formed of a number of thermoelectric units such as Peltier units, or other hot or cold elements in contact with a thermal exchange bag through which the heat exchange fluid is circulated. If the bag is sealed and forms a closed circuit with the heat exchange fluid in the catheter, the heat exchange fluid may be heated or cooled exterior of the body without ever being exposed to the air. If the saline is initially sterile, it may thereby be maintained sterile, an advantage for fluid that is circulated through the body. Although the heat exchange fluid is not intentionally in contact with the blood, if a leak should occur it would be a significant advantage to use sterile heat exchange fluid. The external heat exchange unit, in turn, may controlled by controller 28 that may be pre-programmed or may be reactive to a temperature sensor 30 that senses the temperature of the patient. As will be readily appreciated by those of skill in the art, the temperature sensor may sense the temperature of the heart itself to the patient's body temperature as measured by a rectal sensor, an esophageal sensor, a tympanic sensor or the like. It has been found that the temperature sensors in the heart tissue when a heat exchange balloon is located in the vena cava tends to more closely reflect the temperature of the heat exchange balloon than do the rectal, esophageal or tympanic sensors, but that these various sensors correlate well with each other, and thus, with the appropriate compensation factors, any one of them may be used to control the temperature of the heat exchange region for purposes of inducing and controlling cardiac hypothermia. If the external heat exchanger is able to both heat and cool, as is the case for example in the Peltier elements described above, the heat exchange fluid may be heated or cooled in response to the signal from the sensor. If the external heat exchange unit is able to be controlled as to the amount of heating or cooling it provides, the degree of heating or cooling supplied by the heat exchange unit may be controlled in response to the signal received from the sensor. As will be seen in the example described below, this will allow the operator to cool the heart to a predetermined temperature, maintain the heart at a predetermined temperature for a length of time, and add heat to the blood to warm the heart at a chosen point. In practice, the controller receives a signal that represents the temperature of the heart tissue. As temperature nears the target temperature, the controller causes the external heat this exchanger to reduce the amount of cooling applied to the heat exchanger. By internal calculations, the rate of decrease of the temperature of the heart tissue is calculated relative to the amount of energy applied by the external heat exchanger, and as the heart tissue nears and finally reaches the target temperature, the precise amount of cooling that must be applied by the external heat exchanger to cause a rate of change of essentially 0 is known. By application of this amount of cooling by the external heat exchanger when the heart reaches the target temperature, the heart is essentially maintained at precisely this temperature. In this way, by use of the controller receiving a signal from the patient's body that represents heart temperature, the operator is able to precisely control the level of hypothermia applied. By determining how long the controller will maintain this level of hypothermia and when it will begin to re-heat, the length of the hypothermia applied to the heart may also be precisely controlled. Although the heat exchange region shown in FIG. 1 is a simple, single lobed balloon, the heat exchange region may be of various advantageous configurations. One effective catheter for exchanging heat with the blood in the vena cava is a heat exchange balloon catheter having a heat exchange region that is a multi-lobed balloon and has the temperature of the heat exchange region controlled by controlling the temperature of heat exchange fluid circulated through the balloon. Such a catheter is depicted in FIG. 3 through FIG. 12 . The assembled catheter 31 ( FIG. 3 ) has a four-lumen, thin-walled balloon 33 ( FIG. 5 ) which is attached over an inner shaft 35 ( FIG. 4 ). The cross-sectional view of the four-lumen balloon is shown in FIG. 9 . The balloon has three outer lumens 37 , 39 , 41 which are wound around an inner lumen 43 in a helical pattern. All four lumens are thin walled balloons and each outer lumen shares a common thin wall segment 42 with the inner lumen 43 . The balloon is approximately twenty-five centimeters long, and when installed, both the proximal end 67 and the distal end 89 are sealed around the shaft in a fluid tight seal. The shaft 35 is attached to a hub 47 at its proximal end. The cross section of the proximal shaft is shown at FIG. 8 . The interior of the shaft is configured with three lumens, a guide wire lumen 49 , an inflow lumen 51 and an outflow lumen 53 . (For purposes of this description the inflow lumen is lumen 51 , and the outflow lumen is 53 . As one of skill in the art may readily appreciate, the inflow and outflow lumens may be reversed if desired.) At the hub, the guide wire lumen 49 communicates with a guide wire port 59 , the inflow lumen is in fluid communication with an inflow port 55 , and the outflow lumen is in communication with an outflow port 57 . Attached at the hub and surrounding the proximal shaft is a length of strain relief tubing 61 which may be, for example, heat shrink tubing. Between the strain relief tubing and the proximal end of the balloon, the shaft 35 is extruded with an outer diameter of about 0.118 inches. The internal configuration is as shown in cross-section in FIG. 8 . Immediately proximal of the balloon attachment 67 , the shaft is necked down 63 . The outer diameter of the shaft is reduced to about 0.100 to 0.110 inches, but the internal configuration with the three lumens is maintained. Compare, for example, the shaft cross-section of FIG. 8 with the cross-section of the shaft shown in FIG. 10 and FIG. 11 . This length of reduced diameter shaft remains at approximately constant diameter of about 0.10 to 0.11 inches between the necked down location at 63 and the necked down location at 77 . At the necked down location 63 , a proximal balloon marker band 65 is attached around the shaft. The marker band is a radiopaque material such as a platinum or gold band or radiopaque paint, and is useful for locating the proximal end of the balloon by means of fluoroscopy while the catheter is within the body of the patient. At the marker band, all four lobes of the balloon are reduced down and fastened to the inner member 67 . This may be accomplished by folding the balloon down around the shaft, placing a sleeve, for example a short length of tubing, over the balloon and inserting adhesive, for example by wicking the adhesive, around the entire inner circumference of the sleeve. This simultaneously fastens the balloon down around the shaft and creates a fluid tight seal at the proximal end of the balloon. Distal of this seal, under the balloon, an elongated window 73 is cut through the wall of the outflow lumen in the shaft. Along the proximal portion of the balloon, five slits, e.g. 75 , are cut into the common wall between each of the outer balloon lumens and the inner lumen 43 . (See FIG. 10 and FIG. 6 .) Because the outer lumens are twined about the inner lumen in a helical fashion, each of the outer tubes passes over the outflow lumen of the inner shaft member at a slightly different location along the length of the inner shaft, and therefore an elongated window 73 is cut into the outflow lumen of the shaft so that each outer lumen has a cut 75 where that lumen passes over the window in the shaft. Additionally, there is sufficient clearance between the outer surface of the shaft and the walls of the inner lumen 43 to create sufficient space to allow relatively unrestricted flow through the 5 slits 75 in each outer lumen 37 , 39 , 40 to the outflow lumen of the shaft 53 . Distal of the elongated window in the outflow lumen, the inner member 43 of the four-lumen balloon is sealed around the shaft in a fluid tight seal 82 . The outflow lumen is plugged 79 , and the wall to the inflow lumen is removed. (See FIG. 11 .) This may be accomplished by necking down the shaft 77 to seal the outflow lumen shut 79 , removing the wall of the inflow lumen 81 , piercing a small hole in the wall of the inner lumen 84 and wicking UV curable adhesive into the hole and around the entire outside of the shaft, and curing the adhesive to create a plug to affix the wall of the inner lumen of the balloon around the entire outside of the shaft 83 . The adhesive will also act as a plug to prevent the portion of the inner lumen proximal of the plug from being in fluid communication with the inner member distal of the plug. Just distal of the necked down location 77 , the guide wire lumen of the shaft may be terminated and joined to a guide wire tube 87 . The guide tube then continues to the distal end of the catheter. The inflow lumen 81 is open into the inner lumen of the four-lobed balloon and thus in fluid communication with that lumen. The distal end of the balloon 89 including all four lumens of the balloon is sealed down around the guide wire tube in a manner similar to the manner the balloon is sealed at the proximal end around the shaft. This seals all four lumens of the balloon in a fluid tight seal. Just proximal of the seal, four slits slits 91 are cut each the common wall between each of the three outer lumens 37 , 39 , 41 of the balloon and the inner lumen 43 so that each of the outer lumens is in fluid communication with the inner lumen. (See FIG. 5 and FIG. 12 .) Just distal of the balloon, near the distal seal, a distal marker band 93 is placed around the inner shaft. A flexible length of tube 95 may be joined onto the distal end of the guide wire tube to provide a flexible tip to the catheter. Alternatively, a soft tip 98 may be attached over the very distal end of the catheter. The distal end of the flexible tube 97 is open so that a guide wire may exit the tip, or medicine or radiographic fluid may be injected distal of the catheter through the guide wire lumen. In use, the catheter is inserted into the body of a patient so that the balloon is within a blood vessel. Heat exchange fluid is circulated into the inflow port 55 , travels down the inflow lumen 51 and into the inner lumen 43 at the end of the inflow lumen 81 . The heat exchange fluid travels to the distal end of the inner lumen and through the slits 91 between the inner lumen 43 and the outer lumens 37 , 39 , 41 . The heat exchange fluid then travels back through the three outer lumens of the balloon to the proximal end of the balloon. The outer lumens are wound in a helical pattern around the inner lumen. At some point along the proximal portion of the shaft, each outer lumen is located over the portion of the shaft having a window to the outflow lumen 76 , 74 , 73 , and the outer balloon lumens have slits 75 , 78 , 80 that are aligned with the windows. The heat transfer fluid passes through the slits 75 , 78 , 80 through the windows 73 , 74 , 76 and into the out flow lumen 53 . From there it is circulated out of the catheter through the outflow port 57 . At a fluid pressure of 41 pounds per square inch, flow of as much as 500 milliliters per minute may be achieved with this design. Counter-current circulation between the blood and the heat exchange fluid is highly desirable for efficient heat exchange between the blood and the heat exchange fluid. Thus if the balloon is positioned in a vessel where the blood flow is in the direction from proximal toward the distal end of the catheter, for example if it were placed from the femoral vein into the ascending vena cava, it is desirable to have the heat exchange fluid in the outer balloon lumens flowing in the direction from the distal end toward the proximal end of the catheter. This is the arrangement described above. It is to be readily appreciated, however, that if the balloon were placed so that the blood was flowing along the catheter in the direction from distal to proximal, for example if the catheter was placed into the IVC from a jugular insertion, as is illustrated in FIG. 8 , it would be desirable to have the heat exchange fluid circulate in the outer balloon lumens from the proximal end to the distal end. Although in the construction shown this is not optimal and would result is somewhat less effective circulation, this could be accomplished by reversing which port is used for inflow direction and which for outflow. As depicted in FIG. 13 , a catheter such as that described above, with the heat exchange region 99 located in the IVC provides an advantageous apparatus for the practice of the method of this invention. Other advantageous configurations for the heat exchange region may be employed, however. For example, the heat exchange region may have a bellows-shaped surface 100 as shown in FIG. 6 , or the heat exchange region 102 may have a surface shaped with alternating right handed spirals 104 and left handed spirals 106 with a bellows shaped surface 108 between the spirals as shown in FIGS. 14-17 . Another acceptable variation of the heat exchange catheter would have a heat exchange region 110 comprising multiple heat exchange elements 112 as illustrated in FIG. 18 . Those of skill in the art will also readily appreciate that, beside the use of different heat exchange regions, other acceptable placements of the heat exchange region may be employed to practice the method of this invention. For example, An internal jugular insertion may be made wherein the catheter is inserted into the internal jugular vein 120 and the heat exchange region advanced to, for example, the SVC 122 as illustrated in FIG. 8 . With an internal jugular insertion, if the heat exchange region is only advanced into the SVC, the blood flow will be from the proximal to the distal end of the heat exchange region, i.e. in the same relative direction as with a femoral insertion and placement of the heat exchange region in the IVC, so counter-current flow between the heat exchange fluid and the blood will be maintained with the same catheter as described above. EXAMPLE The method of the invention may be described by reference to the following example. In the instance described here, the cardiac cooling method of the invention was performed using 60 B 80 kg. pigs. The study was conducted in accordance with The Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Each pig was anesthetized with isoflourane anesthesia, and vascular sheaths were inserted percutaneoulsy in to the femoral artery and vein respectively. A median sternotomy was done, followed by the isolation of the left anterior descending coronary artery. A three lobed heat exchange catheter as described above was inserted into the sheath in the femoral vein and the catheter was advanced until the heat exchange region was in the IVC just below the heart. Saline was circulated through the heat exchange region of the catheter and an exterior heat exchanger. The exterior heat exchanger was in the form of a hot/cold plates formed by a number of Peltier units, and a bag of saline in contact with the plates. The circuit of the saline through the bag and through the catheter including the heat exchange region was closed, and the saline was sterile. The temperature of the Peltier plates, and thus of the saline, was controlled by a lap-top computer using a commercially available control program readily available to and understood by those of skill in the art, and was controlled in response to core temperature sensed by an esophageal temperature sensor of the type typically used in the medical arts. The core temperature was initially maintained at 38° C. (normothermia for pigs) by adding or removing heat as necessary with the heat exchange catheter. Because the chest had been opened by the sternotomy, this generally comprised adding a small amount of heat to the blood. The left anterior descending coronary artery was occluded for a total of 60 minutes about ⅔ of the way down its length using a snare. The snare was formed using a suture placed around the descending coronary artery, with both legs of the suture contained within a plastic tube. The snare was tightened and the occlusion formed by sliding the tube down against the artery. Twenty minutes into the occlusion, the external heat exchanger was turned on with the controller was set to remove heat via the heat exchange catheter to lower the cardiac temperature of the pig at the maximum rate. Heat was removed from the blood flowing through the IVC at a rate that varied somewhat between test animals from about 140 watts to 220 watts, but was generally about 190 watts. At the end of the 60-minute period of ischemia, the snare was loosened by removing the plastic tube by sliding it away from the artery and off the suture. The removal of the snare restored flow to (re-perfused) the ischemic area. The suture was left, lose but in place around the artery. Cooling in order to maintain the target temperature of 34° C. was maintained for 15 minutes after the removal of the occlusion. In the pigs receiving hypothermia, there was thus a total of 55 minutes of cooling: beginning after 20 minutes of occlusion; 40 minutes of cooling during occlusion; then 15 more minutes of cooling after re-perfusion. After the period of cooling (55 minutes) the external heat exchanger was switched to begin heating, and the temperature of the saline circulating through the heat exchange catheter was raised to 41° C. This in turn began warming the blood and rewarming the pig toward normothermia. The control pigs were maintained at normothermia (38° C.) initially and during occlusion, and this temperature was maintained for an additional three hours after reperfusion. In the hypothermic pigs, re-warming toward 38° C. was allowed to occur for 2 hours and 45 minutes, that is also until three hours after reperfusion. At the end of this period (4 hours after the initial occlusion), the suture was again tied off around the artery to occlude the vessel, and monastral blue dye was injected into the left ventricular cavity to define the ischemic area at risk. The dye stained all the areas of the heart that were vascularized, and since the suture was tied off around the cardiac artery at the same location as originally occluded, the area at risk would be unstained and would visually accurately define the area at risk during the original ischemia. The heart was harvested to analyze the effect of the hypothermia on infarct resulting from the ischemic event. The heart was excised, sliced into 0.5 to 1.0 cm slices, and the slices were immersed into 1% triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) for 15 minutes to stain the viable tissue. Nonviable tissue is not stained by TTC. The myocardial slices were photographed using a digital camera and the area at risk, and the infarction zones were quantified using image analysis software. Six animals were studied with hypothermia, while an additional six animals served as controls. For the controls, the heat exchange catheter was placed into the IVC and the controller set to maintain the esophageal temperature 38° C. Otherwise, the procedure was identical for the experimental hypothermia animals and the controls. Results below are expressed as 1) Area at risk (MR), and 2) Percent of MR that suffered infarct. Results: HYPOTHERMIC CONTROL AAR IF/AAR AAR IF/AAR Pig # (% LV) (% AAR) Pig # (% LV) (% AAR) 1 11.3 0.0 1 25.4 49.1 2 13.6 0.0 2 12.6 35.9 3 11.2 0.0 3 14.9 44.8 4 21.1 0.8 4 33.6 45.1 5 18.2 0.0 5 17.7 61.5 6 23.7 12.8 6 10.4 47.0 Mean ± 16.6 ± 5.3 2.3 ± 5.3 Mean ± 19.1 ± 8.8 47.2 ± 8.3 SD SD P Value P = NS P < 0.000005 Hypother- mic vs. Normo- thermic It should be noted that the core temperature of the pig as measured by the tympanic or rectal probe never reached as low a temperature as did the heart itself. A graph showing the temperatures as measured at different locations during one experiment is depicted in FIG. 20 . The cardiac temperature was measured by temperature sensors located in the muscle of the left ventricle and of the left atrium. Temperatures were also measured by sensors in the rectum, in the eardrum (tympanic) and in the esophagus. All of the temperatures measured away from the heart itself tended to lag the cardiac temperature, sometimes as much as 2° C. Presumably the fact that the heart was contacted with the cool blood first, and even warmed that blood somewhat before it went out to other locations would explain this difference. If the heart had reached a target temperature, and the rate of cooling had been reduced to only that necessary to maintain that target temperature, the rate at which the rest of the body would have approached equilibrium would have slowed considerably, and the core body temperature as measured away from the heart would have continued to lag. Presumably, however the body would ultimately reach equilibrium at some hypothermic temperature. This, however, would take a long time, and in the time while the heat exchange catheter was cooling the heart at hypothermic temperature, the body temperatures never reached equilibrium. Once the heat exchange catheter began to warm the blood, the entire body began to experience warming, and therefore the body core away from the heart never experienced hypothermia as deep as that experienced by the heart. For the times involved in the hypothermic treatment of the method, and for the depth of hypothermia involved, the whole body cooling that resulted was within acceptable limits. In humans, the same method of applying hypothermia can be used to reduce infarct resulting from an ischemic event. A multi-lobed balloon catheter such as that described above, may be percutaneously placed through the femoral vein so that the heat exchange region is located in the IVC or through the internal jugular vein so that the heat exchange region is located in the SVC, and the blood therein cooled by cooling the heat exchange region (the balloon) by circulating cold saline through the cooling catheter. Saline at about 0° C. can be circulated without undue damage to the blood. A controller receiving a signal representing cardiac temperature, either directly or through some surrogate such as esophageal or tympanic temperature, can control the heat exchange catheter to achieve a target temperature and maintain that temperature. As was the case with the pigs, the heat removed from the blood also results in overall temperature reduction in the whole body since the body is unable to generate sufficient heat to replace that amount removed by the heat exchange catheter, but the heart tends to cool more rapidly than that of the rest of the body. The whole body cooling may be desirable in some instances for therapeutic reasons, for example for neuroprotection is some global ischemia is experienced, but at least at the mild levels of hypothermia in the method of the invention, and for the time lengths expected, therapeutic hypothermia of the heart is obtained by this technique without undue injury to the patient. It is anticipated that means to inhibit shivering using drugs such as meperidine, Thorazine, Demerol, phenegran or combinations thereof, or applying heat to the skin surface may be necessary to prevent or reduce shivering in unanesthesized patients receiving hypothermic therapy. The method of the invention is described in the flow chart of FIG. 21 . In Step 1 , the heat exchange catheter is inserted into the vasculature of a patient. This is typically inserted percutaneously into the femoral vein, but may also be inserted into the internal jugular vein, or in any other suitable fashion depending on the circumstances. For example, if the patient is in surgery, insertion by a cut-down may be preferable. If access to the listed veins is not possible because the patient is aged or has other catheters or the like occupying the preferred locations, alternative locations are within the scope of the invention. Use of an insertion diameter of 8 French or less (3 F/mm) is generally preferable, but larger catheters are within the anticipated scope of the invention. Use of any of the cooling catheters described above is anticipated, as would be the use of any acceptable intravenous cooling catheter. In step two, the catheter is advanced until the heat exchange region is in the blood stream flowing to the heart. This catheter placement is easily accomplished by those of skill in the art. It may be advanced using a guide wire, without a guide wire, using a guide catheter, or without a guiding catheter. It may be advanced using other well-known techniques as appropriate for the situation and the structure of the catheter, for example using bare wire or rapid exchange technique if applicable. It may be advanced from the femoral vein into the IVC, from an internal jugular insertion into the internal jugular vein into the SVC or the IVC, or if appropriate, even into the heart itself from either femoral or internal jugular insertion. Any location for the insertion and placement of the catheter that results in cooling of the blood directed to the heart is within the anticipated scope of this disclosure. In step three, the heat exchange region is cooled below the temperature of the blood. The heat exchange region may be cooled to about 0° C., although it should not be cooled much below that temperature. The blood is largely water and is generally not damaged by contact with a surface that is as cold as 0° C. for the length of time that the blood is in contact with the heat exchange region, but with a surface much colder than that, blood in contact with the heat exchange region would freeze, possibly damaging the blood and decreasing the effectiveness of heat exchange. However, cooling below that temperature might be acceptable if an acceptable, safe and efficient method of cooling were employed, as long as it resulted in the cooling of the heart by means of cooling of the blood directed to the heart to reduce infarct suffered as a result of an ischemic event. The method described in greatest detail above of reducing the temperature of the heat exchange region was circulating cold saline through a balloon or hollow metallic element, or multiple heat exchange elements, to exchange heat with the blood through the surface of the heat exchange element, but other acceptable means of cooling the heat exchange region may be employed in practicing this invention. The fourth step of the invention involves maintaining the exchanging of heat for a sufficient length of time to reduce the temperature of the heart. In the examples shown, about 240 watts of heat were being removed from the blood in the IVC to lower the temperature of the heart from 38° C. to about 33° C. in about 55 minutes. Depending on the desired level of hypothermia, the amount of blood flowing past the catheter, the number of watts of heat being removed from the blood by the heat exchange region, and similar variables, that rate of cooling may well be different and still be within the scope of this invention. It is generally the case that the cardiac temperature will be lowered to 35° C. or less to enjoy the benefits of mild hypothermia to reduce infarct, but depending on the individual situation, this may vary somewhat and still fall within the scope of this invention. The application of hypothermia may be before the ischemic event, if an ischemic event is anticipated as is the case in surgery when it is known that the heart will be stopped for some period of time, or during balloon angioplasty when it is known that areas of the heart downstream of the balloon will be deprived of blood for some period of time. The hypothermia may be applied during the ischemia, as when it is applied during the two situations described above, whether or not it was applied before the ischemic event, or when it is applied to a heart attack victim when that victim presents. It may be applied after the ischemic event has occurred, as when it is applied to a heart attack victim soon after the ischemic event has occurred but after the ischemia has resolved and reperfusion has occurred. In all these cases and in combinations thereof, the application of mild hypothermia will generally be beneficial to prevent infarct from resulting from the ischemic event. Step 5 involves controlling the heat exchange region in response to heart temperature. This generally involves monitoring a temperature such as rectal, tympanic, esophageal, cardiac or other temperature that may be used to determine the temperature of the heart, and controlling the heat exchange region in response to that measurement. The control of the heat exchange region may be in many forms. One form described in detail above was the control of the temperature of heat exchange fluid being circulated through a heat exchange balloon that comprised the heat exchange region. This could be done, for example, by controlling the temperature of an external heat exchanger that was in contact with a bag of saline, which saline was being circulated through the heat exchange balloon. However, if the heart temperature is determined by other factors, such as the length of time of cooling, the amount of heat transfer, or other physiological measurements, the control may be exercised based on these features. The specific activities that may constitute control are many. Cooling may be stopped and heat added to the blood after the heart has reached a certain target temperature. Alternatively, the heat exchange region may be removed, or the heat exchange region may be returned to normothermia. In a more elegant type of control, a target temperature may be pre-selected and the amount of heat added or removed from the blood may be adjusted so that the cardiac temperature achieves the target temperature and stays at the target temperature for some pre-selected length of time, and then may warm or cool toward a second pre-selected temperature that may be normothermia, or the like. The nature of the control in response to the temperature of the heart may vary greatly and still be within the scope of this invention. Step six, optional but sometimes a step practiced in the method, is to add heat to the hypothermic heart. Although several illustrative examples of means for practicing the invention are described above, these examples are by no means exhaustive of all possible means for practicing the invention. The scope of the invention should therefore be determined with reference to the appended claims, along with the full range of equivalents to which those clams are entitled.

Methods and apparatus for preventing myocardial infarction, or lessening the size/severity of an evolving myocardial infarction, by cooling at least the affected area of the myocardium using an intravascular heat exchange catheter. The heat exchange catheter may be inserted into the vasculature (e.g., a vein) and advanced to a position wherein a heat exchanger on the catheter is located in or near the heart (e.g., within the vena cava near the patient's heart). Thereafter, the heat exchange catheter is used to cool the myocardium (or the entire body of the patient) to a temperature that effectively lessens the metabolic rate and/or oxygen consumption of the ischemic myocardial cells or otherwise protects the ischemic myocardium from undergoing irreversible damage or infarction.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a distance detecting system for a moving body like an automobile. More specially, the present invention is directed to an automobile distance detecting system capable of detecting a distance to an obstacle more precisely by controlling a sensitivity of the image system and processing a picture image into an appropriate image signal. 2. Description of the Prior Art Automobiles have been an indispensable existence to the modern society because of their expediency and comfortableness. On the other hand, the number of accidents caused by automobiles are increasing year by year and a great concern is paid for decreasing those accidents. One aspect of means for decreasing them is asked in automobiles themselves, that is to say, developing vehicles which are able to avoid accidents autonomously by judgments of the automobiles themselves. To avoid collisions autonomously, first of all, it is most important to detect an object to hamper a running of a vehicle and on the other hand it is necessary to recognize the position where the detected obstacle is placed on the road. As promising means for attaining these purposes, recently such a technique as imaging a scenery outside of a vehicle by a video camera using a solid-sate component like a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) mounted on the vehicle, and measuring a distance from the vehicle to the object by making an image process on the imaged picture, has been introduced. For example, Japanese patent application Laid-open No. 197816 (1984) discloses a technology in which a three-dimensional position of an obstacle is calculated based on images taken by two video cameras mounted on a front part of the vehicle. This technique employs a so-called stereoscopical method based on a principle of triangulation and more specially the method includes a technique for measuring a distance to an obstacle by extracting the obstacle from a two-dimensional brightness distribution pattern and then obtaining a positional difference of the obstacle images on the two image pictures, However, in this method an accuracy for measuring distance is deteriorated due to the difference of brightness between the right image and the left one when there is a discrepancy of sensitivity between two cameras. To overcome the above shortcoming, as illustrated in FIG. 26, there is a prior art system using a CCD camera 101 equipped with an auto-iris lens 100 which automatically adjusts a diaphragm thereof according to an amplitude of an iris signal from the CCD camera 101 (for example, a larger amplitude when it is bright and a smaller amplitude when it is dark), From hence, it is easily considered that this auto-iris lens is applied to the abovementioned stereoscopical method. However, even with this improved apparatus there is still a problem in a distance detecting accuracy because each of the right and left auto-iris lens has an inherent characteristic which causes differences in the diaphragm setting or the diaphragm operational time between the two lenses, thereby a small discrepancy of brightness is caused between the right and left images. Also a still further problem is that the apparatus is unable to follow such a condition as illuminance changes rapidly, for instance, a case where a vehicle goes into or comes out of tunnels, because of a time lag of the auto-iris mechanism. Further, Japanese patent application Laid-open No. 188178 (1989) proposes an image display apparatus for vehicle which can catch a following vehicle securely. More specially the apparatus ensures that a vehicle driver recognizes the following vehicle (a vehicle running behind) even during a night running without being blinded by the headlights of following vehicles by means of correcting a brightness in a high brightness zone when comparing means detect a larger image signal than a predetermined standard value during the image processing of roads and surrounding vehicles. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention has been made in view of the foregoing situations and an object of the invention is to provide a distance detecting system for a vehicle capable of obtaining a right image picture and improving a distance detecting accuracy under a condition of rapidly changing illuminance. A distance detecting system for a vehicle according to a first aspect of the present invention, having a device for imaging an object outside of a vehicle by an image sensing apparatus (referred to as imaging apparatus, hereinafter), a picture memory (referred to as image memory, hereinafter) for memorizing the image taken by the imaging apparatus, a device for processing the image and a device for calculating a distance distribution to the object on an entire picture based on the processed image, comprises a buffer memory connected in parallel with the above image memory for storing the image and sensitivity adjusting means for adjusting a sensitivity of the imaging apparatus so as to obtain a proper image picture corresponding to an illuminance outside of a vehicle by controlling a shutter speed of the imaging apparatus based on the image data stored in the buffer memory. Further, a distance detecting system for a vehicle according to a second aspect of the present invention, comprises the sensitivity adjusting means according to the first aspect of the present invention in which the image picture memorized in the buffer memory is divided into a plurality of zones and an average brightness of the zone is calculated for every zone and a proper shutter speed level (described hereinafter) is determined for each zone from a map parameterizing a brightness and a shutter speed based on this average brightness and the present shutter speed and a shutter speed for the next image is determined by summing the shutter speed levels as determined above. Further, a distance detecting system for a vehicle according to a third aspect of the present invention, comprises the sensitivity adjusting means according to the first aspect of the present invention in which a particular zone is selected from the above zones and a shutter speed for the next image is determined by calculating a correcting amount of shutter speed level to the present shutter speed level from a histogram of brightness for this particular zone. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be described hereinafter in connection with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 to FIG. 23 indicate a preferred embodiment according to the present invention, wherein FIG. 1 shows a diagrammic view of the distance detecting system according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic side view of a vehicle incorporating the distance detecting system according to the present invention; FIG. 3 is a schematic front view of a vehicle incorporating the distance detecting system according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is an explanatory drawing showing a relationship between a camera and an object; FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing for indicating divided zones; FIG. 6 is a schematic drawing for indicating a particular zone; FIG. 7 is an example of a table showing an average brightness of a zone; FIG. 8 is an example of a shutter speed level map for Zone I; FIG. 9 is an example of a shutter speed level map for Zone II; FIG. 10 is an example of a shutter speed level map for Zone III; FIG. 11 is an example of a shutter speed level map for Zone IV and V; FIG. 12 is an example of a shutter speed level map for Zone VI and VII; FIG. 13 is an explanatory view showing a city-block distance calculation circuit; FIG. 14 block diagram showing a minimum value is a detecting circuit; FIG. 15 is a flowchart showing a shutter speed control process; FIG. 16 is a flowchart showing an averaging process; FIG. 17 is a flowchart showing a distance detecting process; FIG. 18 is an explanatory view showing a storing order in a shift register; FIG. 19 is a timing chart showing an operation of a city-block distance calculation circuit; FIG. 20 is a timing chart showing an operation of a deviation amount determining section; FIG. 21 is a timing chart showing an overall operation of the system; FIG. 22 is an explanatory view showing an example of an image taken by a CCD camera mounted on the vehicle; and FIG. 23 is a drawing showing an object space on an image plane; FIG. 24 is a schematic diagram showing a brightness histogram within a particular zone; FIG. 25 is a flow chart showing the data processing band on the brightness histogram; FIG. 26 shows a prior art system. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT In FIG. 2, numeral 1 denotes a vehicle such as an automobile on which a distance detecting system 2 for detecting a distance by imaging an object is mounted. The distance detecting system is connected to an apparatus for recognizing an obstacle on a road (not shown) to form an obstacle monitoring system for warning a vehicle driver or autonomously avoiding a collision with the obstacle, The distance detecting system 2 comprises a stereoscopical optic system 10 as an imaging apparatus for taking the optic image -within a predetermined area outside the vehicle, a shutter speed control apparatus 15 for controlling a shutter speed so as to take a proper image picture by adjusting a sensitivity (shutter speed) of the stereoscopical optic system 10 and a stereoscopical image processing apparatus 20 for processing a picture imaged by the stereoscopical optic system 10 and for calculating a distance distribution on an entire image picture. The three-dimensional distance data processed by the stereoscopical image processing apparatus 20 are inputted into the obstacle recognizing apparatus in which a road shape and an obstacle are recognized. The stereoscopical optic system 10 is composed of a camera using a solid-state imaging element such as a charge coupled device (CCD). As shown in FIG. 3, the system 10 has two CCD cameras 11a and 11b (represented by 11 if necessary) for left and right angles of a long distance, and two CCD cameras 12a and 12b (represented by 12 if necessary) for left and right angles of a short distance. These cameras 11 and 12 are mounted at the front ceiling in the passenger compartment of the vehicle 1. More particularly, the camera 12a and 12b for a short distance are disposed with a given space inside the cameras 11a and 11b for a long distance. It is sufficient for the stereoscopical optic system 10 to be able to measure the position of objects from 2 to 100 meters ahead of the vehicle 1 provided that the position where the CCD cameras 11 and 12 are installed in the passenger compartment is two meters away from the front edge of the bonnet of the vehicle 1. That is to say, as shown in FIG. 4, an image of a point P is imaged on a projection plane distant from the cameras 11a and 11b (correctly speaking, an optical center of the lens for each camera) by f and a distance D is given by: D=r.f/x (1) where r is a space between two CCD cameras 11a and 11b for a long distance (correctly a space between optical axes for cameras 11a and 11b), D is a distance of the point P from the position of cameras 11a and 11b (correctly a distance from an optical center of the lens of each camera), f is a focal length of lenses for cameras 11a and 11b and x is an amount of deviation of the image object formed by the camera for left angle from the one formed by the camera for right angle. In order to detect the amount of deviation x, it is necessary to find out images of the same object in the left and right pictures. According to the present invention, in the stereoscopical image processing apparatus 10 an image picture is divided into a small region, then a pattern of brightness (or colors if necessary) are compared between the left and right image pictures for every small region to find coincident regions in the pattern of brightness or colors therein and a distance distribution is obtained on the entire picture. This way of using brightness of the image picture is superior, because of affluence of the information amount, to the prior art in which some features are extracted from edges, lines, particular configurations or the like for each region and coincident portions between the right and left pictures are found. Where "i" th picture elements of the left and right pictures are designated as A i and B i respectively, the coincidence between the left and right pictures can be expressed by a city-block distance H as shown in the following formula (2) for example. H=Σ|A.sub.i -B.sub.i | With respect to the size of the aforementioned region, a too large region bears a high possibility that there coexist a long distance object and a short distance one in the region, resulting in an ambiguous distance detection. On the other hand, a too small region produces a lack of information for investigating coincidences. Thus, there is an optimum size region in order to obtain a best match. As a result of experiments to obtain an optimum number of picture elements by dividing a picture up to such a size as a vehicle with 1.7 meters width which runs 100 meters ahead of cameras and a vehicle which runs on an adjacent lane do not exist in the same region, it has been recognized that the optimum number of picture elements is four for both lateral and longitudinal widths, namely 16 picture elements. Accordingly, the description hereinafter is for an investigation of the coincidence of the left and right pictures when a picture is divided into a small region composed of 4×4 picture elements, and the CCD cameras 11a and 11b for a long distance. As shown in FIG. 1, the stereoscopical image processing apparatus 20 is provided with an image conversion part 30 for converting analogue pictures imaged by the stereoscopical optic system 10 into digital pictures, a city-block distance calculation part 40 acting as a coincidence calculation section which calculates the city-block distance H, shifting a picture element one by one and successively calculating the city-block distance H, a minimum/maximum value detecting section 50 for detecting the minimum value HMIN and the maximum value HMAX of the city-block distance H, and a deviation amount determining part 60 for determining the deviation amount x by checking for whether or not the minimum value HMIN obtained by the minimum/maximum value detecting section 50 is in coincidence for the left and right small regions. In the image conversion part 30 described above, there are provided the A/D converters 31a and 31b corresponding with the CCD cameras 11a and 11b for the left and right pictures, and analog signals from the CCD cameras 11a and 11b are converted into digital signals by each of the A/D converters 31a and 31b. Further, the outputs from the AID converters 31a and 31b are inputted into the look-up tables (LUT) 32a and 32b. The A/D converters 31a and 31b have a brightness resolution of 8 bits for example, and the analog image data from the CCD camera 11 are converted into digital image data having a required brightness gradation. More specifically, because, when brightness of an image is binarized to expedite the process, a large loss occurs in the amount of information for the calculation of coincidence on the right and left pictures, the brightness of each picture element is converted into a gray scale having a 256 gradation for example. Further, the aforementioned LUT 32a and 32b are configured on a read-only memory (ROM). The LUT 32a and 32b have respective addresses composed of the same number of bits as those of data of the digital image converted by the A/D converters 31a and 31b. Also the data subjected to a brightness correction or a correction of intrinsic gain in the CCD amplifier are written on these LUTs 32a and 32b. The image data of 8 bits for example are corrected by the data written on the LUTs 32a and 32b so as to raise a contrast in a low brightness portion or correct a difference of characteristics between the left and right CCD cameras. The digital image data corrected by the LUTs 32a and 32b are stored in the image memories 33a and 33b (represented as an image memory 33 if necessary) after corresponding addresses are assigned by a #1 address controller 86 described hereinafter and on the other hand they are also stored in the dual-port memory 16 of the shutter speed control apparatus 15 as a sample image. As described hereinafter, the image memory 33 is composed of a relatively low speed memory (therefore, low cost) because the data fetched into the city-block calculation section 40 is performed partially and repeatedly. Next, the shutter speed control apparatus 15 will be described. The shutter speed control apparatus 15 comprises a dual-port memory 16 in which addresses are assigned by the #1 address controller and a CCD controller 17 as sensitivity adjusting means for adjusting a sensitivity so as to be able to image a right picture by controlling a shutter speed of the CCD cameras 11a and 11b corresponding to the changes of illuminance outside of the vehicle. In the CCD controller 17, based on the sample image stored in the dual-port memory 16, it is judged whether or not the present shutter speed for each of the CCD cameras 11a and 11b is appropriate, and if it is judged to be inappropriate, the shutter speed of the CCD cameras 11a and 11b are respectively altered so as to eliminate a difference of sensitivity (hereinafter, referred to as shutter speed) between the right and left cameras. In order to judge whether or not the present shutter speed is appropriate based on the sample image, it is necessary to determine which space (zone) and which data in the sample image is to be processed. Describing in more detail, as shown next, the approach for processing is determined by the combination of the items about space (zone) and those about the data process. [1] Zone ( 1) Entire zone . . . whole image data sampled (2) Zone dividing . . . dividing the sampled image data into several zones (for example, zones I to VII as shown in FIG. 5) (3) Particular zone . . . a particular zone in the sampled image [2]Data process (1) Arithmetical averaging . . . arithmetically averaging all data within a subject zone (2) Minimum/Maximum method . . . detecting a minimum and maximum value within a subject zone (3) Histogram method . . . calculating a histogram for an entire subject zone In the preferred embodiment according to the present invention, a case where a zone dividing (2) with respect to the [1] Zone and an arithmetical averaging (1) with respect to the [2] Data process are introduced will be explained. Referring to FIG. 5 in which each divided zone indicates: Zone I . . . almost sky zone; Zone II . . . , relatively long distance zone on the surface of a road; Zone III . . . relatively short distance zone on the surface of a road; Zone IV . . . a lane on the left of the vehicle; Zone V . . . a lane on the right of the vehicle; Zone VI . . . a left side area where a white marker on the presently traced lane exists; Zone VII . . . a right side area where a white marker on the presently traced lane exists; With respect to each of the seven zones defined as above, a shutter speed changing map has been prepared beforehand by experiments or the like according to the process described below. First, image pictures are taken under miscellaneous illuminance conditions, changing a shutter speed. Next, based on these image pictures, a shutter speed level, namely, a figure showing a correction level of the shutter speed (for example, 0 means no correction and 1 means raising a shutter speed by one step) is obtained, as shown in FIG. 8 to FIG. 12. More particularly, the shutter speed level is an indicative number for indicating how many steps of change should be made to the present shutter speed in order for an image picture having a given brightness to become one having a practically permissible brightness. Thus, a series of shutter speed levels are arranged on a map parameterizings shutter speed and brightness for each zone. Accordingly, if a present shutter speed and an arithmetically averaged value of brightness data for each zone of the sample image are known, a proper shutter speed level can be obtained by referring to the above shutter speed changing maps. Thus, the shutter speed levels of the left and right CCD cameras 11a and 11b can be controlled properly, whereby not only a real time adjustment of brightness can be achieved even at sudden change of illuminance such as when a vehicle comes into a tunnel but also a discrepancy of brightness between the left and right CCD cameras can be prevented because there is no diaphragm mechanism therein. Further, the distance detecting system according to the present invention is also operated during a night running. For example, when the present shutter speed of the cameras is 1/1000 sec, supposing an averaged value of brightness per zone to be as shown in FIG. 7, the required shutter speed levels SSL (I) to SSL (VII) are respectively as follows: SSL (I)=+1 SSL (II)=-1 SSL (III)=0 SSL (IV)=-1 SSL (V)=-1 SSL (VI)=0 SSL (VII)=0 A sum of SSL (I) to SSL (VII), ΣSSL is equal to -2 and consequently a proper shutter speed becomes 1/250 sec (lowered by two levels). On the other hand, the city-block distance calculation part 40 of the stereoscopical image processing apparatus 20 is connected to the two sets of the input buffer memories 41a and 41b via a common bus 80 and the two sets of the input buffer memories 42a and 42b via the common bus 80. These input buffer memories 41a, 41b, 42a and 42b are a high speed type of memories corresponding to the speed of the city-block distance calculation since they have relatively small capacity of memories and further each of them can do an input/output control independently. Further, based on the address signals generated from the #1 address controller 86 according to a clock-signal supplied by a clock generating circuit 85, the same address number is assigned to these input buffer memories 41a, 41b, 42a and 42b, the picture memories 33a and 33b, and the dual-port memory 16. The input buffer memories for the left image picture 41a and 41b are connected with two sets of shift registers (each set composed of 8 stages, for example) 43a and 43b and similarly, the input buffer memories for the right image picture 42a and 42b are connected with two sets of shift registers (each set composed of 8 stages, for example) 44a and 44b. Further, these 4 sets of shift registers 43a, 43b, 44a and 44b are connected to the city-block distance calculation circuit 45 for calculating a city-block distance. The data transmission among these 4 sets of shift registers and the above input buffer memories is controlled by a #2 address controller 87. Furthermore, the shift registers for the right image picture 44a and 44b are connected to 2 sets of shift registers 64a and 64b (each set composed of 10 stages in the deviation amount determining section 60 described hereinafter. When the data for the next small region are started to be transferred, the former data which have been used for the calculation of city-block distances H are transmitted to these shift registers 64a and 64b and used for determining the deviation amount x. Further, the city-block distance calculation circuit 45 is combined with a high speed CMOS type calculator 46 which is arranged on one chip by combining a plurality of adders with input/output latches. As shown in FIG. 13, the city-block distance calculation circuit 45 has a pipe-line construction connecting 16 pieces of the calculator 46 in a pyramid shape. The first stage of this pyramid construction is for calculating absolute values, the second stage to the fourth stage are a first adder, a second adder and a third adder respectively, and the last stage is an adder for calculating a grand total. Because of this construction, the calculator can process so much data of 8 picture elements portion simultaneously, It should be noted that a right portion of the first and second stages is omitted in FIG. 13. The aforementioned minimum/maximum values detecting section 50 comprises a minimum value detecting circuit 51 for detecting a minimum value H MIN of the city-block distance H and a maximum value detecting circuit 52 for detecting a maximum value H MAX of the city-block distance H and has a construction employing two pieces of the calculator 46 mentioned before, one of which is for detecting a minimum value and another for detecting a maximum value. Further, minimum/maximum values detecting section 50 is operated synchronously with an output of the city-block distance H. As illustrated in FIG. 14, the minimum value detecting circuit 51 is composed of the calculator 46 having a register A 46a, a register B 46b and an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) 46c therein, a latch C 53, a latch 54 and a latch D 55 which are connected with the calculator 46. An output from the city-block distance calculation circuit 45 is inputted to the register B 46b through the register A 46a and the latch C 53 and a most significant bit (MSB) of the output from the ALU 46 is outputted to the latch 54, An output from the latch 54 is inputted to the register B 46b and the latch D 55. Namely, a half-way result of the minimum value calculation in the calculator 46 is stored in the register B 46b and on the other hand, the deviation amount at this moment x is stored in the latch D 55. With respect to the maximum value detecting circuit 52, the composition is the same as the one of the minimum value detecting circuit 51 excepting that a logic is reversed and a deviation amount x is not stored. As described before, a city-block distance H is calculated, each time when a picture element of the left picture is shifted by one element, leaving a given small area of the right picture at a fixed position. Each time when this calculated city-block distance H is outputted, it is compared with a maximum value H MAX and a minimum value H MIN obtained until now and those maximum or minimum values are updated if necessary. When the last city-block distance is to be calculated for a small region of the right picture is finished, the maximum and minimum values of the city-block distance H, H MAX and H MIN are obtained with respect to the given small region of the right picture. The aforementioned deviation amount determining part 60 is a relatively small scale of the RISC processor which comprises a calculator 61 of the primary device thereof, two data buses with a 16 bits width, 62a and 62b, a latch 63a for holding a deviation amount x, a latch 63b for holding a threshold H A as a first specified value, a latch 63c for holding a threshold H B as a second specified value, a latch 63d for holding a threshold H C as a third specified value, two sets of the shift register 64a and 64b for holding image data of the right picture, a switching circuit 65 for outputting a deviation amount "x" or "0" responsive to the output from the calculator 61, output buffer memories 66a and 66b for temporarily storing the outputted data, and a ROM 67 with a 16 bits width on which an operational timing data for the circuit and a control program to operate the calculator 61 are written. Further, the calculator 61 above described comprises an ALU 70 which is a primary device thereof, a register 71, a register 72, a register 73 and a selector 74. The above data bus 62a (hereinafter, referred to as a bus A 62a) is connected to the register A 71 and also the data bus 62b (hereinafter, referred to as a bus B 62b) is connected to the register B 72. Furthermore, the aforementioned switching circuit 65 is operated according to the result of the calculation of the ALU 70 so as to store the deviation amount "x" or "0" in the buffer memories 66a and 66b. The above bus A 62a is connected with the latches 63b, 63c and 63d for holding the thresholds H A , H B and H C respectively, and with the maximum value detecting circuit 52. Further, the bus B 62b is connected with the minimum value detecting circuit 51 and the aforementioned shift registers 64a and 64b are connected to the bus A and the bus B respectively. The above switching circuit 65 is connected with the calculator 61 and the minimum value detecting circuit 51 via the latch 63a. The switching circuit 65 provides a switching function for switching an output to the output buffer memories 66a and 66b according to the result of a judgment when the calculator 61 judges three conditions as described hereinafter. In the deviation amount detecting part 60, it is checked whether or not the minimum value H MIN of the city-block distance H really indicates a coincidence of the right and left small areas and, only when the three conditions are satisfied, the deviation amount x between two corresponding picture elements is outputted, That is to say, a required amount of deviation is an amount of deviation at the moment when the city-block distance H becomes minimum and accordingly the deviation amount x is outputted when following three conditions are met and the value "0" which means no data is outputted when they are not met. Condition 1: H MIN ≦H A (when H MIN >H A , distance detection is not available) Condition 2: H MAX -H MIN ≧H B (a condition to check whether or not an obtained minimum value is a fake value caused by flickers of noises; this condition is also effective in case where an object has a curved surface whose brightness varies gradually. Condition 3: brightness difference between two adjacent picture elements of lateral direction within a small area of the right picture >H C (bringing H C to a high value, an edge detection can be available. However, in this condition H C is determined at a much lower level than ordinarily determined level for edge detection; this condition is based on a principle that a distance detection can not be performed at a portion having no brightness change. The distance distribution information outputted from the deviation determining part 60 is written through a common bus 80 in the dual-port memory 90 which is an interface for an external device such as a roads/obstacles recognition apparatus. Next, an operation of the distance detecting apparatus 2 will be described. FIG. 17 is a flowchart showing a distance detection process in the stereoscopical image processing apparatus 20. First, at a step S301, when image pictures taken by the left and right CCD cameras 11a and 11b are inputted, at the next step S302 the inputted analogue images are converted into digital signals by the A/D converters 31a and 31b. Next, in the LUTs 32a and 32b, these digitized image data are subjected to several processes-such as raising the contrast of a low brightness portion, compensating characteristics of the left and right CCD cameras or the like and then they are recorded in the image memories 33a and 33b. On the other hand, they are also recorded as a sample image in the dual-port memory 16 of the shutter speed control apparatus 15. It is not necessary that the image picture memorized in the image memories 33a and 33b should be an entire picture. The size of the image picture, namely the number of lines of the CCD elements, memorized at one time may be as much as needed for the following process. Further, what portion of the lines is memorized is dependent on the objects of a distance detection system. In this embodiment, the image picture memorized is, for example, a middle portion of 200 lines within 485 lines altogether. Furthermore, the updating speed of the memorized image picture may be reduced as much as needed in accordance with an object or a performance of the apparatus. In this embodiment, the updating speed is, for example, one picture per 0.1 second (one picture for every three pictures in a television). The image picture recorded in the dual-port memory 16 of the shutter speed control apparatus 15 is checked for whether or not the shutter speed of the left and right CCD cameras 11a and 11b is proper and if it is not proper the shutter speed is corrected to a proper one. That is to say, even when an outside illuminance is changed largely, the shutter speed of both cameras is properly adjusted, thereby the image pictures, with brightness difference between the left and right CCD cameras, are recorded in the image memories 33a and 33b respectively. Next, a shutter speed control process according to the shutter speed control apparatus 15 will be described based on the flowcharts in FIG. 15 and FIG. 16. Referring now to FIG. 15, this is a flowchart showing a main routine in the CCD controller 17. After an initialization at S101, a sample image is inputted from the dual-port memory 16 at S102. At the next step S103, a subroutine for data processing is carried out. In this subroutine an averaging of the image data and a calculation of the proper shutter speed are performed. Next, the process goes to S104 where the calculated shutter speed is outputted and then the process is returned to S102 from which the same process is repeated. Describing the process in the data processing subroutine in more detail as shown in FIG. 16, first, the brightness of the image is averaged for every zone of the image picture, namely, Zones I, II, III, IV, V, VI and VII as shown in FIG. 5. Then, based on this averaged brightness data and the present shutter speed, a shutter speed level corresponding to each zone, SSL (I), SSL (II), SSL (III), SSL (IV), SSL (V), SSL (VI) and SSL (VII) is read out from a corresponding map as indicated in FIGS. 8 to 12 respectively. Then, the process goes to S208 where a grand total ΣSSL of the shutter speed levels thus obtained is calculated and it is returned to the main routine. When the picture images of the left and right CCD cameras 11a and 11b are recorded in the image memories 33a and 33b respectively after being subjected to the shutter speed control and the brightness adjustment as mentioned above, at 303 the left and right image data are written into the input buffer memories 41a, 41b, 42a and 42b from the left and right image memories 33a and 33b via the bus line 80 and a matching, namely, a check for coincidence is carried out between the left and right pictures written thereinto. The image data are read into the input buffer memories by several lines altogether, for example 4 lines altogether for each picture. The data writing into the buffer memories from the image memories and the data writing into the shift registers from the buffer memories are performed alternately between two buffer memories for the left or right picture. For example, in the left picture, while the present data are written into the buffer memory 41a from the image memory 33a, the previous data are written into the shift register 43b from the buffer memory 41b and at the next timing while the next data are written into the the buffer memory 41b from the image memory 33b, the data written at the previous timing are written into the shift register 43a from the buffer memory 41a. Similarly, in the right picture the same operations are performed. Further, as shown in FIG. 18, the image data of a small region composed of 4×4 picture elements for the left (right) picture are arranged in such a manner as (1, 1) . . . (4, 4). These image data enter one by one into the shift registers 43a (44a) for the lines 1, 2 of the small region and the shift registers 43b (44b) for the lines 3, 4 in the order of an odd-numbered line to an even-numbered line as illustrated in FIG. 18. The shift registers 43a, 43b, 44a and 44b have respectively an independent data transfer line. Therefore, the data of 4×4 picture elements are transferred in eight clocks for example. Then, these shift registers 43a, 43b, 44a and 44b output simultaneously the contents of the even numbered steps of the eight steps to the city-block distance calculation circuit 45 and when the calculation for the city-block distance H starts, the data of the right picture are held in the shift registers 44a and 44b, and the data of odd-numbered lines and even-numbered lines are alternately outputted for one clock signal. On the other hand, the data of the left picture are continued to be transferred to the shift registers 43a and 43b, and while the data of odd-numbered lines and even-numbered lines are alternately outputted, the data which are displaced in the direction of one picture element to the right are rewritten for every two clocks. This is repeated until a portion of 100 picture elements has been displaced (for example, 200 clocks). When the whole data are completed to be transferred with respect to a small region, the contents of the right picture address counter (head address of the small region of the next 4×4 picture elements) are set in the left picture address counter in the #2 address controller 87 and the processing for the next small region is started. In the city-block distance calculation circuit 45, as shown in a timing chart of FIG. 19, the data of 8 picture elements portion are first inputted to the absolute value calculator of the initial stage of the pyramid structure and the absolute value of the brightness difference between the left and right pictures is calculated. More specifically, when the brightness of the corresponding right picture element is subtracted from the brightness of the left picture element and the result of this subtraction is negative, changing the calculation command and again performing subtraction by replacing the subtrahend with the minuend, the absolute value is calculated. Accordingly, subtraction is performed twice in the initial stage in some case. Next, when the initial stage is passed, the first to third adders from the second to fourth stages add the two input data inputted simultaneously and output the result. Further, the two consecutive data are added in the grand total calculator of the final stage where the grand total is calculated and a required city-block distance H for a 16 picture elements portion is outputted to the minimum/maximum values detecting section 50 in every two clocks. Then, the process goes to S304 where a maximum value H MAX and a minimum value H MIN are detected with respect to the city-block distance H calculated at the step S303. As described before, the detection of the maximum value H MAX and the minimum value H MIN are exactly the same other than that they use mutually inverted logic and the deviation amount x is not retained, therefore a following description is only about the detection of the minimum value H MIN . First, the city-block distance H initially outputted (H at the deviation amount x=0) is inputted to the register B 46b of the ALU 46 via the latch 53 of the minimum value detection circuit 51 as shown in FIG. 14. The city-block distance H outputted at the next clock (H at the deviation amount x=1) is inputted to the register A 46a of the ALU 46 and the latch C 53, and at the same time the comparison calculation with the register B 46b is started in the ALU 46. If the result of the comparison calculation in the ALU 46 indicates that the contents of the register A 46a are smaller than those of the register B 46b, the contents of the latch C 53 (namely, the contents of the register A 46a) are sent to the register B 46b and the deviation amount x of this time is retained in the latch D 55. Further, with this clock, the city-block distance H (H at the deviation amount x=2) is inputted to the register A 46a and to the latch C 53 at the same time, and then the comparison calculation is started again. Thus, the minimum value during calculation is always stored in the register B 46b and the deviation amount x of this time is always retained in the latch D 55, with calculation continuing until the deviation amount x becomes 100. When the calculation is finished (i.e., in one clock after the output of the final city-block distance H), the contents of the register B 46b and the latch D 55 are written into the deviation amount determining section 60. During that time, the initial value of the next small region is read into the city-block distance calculation circuit 45 so that a time loss is prevented since a new calculation result is obtained in every two clocks owing to the pipe line structure, although otherwise it takes four clocks to calculate one city-block distance H. At a step S305, the minimum value H MIN and the maximum value H MAX of the city-block distance H are determined, the deviation amount determining section 60 checks the three conditions mentioned before, and the deviation amount x is determined, More specifically, as indicated in the timing chart of FIG. 20, the minimum value H MIN is latched to the register B 72 of the calculator 61 via the bus B 62b and on the other hand the threshold H A which is compared with the value in the register B 72 is latched to the register A 71 via the bus A 62a. Then, in the ALU 70, the minimum value H MIN and the threshold H A are compared and if the minimum value H MIN is larger than the threshold H A , then the switch circuit 65 is reset, and 0 is outputted regardless of the results of the later checks. The maximum value H MAX is then latched to the register A 71, and the difference between the maximum value H MAX and the minimum value H MIN retained in the register B 72 is calculated, and that result is outputted to the register F 73. With the next clock, the switching circuit 65 is reset if the contents of the register F 73 are smaller than the threshold H B latched to the register A 71. The calculation of the brightness difference between the adjacent picture elements is started at the next clock. The two pairs of the shift registers 64a and 64b which preserve the brightness data therein have a ten-staged configuration, and are connected to the latter stage of the shift register 44a for the first and second lines of the city-block distance calculation section 40 and the shift register 44b for the third and fourth lines of the city-block distance calculation section 40. The output of these shift registers is taken from the final stage and from the stage coming before by two stages and are outputted to the bus A 62a and the bus B 62b respectively. When the calculation of the brightness difference is started, brightness data of each picture element in the small region are retained in each stage of the shift registers 64a and 64b, and first, the brightness data of the first line of the fourth column of the previous small region and that of the first line of the first column of the present small region are latched to the register A 71 and the register B 72 of the calculator 61. Then, the absolute value of the difference between the contents of the register A 71 and those of the register B 72 is calculated and the results are stored in the register F 73. Further, at the next clock, the threshold H C is latched to the register A 71 and compared with the value of the register F 73. If the contents of the register F 73 (absolute value of the brightness difference), as a result of the comparison in the calculator 61, are larger than the contents of the register A 71 (threshold H C ), then the switching circuit 65 outputs either the deviation amount x or "0" and if the contents of the register F 73 is smaller than those of the register A 71, then the switching circuit 65 outputs "0". These outputted values are written into an address representing the first column of the first row of the small region of the output buffer memories 66a and 66b. While the comparison between the threshold HC and the brightness difference between adjacent picture elements is being performed in the calculator 61, the shift registers 64aand 64b are shifted one stage. Then, the calculation is started with respect to the brightness data of the second line of the fourth column of the previous small region and that of the second line of the first column of the present small region. Thus, the calculation with respect to the third line and the fourth line is performed similarly after the calculation is performed alternately with respect to the first line and the second line of the small region. During the calculation, the final stage and the initial stage of the shift registers 64a and 64b are connected with each other in a ring type shift register. Therefore, when the shift clock has been added twice after a completion of the calculation on the entire small region, the contents of the register are returned to the state before calculation, and when the sending of the brightness data of the next small region has been finished, the data of the fourth column of the present small region are stored in the final stage and the stage before that. In this manner, while the calculation for determining the deviation amount is performed, the data to be processed next are prepared in the buses A 62a and 62b and the result is written, so that one data can be processed by only two clocks necessary for executing the calculation. Accordingly, the entire calculations can be completed in 43 clocks for example, even including checks of the minimum value H MIN and the maximum value H MAX which are initially performed. That is to say, there is a sufficient allowance for the time necessary to determine the minimum value H MIN and the maximum value H MAX of the city-block distance H with respect to a given small region, so it is possible to have some additional functions. Then, when the deviation amount x is determined, at S306 it is outputted as distance distribution information from the output buffer memories 66a and 66b to the dual-port memory 90, and thus the processing in the stereoscopical picture processing apparatus 20 is finished. These output buffer memories 66a and 66b have a capacity of a four-line portion for example which is the same as in the input buffer memories 41a, 41b, 42a and 42b. Further, the distance distribution information is sent from one (either 66a or 66b) to the dual-port memory 90 while a writing is being carried out. Next, the timing of the entire system will be described according to the timing chart shown in FIG. 21. First, a field signal from the left and the right CCD cameras which are operated synchronously is inputted to the image memories 33a and 33b in every 0.1 seconds (ratio of one picture per three pictures). Next, upon a completion signal for image take-in, the block-by-block transference is started for every four-lines portion. This transference is performed with respect to three blocks, the right picture, the left picture and the distance distribution picture in this order. On the other hand, during this time, the deviation amount x is calculated with respect to one of input/output buffer memories and the data transference is performed to the other of input/output buffer memories after a predetermined waiting time in consideration of the calculation time for the deviation amount x. As described before, the calculation of the city-block distance H is performed 100 times, namely for a 100 pictures portion, with respect to a small region of 4×4 picture elements of the right picture. While the city-block distance H is being calculated for a single small region, the deviation amount x of the previous small region is outputted as distance distribution information after miscellaneous checks. In a case where there are 200 lines, for example, in the image picture to be processed, the processing for a four lines portion is repeated 50 times. Further, there are the processing time of the four lines portion for transferring the initial data at the beginning of the calculation and the processing time of the four lines portion for transferring the last result to the image recognition section after a completion of the calculation, therefore, the additional processing time of the eight lines portion in total is needed. According to the result of an actual operation on the circuit, the total processing time from the start of the data transmission of the initial input image to the completion of the data transmission of the last distance distribution information is 0.076 seconds. The distance distribution information outputted from the aforementioned stereoscopical image processing apparatus 20 has a configuration (distance image picture) like a picture. For example, the picture taken by the left and right CCD cameras 11a and 11b as shown in FIG. 22 becomes a picture as shown in FIG. 23 when it has been processed by the stereoscopical image processing apparatus 20. The example of picture in FIG. 23 has a picture size composing of 400 (laterally)×200 (longitudinally) picture elements and black dots therein indicate portions having a rather large brightness difference between adjacent picture elements in the direction of left and right within the picture of FIG. 22. The distance data are included in these black dots. The coordinates system in the distance picture has the origin of the coordinate at the above left corner, the lateral coordinate axis "i" and the longitudinal coordinate axis "j" with a unit of one picture element, as shown in FIG. 23. Since the picture in FIG. 22 is a picture taken by the left and right CCD cameras 11a and 11b with a proper shutter speed obtained under the control of the shutter speed control apparatus 15, the distance picture in FIG. 23 which has been obtained by processing the data of the image memory 33 recording the picture indicates an accurate distance distribution, even when illuminance of the outside has been suddenly changed. Thus, from the distance picture, the three dimensional position of the object corresponding to each picture element in the XYZ space can be calculated based on the camera position, the focal length of the camera and other parameters, whereby an accurate distance to the object outside of the vehicle can be detected without loss of information quantity. The above calculation of the three dimensional position may be performed within the stereoscopical image processing apparatus 20 and the data form outputted from the stereoscopical image processing apparatus 20 may be determined according to the interface to be connected thereto. FIG. 24 and FIG. 25 are for the second embodiment according to the present invention. FIG. 24 is a schematic diagram showing a brightness histogram within a particular zone and FIG. 25 is a flowchart showing the data processing based on the brightness histogram. This second embodiment according to the present invention provides another approach in processing the data at the step S103. In the first embodiment according to the present invention, a proper shutter speed is determined based on averaged brightness of a plurality of the divided zones, however in this second embodiment according to the present invention, the proper shutter speed is determined based on the brightness data of a particular zone. That is to say, in this case, the most important zone for recognizing a lane marker guiding his or her vehicle and an obstacle ahead of the vehicle is selected as a particular zone. With respect to the selected particular zone, it is judged whether or not the present shutter speed level is proper by producing a brightness histogram on this particular zone as illustrated in FIG. 24. The data processing in this embodiment will be described in following paragraphs according to the flowchart in FIG. 25. First, where the number of samplings is n, the brightness width for classifying the gradation data of each picture element is c, the time is t, and the shutter speed level is L, a brightness histogram as shown in FIG. 24 is produced by searching the particular zone. Next, the frequency F i (t) at the minimum brightness in this brightness histogram is calculated at S301 and the frequency F j (t) at the maximum brightness is calculated at S302. Further, the process proceeds to S303 where the difference of F i (t) and F j (t), namely, F i (t)-F j (t) is calculated to investigate the brightness distribution of the particular zone and that difference is designated as an evaluation function F i-j (t) which indicates whether or not the present shutter speed is proper. Further, at the next step S304, the shutter speed level control amount ΔSSL(t) is calculated from the evaluation function F i-j (t) obtained at S303. The shutter speed level control amount ΔSSL(t) is obtained as a ratio to the shutter speed level L according to the following equations which have been experimentally determined. ______________________________________F.sub.i-j (t)<-n/2 ΔSSL(t) = L/2-n/2≦F.sub.i-j (t)<-n/4 ΔSSL(t) = L/4-n/4≦F.sub.i-j (t)<-n/8 ΔSSL(t) = L/8 : : : :n/8≦F.sub.i-j (t)<n/4 ΔSSL(t) = -L/8n/4≦F.sub.i-j (t)<n/2 ΔSSL(t) = -L/4n/2≦F.sub.i-j (t) ΔSSL(t) = -L/2______________________________________ Thus, when the shutter speed level control amount ΔSSL(t) is determined, the proper shutter speed SSL(t+1) to be used for taking the next picture is obtained at S305 by the following formula: SSL(t+1)=SSL(t)+ΔSSL(t) . . . (3) where, SSL(t+1) is a proper shutter speed for the next picture, and SSL(t) is a shutter speed for the present picture. In the above second embodiment, the brightness histogram is prepared to pick up therefrom the frequency F i (t) at the minimum brightness and the frequency F j (t) at the maximum brightness in the particular zone, however it is not necessary to prepare the brightness histogram for that purpose. For example, it is possible to produce the frequency F i (t) at the minimum brightness and the frequency F j (t) at the maximum brightness independently directly from the brightness data of the particular zone without using the brightness histogram. Furthermore, in the second embodiment, the frequency F i (t) and the frequency F j (t) are not necessarily to be a single value respectively and it is also possible to pick up a plurality of frequencies nearby the minimum brightness and the maximum brightness from the brightness histogram or produce these frequencies directly from the brightness data of the particular zone. While the presently preferred embodiment of the present invention has been shown and described, it is to be understood that this disclosure is for the purpose of illustration and that various changes and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims.

A distance detecting system for detecting a distance to an object from a moving body such an automobile by means of imaging pictures by an imaging apparatus and processing pictures into distance distribution information, the imaging apparatus having a capability of always providing proper image pictures under rapidly changing illuminance conditions, whereby securing an accuracy in the distance detecting system.

BACKGROUND [0001] The present invention relates to a method for machining stainless steel components; and more particularly, to a method for machining a stainless steel exhaust manifold for a multi-cylinder combustion engine. [0002] As automotive combustion engine technology increases the efficiency in which the fuel is burned by the combustion engines, the exhaust temperatures in such combustion engines is increasing with the increase in efficiency. [0003] Prior to the mid-1970's, the automotive industry traditionally used gray iron as the casting alloy for exhaust manifolds because it was low cost and it had a fairly high degree of heat resistance. This alloy was sufficient because the exhaust temperatures seldom exceeded 650° C. In the mid-70's, changes in the federal emission standards caused the combustion parameters to become more efficient, which resulted in a rise in exhaust temperature over 100° C. This rise in exhaust temperature sparked the development of ductile (or nodular) iron where the graphite is a spherical shape rather than the usual flake shape of gray iron. With the introduction of air injection reaction (AIR) systems into the exhaust manifolds, the exhaust temperatures began rising higher than 760° C.; and, further, the internal manifold atmosphere became strongly oxidizing. In response, the silicon content of the nodular iron was increased from 2.5 percent to 4.0-6.0 percent for oxidation resistance. This increased silicon percentage also increased the temperature at which ferrite to austenite transformation occurred from 800° C. to approximately 870° C. In response, molybdenum was added to the nodular iron in quantities of up to two percent (producing Si—Mo iron) during the early 1980's to further increase temperature resistance. [0004] In the mid to late 1990's and beyond, as the exhaust temperatures for some commercially-produced combustion engines rose above 950° C. to approximately 1,030° C., new stainless steel alloys have been developed for the manifolds that may include, for example, the following chemical composition: Element Composition, Weight Percentage Carbon <0.6% Silicon <1.8% Manganese <1.0% Chromium 24.0 to 27.0% Molybdenum 0.50% Max. Nickel 12.0 to 15% Phosphorus 0.04% Nitrogen 0.08 to 0.40% Niobium 2.0% Other Residual Elements 0.50% Max. Iron Balance [0005] Such new stainless steel materials contain basic elements and chemistry that require unique methods of metal removal (machining) not experienced in the past. Such stainless steel manifolds contain basic elements that are not compatible with the standard machining practices, nor are they compatible with high volume machining. For example, such stainless steel exhaust manifolds contain relatively high percentages of chromium and nickel. Alloys with high percentages of these elements in the machining industry are considered not to be compatible with the conventional high volume machining methods. Additionally, sulfur, which was typically added to improve machinability, is no longer used due to environmental concerns (or is used in very low percentages)—further increasing the difficulty in machining such materials. [0006] Further, because this new stainless steel composition is difficult to cast into thin sections using the traditional gravity casting methods, the manifolds casted with these new stainless steel compositions are casted using sand casting methods. The sand casting results in silica granules being impregnated into the stainless steel material. The silica is highly abrasive and decreases tool life. The sand scale may be as deep as 0.060 inches before the parent material is encountered. SUMMARY [0007] The present invention provides a method for machining the stainless steel automotive exhaust components that allows such components to be machined in high volumes and at a reasonable cost. The present invention provides a very precise machining process for machining the above-described stainless steel materials (and other materials/compositions that are difficult to machine) within desired scales of economy in a production environment. It is to be understood, however, that although the present invention is specifically tailored to address high-volume machining of the newer above-described stainless steel compositions, such as austenitic stainless steel, it is within the scope of the invention that certain (if not all) aspects of the present invention may be used for other machinable materials. [0008] A first aspect of the present invention is directed to a method for machining a stainless steel exhaust manifold for a multi-cylinder combustion engine that includes the steps of: (a) supporting the manifold on a work structure; (b) clamping the manifold to the work structure; and (c) machining the supported and clamped manifold; (d) where the clamping step includes the step of clamping each of the plurality of inlet coupling flanges of the manifold separately; and (e) the machining step includes the step of machining the interface surfaces of the inlet coupling flanges. In a more detailed embodiment, the supporting and clamping steps orient the planes of the interface surfaces of the inlet coupling flanges of the manifold perpendicular to a spindle access of the milling machine. [0009] In an alternate detailed embodiment of the first aspect of the present invention, the step of machining the interface surfaces of the inlet coupling flanges includes the steps of: (1) a rough milling step that involves milling the interface surfaces of the inlet coupling flanges with a rough milling cutter, followed by (2) a finish milling step that involves milling the interface surfaces of the inlet coupling flanges with a finish milling cutter; and, during the rough milling step (1), the clamping step clamps at least certain of the inlet coupling flanges at a first clamping pressure, and during the finish milling step (2) the clamping step clamps the inlet coupling flanges at a second clamping pressure, lower than the first clamping pressure. In a more detailed embodiment, the first clamping pressure is approximately 400 psi to approximately 600 psi and the second clamping pressure is approximately 300 psi to approximately 450 psi. In the exemplary embodiment, the first clamping pressure is approximately 500 psi and the second clamping pressure is approximately 350 psi. [0010] In yet another alternate detailed embodiment of the first aspect of the present invention, the clamping step includes the step of advancing lower work supports against a support surface of certain of the inlet coupling flanges opposite to that of the interface surface and clamping the work supports in place. In a further detailed embodiment, the supporting step includes the step of supporting the manifold on at least three triangulated cast locaters provided on the work structure; and the clamping step further comprises the step of clamping a swing clamp against a body portion of the manifold, forcing the manifold against the three triangulated cast locaters. In yet a further detailed embodiment, at least two of the three triangulated cast locaters support a respective two of the inlet coupling flanges. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the inlet coupling flanges are arranged in a row and the respective two inlet coupling flanges supported by the cast locaters are the outermost inlet coupling flanges on opposite ends of the row. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the third of the three triangulated cast locaters provides support under the body portion of the manifold, approximate the outlet port, off-line from the row of inlet coupling flanges. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the step of clamping an inlet coupling flange includes the steps of: (1) positioning a flange work support radially against the inlet coupling flange and (2) radially pressing a clamp actuator against the inlet coupling flange at a point diametrically opposed to the flange work support. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the plurality of flange work supports for the corresponding plurality of inlet coupling flanges are arranged in a row parallel to the row of inlet coupling flanges and the plurality of clamp actuators for the corresponding plurality of inlet coupling flanges are arranged in a row parallel to the row of inlet coupling flanges. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the row of flange work supports are mounted on a pivotal support having a pivot access substantially parallel to the row of flange work supports, so that the row of flange work supports are pivotable upward and away from the manifold, thereby providing an openable and closeable, substantially compact clamping structure. Therefore, in yet a further detailed embodiment, the method further comprises the steps of: prior to the supporting step, opening the clamping structure; and subsequent to the supporting step, closing the clamping structure. [0011] In another alternate embodiment of the first aspect of the present invention, the supporting step includes the step of supporting, with lower work supports, a support surface of at least some of the inlet coupling flanges, the support surface being opposite to that of the interface surface; and the method further comprises the step of drilling and/or tapping at least one coupling hole through each of the certain inlet coupling flanges, in through the interface surface and out through the support surface of the certain flange, where each coupling hole is drilled/tapped substantially coaxial with the respective lower work support. In a further detailed embodiment, each lower work support or cast locator co-axial with the coupling hole drilled/tapped in the drilling step include the substantially cylindrical cavity extending into the support end thereof for receiving the bit used in the drilling/tapping step. [0012] In yet another alternate detailed embodiment of the first aspect of the present invention, the step of clamping an inlet coupling flange includes the steps of: positioning a flange work support radially against the inlet coupling flange and radially pressing a clamp actuator against the inlet coupling flange at a point diametrically opposed to the flange work support. In a further detailed embodiment, the plurality of flange work supports for the corresponding plurality of inlet coupling flanges are arranged in a row parallel to the row of inlet coupling flanges and the plurality of clamp actuators for the corresponding plurality of inlet coupling flanges are arranged in a row parallel to the row of inlet coupling flanges. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the row of flange work supports are mounted on a pivotal support having a pivot access substantially parallel to the row of flange work supports, so that the row of flange work supports are pivotable upward and away from the manifold, thereby providing an openable and closeable, substantially compact clamping structure. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the method further includes the steps of: prior to the supporting step, opening the clamping structure; and, subsequent to the supporting step, closing the clamping structure. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the method further includes a step of, after the closing step, clamping the clamping structure in place in the closed orientation. It is also within the scope of the invention that the clamp actuators may be mounted on the pivotable support as opposed to the flange work supports. [0013] In yet another alternate detailed embodiment of the first aspect of the present invention, the milling machine may include a cast iron base and bed design with box weigh construction. In a further detailed embodiment, the milling machine includes a heavy high-torque spindle with large spindle bearings and at least a 50 taper of flange mounted milling tool adapters. The milling spindle can be used in a vertical or horizontal position. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the milling machine utilizes high volume flood coolant and through the spindle coolant during the milling step. In yet a further detailed embodiment, the coolant is an oil-based coolant. [0014] A second aspect of the present invention is directed to a method for machining a stainless steel exhaust manifold for a multi-cylinder combustion engine that includes the steps of: (a) supporting and clamping the manifold on a first work structure such that the inlet coupling flange interface surfaces are oriented on a plane substantially perpendicular to the spindle axis of the milling machine; (b) machining the inlet coupling flange interface surfaces of the manifold supported and clamped on the first work structure; (c) drilling and/or tapping coupling holes in through the inlet coupling flange interface surface surfaces of the manifold supported and clamped on the first work structure; (d) removing the manifold from the first work structure; (e) supporting and clamping the manifold on a second work structure such that the outlet coupling flange interface surface is oriented on a plane substantially perpendicular to the spindle axis of the milling machine; and (f) machining the outlet coupling flange interface surface of the manifold supported and clamped on the second work structure; (g) where the step of supporting and clamping the manifold on the second work structure includes the steps of seating a plurality of coupling holes drilled through the inlet coupling flanges on locating bosses extending from the second work structure and clamping the outlet coupling flange. In a more detailed embodiment, the step of supporting and clamping the manifold on the second work structure further includes the steps of: positioning a plurality of flange work supports radially against a first radial side of the outlet coupling flange, and radially pressing a plurality of clamp actuators against the opposite radial side of the outlet coupling flange. In a further detailed embodiment, the step of machining the outlet coupling flange includes the step of driving a cutting tool along the outlet coupling flange interface surface in a direction from the opposite radial side of the outlet coupling flange to the first radial side of the outlet coupling flange, whereby the cutting motion is driven into the plurality of flange work supports. [0015] It is a third aspect of the present invention to provide a method for machining a stainless steel exhaust manifold for a multi-cylinder combustion engine that includes the steps of: (a) supporting the manifold on a work structure; (b) clamping the manifold to the work structure, where the clamping step includes the step of clamping at least certain of the row of inlet coupling flanges separately; and (c) machining the interface surfaces of the inlet coupling flanges; (d) where the step of clamping at least certain of the row of inlet coupling flanges separately includes the steps of: (i) positioning at least one flange work support radially against each of the certain inlet coupling flanges, and (ii) radially pressing at least one clamp actuator against each of the certain inlet coupling flanges at a point diametrically opposed to the flange work support. In a further detailed embodiment, the plurality of flange work supports are arranged in a row corresponding to the row of inlet coupling flanges and are mounted on a pivotal support having a pivot axis substantially parallel to the row of flange work supports, so that the row of flange work supports are pivotable upward and away from the manifold, thereby providing an openable and closeable, substantially compact clamping structure; and the method further includes the steps of, prior to the supporting step, opening the clamping structure and, subsequent to the supporting step, closing the clamping structure. [0016] In an alternate detailed embodiment of the third aspect of the present invention, the plurality of clamp actuators are arranged in a row corresponding to the row of inlet coupling flanges and are mounted on a pivotal support having a pivot axis substantially parallel to the row of clamp actuators, so that the row of clamp actuators are pivotable upward and away from the manifold, thereby providing an openable and closeable, substantially compact clamping structure; and the method further includes the steps of, prior to the supporting step, opening the clamping structure and, subsequent to the supporting step, closing the clamping structure. [0017] It is a fourth aspect of the present invention to provide a method for machining an interface surface of a stainless steel conduit that includes the steps of: (a) clamping the coupling flange of the conduit to a work structure between a work support and a diametrically opposed clamp actuator; (b) rough milling the interface surface of the coupling flange with a rough milling cutter; and (c) after the rough milling step, finish milling the interface with a finish milling cutter; (d) where, during the rough milling step, the coupling flange is clamped between the work support and clamp actuator at a first clamping pressure, and during the finish milling step the coupling flange is clamped between the work support and the clamp actuator at a second clamping pressure that is lower than the first clamping pressure. In a further detailed embodiment, the first clamping pressure is approximately 400 psi to approximately 600 psi and the second clamping pressure is approximately 300 psi to approximately 450 psi. In an exemplary embodiment, the first clamping pressure is approximately 500 psi and the second clamping pressure is approximately 350 psi. [0018] In an alternate detailed embodiment of the fourth aspect of the present invention, the rough milling cutter is a 6″-12″ right or left hand double 45 degree +/−25 degrees negative rake pocket milling cutter that utilizes a positive chip breaker; and the rough milling cutter is operated at a cutting speed of approximately 93 RPM to approximately 193 RPM and a feed rate of approximately 662 mm/minute to approximately 862 mm/minute during the rough milling step. In a further detailed embodiment, the finish milling cutter is a 4.9″-12″ 60 degree +/−25 degree negative rack pocket milling cutter that utilizes a positive chip breaker; and the finish milling cutter is operated at a cutting speed of approximately 170 RPM to approximately 270 RPM and at a feed rate of approximately 450 mm/minute to approximately 650 mm/minute during the finish milling step. In an exemplary embodiment, the rough milling cutter is operated at a cutting speed of approximately 143 RPM; the rough milling cutter is operated at a feed rate of approximately 762 mm/minute; the finish milling cutter is operated at a cutting speed of approximately 220 RPM; and the finish milling cutter is operated at a feed rate of approximately 550 mm/minute. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0019] [0019]FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a raw exhaust manifold according to the present invention; [0020] [0020]FIG. 2 is a perspective view illustrating a water jet slitting operation according to the present invention; [0021] [0021]FIG. 3 is a top plan view of a clamping structure for machining the interface surfaces of the inlet flanges of the exhaust manifolds; [0022] [0022]FIG. 4 is an elevational side view of the clamping structure of FIG. 3; [0023] [0023]FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the clamping structure of FIGS. 3 and 4; [0024] [0024]FIG. 6 is a perspective side view of the clamping structure of FIGS. 3 - 5 , shown in an open configuration; [0025] [0025]FIG. 7 illustrates a manifold being seated within the open clamping structure of FIGS. 3 - 6 ; [0026] [0026]FIG. 8 illustrates the clamping structure of FIGS. 3 - 7 being closed upon the manifold seated therein; [0027] [0027]FIG. 9 is a perspective view of a rough milling tool according to the present invention; [0028] [0028]FIG. 10 illustrates a carbide insert for the rough milling tool of FIG. 9; [0029] [0029]FIG. 11 is a perspective view illustrating a rough milling operation on an interface surface of the inlet flanges clamped in the clamping structure of FIGS. 3 - 8 ; [0030] [0030]FIG. 12 is a perspective view of a finish milling tool according to the present invention; [0031] [0031]FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a coolant through drill collet and bit according to the present invention; [0032] [0032]FIG. 14 is a perspective view of a clamping structure that includes a heat shield feature work-holding fixture and an outlet work-holding fixture according to the present invention; [0033] [0033]FIG. 15 is a perspective view illustrating a manifold seated in the heat shield feature work-holding fixture; [0034] [0034]FIG. 16 is a perspective view of an EGR feature work-holding fixture seating and clamping a manifold there within; and [0035] [0035]FIG. 17 is a perspective view of a manifold seated in the outlet work-holding fixture. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0036] As shown in FIG. 1, an example of a raw austenitic stainless steel exhaust manifold 20 that has been molded utilizing a sand casting operation is provided. The exhaust manifold 20 shown in FIG. 1 includes a row of four inlet conduits 22 A, 22 B, 22 C & 22 D, each of which is in fluid communication with an outlet conduit 24 . Each inlet conduit includes a flange 26 A- 26 D extending radially from a mouth 28 A- 28 D of the inlet conduit, where each flange 26 A- 26 D includes an interface surface 30 A- 30 D adapted to mate with and mount to the engine block of the multi-cylinder combustion engine. The flanges 26 A- 26 D each include radial lobed portions 32 extending radially therefrom that provide areas for drilling/tapping bolt holes for use in mounting the manifold to the engine block, as will be described in further detail below. As can be seen, adjacent pairs of the radially extending lobes 32 tend to meld together between adjacent inlet conduits. The outlet conduit 24 also includes a radial flange 34 extending from its mouth 36 , where the flange also includes an interface surface 38 adapted to be mated with and coupled to the exhaust assembly of the automobile (see FIG. 16 for views of the outlet mouth 36 and interface surface 38 of the flange 34 ). The manifold 20 illustrated in FIG. 1 also includes a projection 39 approximate the outlet conduit 24 for mounting EGR features thereto. The manifold may also include projections 102 (see FIG. 15) for coupling heat shields thereto. [0037] The exemplary process according to the present invention will be described in a series of individual operations. [0038] I. Pre-Machining Operations [0039] As shown in FIG. 2, due to the high rate of thermal expansion for the stainless steel materials of the manifold 20 , it may be desirable to cut a slot between connected radial lobes 32 of adjacent inlet conduits to allow for thermal expansion and other movement between the inlet conduits during use. A water jet slitting operation is shown, where the manifold 20 is mounted to a pneumatically actuated fixture (not shown) that moves the manifold 20 with respect to a high pressure water jet nozzle 40 , which emits a high pressure water jet 42 between the adjacent lobes 32 to cut a slot 44 between the adjacent lobes. In the exemplary embodiment the slot is between one and two millimeters wide; the nozzle 40 emits a jet of water and garnet at approximately 50,000 psi; the nozzle tube orifice size is 0.030″; the garnet mesh size is 80 mesh; and the feed rate of the machine is 24″ per minute. A pneumatic fixture is used to hold the manifold during this operation. [0040] II. Machining Inlet Interface Surfaces [0041] FIGS. 3 - 8 illustrate an inlet interface clamping structure 46 for receiving and clamping the manifold 20 therein such that the interface surfaces 30 A- 30 D of the corresponding input conduits 22 A- 22 D are aligned substantially perpendicular to a spindle axis of the milling machine, so that the interface surfaces can be milled to provide an adequate surface for sealing gaskets between the interface surfaces and the cylinder head, and so that the bolt receiving holes can be drilled and tapped into the radial flanges 32 . [0042] Referring to FIGS. 3 - 5 , the clamping structure 46 includes a base 48 onto which is secured a longitudinal, radial clamp-support platform 50 and a pair of radial workpiece-holder bearing supports 52 . A pivotal workpiece-holder mount or support 54 is pivotally mounted between the pair of bearing supports 52 to be pivotal about a pair of hinges 56 in the supports in the directions shown by arrows A. The pivot axis of the radial work support member 54 is parallel to the clamp-support platform 50 and is spaced apart from the clamp-support platform to provide an area therebetween for receiving and clamping the manifold. Mounted to the radial clamp support platform 50 are a row of radial clamp actuators 58 A, 58 B, 58 C & 58 D. Likewise, mounted to the pivotal support 54 are a row of radial work supports 60 A, 60 B, 60 C & 60 D. The row of radial clamp actuators 58 A- 58 D and the row of radial workpiece-holders 60 A- 60 D are substantially parallel and aligned with one another. Each radial clamp actuator 58 A- 58 D includes a hydraulic actuator block 62 , which drives a corresponding radial clamp 64 and associated gripper 66 . The two outer radial workpiece-holders 60 A and 60 D are fixed to the pivotal support 54 and have grippers 68 that face the corresponding grippers 66 of their respective clamp actuators 58 A and 58 D. The two inner workpiece-holders 60 B and 60 C include hydraulic actuator blocks 70 operatively coupled to the respective workpiece-holders to drive the workpiece-holders 60 B and 60 C and their respective grippers 72 towards the corresponding grippers 66 on the corresponding clamp actuators 58 B and 58 C. [0043] Positioned between and below the rows of radial clamp actuators and radial workpiece-holders are a plurality of vertical work supports for supporting each of the lobes 32 of the exhaust manifold. The vertical work supports include two outer-stationary supports 74 and a plurality of inner translating vertical support assemblies 76 , each of which include two translating vertical support members 78 . A rear work support 80 is provided for supporting a body portion of the manifold 20 when seated within the clamping structure 46 . Collectively, the two outer vertical work supports 74 and the rear work support 80 provide three triangulated cast locators for supporting the manifold prior to clamping the manifold to the work structure utilizing the various clamp actuators, etc. [0044] The work structure shown in FIGS. 3 - 5 is in the “closed” position where the pivotable support 54 is pivoted downwardly such that the radial workpiece-holders 60 A- 60 D and their associated grippers 68 face the radial clamping mechanisms 58 A- 58 D and their associated grippers 66 . FIG. 6 illustrates the clamping structure in the “open” configuration in which the pivotable support 54 is pivoted upwardly to provide a larger open area into which the manifold 20 can be seated on the three triangulated cast locators comprised by the outer vertical workpiece-holders 74 and the rear workpiece-holder 80 . FIG. 7 illustrates the manifold seated within the open clamping structure as described. Once seated in such a manner, the pivotal support 54 is pivoted back again to the closed orientation as shown in FIG. 8. Referring back to FIGS. 3 - 5 , a pair of hydraulic clamps 82 to clamp the pivotable member 54 in the closed position. [0045] The clamping operation for clamping the manifold in place for milling after being seated within the clamping structure and after the clamping structure is closed, proceeds as follows: First, the pivotal support 54 is clamped in place in the closed position by clamps 82 at approximately 1,000 psi to approximately 1,200 psi; next, a swing clamp (not shown) is clamped on the outlet at approximately 600 to approximately 850 psi; next, the two outer radial clamp actuators 58 A and 58 D are forced against the respective flanges 26 A and 26 D of the manifold so that the flanges 26 A and 26 D are clamped between the hard stops 60 A and 60 D and the clamp actuators 58 A and 58 D at approximately 400 psi to approximately 500 psi; next, the vertically movable work support assemblies 76 are actuated to advance the associated vertical work support member 78 upwardly against the under side of the flanges, advancing at approximately 12 psi spring pressure to find the bottom surfaces of the flanges and are then clamped in place at approximately 3,000 psi system pressure; finally, center work supports 60 B and 60 C are advanced against the associated flanges 26 B and 26 C at approximately 12 psi spring pressure to abut the flanges, and then the center two radial clamp actuators 58 B and 58 C are actuated at approximately 3,000 psi to clamp the respective flanges 26 B and 26 C between the work support 60 B, 60 C and 58 B, 58 C. Once clamped in place in such a manner, the interface surfaces 30 A- 30 D of the inlet flanges 26 A- 26 D are ready to be machined. [0046] As described above, the clamping structure 46 provides the capability to clamp each individual inlet flange 26 A- 26 D. Because each flange 26 A- 26 D is individually clamped as described above, the individual clamps will sufficiently dampen vibrations during the milling and cutting operations, thereby increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of the machining and cutting operations and also increasing tool life. Additionally, the clamping designs discussed above allow for clamping and supporting of the machine surfaces so that the manifold parts can be held without deforming, yet still provide enough force to allow the cutting tool to cut the surface to a required surface finish and flatness. [0047] The milling machine, in the exemplary embodiment, utilizes a cast iron base and bed design with a boxway construction. The boxway machine utilizes turcite, which helps dissipate vibrations and, in turn, increases cutting tool life. The milling machine also includes a heavy, high torque spindle with large spindle bearings. While the exemplary embodiment utilizes a vertical spindle, it is certainly within the scope of the invention to utilize a horizontal spindle as well. The milling machine of the exemplary embodiment utilizes a minimum of 50 taper of flange-mounted milling tool adapters. Additionally, the milling machine of the exemplary embodiment utilizes coolant through the spindle with a high volume flood coolant. [0048] The machining of the interface surfaces 30 A- 30 D of the inlet flanges 26 A- 26 D includes a rough milling step followed by a finish milling step. As shown in FIG. 9, a rough milling cutter 82 for use with the present invention is a 6″-12″ right or left-hand double 45 degree +/−25 degrees negative rock pocket milling cutter that utilizes a positive chip-breaker. Specifically, the rough milling cutter is a Valenite VRS2398510800, right- or left-hand M750, 6″ milling cutter that utilizes 22 carbide inserts 84 (see FIG. 10), where the carbide inserts are Sandvik S-HNGX090516 HBR inserts (Valenite HNGXO90516MR GR.307 inserts may also be used). The tool holder type in this specific embodiment is 1520010 Valenite shell mill holder. [0049] [0049]FIG. 11 illustrates the rough milling operation where the rough milling cutter 84 is being driven against the interface surface 30 A of the interface flange 26 A, which is, in turn, clamped to the clamping structure 46 as described above. A coolant hose 86 sprays coolant between the cutting tool 82 and the machined surfaces during the milling operation via nozzles 88 . In this exemplary embodiment, the rough milling cutter is operated at a cutting speed of approximately 143 RPM and the feed rate of approximately 762 mm/minute. Also, in this exemplary embodiment, the rough milling material surface feed per minute is approximately 225. Additionally, during this rough milling operation, the radial clamp actuators 58 A- 58 D and radial work supports 60 A- 60 D clamp the inlet flanges 26 A- 26 D there between at a clamping pressure of approximately 500 psi. As will be discussed below, this clamping pressure for the finish milling operation is substantially lower. [0050] [0050]FIG. 12 provides a finish milling tool 90 according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention. In this exemplary embodiment, the finish milling cutter is a 4.9″ 60 degree +/−25 degrees negative rack pocket milling cutter that utilizes a positive chip-breaker. Specifically, the finish milling cutter is a Valenite VFHX30HF0492K15R, M750, 4.9″ finish mill with three wiper inserts 92 and twelve carbide cutting tool inserts 94 . In this specific embodiment, the cutting tool inserts 94 are Sandvik S-HNGXO90516 HBR carbide inserts (while Valenite HNGX090516MR GR.307 carbide inserts may also be used) and the wiper inserts are HNGF090504MF carbide inserts. Additionally, in this specific embodiment tool type is 1520010 Valenite shell mill holder. In the exemplary embodiment, the finish milling cutter is operated with respect to the interface surfaces 30 A- 30 D at a cutting speed of approximately 220 RPM and a feed rate of approximately 550 mm/minute, with a finish milling material surface feed per minute of 346. Additionally, as introduced above, the clamping pressures of the radial clamp actuators 58 A- 58 D and radial work supports 60 A- 60 D are lowered, during the finish milling operation, to approximately 350 psi. [0051] While the radial clamping pressures for the rough milling operation were described above as being approximately 500 psi in the exemplary embodiment, it is within the scope of the invention that this clamping pressure be approximately 400 psi to approximately 600 psi. Furthermore, while the radial clamping pressure for the finish milling operation was described above as being approximately 350 psi in the exemplary embodiment, it is within the scope of the present invention that this finish clamping pressure be approximately 300 psi to approximately 450 psi. Furthermore, while the rough milling operation described above operated at a cutting speed of approximately 143 RPM at a feed rate of approximately 762 mm/minute, it is within the scope of the invention that the rough milling cutter be operated at a cutting speed of approximately 93 RPM to approximately 193 RPM and the feed rate of approximately 662 mm/minute to approximately 862 mm/minute. Additionally, while the finish milling cutter was described above in the exemplary embodiment as being operated at a cutting speed of approximately 220 RPM and a feed rate of approximately 550 mm/minute, it is within the scope of the invention that the finish milling cutter be operated at a cutting speed of approximately 170 RPM to 270 RPM and a feed rate of approximately 450 mm/minute to a feed rate of approximately 650 mm/minute during the finish milling step. [0052] [0052]FIG. 13 illustrates the drilling tool 96 for drilling the bolt/screw holes 98 (see FIG. 15 for example) and the radial lobes 32 of the radial flanges 26 A- 26 D of the manifold inlets. The drilling tool 96 is mounted within the same work-holding fixture as the rough milling cutter and finish milling cutter as described above. In the exemplary embodiment, a high precision holder 100 is utilized for this application. Precision holders are commonly used for high-speed applications; yet with the present invention, the high-speed precision holder is used in this low-speed application. During this drilling operation, it is desired that the tool tip not exceed 0.0005″. In the specific exemplary embodiment, the drill type is a Sandvik, 12.0, 13.8 mm coolant-through, TiAl coated carbide drill, series no. R415.5-0850/1200/1380-30-ACI-1020; or the drill type is a precision twist drill (solid carbide drill), no. PHP41MG12.0 or PHP41M613.8. The holder type is a Regofix 4″/ER32 collet holder, ultraprecision collet. It is desired that drill depths greater than 2× the drill diameter use coolant through spindle to reduce tool breakage. In this drilling operation, the drill surface feed per minute is 95; the drill RPM is as follows: 1080-8.5 mm, 769-12.0 mm, 668-13.8 mm; and the drill feed rate is as follows: 2.3 IPM-8.5 mm, 3.6 IPM-12.0 mm, 3.3 IPM-13.8 mm. [0053] Referring again to FIGS. 3 and 6, it can be seen that the vertical work supports 74 & 78 are semi-tubular in shape so as to provide a cavity coaxial therewith, where this cavity is adapted to be coaxial with the through-holes 98 drilled during the drilling operation described above. Accordingly, such arcuate vertical work supports provide precise and coaxial support for the lobes 32 during this drilling operation while the coaxial channels allow the drill bit to pass below the lobes without interference from the vertical work supports. In the exemplary embodiment, before the drilling operation begins, the orientation and the location of the lobes 32 is checked utilizing an electronic spindle probe. Based upon this detection of the location of the lobes 32 , the location of the drilling hole is calculated. [0054] III. Drilling and Tapping Peripheral Manifold Features [0055] As mentioned above, exhaust manifolds 20 may have areas for additional exhaust system and emission components; for example, the exemplary embodiment provides for milling, drilling and tapping the projection 39 for the installation of the emission sensor. Other projections, such as the heat shield projections 102 (see FIGS. 16 and 17), may be provided with drilled and tapped holes or drilled holes for rivets at assembly. The drilling and tapping of small holes in such projections, in the exemplary environment, utilizes low spindle speeds. With such low spindle speeds, precision tooling is critical in drilling and tapping to keep these smaller tools from breaking and increasing tool life. [0056] [0056]FIG. 14 illustrates a clamping structure 104 that includes a heat shield feature work-holding fixture 106 and an outlet work-holding fixture 108 , both of which are mounted to a base 110 . [0057] Referring to FIGS. 14 and 15, the heat shield feature work-holding fixture 106 includes a pair of manifold body support posts 112 extending from a rear platform 114 and a plurality of bosses 116 extending from a forward platform 118 that are adapted to be received within the through holes 98 drilled to the lobes 32 of the manifold inlet flanges (see FIG. 5 in particular). [0058] The rear support 114 includes a swing clamp 120 for clamping the midsection of the manifold and the forward platform 118 includes a pair of swing clamps 122 for clamping on the inlet flanges of the manifold. [0059] Referring to FIG. 15, the manifold 20 is mounted to the heat shield work-holding fixture 106 by mating the through holes 98 in the lobes 32 of the inlet flanges of the manifold with the bosses 116 extending from the forward platform 118 and by seating the body portion of the manifold 20 on the support posts 112 . Once seated in such a manner, the swing clamps 120 , 122 are activated to clamp the manifold 20 to the fixture. Once clamped, the heat shield fixtures 102 may be machined as described above. [0060] FIGS. 16 illustrates a manifold 20 mounted and clamped to an EGR feature work-holding fixture 124 . This work-holding fixture 124 includes similar components to the work-holding fixture 106 described above with respect to FIGS. 14 and 15; however, the components are angled and oriented such that the planar surface 126 of the EGR feature 39 faces upwardly toward the spindle access of the milling machine. The EGR feature work-holding fixture 124 includes a base 128 onto which an elevated rear platform 130 and a downwardly and rearwardly angled, forward inlet-support platform 132 are mounted. Additionally, a support post 134 is mounted onto the base 128 for seating and supporting the outlet flange 34 of the manifold 20 . The inlet-holding platform 132 includes a plurality of bosses 136 onto which the through holes 98 extending through the lobes 32 of the inlet flanges are seated. Additionally, the rear platform 130 includes a swing clamp 138 and the inlet support platform 132 includes a plurality of swing clamps 140 . The manifold 20 is mounted and clamped to this work-holding fixture 124 by first mating the through holes 98 in the manifold 20 with the bosses 136 extending from the inlet support platform 132 and by seating the outlet flange 34 on the support post 134 . The manifold is thereafter clamped by activating the swing clamp 138 which clamps against the outlet conduit, and the swing clamps 140 , which clamp against the inlet flanges 26 A- 26 D of the manifold 20 . As shown by FIG. 16, once mounted and clamped as described, the planar outer surface 126 of the EGR feature 39 faces upwardly toward the spindle axis so that it may be machined as described herein. [0061] The particular milling tools used for milling the heat shield features 102 and EGR feature 39 according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention are as follows: [0062] Heat Shield Plunge Milling Tool: [0063] Milling tool type: Valenite S-VMSP-125R-90CCEC, plunging mill cutter [0064] Cutting insert type: Valenite SD422P GR.307 [0065] Tool holder type: Valenite V50CT E 25L [0066] Milling material surface feet per minute: 334 [0067] Milling cutter RPM: 1275 [0068] Milling feed rate: 89 IPM [0069] M-10 Tap Drill: [0070] Sandvick 6.8 mm coolant through TiAl coated carbide drill [0071] Holder type: R415.5-0680-30-AC1-1020 [0072] Drill surface feet per minute: 87 [0073] Drill RPM: 1247 [0074] Drill feed rate: 2.36 IPM [0075] Heat Shield Tapping Fixture: [0076] Tap type: Reiff& Nestor MBx1.25 3 flute D-5 Tap [0077] Holder type: Regofix 2350.13271 ER/32 Collet holder [0078] Tap surface feet per minute: 16 [0079] Tap RPM: 200 [0080] Tap feed rate: 9.84 IPM [0081] EGR Pad Milling Tool: [0082] Milling tool type: Valenite 539-69-646, 3.00″ diameter face mill [0083] Cutting insert type: Valenite SDMT 1506 PDR MH 307 [0084] Tool holder type: Valenite VPBC50PC6-10 face mill holder [0085] Milling material surface feet per minute: 236 [0086] Milling cutter RPM: 150 [0087] Milling feed rate: 18.89 IPM [0088] MA Tap Drill: [0089] Drill type: Sandvik 6.8 mm coolant through TiAl coated carbide drill [0090] Holder: R 415.5-0680-30-AC1-1020 [0091] Drill surface feet per minute: 125 [0092] Drill RPM: 1412 [0093] Drill feed rate: 8.54 IPM [0094] MATap Tool: [0095] Tap type: Reiff& Nestor MBx1.25 3 flute D-5 tap [0096] Holder type: Regofix 2350.1327 ER/32 collet holder [0097] Tap surface feet per minute: 16 [0098] Tap RPM: 200 [0099] Tap feed rate: 9.84 IPM [0100] EGR Feature Drill: [0101] Drill type: 14-18 mm CJT Durapoint Special 613 drill [0102] Holder type: Regofix 2350.13271 ER/32 collet holder [0103] Drill surface feet per minute: 49 [0104] Drill RPM: 583 [0105] Drill feed rate: 4.29 IPM [0106] IV. Outlet Machining [0107] In the exemplary embodiment, exhaust manifold outlet machining is the final process in the machining operation on the exhaust manifold 20. Presently, outlets come in two basic configurations. In some applications, a flat surface is used with the gasket between the exhaust pipe and manifold outlet. The other feature used is an internal or external spherical radius that uses a “donut” type gasket that seals on the radius machine into the manifold. [0108] As shown in FIGS. 14 and 17, the outlet work-holding fixture 108 includes an inlet flange support platform 142 and an elevated outlet flange support platform 144 , which supports a clamping ring 146 . Referring specifically to FIG. 17, the inlet flange support platform includes a plurality of bosses 148 for seating the corresponding plurality of through-holes 98 extending through the lobes 32 of the inlet flanges 26 A- 26 D of the manifold. The platform is angled such that, when the manifold is seated on the inlet flange support platform 142 , the outlet conduit 24 extends upwardly so that the interface surface 38 of the outlet flange 34 is perpendicular to the spindle axis of the milling machine; and furthermore, so that the outlet flange 34 is positioned within the hub opening 152 of the clamping ring 146 . To clamp the manifold 20 in place, the swing clamps 150 are actuated on the inlet flange support platform 142 to clamp down onto the inlet flanges 26 A- 26 D and a plurality of clamp actuators 156 are actuated to clamp the outlet flange 34 between the clamp actuators 156 (and associated grippers 160 ) and the diametrically opposed work-holder supports 154 (and associated grippers 158 ), all of which are mounted within the clamping ring 146 . Once the outlet flange 34 is clamped in such a manner, the interface surface 38 is ready for rough milling and finish milling operations as discussed above with respect to the inlet flanges, and is also ready for drilling and tapping operations as discussed with respect to the inlet flanges. [0109] In the exemplary embodiment, the clamp actuators 154 and work-holder supports 156 are positioned along the clamping ring 146 so that, in the rough-milling and finish milling operations, the cutting tool is driven into the work-holder supports 154 . [0110] In the exemplary embodiment, the particular milling tools for milling the interface surface 38 of the outlet flange 34 are as follows: [0111] Outlet Rough-Milling Tool [0112] Rough-mill type: Valenite VRS2398510800, right hand M750, 6″ milling cutter [0113] Cutting Insert Type: Sandvik S-HNGXO90516 HBR (or Valenite HNGXO90516MR GR.307) (22) inserts per tool [0114] Tool Holder Type: 1520010 Valenite shell mill holder [0115] Rough Milling Material Surface Feet Per Minute: 225 [0116] Rough Milling Cutter RPM: 143 [0117] Rough Milling Feed Rate: 15.74 IPM [0118] Outlet Finish Milling Tool: [0119] Finish Mill Type: Valenite VFHX30HF0492K15R, M750, 4.9″ finish mill with (3) wiper inserts [0120] Cutting tool insert type: Sandvik S-HGNX090516 HBR (or Valenite HNGXO90516MR GR.307) (12) total, HNGF090504MF (3) total inserts. [0121] Tool holder type: 1520010 Valenite shell mill holder [0122] Finish milling material surface feet per minute: 346 [0123] Finish milling cutter RPM: 220 [0124] Finish milling feed rate: 25.35 inches per minute [0125] M10 Tap Drill Tool: [0126] Drill Type: Sandvik R15.5-0860-30-ACI-10208.6 mm coolant through [0127] TiAl coated carbide drill [0128] Holder type: Regofix 2350.13271 ER132 collet holder [0129] Drill surface feet per minute: 125 [0130] Drill RPM: 1412 [0131] Drill feed rate: 8.54 IPM [0132] Outlet Borin/Spherical Radius Tool: [0133] Tool Type: Omni design ONT-8151 Combination Radius/Boring tool [0134] Holder type: Integral holder built as one piece from a blank [0135] Boring Surface Feet Per Minute: 14 [0136] Boring RPM: 350 [0137] Boring Feed Rate: 2.36 IPM [0138] NOTE: Speeds and feeds may be critical with this tool so tool chatter does not scrape the part, as these are critical sealing areas for the exhaust assembly. The above spherical boring tool is used on parts that use an internal or external radius gasket design. [0139] Tap Tool: [0140] Tap Type: Reiff& Nestor M10x1.50 3 flute D-6 controlled minor diameter tap [0141] Holder type: Regofix 2350.13271 ER132 collet holder [0142] Tap Surface Feet Per Minute: 16 [0143] Tap RPM: 150 [0144] Tap Feed Rate: 8.85 IPM [0145] With the exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the clamping pressures for the clamp actuators 156 are 700 psi; however, it is within the scope of the invention that the clamping pressures can range from approximately 600 psi to approximately 800 psi. Additionally, while the outlet rough milling RPM, in the exemplary embodiment, is 155 with a feed rate of 480 mm per minute, it is within the scope of the invention that the outlet rough milling tool RPM be approximately 105 to approximately 205 and that the outlet rough milling tool feed rate be approximately 380 mm per minute to approximately 580 mm per minute. Likewise, while the outlet finish tool, in the exemplary embodiment, is operated at an RPM of 220 and a feed rate of 550 mm per minute, it is within the scope of the present invention that the outlet finish tool RPM be operated at approximately 170 to approximately 270 and the feed rate be approximately 450 mm per minute to approximately 650 mm per minute. As described in the exemplary embodiment, the outlet work-holding fixture 108 is designed to hold the outlet flange 34 with enough force to prevent tool breakage as machining occurs a long distance from the top of the base 110 . The fixture 108 was specifically designed to hold the manifold during heavy milling operations. [0146] Following from the above description and invention summaries, it should be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that, while the apparatuses and methods herein described constitute exemplary embodiments of the present invention, it is to be understood that the inventions contained herein are not limited to these precise embodiments and that changes may be made to them without departing from the scope of the invention as defined by the claims. Additionally, it is to be understood that the invention is defined by the claims and it is not intended that any limitations or elements describing the exemplary embodiments set forth herein are to be incorporated into the meanings of the claims unless such limitations or elements are explicitly listed in the claims. Likewise, it is to be understood that it is not necessary to meet any or all of the identified advantages or objects of the invention disclosed herein in order to fall within the scope of any claims, since the invention is defined by the claims and since inherent and/or unforeseen advantages of the present invention may exist even though they may not have been explicitly discussed herein.

A method is provided for machining the stainless steel automotive exhaust components that allows such components to be machined in high volumes and at a reasonable cost. An exemplary embodiment of the method includes the steps of: (a) supporting the manifold on a work structure; (b) clamping the manifold to the work structure; and (c) machining the supported and clamped manifold; (d) where the clamping step includes the step of clamping each of the plurality of inlet coupling flanges of the manifold separately; and (e) the machining step includes the step of machining the interface surfaces of the inlet coupling flanges. In a more detailed embodiment, the supporting and clamping steps orient the planes of the interface surfaces of the inlet coupling flanges of the manifold perpendicular to a spindle access of the milling machine.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/081,965 filed Feb. 20, 2002, presently allowed and copending herewith and listing the present title and inventor, and which in turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional patent application serial number 60/269,721 filed Feb. 20, 2001, the contents of each which are incorporated by reference in entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] This invention pertains generally to the field of stoneworking, and more specifically to sawing, shaping and polishing of stone or similar material. Various specific manifestations of the invention include a portable tool mount which is configured to support and guide a saw, an abrading rotary disk tool, or other stoneworking equipment or tools; an edging apparatus for stone and other hard materials; and a rotary disk abrading tool provided with a member or a holder to facilitate the application of the tool to the workpiece. [0004] 2. Description of the Related Art [0005] Stoneworking is a very old art, dating back to the days of cave dwellers when man is presumed to have first taken shelter within a stone structure. However, the age of the art should not be confused with the level of technology in use today. The desirability of stone in dwellings, for various monuments and markers, and in many other applications continues to be great, owing to intrinsic hardness and resistance to the elements, a wonderful array of diverse natural and enhanced appearances, temperature resistance, thermal mass, low thermal expansion, and other desirable and unusual features. In addition to natural stone, synthetic or artificial stone, stone-containing materials, or stone-like materials are also being manufactured for desired characteristics. Consequently, much modem technology has been applied to further the provision of stone into the marketplace. [0006] Natural stone is quarried in large blocks from mines and is normally next cut into thinner slabs. These slabs are polished on one surface and then typically sold into commercial or construction applications. Exemplary construction applications, though not by any means all-inclusive, are wall surfaces and decorations for both interior and exterior, trim, fireplaces, flooring, table tops, and counter tops. Rarely will the polished slab have the exact dimensions required for a given project. Consequently, the slab must be cut to fit the application. Depending upon the application, once the slab has been cut, the edge may additionally need to be finished, which may include leveling, shaping and polishing steps. Shaped and polished edges are typically created by grinding the surface with increasingly finer grits of abrasives. The abrasives are normally cooled with a fluid, typically water. As is known in the industry, the cutting, shaping and polishing operations release a large quantity of abrasive in the form of slurry and dust which can be quite detrimental to machines and equipment which are not designed to withstand the erosive environment. [0007] Where large quantities of natural stone or stone-like materials are to be cut and polished, relatively massive equipment has been designed and constructed which facilitates the cutting and polishing operations. These machines are generally designed to have enormous mass, which makes the tools much more rigid and also less susceptible to vibration and flexure that may otherwise occur. While these tools are well suited for operations where stones may be readily transported to the machine, they clearly have no utility for stones to be worked in situ at a construction location or the like. Furthermore, these machines tend to be extremely expensive, and so custom production on this type of machine results in undesirably large amounts of very expensive idle time. Not only do stones need to be changed for custom production, but the machine will also typically require reconfiguration and/or realignment for the custom job. Furthermore, the transport of a stone to and from a construction site to effect the custom work is not only expensive and the source of much delay, but the likelihood of an accident which destroys the stone is much greater with the additional transport. Finally, these large machines tend to be cost-prohibitive for a smaller shop that is not continuously using the machine. Exemplary patents that illustrate large commercial stone working machines include Adams in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,164,144; 4,228,617 to Bando; U.S. Pat. No. 5,482,026 to Russell; U.S. Pat. No. 6,006,735 to Schlough et al; U.S. Pat. No. 6,073,621 to Cetrangolo; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,315,799 to Toniolo. [0008] In an attempt to provide a more portable machine, which may, for example, be used directly at a job site, other artisans have proposed various rail systems which are clamped or otherwise anchored to stone or other hard material, such as concrete or glass. These rails may act as guides, such as in the U.S. Pat. No. 2,014,229 to Emmons; U.S. Pat. No. 4,552,122 to Kelly; U.S. Pat. No. 5,960,780 to Harris; U.S. Pat. No. 6,062,122 to Niemczyk; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,257,225 to Harris; or may alternatively act as a track which supports a trolley or the like. Exemplary trolleys are shown in U.S. Pat. No. 2,291,058 to Pohl; U.S. Pat. No. 3,323,507 to Schuman; U.S. Pat. No. 3,360,298 to Stoljarov et al; U.S. Pat. No. 4,054,179 to Destree; U.S. Pat. No. 4,979,412 to Anders; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,588,418 to Holmes et al. An additional device uses a router with a profiled cutter for shaping and polishing edges. The profiled cutter is an abrasive, and is generally extremely expensive. With the nature of grinding, the abrasive on the profiled cutter is lost, generally unevenly. Consequently, a profiled cutter loses its shape with use and creates an edge which varies. This edge will not match the profile of the next cutter of finer grit, and so the next cutter will not make full contact to the edge of the stone. To achieve a polished edge, the mason will need to go back and rework spots or regions missed by mismatched profiles. [0009] For a single cutting operation, many of these devices have found utility in the industry, and rightly so. Providing a guiding edge for an abrasive saw or other cutter such as is used to cut stone and other hard materials is of much benefit for custom applications or the like as are frequently required at a building site. When a section of flooring or wall requires custom cutting and fitting, it is not always practical or reasonable to expect a stone factory to size the stone to the needs in advance. Moreover, it may not always be possible to accurately predict the dimensions owing to variability such as spacing between adjacent stone and the like. Furthermore, the thickness of adjacent stones may vary somewhat unpredictably, and the leveling of the intersection of the two stones may be a very important finishing operation. [0010] Unfortunately, many of these devices are designed for only very light duty. Where guides are used, they tend to lack the necessary resistance to abrasion from the stoneworking dust, and consequently have a limited life only suited for very light duty stone working. These machines also illustrate single tool applications. So, when a stone mason identifies the need for a tool to assist with the guiding of a stone cutting saw, he must purchase a guide for his saw. Later, when he elects to purchase a guide for another stone working tool such as a polisher or an edger, he must then purchase another piece of equipment. This single function tool holding and guiding is not highly desirable, and so many masons will perform all but the most complex or sizeable jobs by hand. As is all too well known, when work is completed by hand, there is much greater risk that the mason will err in the process, and this error is not readily remediated in stone. Consequently, the probability for unsightly imperfections or total loss of valuable stone, and the additional work required to remake a destroyed piece or repair an imperfection provides much incentive in the industry for better tools to reduce the dependence upon hand operations. Additionally, the freehand shaping and polishing is very strenuous and time consuming. [0011] In addition to the limitations aforementioned, another shortcoming of the prior art apparatus is the ability to guide and form inside openings and corners such as are typically found in the installation of a kitchen or bar sink within a stone counter top. In order to cut this type of hole with inside corners, it is most desirable to drop the saw vertically onto the stone to begin the cut in a predetermined place. Where the design of the cutting guide requires the saw to traverse from an end or edge of the stone, such a guide will have no applicability to the holes created for sinks. Moreover, adjacent to the sink the stone will frequently be rather narrow. Where this is the case, in the prior art a reinforcement bar has been inserted into a small groove cut into the stone. The reinforcement bar may then be pressed into the groove and typically adhesively secured therein. However, the cutting of the trough must also occur in the middle of the stone, and in this instance a wider than ordinary cutting blade is most desirable, in order to only require a single passage of the tool through the stone in the formation of the trough. [0012] What is desired then is a portable apparatus which enables a stone mason or worker of other hard material to purchase a single apparatus which will perform the precise guiding of diverse tools across the hard material. A need furthermore exists for an apparatus which will allow a mason at a job site to form precise inside holes, shapes and polished surfaces. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0013] In a first manifestation, the invention is the combination track, trolley, crescent, and stoneworking tool for treating a stone slab. The track has a base with a first surface in contact with the stone and a second surface upon which at least one roller may travel in a path. A ridge extends longitudinally parallel to the path with first and second normal surfaces which extend in a first direction normal to the stone slab and in a second longitudinal direction. The trolley is supported on at least one roller which rolls on the second surface and has a second roller which rolls on the ridge first normal surface and a third roller which rolls on the ridge second normal surface. A tensioning member is movable to vary a distance between the second and third rollers from a first position which holds the rollers tightly against the ridge to a second position which allows the rollers to slide normal to the stone slab. The crescent is supported upon the trolley and has first and second crescent members each forming an arc about an edge of the stone slab. Each crescent member has an inside and an outside. There is additionally a space between the two crescent members within which the stoneworking tool operates. The tool has a tool support carriage for traversing the crescent and carrying the tool therewith along the arc. [0014] In a second manifestation, the invention is a portable track and trolley for engaging a material to be worked and subsequently mounting a tool for working the material to the trolley, and then guiding the tool relative to material to be worked. A base has a first surface adjacent to a surface of the material and a second surface opposite thereto for supporting the trolley. A rail extends in a height from the material surface in a first normal direction and has opposed roller surfaces thereon defining a width, and extends longitudinally along a length. A trolley undercarriage has a first plurality of wheels maintaining a load a minimum distance normal to the material surface from the material surface that provide rolling contact between the wheels and the base. The undercarriage further has a second plurality of wheels engaging the rail on opposed roller surfaces. A tool carrier locating member locates a tool carrier relative to the trolley. A tool carrier engaging member operatively retains the tool carrier to trolley after engagement therewith. At least one removable fastener retains tool carrier to trolley. [0015] In a third manifestation, the invention is a motor carriage for supporting a stoneworking tool in either an operative position or an inoperative position which is readily moved between the operative position and inoperative position. A sliding holder retains the stoneworking tool within motor carriage. A guide is provided, along which the sliding holder travels during movement. A link is provided between sliding holder and an anchor member of the motor carriage. A release pivots about a first axis and responsive thereto moves the link relative to anchor member and thereby moves the sliding holder relative to the anchor member at a first distance change per degree of rotation. The release pivots about a second axis and consequently moves the link relative to anchor member and thereby moves the sliding holder relative to anchor member at a second distance change per degree of rotation which is less than the first distance change per degree of rotation. [0016] In a fourth manifestation, the invention is a guide for shaping, contouring and polishing an edge of a hard material through contact with a tool. First and second crescents wrap angularly about the hard material edge. A tool holder is provided between first and second crescents. A means for moving the tool holder relative to crescents follows an outline of the crescents. A means is also provided for engaging the tool with hard material. OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION [0017] Exemplary embodiments of the present invention solve inadequacies of the prior art by providing a portable trolley for carrying various tools, and a track which attaches directly to a stone and which simultaneously isolates tool from stone. A standard connection is provided which can readily accommodate a variety of diverse tools, using a keyway to ensure accurate and repeatable placement of the tools. A preferred contouring guide allows a tool to be moved through an arc, where the focal point of the arc may be set to produce an infinite variety of custom shapes. [0018] A first object of the invention is to provide a portable tool guide for stone and other hard materials. A second object of the invention is to greatly reduce the hand labor required to custom finish a hard material. Another object of the present invention is to improve the precision of cutting and polishing operations. A further object of the invention is to provide the guide in a relatively small and compact package. Yet another object of the present invention is to enable rapid tool changes. Yet a further object of the invention is to provide a precision shaper using low cost and durable disc-shaped abrasives, to accurately produce a diverse number of edge profiles. Another object of the invention is the provision of a high quality, precision tool guide which is durable and still manufactured for a low cost. An additional object of the invention is to provide an apparatus that automatically adjusts for abrasive material lost from the cutter. Another object of the invention is to provide a portable apparatus that may be manually controlled or controlled through electrical devices. Another object of the invention is to provide an apparatus that will work surfaces that may be warped or otherwise less than perfectly level. A further object of the invention is to provide a means for rapidly controlling the break line profile between stone surface and stone edge. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0019] The foregoing and other objects, advantages, and novel features of the present invention can be understood and appreciated by reference to the following detailed description of the invention, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: [0020] [0020]FIG. 1 illustrates a preferred embodiment shaping and polishing attachment designed in accord with the teachings of the present invention in combination with a preferred embodiment track and trolley, also designed in accord with the teachings of the present invention, both from a right side plan view. [0021] [0021]FIG. 2 illustrates a preferred embodiment tool carriage designed in accord with the teachings of the present invention from a top plan view. [0022] [0022]FIG. 3 illustrates the tool carriage of FIG. 2 from a partial cut-away view taken along line 3 ′ of FIG. 2. [0023] [0023]FIG. 4 illustrates the preferred embodiment trolley and crescent of FIG. 1 from top plan view with tool and tool carrier removed for purposes of illustration. [0024] [0024]FIG. 5 illustrates the underside of the preferred embodiment trolley of FIG. 1 from a plan view. [0025] [0025]FIG. 6 illustrates the preferred embodiment trolley and crescent of FIG. 1 from a cross-section view taken along line 6 ′ of FIG. 4, with tool removed for purposes of illustration FIG. 7 illustrates a preferred stop for use with the preferred embodiment crescent from a top plan view. [0026] [0026]FIG. 8 illustrates a second preferred embodiment shaping and polishing attachment designed in accord with the teachings of the present invention in combination with a preferred embodiment track and trolley, also designed in accord with the teachings of the present invention, both from a right side plan view, showing a cut-away illustrating several features of this embodiment. [0027] [0027]FIGS. 9 and 10 illustrate a preferred adjustable stop for use with the preferred embodiment crescent from opposed side plan views. [0028] [0028]FIG. 11 illustrates the preferred adjustable stop of FIG. 9 from a side cross-section view. [0029] [0029]FIG. 12 illustrates the second preferred embodiment shaping and polishing attachment of FIG. 1 from a top plan view with the tool removed from the crescents and with jack screws removed, to better illustrate the placement of the height adjustment chain. [0030] [0030]FIGS. 13 and 14 illustrate preferred jack screws for use with the second preferred embodiment shaping and polishing attachment from a side plan view. [0031] [0031]FIGS. 15 and 16 illustrate a preferred track stiffener from end and side plan views, respectively. [0032] [0032]FIG. 17 illustrates a second alternative track stiffener from a side plan view. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0033] Manifested in the preferred embodiments illustrated herein, the present invention provides alternative apparatus for working, shaping, and polishing stone and other hard materials. In the first preferred embodiment portable apparatus 100 for working, shaping and polishing stone and other hard materials, illustrated in FIGS. 1-7, a stone slab 10 has mounted adjacent thereto a track 200 . Track 200 will most preferably be clamped directly to stone slab 10 using c-clamps and the like, as is known in the industry, though other methods of anchoring are contemplated herein, including such methods as releasable adhesives, other non-permanent methods of attachment, and even permanent methods where the entire stone is not needed for a project. A significant advantage of the preferred embodiment is the reduced need for clamping along the track. Since stone slab 10 may be typically in the vicinity of twelve feet long, fewer clamps translate into more rapid processing and a more readily used apparatus. Track 200 , which is visible from end view in FIG. 1, includes two base sections 202 , 204 . While in the embodiment of FIG. 1 these are physically separated sections, those skilled in the art will recognize certain benefits with using a base which is either continuous or which has a webbing or only partial cut-outs between the base sections 202 , 204 . Among these is an easy access point for a c-clamp that is sure to avoid harms way during machine operation, and added strength. [0034] Adjoining base sections 202 , 204 is rail 215 , which in the preferred embodiment includes horizontal members 216 , 218 and vertical tracks 212 , 214 . While reference is made here to horizontal and vertical, those skilled in the art will understand that these only typical orientations, and not limited to such orientations. More particularly, rail 215 extends generally normal to a major surface of stone slab 10 . [0035] Onto track 200 a trolley 300 is placed and clamped, as will be described herein below. This combination of track 200 and trolley 300 provides a vehicle for low-resistance movement of a tool support carriage 500 in a guided manner parallel to the longitudinal extension of rail 215 . While in the preferred embodiment rail 215 longitudinally extends along a linear axis, the use of a linear rail 215 is not critical to the invention and other shapes including curves may be provided for. [0036] Trolley 300 acts as a support for a tool carrier 400 which is secured thereto. Tool carrier 400 as presently illustrated comprises a pair of crescents 470 , 480 which are most preferred for the flat abrasive discs used in the preferred embodiment 100 . However, those skilled in the field will recognize that the preferred embodiment trolley 300 is compatible with other structures which are known to mate with circular saws carrying diamond or other abrasive wheels, routers, and other stoneworking tools. Between crescents 470 , 480 is mounted tool support carriage 500 . [0037] As illustrated in FIG. 1, crescents 470 , 480 combine to form a central axis of rotation 12 . Axis 12 will extend parallel to rail 215 and will be centered at the focal point of crescents 470 , 480 . However, once again those skilled in the field will recognize that it is not essential to form crescents 470 , 480 into a circular geometry as illustrated, though this geometry is typically the most versatile. Other shapes can be patterned which will change the profile produced from the movement of tool support carriage 500 about crescents 470 , 480 . [0038] As is also illustrated in FIG. 1, the movement of tool support carriage 500 about crescents 470 , 480 is controlled by a cable 490 which extends around knob 491 , around bearing pulleys 492 - 494 , and through groove 486 in crescent 480 . Bearing pulley 494 serves as a tensioning member through the rotation of bolt 496 within a hole threaded into plate 495 which supports pulley 494 . The threading of bolt 496 out of plate 495 acts to drive plate 495 away therefrom, since bolt 496 is prevented from moving by crescent 480 . Since, in the preferred embodiment, cable 490 passes just below the surface of crescent 480 , in a groove cut therein, a plate 497 provides a groove and service access to plate 495 . As is apparent, rotation of knob 491 will cause cable 490 , which is anchored to tool support carriage 500 at pin 537 , to move. This movement will ordinarily be stepwise. In other words, an operator will advance cable 490 by a slight rotation of knob 491 , and then run trolley 300 the full length of track 200 . If necessary, trolley 300 may be passed over track 200 one or more additional times to complete the intended operation. Then the operator will advance knob 491 , and repeat the longitudinal displacement of trolley 300 along track 200 . When the full desired arc of crescents 470 , 480 has been traversed by tool support carriage 500 , a new abrasive disc 510 , typically of finer grit, will be installed and the process repeated. [0039] In one alternative embodiment contemplated herein, the positioning of tool support carriage 500 about crescents 470 , 480 may be accomplished by a drive roller on the surface of one of crescents 470 , 480 . The drive roller may then be driven by a knob that shares the same axle shaft. The knob then travels on the motor carriage in the arc of the crescent. Unfortunately, this approach is somewhat less operator friendly, because when the motor carriage is in the 6 o'clock position, the operator's hand is below the table. The operator's hand will have to be placed in a different location along the arc of the crescent as the tool is moved about the crescent, so the operator will always have to look to place their hand on the knob. In the preferred embodiment, cable 490 permits knob 491 to be placed in a permanent location on crescent 480 . Consequently, the operator will readily locate knob 491 . [0040] A second alternative embodiment contemplated herein is to substitute a chain for cable 490 , also configured in an endless loop. To avoid slippage with respect to cable 490 , the tension on cable 490 must be maintained to create friction on bearing pulleys 492 - 494 or other suitable friction generating device. Additional tension may create undesirable wear in the groove on crescent 480 where the cable travels and on all associated bearings. This second alternative embodiment chain will not slip with respect to a sprocket, and so will generally require less tension. In some instances a chain may also be simpler to repair than a cable. [0041] The use of cable 490 , or alternative chain, additionally permits a positioning motor to be substituted for knob 491 and be supported on crescent 480 . This motor might in one contemplated embodiment be placed adjacent counterweight 404 on crescent 480 , which would lessen the weight needed for counterweight 404 , and thereby maintain the weight of portable apparatus 100 unaltered. [0042] In the prior art, exemplified by Toniolo in U.S. Pat. No. 6,315,799, the motor carriage is positioned by a means of a positioning motor, rack and pinion. The positioning motor shaft turns a pinion gear or sprocket, which engages a rack or chain that is shaped to match the arc of the crescent. Consequently, the positioning motor must be carried on the motor carriage, and therefore adds more weight to the motor carriage, in turn requiring the crescent to be stronger and heavier and the positioning motor to move additional mass. With this additional weight, the counterweight will also need to be heavier, in turn making the whole apparatus weigh substantially more. Such configuration substantially detracts from the portability desired and achieved in the present invention. [0043] Yet another alternative embodiment contemplated herein is the use of an ended loop where the cable ends are captured by a winch pulley or the like, or arranging the cable to be woven into the pulley and fastened to prevent slippage. The limitation of this approach is the requirement for sufficient space and clearance to wind enough cable within the winch pulley to enable full travel of tool support carriage 500 about crescents 470 , 480 . While such approach will avoid slippage, and consequently permit tension to approximate the aforementioned chain alternative, the direct driving of tool support carriage 500 about crescents 470 , 480 may also be forfeited. As outlined by the present disclosure, flexible link cable, wire, beaded wire, cleated belt, chain and other similar devices are contemplated as substitutes for cable 490 . [0044] A preferred embodiment stop 700 is illustrated in FIG. 7 which provides one preferred method of controlling the limits of movement of tool support carriage 500 about crescents 470 , 480 . A threaded bolt 715 may include a flattened head 710 that engages within a T-slot or the like within one or both of crescents 470 , 480 , though in the preferred embodiment the T-slot is cut into crescent 470 to avoid interference with cable 490 discussed herein below. Hook stop 730 is configured to have an inside diamond-shaped cut-out 735 which corresponds to the outer geometry of crescent 470 , and which can be held tightly there against. Wing nut 720 is provided to thread upon bolt 715 and is used to tighten against hook stop 730 , thereby pulling flattened head 710 tightly against the T-slot of crescent 470 . When the crescent 470 material is pinched between flattened head 710 and hook stop 730 , cut-out 735 will be very resistant to movement along the outer periphery of crescent 470 , and will therefore stop rotation of tool support carriage 500 beyond stop 700 . [0045] As tool support carriage 500 traverses crescents 470 , 480 , cabling and tubing which may supply such things as tool power (i.e.—pneumatic hydraulic or electrical sources or other equivalents), cooling fluid, and the like will need to be supported and kept out of harms way. Hinged arm 580 serves this purpose, by doubling cabling up when tool support carriage 500 is in an upper position such as illustrated in FIG. 1, and extending to a straight line when tool support carriage 500 moves down crescents 470 , 480 . [0046] In order to locate the central axis of rotation 12 at a desired elevation, knob 415 on handle 410 has been provided. Handle 410 is rotated, which in turn rotates jack screw 414 visible in FIG. 6. This jack screw turns against threads in crescent base 412 to elevate crescent base 412 with respect to tool carrier base 422 . In order for crescent base 412 to move, knobs 430 and 440 must not be tightly engaged with bolts 433 , 443 , so that these bolts may slide within slots 434 , 444 . Since jack screw 414 is only driving crescent base 412 from a single location, and could consequently tilt crescents 470 , 480 that are attached to crescent base 412 undesirably, two linear shafts 450 , 460 are provided on which linear bearings 453 , 454 and 463 , 464 slide, respectively. Linear shaft 450 terminates on top at end 451 and on a lower end 452 , while linear shaft 460 terminates at top end 461 and lower end 462 . [0047] While there are a multitude of indexing techniques available in the industry, and the present invention is not limited to a single technique, in the preferred embodiment tool carrier 400 and trolley 300 , two transverse keys 371 and 372 are provided which provide alignment. Additionally, two vertically oriented anchor bolts 360 , 362 , which are visible in FIG. 5, engage with knobs 420 , 425 respectively to securely anchor tool carrier 400 to trolley 300 . More or fewer bolts, knobs and keys may be provided, depending upon the complexity tolerable for an application and the precision required. Through the use of the present attachment scheme and positional locating, different tool carriers other than tool carrier 400 may be placed onto trolley 300 without the need to relocate track 200 . This can allow an operator to first cut stone slab 10 using a circular saw, and then polish using the tool support carriage 500 of the preferred embodiment while leaving track 200 anchored to stone slab 10 . [0048] As is evident in FIG. 1, tool support carriage 500 and crescents 470 , 480 extend to the left of the leftmost wheel 311 , and so may tend to induce tilting of tool carrier 400 relative to stone 10 . This effect may be offset by the force of abrasive disc 510 against stone slab 10 when disc 510 is pressing from above stone slab 10 . Unfortunately, when an operation occurs from the underside of stone slab 10 , the force on abrasive disc 510 adds to the load which could tilt tool carrier 400 . This tilting effect can be mitigated or eliminated through careful selection of weights 404 retained by outer rail 402 . These weights can be set prior to any work, or may be varied during the shaping and polishing, for example to more precisely balance the machine from a top-edge operation to a subsequent bottom edge operation. [0049] [0049]FIGS. 2 and 3 illustrate tool support carriage 500 in much greater detail. As aforementioned, tool support carriage 500 rides upon crescents 470 , 480 through wheels 502 , 504 and 506 . Wheels 502 - 506 are most preferably manufactured from a hard material such as stainless steel or brass, since this prevents the formation of flat spots when wheels 502 - 506 are not being used, particular for long periods of time. During extended periods of non-use, tool support carriage 500 may be stored in the fully clockwise rotation as viewed in FIG. 1. This is not a normal polishing or shaping position, and if any flat spots develop in crescents 470 , 480 , they will not be disruptive to the next shaping or polishing operation. [0050] In order to obtain the most preferred friction between crescents 470 , 480 and these hard wheels 502 - 506 , v-shaped sloped surfaces 472 , 474 and 482 , 484 will most preferably be manufactured from a resilient material such as natural rubber or carbon filled rubber. In addition to other benefit, a soft rail is not easily damaged during shipping. However, the use of many different materials is contemplated herein, so long as there is sufficient friction between wheels 502 - 506 and crescents 470 , 480 to keep tool support carriage 500 firmly anchored thereto. In the preferred embodiment, crescents 470 , 480 are manufactured from polymers, owing to good strength to weight ratio and intrinsic moisture and abrasion resistance available with appropriate compounds. [0051] In one contemplated alternative, wheels 502 - 506 may be designed to be flanged rather than v-shaped, to ride on the inner radius of the crescent. If stone debris lands on the 6 o'clock position on the crescent, the flanged roller may more readily push the debris aside and maintain the desired arc-shaped path. [0052] As is visible in FIG. 3, lower wheel 506 , which engages an inner circumference of crescent 480 , is supported upon tenon 535 which is inserted into motor carriage 530 . For purposes of discussion, motor carriage 530 will be discussed along with associated components. From FIG. 2, however, it will be apparent that motor carriage 540 includes like components and will have like features and characteristics. Screw 561 is used to adjust tenon 535 vertically, which enables a tightening and loosening of wheels 502 , 504 , 506 about crescent 480 . In this way, wear, tolerances and the like can be compensated for, and materials having different resilience and friction characteristics can readily be accommodated. In one alternative embodiment contemplated herein, screw 561 may be drilled and inserted from the bottom up, rather than from the top down as illustrated herein. [0053] Motor bracket 560 is designed to be adjustable vertically within motor carriage 530 . This movement is achieved through a threaded block 590 and threaded rod 550 . Motor carriage 530 is formed with several vertically extending v-grooves 531 , 534 which mate with smaller wheels 532 , 533 . These wheels are held tightly into the grooves by adjustment of screw 559 , which slides wheels 532 , 556 together along rectangular cut-outs 557 , 558 . In other words, screw 559 can be tightened to pull wheels 557 , 558 farther from wheels 533 , 555 tightly into motor carriage 530 grooves 531 , 534 . When knob 525 is turned about handle 520 , threaded rod 550 acts as a jack screw, raising or lowering motor bracket 560 within motor carriage 530 . This adjustment is a very gradual adjustment, with only a small change in elevation for a large angular rotation of handle 520 . Once abrasive disc 510 contacts stone slab 10 , further rotation of handle 520 will not move stone slab 10 . Instead, any movement will come through compression of spring 552 and a raising of handle 520 away from abrasive disc 510 . This effects a greater compression of spring 552 , which in turn translates into a greater contact force between abrasive disc 510 and stone slab 10 . Consequently, once abrasive disc 10 is located relative to stone slab 10 , the force applied therebetween may be controlled. [0054] An additional feature is provided by making handle 520 rotate not just about the axis of rod 550 , but also swing about an axis transverse thereto. Movement of handle 520 from the position shown in FIG. 3 to a position co-axial with threaded rod 550 will cause substantial vertical movement of rod 550 and consequently motor bracket 560 . This feature enables an operator to readily remove abrasive disc 510 from stone slab 10 by the simple act of pivoting handle 520 over center about the camming region 522 . Returning handle 520 to the position shown in FIG. 3 will restore abrasive 510 to contact with stone slab 10 , or whatever position abrasive 510 was in, prior to handle 520 being raised coaxial with threaded rod 550 . This is an important benefit, since an abrasive disc 510 may be changed without losing the depth setting that was in effect at that moment. Shaping or polishing may continue without any recalibration. [0055] A washer 523 may be provided to act as a bearing and wear surface for the rotation and camming of handle 520 . In addition, as visible in FIG. 3, handle 520 will have a slightly raised or thinned portion 524 which provides adequate clearance between bolt head 528 and the top of motor carriage 530 . Bolt 527 simply attaches knob 525 to handle 520 . [0056] Additional force will typically be applied through spring 552 , which extends between washer 553 and washer 554 . For exemplary purposes only, and in no way intending to be limiting to the invention, for differing abrasives it may be desirable to preload the abrasive disc 510 with different forces, which may be measured in the tens of pounds of force. Spring 552 may be preloaded as described herein above to a desired contact force, and consequently serve to control or moderate the forces applied to abrasive disc 510 . [0057] Washer 554 is most preferably anchored to rod 550 , and may alternatively be a nut which is threaded onto threaded rod 550 . When handle 520 is cammed, spring 552 will be compressed, tending to pull handle 520 snug against washer 523 . In ordinary operation where spring 552 has not been completely compressed for purposes of preloading, spring 552 acts as a sort of force limiter as well, allowing spring 552 to be compressed if an excessive force is applied against abrasive disc 510 . [0058] A fixed depth abrasive process combined with the ability to preload forces onto abrasive disc 510 is a novel combination which offers much utility in the smaller equipment market place. Prior to the present invention, the selection was either a fixed depth with no force loading, or a pneumatic system with a particular force but without fixed depth control. Inconsistent materials which vary in hardness or abrasiveness are extremely difficult to handle with either of the prior art systems, where the present invention is able to accommodate material variations. [0059] Most preferably, a commercial, off-the-shelftool rotary tool 570 is used within motor bracket 560 . In the preferred embodiment, tool 570 is sold drilled and tapped by the manufacturer, and bolt 536 serves as the anchor into the commercially provided hole. In addition, and contemplated as but one part of many alternative fastening schemes, adjustable strap 574 is used to also anchor tool 570 to motor bracket 560 . [0060] Cooling fluid, typically water, may be provided to abrasive disc 510 and stone slab 10 through spray nozzles 512 and 513 circumferentially, in which case a water inlet 538 with threaded nipple 514 is attached to a water source. Most preferably, water is provided through a center outlet into the middle of abrasive disc 510 , owing to the difficulty of forcing water to move against the centrifugal forces applied by spinning abrasive disc 510 . In association with the formation of a water slurry, it may be desirable to put a seal or rod wiper 576 about rotating shaft 509 as shown in FIG. 3 to block the slurry from traveling into machine components. It is noteworthy that tool support carriage 500 may be operated in an upside down position, which, without seal 576 , would allow the slurry to run down into any openings within tool carriage 500 to tool 570 and other vital components. Base 507 provides some enclosure for fluid that might climb rotary shaft 509 , but a flexible skirt may also be provided around abrasive disc 510 to help reduce or prevent slurry from being sprayed off of abrasive disc 510 . A small weep hole, not illustrated, may be provided in base 507 to permit any slurry or cooling liquids to pass out of base 507 . This will be particularly beneficial when tool carriage 500 is intended for operation under stone slab 10 . [0061] [0061]FIG. 5 illustrates trolley 300 from an underneath view looking upwards. Rail 215 will pass between and most preferably be slightly pinched by wheels 320 , 322 , 324 , 326 and 328 . This pinching is effected by rotation of handle 340 , having hand grip 341 , about pivot 343 . The rotation results in a variation in distance between pivot 343 and handle cut-out 332 . In turn pivot 343 either pulls on rod 344 or releases tension therefrom. This in turn pulls on or releases tension from undercarriage 350 , causing undercarriage 350 to move responsive to the position of hand grip 341 . The motion in undercarriage 350 which results is a result of pivot 343 being off center of head 342 . To allow rod 344 to pass through a hole of approximately the same diameter, only very slightly larger, a cut-out 332 in handle 330 is provided which allows for the eccentric motion of head 342 . In the position shown in FIG. 5, undercarriage 350 will be drawn through bolt head 345 towards handle 340 . This pulling will additionally work to compress spring 346 within trolley 300 . At the other end of undercarriage 350 distal to bolt head 345 , bolt head 347 may optionally be turned to similarly compress spring 349 by threading bolt 348 into threaded pin 352 . [0062] Vertical wheels 314 - 317 are positioned very closely to rail 215 . In the preferred embodiment the placement of wheels immediately adjacent rail 215 is deemed to be important to enable less movement in the event of a serious overload or other unexpected condition. In effect, if any serious overload were to occur, these vertically oriented wheels would be expected to engage with rail 215 , thus preventing any serious destruction from occurring. Wheels 310 - 313 are purposefully placed adjacent the tool, in this case tool support carriage 500 , to reduce the lever effect or moment that is generated when a weight is a large distance from a pivot point. Wheel 318 , which is opposite wheels 310 - 313 , provides a similar balance for oppositely acting forces, such as the application of too much force onto a tool head or the like, which tends to lift closer wheels and put the force on wheel 318 . A weight 404 may be used, as aforementioned, to help balance excessive weights such as an overly heavy tool support carriage 500 . [0063] Handles 330 , 335 are illustrated for trolley 300 , which allows trolley 300 to be moved manually along track 200 . This motion may be effected equally as well via a cable puller or the like, or any machines or mechanisms which obtain the desired goal of transporting trolley 300 longitudinally along track 200 . Other mechanisms may be similarly automated where desired, such as, for exemplary purposes only and not to be construed as limiting in any way, a small motor such as a positioning motor may be provided to control cable 490 . [0064] [0064]FIG. 8 illustrates a second preferred embodiment portable apparatus 102 . While numbering has been preserved where like components are illustrated, it will be understood herein that these components may take on not only the form illustrated in the figure but also any of the alternative embodiments mentioned herein or known in the field. In this embodiment, tool carrier 400 has been replaced by tool carrier 600 . While both tool carriers perform the same function of raising and lowering the crescent pair 470 , 480 , slightly different apparatus are used in tool carrier 600 . More particularly, linear shafts 450 , 460 have been replaced with rectangular bar stock 620 . It will be understood that while only one bar stock 620 is shown, two such components are incorporated in the preferred embodiment, and these are arranged similarly to linear shafts 450 , 460 as shown, for example, in FIG. 6. Nevertheless, the exact number of rectangular bar stock members used is not critical to the operation of the invention, two being preferred to balance each crescent 470 , 480 while not incorporating excessive cost and component count by adding more than two. Said another way, two have been determined to be adequate, though more or less may be used as desired by a designer without altering the form and operation of the present invention. It will also be recognized herein that bar stock 620 may, in fact, comprise other geometries than the simple rectangular parallelepiped illustrated herein, and instead must function as required and obtainable with bar stock. Linear bearings 453 , 454 and 463 , 464 have been replaced by pairs of roller wheels 622 , 624 which are mounted to and support crescents 470 , 480 against gravity. Roller wheels 622 , 624 may be less prone to binding, in the event particles or grit should become lodged against bar stock 620 . The wheel pair will simply pivot slightly and pass over the obstruction. Nevertheless, to reduce the likelihood of such pivoting, various techniques which are contemplated herein may be additionally provided, including but not limited to: the provision of special geometries to control the mating geometry between wheels 622 , 624 and bar stock 620 ; the use of a cleaning device such as a blade, scraper, wiper or the like leading the movement of each wheel; and/or enclosing bar stock 620 and wheels 622 , 624 in a dust shield. A second change to tool carrier 600 is in the mechanism used to raise and lower crescents 470 , 480 . In tool carrier 400 , this is achieved using a single jack screw 414 . In tool carrier 600 , a pair of jack screws 610 are used, one located adjacent each of crescents 470 , 480 . To synchronize the movement of these jack screws 610 , a chain 613 illustrated in FIG. 12 couples the two screws together. The use of two jack screws 610 ensures both crescents 470 , 480 move up and down together. [0065] Three additional changes to tool carrier 600 which are visible in FIG. 8 include the use of a cable and hose support hook 640 , which may of course take on shape or dimension other than shown in FIG. 8, the use of adjustable limit stop 700 , described herein below with regard to FIGS. 9-11, and also the inclusion of an electrical power switch box 630 adjacent to the top of jack screws 610 . Adjustable limit stop 700 is designed to mount immediately adjacent to crescent 470 and face crescent 480 . Most preferably, a number of discrete faces are provided therein which are designed to be selectively positioned to abut tool support carriage housing 501 when tool support carriage 500 is moved to a fully clockwise travel position as shown in FIG. 8. [0066] [0066]FIGS. 9-11 illustrate adjustable limit stop 700 in much greater detail. This stop 700 will control how defined the break or transition line will appear in the profile. The transition line is where the factory polished top surface ends and the profiled edge begins. As can be seen in FIG. 9, a plurality of faces 701 - 706 are preferably provided which tend to progressively increase in distance from pivot shaft 707 . In the preferred embodiment, each face corresponds to a particular angular offset. As shown in FIG. 9, these are 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 degree offsets for faces 701 - 706 , respectively. As may be understood, the transition line is part of the edge profile. The customer who wants the finished stone product is going to choose the type of transition line they want. This line can be very defined, as in a 45 degree bevel or a pencil edge like you would see on glass. The line can also be blended or lost in that it has no defining location like in a bullnose or on quarter-rounds. A zero degree offset will blend the edge of stone 10 formed about axis 12 with the top planar surface, leaving no visible line therebetween. However, for many applications a more distinct line between factory top polish and edge profile is preferred. This visible line is controlled by the minimum angular offset from parallel with the factory top that is permitted, which in turn is controlled by adjustable limit stop 700 through the selection of which face 701 - 706 abuts with tool support carriage housing 501 . [0067] On the back side of adjustable limit stop 700 are provided set holes 711 - 716 , visible in FIG. 10. As may be best seen from FIG. 11, these holes 711 - 716 are designed to engage with index pin 720 to determine which face 701 - 706 will abut with tool support carriage housing 501 . The operator will select a face by pressing knob 726 towards crescent 470 sufficiently to fully remove index pin 720 from hole 711 . Next, knob 726 will be turned, until a selected hole 711 - 716 aligns with index pin 720 . Knob 726 may then be released, locking adjustable limit stop 700 to a desired angular orientation. Adjustable limit stop 700 is retained onto pivot shaft 707 using a recessed nut 708 on a first side, and a jam nut 722 opposed thereto. A return spring 724 is preferably provided to ensure index pin 720 fully engages with the selected hole 711 - 716 . [0068] While the preferred embodiment adjustable limit stop 700 illustrates six discrete faces, it will be apparent that other numbers of faces and arrangements may also be provided. For exemplary purposes, but certainly not limited thereto, more or fewer faces may be provided, the offsets may change in other ways rather than gradually increasing as shown, or a continuous spiral may be provided. Nevertheless, for ease of use and rapid alignment, the present index pin arrangement is most preferred. The limited number of choices allow for repeatability in set up. An operator may create the same profiles several days apart if he follows the same stop settings. [0069] [0069]FIG. 12 illustrates the placement of chain 613 relative to crescents 470 , 480 , and, as is apparent therein, chain 613 is configured to traverse an endless loop adjacent to each crescent. The relative placement is illustrated schematically in FIG. 12 with an outline designating chain cover 607 and tool carrier cover 605 . Cable guide 580 , which facilitates the safe guiding of water and power cables to tool support carriage 500 , is also illustrated, as is a convenient location for a water control valve 645 . While water control valve 645 maybe located at any convenient place, placement adjacent chain cover 607 permits ready access to the valve at any time during operations. Similarly, and as visible in FIG. 8, electrical power switch 630 may also be located adjacent thereto. Electrical power switch 630 may be a magnetic safety switch or the like to ensure that power is not applied simply by plugging in portable apparatus 102 , but instead must include an operator switch actuation. [0070] [0070]FIGS. 13 and 14 illustrate the two preferred jack screws 610 that are driven by endless chain 613 to adjust the height of crescents 470 , 480 relative to stone 10 . Just beneath chain cover 607 in both figures is a chain sprocket 614 used in association with chain 613 to turn jack screws 610 . Bearings 612 are provided which permit the free rotation of jack screws 610 relative to cover 605 . FIG. 14 additionally illustrates a hand crank 618 coupled to jack screw extension 616 . Hand crank 618 is used to drive chain 613 and thereby effect rotation of jack screws 610 , to in turn adjust the height of the crescents as aforementioned. [0071] While a hand knob 618 is illustrated, it will be understood that a motor or other source of drive may be provided for chain 613 . Similarly, other drives may be provided for each of the components, including but not limited to the movement of trolley 300 with respect to tracks 200 , 201 , the movement of tool support carriage 500 relative to crescents 470 , 480 , and so forth. One benefit of the preferred portable apparatus 100 , 102 is the opportunity to control operations either manually or with motors. [0072] A preferred feature of either track 200 or track 201 is that the track be sufficiently flexible to follow the surface of a stone and still be rigid enough to handle deflection forces generated by machining the stone. By following the stone, even when slightly warped, portable apparatus 100 , 102 will be bearing on the stone and preferably remain parallel to the adjacent stone surface. When tracks 200 , 201 are so designed, the stone or other work piece may be supported easily upon a table, saw horses or the like, without requiring the massive prior art steel beams and tables. For ease of transport by a craftsperson, sawhorses are generally preferred. As is known in the industry, some stones will flex or bend slightly when spanning saw horses. This is especially true for the new synthetic granite that uses a resin product as a binder, or for thinner or longer work pieces. The contour surface of the stone will need to be followed to create a profiled edge that is both uniform and also parallel to the surface of the stone. As trolley 300 is moved along either track 200 or track 201 to a point beyond the end of the stone, the track will be cantilevered beyond the stone to support the machine. The track has to support trolley 300 securely, so that abrasive disc 510 doesn't snipe or bite deeper in the corner of the workpiece. In other words, tracks 200 , 201 will preferably be flexible in the center and then rigid on the extreme ends adjacent the stone ends, to support the weight of trolley 300 . Since work pieces often differ in length, the track will most preferably have a way to adjust rigidity to the length of the workpiece. [0073] To address this need for both flexibility and rigidity, a first embodiment stiffener 800 is illustrated in FIG. 15. As may be seen therein, track 201 has a profile with two t-slots 203 , 205 that run parallel to its length. The front slot 205 that is closest to crescents 470 , 480 is underneath the trolley 300 center of balance. In this front slot 205 the operator will slide stiffener 800 , to hold track 201 to stone or other work piece 10 . After clamp 802 is secured, by placing bolts 804 and tightening screw 806 in the preferred embodiment, there is a bracket-like member 808 that pivots about hinge 807 relative to tightening screw 806 . By rotating thumbscrew 809 , bracket 808 will push away from clamp 802 , thereby creating additional support for the end of track 201 . Most preferably, thumbscrew 809 will be rotated sufficiently to make the ends of track 201 beyond work piece 10 rigid enough to support the weight of trolley 300 , while track 201 remains relatively more flexible in the vertical plane normal to the work piece elsewhere, to conform to the work piece surface. [0074] Another apparatus used to support a stone work piece 10 , instead of a pair of sawhorses, might be a table. Using a table, stone 10 would be placed on the table so that the stone's edge is hanging out away from the table's edge. The operator now can choose between the two t-slots 203 , 205 for clamping track 201 to stone 10 . The front t-slot 205 could be used as in the saw horse approach already described herein above. However, back t-slot 203 may also or alternatively be used. Back t-slot 203 has a greater cavity height under the ridge, so that a standard F-clamp jaw can fit in this cavity. This F-clamp style comes in many lengths, which allows an operator more flexibility in set-up. With these larger clamp openings, the operator can clamp track 201 to the table. The operator will still need to shore up the extensions adjacent the ends of stone 10 so that abrasive disc 510 won't snipe the ends. This can be accomplished with stone remnants or some type of device like pop-ups or wedges that can fill this space between the track and table at the ends of the stone. [0075] In yet another contemplated embodiment, a dedicated table may be provided. With a dedicated table, track 201 may be provided with more structure in the vertical plane, because the table will control the bending of the stone. A mechanism could then be provided in the table to lift the track from the ends. The stone would be slipped in between the table and track. The track would be lowered to make contact to stone and could utilize the structure of the stone for its bearing and remain parallel to the stone's surface. This whole apparatus would be quite simpler and more durable to manufacture compared to the heavy machines of the prior art. [0076] In the prior art, a carrier that travels in a direction that is parallel to the edge of the workpiece holds the tool adjacent the edge of the workpiece. This carrier travels on a rail that can be on a bridge above the table or a rail that is below the table. Either method requires that the table and rail be perfectly parallel. If not, when doing a small profile like a ⅛″radius round-over, the profile will noticeably change down the length of the edge. This has become an issue on these large expensive machines, because many work pieces do not fill the machine to capacity. Consequently, the operator tends to work most of the time near the center of the machine. This creates a wear area on the rails in the center of the machine, and the machine can no longer stay within tolerances. Replacement is a significant challenge and expense, not only due to the cost of the large components, but also owing to the need for precise alignment therebetween. When the tracks 200 , 201 of the preferred embodiments of the present invention show significant wear, the operator may easily replace the track with no new assembly or machining, and alignment is automatic. [0077] A second embodiment stiffener 810 is shown in FIG. 17. As illustrated therein, a specially shaped body member 818 is slid into either groove 203 , 205 or both, and screw 806 tightened. The force of screw 806 , owing to the intrinsic geometry of member 818 , will cause member 818 to apply an upward deflection force to track 201 . [0078] As illustrated and described herein above with reference to the preferred embodiments, the present invention provides a means to shape and polish a perfect edge. The preferred embodiment is, lightweight enough for one person to carry, can be used in the field, and utilizes inexpensive abrasives. The method of shaping and polishing is safer than in the prior art, since the operator's hands are farther away from the cutter. The operator's hands are also available to control the various hoses, cords and valves. Since the weight of the apparatus is bearing on the stone slab, the physical nature of manual shaping and polishing has been made less strenuous. [0079] While the foregoing details what is felt to be the preferred embodiment of the invention, no material limitations to the scope of the claimed invention are intended. Further, features and design alternatives that would be obvious to one of ordinary skill in the art are considered to be incorporated herein. Among such alternatives are the materials to which the preferred embodiments are applied. While stone has been listed as the primary material herein, those skilled in the art will understand that the principles of the invention illustrated herein may be applied similarly to other hard materials, including but not limited to brick, tile, glass, synthetic stones, metals, composites and even some plastics. Various types of tools, including different power sources, is within the scope off the present invention. The scope of the invention is set forth and particularly described in the claims herein below.

A wheeled trolley carries various tools across an object to be worked. A track attaches directly to the work and simultaneously isolates the tool from the work. A standard connection to the trolley readily accommodates a variety of diverse tools, using a keyway or the like to ensure accurate and repeatable placement of the tools. A preferred contouring guide allows a tool to be moved through an arc, where the focal point of the arc may be set to produce an infinite variety of custom shapes, bevels or angles of cut. An upper stop is provided which readily sets the break line between surface finish and edge contour. An adjustable tool carriage allows control over both position and force, including preloading a work tool with force. Resilience is incorporated into the apparatus to accommodate diverse hardness and abrasion characteristics, and, in at least one embodiment, to enable the track to accurately follow a warped or sagging work piece.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a broadcasting method and a broadcast system for broadcasting a signal from a broadcasting station etc. for reception and viewing at the home etc., more particularly relates to a data transmission method and a data transmission system enabling the receiving end to combine the received signal with a signal from a game equipment or another signal processor, an information processing method and an information processing system for processing information in a desired manner using such a setup, a data transmitter used for such a system, a signal processor serving as home end terminal apparatus of such a system, and a content data processing method and a data serving method applied to such a system. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, a television game systems have rapidly become popular. Their performance has also become very high. For example, there are now even television game systems provided with 64-bit or 128-bit high speed processors as the signal processors, provided with DVD drives as the storage systems, and provided with a special processors for high speed graphics. Such high performance game systems enable more realistic video and audio output and more complicated signal processing and therefore enable more interesting and fun games. Further, advances in communication technologies have made possible diverse types of broadcasting systems. In Japan, for example, in addition to the usual ground wave broadcasts, there are now several satellite broadcast systems and cable television systems. Further, satellite digital broadcasts and ground wave digital broadcasts will soon be offered. These new systems not only make possible improved quality of video and audio signals, but also the broadcasting of various information in addition to the main audio and video signals. Further, two-way systems enabling individual homes to communicate with the broadcasting station in response to the broadcasted programs etc. are being realized. Summarizing the disadvantages to be solved by the invention, even in such recent television game systems and television broadcasting systems, there are several disadvantages which have to be resolved in order to enable more effective and more convenient use. Further improvement is therefore desired. First, usual television games are played by running software off of different media. Various situations and scenes are successively generated. Even in complicated games, however, there is a limit to the situations, scenes, etc. Once the player experiences the series of situations and scenes and watches the video etc., he or she then ends up rapidly losing interest, that is, becomes bored. This characteristic of television games is the same no matter how high the performance the television game system becomes. This is one of the main disadvantages with television game systems. Further, software for television games takes a long time to develop. Therefore, it is difficult to incorporate the latest news, fashions, etc. such as obtained from television broadcasts. Namely, it is very difficult to provide timely contents closely related to the real world. Further, some television game software become very popular and sell millions of copies. Also, some purchasers play them over the television monitor for relatively long hours. Accordingly, this makes them very attractive as advertisement media. Up until now, however, there have been few examples of effective usage as advertisement media. The reason for this seems to be that, as mentioned above, television game software is not updated daily or weekly like the programs of television broadcasts, newspapers, or magazines, but takes a long time to develop making it difficult to place timely advertisements in it. Further, game software tends strongly to be considered as an integral work of art. The creators of these games are therefore said to be averse to the placement of advertisements in their game software. On the other hand, programs of television broadcasts lack the interactivity and unpredictability taken for granted in television games, so lacks interestingness. The same can be said for the advertisements as well. Each viewer is simply shown the same advertisement every time. Namely, there are no commercials enabling the viewer to select information of interest from among several options or unpredictably changing the information given every time. Further, present television broadcasts do not enable interested viewers to obtain more detailed information or to actually order product catalogs or the products themselves. Further, the same television monitor is used for both watching television broadcasts and playing television games. Up until now, however, this has been done by switching the mode of the television monitor. In other words, the television broadcasts and the television games have formed completely separate systems. There has never been a system which combines these to provide some sort of service or new sound or picture. As a system resembling this, there is the television broadcasting system disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Publication (Kokai) No. 11-27649. In this system, the viewer operates the game system or the like to create content for a program and transmits the same to the broadcasting station. The broadcasting station then creates a program for actual broadcasting based on the transmitted content and broadcasts it. This enables the creation of new types of programs such as viewer participation programs and programs showing games being played with the participation of a plurality of viewers. In this system, however, the content viewed by the viewer is in the final analysis created by the broadcasting station. The system is therefore no different from conventional broadcasting systems. Namely, it is not a system that combines content obtained by television broadcasting and content obtained from television game systems in some form for use at the home. Further, this system cannot be realized without an uplink line to the broadcasting station. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to provide a data transmission method and system capable of combining audio and video content obtained from a television broadcast and audio and video content obtained by running for example package software on for example a television game system or operation and control information etc. from that television game system so that there functions can mutually complement each other and effective functions can be suitably provided for PR, shopping, and other various purposes or so that programs or games of a more enjoyable and non-boring content suitably matching the interests of the viewer can be provided. Another object of the present invention is to provide an information processing method and system capable of combining audio and video content obtained from a television broadcast and audio video content obtained from a television game system or the like or operation and control information thereof so that the audio and video content can be suitably processed as desired and new forms of PR, shopping, etc. can be realized. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a data transmitter suitable for use in such a data transmission system or information processing system. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a signal processor suitable for use as for example a home terminal for such a data transmission system or information processing system. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a content data processing method suitable for application to such a data transmission system or information processing system. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a data serving method suitable for application to such a data transmission system to information processing system. According to a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a data transmission method comprising the steps of transmitting transmission data containing content data and auxiliary data provided for signal processing at the viewer end, having the viewer end receive the transmitted transmission data, processing content data of the result of a desired first signal processing performed based on data recorded in advance and the content data contained in the received transmission data by second signal processing using the auxiliary data contained in the received transmission data to create new output content data, and outputting the output content data. According to a second aspect of the present invention, there is provided a data transmission system having a transmitter for transmitting transmission data and a plurality of viewer apparatuses for receiving the transmitted data, wherein the transmitter transmits transmission data containing content data and auxiliary data provided for the processing in the viewer apparatuses, and each viewer apparatus comprises a receiving means for receiving the transmitted transmission data, a first signal processing means for performing a desired signal processing according to software stored in advance and input operation signals and outputting content data including video data, an operating means for the viewer to perform an operation and outputting an operation signal based on the related operation to the first signal processing means, a second signal processing means for performing a predetermined processing on the content data output from the first signal processing means and the content data contained in the received transmission data using the auxiliary data contained in the received transmission data so as to create output content data, and an outputting means for outputting the created output content data. According to a third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a data transmission system having a transmitter for transmitting transmission data and a plurality of viewer apparatuses for receiving the transmitted data, wherein the transmitter transmits transmission data containing content data including video data and command data for controlling the receiver end viewer apparatuses, and each viewer apparatus comprises a receiving means for receiving the transmitted transmission data, a signal processing means for performing desired signal processing according to software stored in advance and operations of the viewer and outputting content data including video data, a signal combining means for combining the video data of the content data contained in the received transmission data with a predetermined region of the video data of the content data output from the signal processing means to create the output content data containing new video data, and an outputting means for outputting the created output content data. According to a fourth aspect of the present invention, there is provided an information processing method comprising the steps of having the transmitting end create content data and transmit transmission data containing the content data and auxiliary data provided for the signal processing on the viewer end, having a viewer end receive the transmitted transmission data, perform a desired first signal processing performed based on data stored in advance at the viewer end, process the content data obtained as the result of the first signal processing and the content data contained in the received transmission data by second signal processing using the auxiliary data contained in the received transmission data to create new output content data, output the output content data, and transmit data of at least one of the result of the first signal processing and the result of the second signal processing from the viewer end to the transmitting end, and having the transmitting end perform a desired information processing based on the transmitted data to create content data for transmission based on the information processing result. According to a fifth aspect of the present invention, there is provided an information processing system having a transmitter for transmitting transmission data and a plurality of viewer apparatuses for receiving the transmitted data, wherein the transmitter has a content data creating means for creating the content data, a transmitting means for transmitting transmission data containing the created content data and auxiliary data provided for signal processing on the viewer end, and an information processing means for performing a desired information processing based on the data transmitted from the viewer apparatuses, the content data creating means creates the content data to be transmitted based on the information processing result, the each of the viewer apparatuses has a receiving means for receiving the transmitted transmission data, a first signal processing means for performing a desired first signal processing based on data stored in advance, a second signal processing means for processing the content data obtained as the result of the first signal processing and the content data contained in the received transmission data by second signal processing using the auxiliary data contained in the received transmission data to create new output content data, an outputting means for outputting the created output content data, and a transmitting means for transmitting at least one of the result of the first signal processing and the result of the second signal processing to the transmitter. According to a sixth aspect of the present invention, there is provided a data transmitter having a transmission data creating means for creating transmission data containing content data and auxiliary data provided for predetermined signal processing in a viewer apparatus and a transmitting means for transmitting the created transmission data to a plurality of viewer apparatuses. According to a seventh aspect of the present invention, there is provided a signal processor for receiving transmitted transmission data containing content data and predetermined auxiliary data, comprising a receiving means for receiving the transmitted transmission data, a first signal processing means for performing a desired signal processing according to software stored in advance and operations of a viewer and outputting content data containing video data, a second signal processing means for processing the content data output from the first signal processing means and the content data contained in the received transmission data by predetermined processing using the auxiliary data contained in the received transmission data to create output content data, and an outputting means for outputting the created output content data. According to an eighth aspect of the present invention, there is provided a content data processing method comprising the steps of receiving as input first content data obtained from a first medium, second content data obtained from a second medium, and auxiliary data provided for signal processing obtained from a third medium different from the second medium and performing signal processing with respect to at least the second content data by using the auxiliary data to create third content data. According to a ninth aspect of the present invention, there is provided a data serving method comprising the step of providing first content data, second content data, and auxiliary data for controlling signal processing performed with respect to at least the second content data to create new content data to terminal apparatus. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other objects and features of the present invention will become clearer from the following description of the preferred embodiments given with reference to the attached drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the configuration of a signal processing system of an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a view of the configuration of a broadcast signal transmitted from a broadcasting station system of the signal processing system shown in FIG. 1 ; FIGS. 3A to 3C are views for explaining processing for replacing an object of broadcasted program data by a character of a television game system and viewing the same in the signal processing system shown in FIG. 1 ; FIG. 4 is a flow chart for explaining processing in a home system when selling tickets by the signal processing system shown in FIG. 1 ; and FIG. 5 is a flow chart for explaining processing in the broadcasting station system when selling tickets by the signal processing system shown in FIG. 1 . DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A preferred embodiment of the present invention will be explained by referring to FIG. 1 to FIG. 5 . In the present embodiment, the present invention will be explained by taking as an example a signal processing system combining a signal broadcast from a broadcasting station and a signal output from a home game system for various processing and a home system for the same. First, an explanation will be made of the configuration of the signal processing system. FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the configuration of a signal processing system 100 of the present embodiment. The signal processing system 100 has a broadcasting station system 200 , a home system 300 , and a communication network 400 . The broadcasting station system 200 has a server 210 , a video reproduction apparatus 220 , a video camera 230 , a selector/controller 240 , an authoring/encoder system 250 , a transmitter 260 , and a computer 270 . The server 210 is a large capacity hard disk drive which stores digital data of various types of broadcast use stock such as program content. The data stored in the server 210 is suitably reproduced according to a broadcast schedule managed by a not illustrated scheduler and output to the selector/controller 240 . The video reproduction device 220 plays back a video tape on which is recorded various broadcast use stock such as program content set according to need and outputs the same to the selector/controller 240 . The video camera 230 is a camera for capturing picture and sound for when broadcasting a live program such as news or for when using a live picture of a later explained host etc. in a broadcast. The captured video signals and audio signal are output to the selector/controller 240 according to need. The selector/controller 240 creates a broadcast use signal, that is, prepares the program, based on the video signal and audio signal input from the server 210 , video reproduction device 220 , and the video camera 230 and outputs the same to the authoring/encoder system 250 . The selector/controller 240 selects the required video signal and audio signal automatically or manually by the operation of a program producer based on a control signal from the not illustrated scheduler and information such as a request from the viewer transmitted from the home system 300 of the viewer mentioned later via a public telephone line 420 to the computer 270 of the broadcasting station system 200 and combines them or otherwise processes them according to need to create the broadcast use program data, and outputs the same to the authoring/encoder system 250 . Note that the production of this program in the selector/controller 240 is carried out for every channel sent by the broadcasting station system 200 . Here, the configuration of the broadcast signal created at the selector/controller 240 is shown in FIG. 2 . As shown in FIG. 2 , the broadcast signal transmitted from the broadcasting station system 200 basically has main video data, main audio data, command data, television complementary data, and game complementary data. The main video data is the video data for usual viewing of a television program by a viewer. The main audio data is the audio data for usual viewing of a television program by a viewer. The command data is the data from the broadcasting station system 200 for directly controlling the home system 300 per se or a game system 320 or a synthesizer 330 of the home system 300 mentioned later. The television complementary data is sub information of the main video data and the main audio data and is data such as picture, sound, and text to be displayed and output to a monitor 340 of the home system 300 according to need. The game complementary data is data such as sub information relating to the processing to be performed in the game system 320 and not stored in the home system 300 . Specifically, it is data such as unique game characters for only the broadcast, information of special rules, and unique background images. The authoring/encoder system 250 encodes the program data input from the selector/controller 240 by for example MPEG, converts the same to a predetermined broadcast format such as XML and MPEG, and outputs the same to the transmitter 260 . The transmitter 260 encodes, modulates, and otherwise processes for transmission the broadcast use program data converted to the predetermined broadcast format input from the authoring/encoder system 250 so as to convert the same to a signal suitable for the broadcasting means used and actually transmits the same. In the present embodiment, it is assumed that the broadcasting station system 200 performs digital satellite broadcasting by a satellite line 410 via a broadcast satellite. Accordingly, the transmitter 260 transmits the created broadcast use signal toward the broadcast satellite. The computer 270 is connected to the public telephone line 420 and performs a desired information processing. It receives a response relating to the broadcast content broadcast by the broadcasting station system 200 , that is, a signal transmitted from the home system 300 of each viewer via the public telephone line 420 , stores the information from the viewers, and determines the action to be taken in the broadcasting station system 200 in accordance with the received content. Then, according to need, the computer 270 instructs the selector/controller 240 to produce the program data based on that action. The home system 300 has a communication portion 310 , a game system 320 , a synthesizer 330 , and a monitor 340 . The communication portion 310 receives the broadcast data sent from the broadcasting station system 200 via the satellite line 410 , demodulates it and decodes the transmission use code to create a digital baseband signal, and transmits the same via an IEEE1394 interface to the synthesizer 330 . Further, when information such as a certain instruction or data to be transmitted to the broadcasting station system 200 is input from the synthesizer 330 via the IEEE1394 interface, the communication portion 310 transmits the information via the public telephone line 420 to the computer 270 of the broadcasting station system 200 . The game system 320 is a home television game system and has a game system console 321 , a controller 322 , storage medium I/F 323 , and an IC card I/F 324 . The game system console 321 runs the game according to game software stored on the storage medium mounted in the storage media I/F 323 and moves the game along based on data similarly read from the storage medium and operation signals of the user input from the controller 322 . It creates a video signal to be displayed on the monitor and an audio signal to be output from the monitor 340 and outputs the same via the IEEE1394 interface to the synthesizer 330 . Further, the game system console 321 performs predetermined processing according to commands of command data received from the broadcasting station system 200 and input from the synthesizer 330 mentioned later. When further additional data is necessary when executing the commands, the data is transmitted from the broadcasting station system 200 as complementary data. The game system console 321 executes the processing by using this. The controller 322 is a joy stick or directional button pad or other game controller provided with various inputting means suitable for playing the game. When playing a usual television game, the player operates the controller 322 to run the game. Further, when the home system 300 receives a broadcast from the broadcasting station system 200 and performs some sort of operation with respect to the received content, the viewer inputs instructions from this controller 322 while viewing the monitor 340 . The storage medium I/F 323 is loaded with a storage medium storing the program and data for the game. It suitably reads out the program and data in response to requests from the game system console 321 and outputs the same to the controller 322 . The IC card I/F 324 is an I/F for writing or reading data with respect to the mounted IC card. In this game system 320 , an IC card is used for example for storing the results of the game, storing the interim progress of the game, inputting personal data to the game system console 321 , or storing data from the game system console 321 . The synthesizer 330 extracts the data of the main video data, main audio data, command data, television complementary data, and the game complementary data from the received broadcast signal having the structure shown in FIG. 2 input from the communication portion 310 . Further, the synthesizer 330 receives from the game system 320 for example a signal of the results of the game, a signal obtained from the package medium, and a signal created based on the command data and the game complementary data extracted from the broadcast signal in the synthesizer 330 . The synthesizer 330 combines the extracted main video data, main audio data, and television complementary data with the data input from the game system 320 according to need based on for example the extracted command data to create one video signal and audio signal able to be output from the monitor 340 and outputs the same to the monitor 340 . Further, the synthesizer 330 outputs at least the command data for the game system 320 among the command data and the game complementary data to the game system 320 . Further, when the data input from the game system 320 is an instruction for transmitting certain information to the broadcasting station system 200 , the synthesizer 330 outputs the instruction to that effect to the communication portion 310 The monitor 340 displays the video signal input from the synthesizer 330 on a screen and outputs the audio signal input from the synthesizer 330 . Next, an explanation will be made of the operation of the signal processing system 100 having such a configuration. First, an explanation will be made of the basic operation of the signal processing system 100 . First, the selector/controller 240 of the broadcasting station system 200 creates the main video data and the main audio data by for example combining the picture captured from the video camera 230 with video stock data obtained from the server 210 and the video reproduction apparatus 220 . Further, it adds data used for replacement of the main video data and main audio data or for performing certain processing with respect to the main video data and the main audio data as the television complementary data. Further, it adds the data provided for the processing performed in the game system 320 of the home system 300 and used for replacement of the video data and audio data supplied from the package medium in the game system 320 or for performing certain processing with respect to the video data and audio data as the game complementary data. Then, while making suitable use of the television and game complementary data, it creates command data for the game system 320 and the synthesizer 330 for enabling the desired AV data processing in the home system 300 and thereby creates the broadcast use signal shown in FIG. 2 . Then, the created broadcast use signal is authored and encoded in the authoring/encoder system 250 , encoded, modulated, and otherwise processed for transmission in the transmitter 260 , and transmitted to the home system 300 via the satellite line 410 . The home system 300 receives the broadcast from the broadcast system 200 in a state with the medium storing the desired television game software loaded in the storage medium I/F 323 of the game system 320 . The synthesizer 330 demultiplexes the signal received at the communication portion 310 to the main video data, main audio data, command data, and the television complementary data and outputs the command data and the game complementary data for the game system 320 to the game system 320 . The game system 320 performs the desired processing on the data read from the package medium, an application executed according to the software read from the package medium, or the input game complementary data based on the input command data and operation of the controller 322 by the viewer so as to create the video signal and the audio signal to be output to the monitor 340 or to be provided for a further processing in the synthesizer 330 and outputs them to the synthesizer 330 . The synthesizer 330 performs desired processing on the received main video data and main audio data or television complementary data and further the video data and the audio data input from the game system 320 based on the input command data, for example, the combination of a plurality of the data, to create the final video signal and audio signal to be output to the monitor 340 . Then, the created video signal and audio signal are output from the monitor 340 . As a result, new content obtained by combining content seemingly close to usual program data based on the main video data and the main audio data and content obtained by the desired processing of for example the game in the game system 320 is created and output from the monitor 340 . Further, when the viewer operates the controller 322 of the game system 320 based on information output from for example the monitor 340 in order to transmit for example the selection or request of new information, selection of reception conditions, and notification of the reception state from the home system 300 to the broadcasting station system 200 , a signal based on this operation is transmitted from the game system 320 to the synthesizer 330 and transmitted from the communication portion 310 via the public telephone line 420 to the computer 270 of the broadcasting station system 200 . In the broadcasting station system 200 , the computer 270 performs the processing relating to this signal and instructs the selector/controller 240 to change the structure of the broadcast signal according to need. Next, the various services which become possible in a signal processing system 100 having such a configuration and operation will be successively explained by giving concrete examples. First, such a signal processing system 100 can make a character of a television game appear in a television program and thereby provide a new form of entertainment. Such processing will be explained next. First, in the broadcasting station system 200 , the selector/controller 240 combines for example a picture of the host captured from the video camera 230 with the video stock obtained from the server 210 or the video reproduction device 220 to create the broadcast use signal having the main video signal as shown in for example FIG. 3A . At this time, it uses the main video data, main audio data, and television complementary data to create a broadcast use signal of a configuration enabling the picture of the host captured from the video camera 230 to be easily separated from the rest of the video signal. The method may also be considered of storing background data of the region where the host of the main video data will be displayed as the television complementary data so that the host will be erased by combining for example the television complementary data and the main video data or conversely making the main video data video data without a host and separately sending the video of the host as the television complementary data. Further, the method may also be used of adding an address of a position occupied by the host in the main video data as the complementary data. Next, the selector/controller 240 creates instructions on timing of use, situation of use, etc. of the television complementary data as command data and adds it to the broadcast use signal. Then, the broadcast use signal created in this way is authored and encoded in the authoring/encoder system 250 , encoded, modulated, etc. for transmission in the transmitter 260 , and transmitted via the satellite line 410 to the home system 300 . The home system 300 loads for example a medium storing the television game software containing the desired character shown in FIG. 3B in the storage medium I/F 323 of the game system 320 and receives the broadcast from the broadcasting station system 200 . The synthesizer 330 demultiplexes the received signal into the main video data, main audio data, command data, television complementary data, etc. Then, basically the main video data and the main audio data are output to the monitor 340 for viewing of the program. Upon a switch command of the command data or instruction by the viewer from the controller 322 , however, the synthesizer 330 cuts out the host (replaced object) data 500 of the main video data shown in FIG. 3A and instead inserts the data of the character (replacement object) 510 read from the storage media I/F 323 of the game system 320 as shown in FIG. 3B in the video signal. As a result, the monitor 340 display a picture as shown in FIG. 3C obtained by combining the picture of the character read from the television game package software via the storage medium I/F 323 with a picture of a television broadcast showing the real world or persons. Due to this, the character of a game can be made to appear in a picture of the real world. By doing this, the viewer can newly experience a view of a game character, which had previously been limited in movement to the finite world stored in the package software in advance, moving around in the real world, and therefore can experience a new form of entertainment using package software which he or she had finished playing. Further, the signal processing system 100 can transmit new data by such a broadcast to a game run by software stored on a package medium in the game system 320 and therefore expand the conditions, development, etc. of the game. Such processing will be explained next. The method of creation of the broadcast signal, the method of the broadcast, etc. are the same as the methods explained above, but in this case, a broadcast signal containing the data to be newly added to the game as the game complementary data and containing commands for installing the complementary data as the command data is broadcast. The home system 300 receiving such a broadcast signal demultiplexes the game complementary data and the command data at the synthesizer 330 and inputs the same to the game system 320 . The game system console 321 of the game system 320 introduces the complementary data into the game software already loaded thereon based on the commands of the command data. Below, a concrete explanation will be made of how a game can be expanded by such processing. For example, when what is being played on the game system 320 is a fight game, by transmitting data of a new fight opponent as the game complementary data and superposing a command for incorporating the game complementary data as the command data, the game system 320 can run the game while introducing a new fight opponent which did not exist in the package software. Further, when what is being played on the game system 320 is a role playing game etc., by transmitting data of a new stage as the game complementary data and superposing a command for incorporating the game complementary data as the command data, the game system 320 can run the game while additionally introducing a new stage which did not exist in the package software. Further, when what is being played on the game system 320 is a game such as a baseball game or a soccer game, by transmitting character data employing players active in the real world as the game complementary data and superposing a command for incorporating the game complementary data as the command data, the game system 320 can introduce for example a rookie player newly starting to be active in the real world into the game and enable enjoyment of a more realistic and on-the-scene game. In addition, by broadcasting stock prices, exchange rates, a weather, rankings in professional baseball, hit charts and music thereof, and other various information of the real world or any other information in accordance with the game as the game complementary data and superposing a command for introducing the game complementary data as the command data, it is possible to enjoy a game incorporating real-time information of the real world. Further, it is possible to create a game predicated on introduction of information of the real world from the start, for example, a game simulating the purchase of stock, bets on horse races, or bets on soccer tournaments. Further, by broadcasting game complementary data for making for example the image data of the game higher in definition and command data for reflecting that complementary data, it is possible to enjoy a game on a higher definition screen which could not be experienced by only the package software. Further, by having the signal processing system 100 combine processing with respect to a television program as mentioned above and processing with respect to the game system, it is possible to provide a program combining information from the package media and information by the broadcast. Such processing will be explained next. The method of creating the broadcast signal, the method of broadcast, the processing in the home system 300 , etc. are the same as the methods explained above. In this case, a broadcast signal is broadcast adding data for expanding the program data as the television complementary data, adding data to be newly added to the processing of the game in the game system 320 etc. as the game complementary data, and adding commands for controlling the program data and the data of the game, including commands for controlling the game system 320 from the broadcasting station system 200 , as the command data. Due to this, it is possible to provide a program combining game software and a broadcast program while controlling the game system 320 of the home system 300 from the broadcasting station system 200 . For example, when broadcasting a game strategy program or a game-production documentary, by broadcasting commands for operating an actual game system 320 included in the broadcast signal, it is possible to proceed with the program while remotely controlling the game system 320 by command data from the broadcasting station system 200 end. By proceeding with the program while combining the image created by operating the game system 320 of the user and the real picture wherein the host etc. appear, it is possible to for example more effectively illustrate the strategy in the game or inside stories of production. Further, in for example a game strategy program, by transmitting information enabling a beginner who is not proficient in a game to more easily enjoy the game, that is, operational information enabling one to beat a better player even with a low capability level in a fight game, auxiliary information speeding up the progress of a role playing game, settings of special rules not existing in the package software, etc., it is possible to provide a service enabling a considerably beginning class user to experience the thrill of a game designed for a higher class user or a high stage that cannot be reached by his or her own capability. Note that, in this case, a user who doesn't have the game software can enjoy only the main picture and the main sound. Further, by having the signal processing system 100 broadcast content different from the main video data and the main audio data in the television complementary data, it is possible to provide the following types of broadcasts. For example, when broadcasting a game strategy program, it is possible to broadcast a program for a beginning class user as the main video and main audio data and broadcast a program for a high level user as the television complementary data and to have the user operate the controller 322 of the game system 320 to select one of the same. By doing this, the user can view a program matching his or her own level. Further, in a broadcast such as a usual drama, it is possible to provide several story lines different from the main video and main audio data using the television complementary data. Then, by having the viewer select any of these or according to the status of a game being played by the viewer or randomly for every home system 300 based on a command transmitted as the command data, one story line is selected and output to the monitor 340 . By doing this, it is possible to broadcast a drama unfolding with several branching story lines as the program content. Such a format imparts a game-like unpredictability, bidirectionality, and multiple story lines to television broadcast content which everyone had previously identically viewed passively. Further, it is also possible to have the signal processing system 100 operate in cooperation with media distributed to the home as package media by the above configuration. By employing such a format, the following processing can be carried out. First, characters or game screens which can not be seen by a usual game operation are stored in advance in the package software. Then, these characters or game screens are called up by the command data when broadcasting a specific program by the main video and main audio data. By doing this, it is possible to provide content newly enjoyable by only viewers watching a broadcast, upgrade the version of the game to a new stage after a while from the release of the package software, or provide other services. Next, an explanation will be made of a format in the case when using the signal processing system 100 having such a configuration as an advertisement medium. First, there is an advertisement format that provides advertisement information different between the main video and main audio data and the television complementary data and the game complementary data by a broadcast or package medium or a combination of the same and selectively outputs it to the monitor 340 by the selection of the viewer or unspecifically according to the state etc. of a game being played by the viewer or according to some sort of conditions described in the command data. By doing this, a TV commercial rich in unpredicted or unexpected changes can be realized. Further, a format is also possible wherein, when a viewer watching an advertisement by the above format becomes interested in the product, the viewer can operate the controller 322 of the game system 320 to request a catalog, place an order for the product, answer a questionnaire, apply for a prize, etc. to the computer 270 of the broadcasting station system 200 via the synthesizer 330 , communication portion 310 , and the public telephone line 420 . Further, it is also possible to provide points for the purchases of products or viewing of advertisements and therefore offer a so-called “point service”. By utilizing such a format, two-way communication of TV commercials and television shopping can be realized. Further, a format can also be considered wherein advertisement information of a specific advertiser is additionally broadcast as game complementary data at predetermined time intervals and the broadcasted advertisement of the advertiser is displayed on the screen of a game when a user is playing a game in the game system 320 of the home system 300 . The position of the advertisement in the game may be fixed to a predetermined position on the game screen or may be set to a billboard or wall or a label of a product in the game depending on the game software. By doing this, it is possible to change the sponsor according to the time or date even in the same game. Further, since the advertisement information may be transmitted later by broadcasting, the software of the game can be produced taking a long time as in the conventional case and respecting the wishes of the creators. Further, in a format where the user can play a game with different sponsors assigned for predetermined times as mentioned above, it is also possible to collect score information etc. of ending information of the game of the viewers at the computer 270 of the broadcasting station system 200 and assign rankings according to the scores or order of arrival. Then, the sponsor can then provide privileges or prizes to for example the viewers of the highest rankings. By doing this, it is possible to encourage the combination of TV commercials and the game and make this type of advertisement more effective. Next, an explanation will be made of use of the signal processing system 100 having such a configuration as a system for purchasing show tickets. Here, an explanation will be made of a system adding entertainment to the processing for purchasing of the ticket, running a game preceding the purchase of the ticket, and selling tickets on a priority basis to viewers finishing the game fastest by referring to the flow charts of FIG. 4 and FIG. 5 . First, game software for purchasing tickets is distributed to the viewers in advance by broadcast or package media. Then, at the time of start of the sale of the tickets, the broadcasting station system 200 broadcasts a “ticket sale program” and starts the sale of the tickets in parallel to this broadcast. Below, first, an explanation will be made of the processing in the home system 300 by referring to the flow chart of FIG. 4 . The viewer desiring to purchase a ticket receives the “ticket sale program” broadcast by the broadcasting station system 200 and starts the game (step S 10 ). The synthesizer 330 of the home system 300 confirms the sale information of the ticket based on the broadcasted data (step S 11 ) and checks whether or not it has been sold out (step S 12 ). When it has not yet been sold out, it confirms the ending information of the game being performed in the game system 320 (step S 13 ) and checks whether or not the game is ended (step S 14 ). If the game has not been ended, it repeats the processing from the confirmation of the sale information of step S 11 . When the game has been terminated at step S 14 , it transmits the ending information of the game and an user ID indicating the ID of the viewer via the communication portion 310 to the broadcasting station system 200 (step sis). Then, it confirms acquisition/reception information from the home system 300 indicating whether or not the ticket could be acquired or which seat could be acquired etc. (step S 16 ). When a ticket could be acquired (step S 17 ), it writes ticket acquisition right information in an IC card loaded in the IC card I/F 324 of the game system 320 (step S 18 ) and terminates the series of ticket acquisition processing (step S 19 ). At step 12 , when the tickets had been already sold out even though the game has not yet been terminated, it displays sold out information on the monitor 340 (step S 20 ) and terminates the series of the ticket acquisition processing (step S 21 ). Further, at step S 17 , when the game could be ended, but the tickets have been already sold out, it displays the sold out information on the monitor 340 (step S 22 ) and terminates the series of the ticket acquisition processing (step S 23 ). Next, an explanation will be made of the processing in the broadcasting station system 200 by referring to the flow chart of FIG. 5 . In the broadcasting station system 200 , after starting the broadcast of the “ticket sale program” (step S 30 ), the computer 270 performs processing. First, it checks the sold out information of the tickets (step S 31 ). When they have not been sold out (step S 32 ), it searches for game ending information transmitted from a home system 300 via the public telephone line (step S 33 ) and checks whether or not the game ending information has arrived (step S 34 ). When game ending information has arrived (step S 34 ), it receives the ID of the user (step S 35 ), checks again the sold out information of the tickets (step S 36 ), confirms again that the tickets have not been sold out (step S 37 ), updates the remaining seat data base of the tickets (step S 38 ), and transmits ticket acquisition right information to the user of the received ID (step S 39 ). After transmitting the ticket acquisition right information at step S 39 and when the game ending information has not arrived at step S 34 , the operation routine returns to step S 31 , after which the processing from the checking of the sold out information is repeated again. Further, when the tickets have been sold out at step S 37 , it transmits the sold out information to the user of the ID transmitting the game ending information (step S 40 ), transmits a sold out information screen (step S 41 ), and terminates the ticket sale program. Further, when the tickets have been sold out at step 32 as well, it transmits the sold out information screen (step S 41 ) and terminates the ticket sale program. Note that the program transmitted from the broadcasting station system 200 has for example the host confirming the state of remaining seats of the tickets etc. over a monitor. In the conventional method of telephone reservations, when the telephone lines are congested and one cannot get through, one cannot find out that the tickets have been sold out, so has to continue to try to call until getting through and only then learns the tickets are sold out. By using the above system, however, it is possible to easily confirm when tickets have been sold out. Further, the viewer can confirm the seat which he or she has acquired in the television program. Note that, for ticket sales, it is also possible for example to enable persons who have purchased tickets to view a message of thanks from the performing artist conversely to enable viewers who were not able to purchase tickets view a message of apology from the performing artist. Further, a similar method can be applied to the sale of for example the limited distribution goods or software other than tickets. As explained above, according to the signal processing system 100 of the present embodiment, by combining the signal processing of for example a television game using package media and real-time signal processing by a broadcast, a, variety of new services can be provided. For example, it becomes possible to view a received broadcast while actually operating the game software, therefore, a game strategy program or other program for explaining the package software can be provided in a more impressive manner. Further, by complementing the software of a television game by data from a broadcast or adding information of the real world, it is possible to provide a user with fresh entertainment expanded at any time after the user has experienced the finite information recorded in the software in advance. Further, new game entertainment of game software linked with the real world can be provided. Further, a secondary new additional value can be given to once sold package software and a corresponding new business can be created. Further, the selectivity, unpredictability, and other elements of a game can be introduced into a television broadcast and therefore another new form of entertainment can be provided. Further, in television commercials, commercials of a format never before existing, for example, enabling a user interested in the advertised product or the like to request further detailed information, actually order a catalog of the product or the product itself, or select information of interest from among a plurality of choices, or commercials having unpredictability can be provided. Note that the present invention is not limited to the present embodiment and includes various suitable modifications. For example, the interface between the components in the home system 300 is not limited to an IEEE1394 interface. Any interface, for example, a USB can be used too. Further, in the embodiment, the home system 300 was configured by four components of the communication portion 310 , game system 320 , synthesizer 330 , and monitor 340 contained in different housings. However, it is possible to employ a configuration where any combination of them, for example the communication portion 310 and synthesizer 330 or the communication portion 310 , game system 320 ,and synthesizer 330 , is contained in one housing. Further, any configuration can be used when mounting the same. Further, in the present embodiment, the broadcasting station system 200 broadcasted to the home system 300 by a digital satellite broadcast, but the broadcast method is not limited to this. It may be an analog satellite broadcast or digital or analog ground wave broadcast. Further, it may be a broadcast over a cable television system and an Internet broadcast system. Further, the route for feedback of a signal from the home system 300 to the broadcasting station system 200 is not limited to one using a public telephone line as in the present embodiment. Use can be made of any communication system, for example a dedicated line or the Internet or a system utilizing the two-way characteristic of a cable television system. Note that this feedback communication route is not indispensable in the present invention. The system of the present invention can stand even when transmitting a signal in one direction by a broadcast. Further, in the present embodiment, the explanation was made of various types of broadcast services and the information services according to the present invention, but the processing relating to charging for the provided services and contents was not described. However, it is also possible to incorporate a mechanism for charging for the provided service and contents in the signal processing system 100 by any method. Such a system is also within the scope of the present invention. For example, it is also possible to utilize the charging mechanisms of existing satellite broadcasts and other pay broadcasts so as to collect charges for provision of the additional value. Summarizing the effects of the invention, it is possible to provide a data transmission method and system which can combine audio and video content obtained by a television broadcast and audio and video content obtained by running for example package software in for example a television game system or operation and control information etc. from that television game system so as to have these functions complement each other and provide functions effective for a variety of objectives such as publicity and shopping or provide more enjoyable and less boring content of programs, games, etc. suitable for the interests of the viewer. Further, it is possible to provide an information processing method and system which can combine the audio and video content obtained by a television broadcast and the audio and video content obtained from a television game system or the like or operation and control information, etc. thereof and perform suitable processing based on the audio and video content for publicity, shopping, and other objectives in new formats. Further, it is possible to provide a data transmitter suitable for use in such data transmission system and information processing system. Further, it is possible to provide a signal processor suitable for use as for example a home terminal in such data transmission system and information processing system. Further, it is possible to provide a content data processing method suitable for application to such data transmission system and information processing system. Further, it is possible to provide a data serving method suitable for application to such data transmission system and information processing system.

A liquid crystal display includes a liquid crystal display panel having a plurality of pixels on a display line. A set of drivers drives a set of pixels, the set of drivers receiving display data and providing video signals to the set of pixels. A clock provides a clock signal to the set of drivers to latch the display data based on a frequency of the clock signal, and receives a feedback signal from the set of drivers prior to an end of the display data received by the set of drivers. A delay circuit stops the clock signal to the set of drivers, based on the feedback signal, after delaying for a first time period that is no less than a predetermined time period between the feedback signal and the end of the display data received by the set of drivers.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates generally to a robot cleaner, a robot cleaning system, and a method for controlling the same, and more particularly, to a robot cleaner, a robot cleaning system, and a method for controlling the same that is capable of controlling the driving mechanism of the robot cleaner by using an upper image photographed while the robot cleaner is driving. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] A general robot cleaner determines the extent of a cleaning area by driving an outer track of the cleaning area that is surrounded by a wall or an obstacle by using an ultrasonic sensor disposed on a main body, and plans a cleaning path to clean the determined cleaning area. After that, the robot cleaner drives wheels to run the planned cleaning path by calculating a driving distance and a current position from a signal detected through a sensor for sensing the degree of rotation of the wheels and their rotation angle. However, the above generally used method for recognizing the position produces an error between the driving distance and the moved position calculated from the signal by the sensor and the real driving distance and the position that may be caused by the slip of the wheels and/or the bend of a floor while the robot cleaner is driving along a cleaning path. The more the cleaner drives, the more the position recognition errors may accumulate. Accordingly, the cleaner driven by the accumulated position recognition error can deviate significantly from the planned cleaning path. Consequently, some area might not be cleaned, and the cleaner can perform cleaning several times for other areas. Accordingly, cleaning efficiency and precision can diminish. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] An object of the present invention is to provide a robot cleaner, a robot cleaning system, and a method for controlling the robot capable of effectively performing a commanded cleaning by compensating to correct error in a computed driving track, and for precisely recognizing the current position of the robot cleaner. [0006] The above object is accomplished by providing a robot cleaner that comprises: a driving unit for driving a plurality of wheels; an upper camera disposed on a main body in order to photograph an upper image perpendicular to a direction of driving of the robot cleaner; and a controller for controlling the driving unit to allow the robot cleaner to drive within a cleaning area defined by a predetermined driving pattern, and arranging the driving path by analyzing the image photographed by the upper camera. [0007] It is preferable that the controller controls the driving unit to drive within the cleaning area defined by the predetermined driving pattern and creates and stores an image map in regard to the upper area from the image photographed by the upper camera, when operating a mode for mapping a cleaning area. In addition, the controller recognizes the position of the robot cleaner by comparing the stored image map and a current image input from the upper camera, so as to enable the control of the driving unit corresponding to a target driving path from a recognized position. [0008] Moreover, the controller creates the image map when a signal for cleaning is transmitted. [0009] It is preferable that a front camera is disposed on the main body for photographing an image opposite to the direction of driving of the robot cleaner. The controller creates the image map by three-dimensionally mapping the upper image photographed from the upper camera and the front image photographed by the front camera. [0010] The controller may divide the image map into a plurality of small cells, each cell having a predetermined size, may determine a special feature on one or more of the divided small cells, and set up the determined special feature as a standard coordinate point for recognizing the position of the robot cleaner. The special feature includes at least one element taken from a bulb, a fire sensor, a fluorescent lamp, and a speaker. [0011] The controller extracts a linear element from the image photographed from the upper camera while the robot cleaner is driving, and may arrange a driving track by using the extracted linear element. [0012] To accomplish the above object, the robot cleaning system includes: a driving unit for driving a plurality of wheels; a robot cleaner having an upper camera disposed on a main body for photographing an upper image perpendicular to a driving direction; and a remote controller for wirelessly communicating with the robot cleaner. The remote controller controls the robot cleaner to drive within a cleaning area defined by a predetermined driving pattern, and arranges a driving track by analyzing the image transmitted after being photographed by the upper camera. [0013] It is preferable that the remote controller controls the robot cleaner to drive within the cleaning area defined by the predetermined driving pattern and creates an image map in regard to the upper area from the image photographed by the upper camera, when operating a mode for mapping a cleaning area. In addition, the remote controller recognizes the position of the robot cleaner by comparing the stored image map and a current image transmitted from the robot cleaner after being photographed from the upper camera and controls a cleaning path of the robot cleaner to perform the desired target work from a recognized position, after receiving a signal for cleaning. [0014] It is advisable that the remote controller creates the image map whenever a signal for cleaning is transmitted. [0015] A front camera is disposed on the main body in order to photograph an image opposite to the direction of driving of the robot cleaner. Moreover, the remote controller creates the image map by three-dimensionally mapping the upper image and the front image transmitted from the robot cleaner after being photographed from the upper camera and the front camera, respectively. [0016] It is recommended that the remote controller extracts a linear element from the image transmitted after being photographed from the upper camera and arranges a driving track by using the extracted linear element, when controlling the driving of the robot cleaner. [0017] To accomplish the above object, the method for controlling the robot cleaner according to the present invention comprises the steps of: creating and storing an image map of an upper area, located above an area to be cleaned, from an image photographed by the upper camera by driving the robot cleaner according to a predetermined driving pattern within a cleaning area; recognizing a position of the robot cleaner by comparing an image of the recorded image map and a current image photographed from the upper camera, and calculating a driving path from the recognized position to a target position, upon receiving a signal for cleaning; and driving the robot cleaner according to the calculated driving path. [0018] According to another aspect of the present invention, the method for controlling the robot cleaner comprises the steps of: creating a cleaning area map by driving the robot cleaner within a cleaning area and storing the map; calculating a driving path corresponding to a cleaning command, upon receiving a signal for cleaning; driving the robot cleaner according to the calculated driving path; and arranging the driving path by analyzing an image photographed from the upper camera. [0019] It is preferable that the driving path arranging step extracts a linear element from the image photographed from the upper camera, and arranges the driving path by using the extracted linear element. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0020] The objects and the features of the present invention will become more apparent by describing the preferred embodiments of the present invention having reference to the appended drawings, in which: [0021] [0021]FIG. 1 is a perspective view showing a robot cleaner according to the present invention in which a cover has been separated from the cleaner; [0022] [0022]FIG. 2 is a schematic block diagram showing the robot cleaning system according to the present invention; [0023] [0023]FIG. 3 is a schematic block diagram showing the central control unit of FIG. 2; [0024] [0024]FIG. 4 is a view showing the status in which the robot cleaner of FIG. 1 is placed in a room; [0025] [0025]FIG. 5 is a view showing an exemplary track that the robot cleaner may drive in the room, such as that shown in FIG. 4; [0026] [0026]FIG. 6 is a “plan” view showing one example of an image map created by mapping an image photographed along the driving track shown in FIG. 5; [0027] [0027]FIG. 7 is a flow chart diagram showing the control process of the robot cleaner according to one preferred embodiment of the present invention; [0028] [0028]FIG. 8 is a perspective view showing another example of a possible room configuration; and [0029] [0029]FIG. 9 is a flow chart showing the control process of the robot cleaner according to another preferred embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0030] Hereinbelow, the preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described in greater detail having reference to the appended drawings. [0031] Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, a robot cleaner 10 comprises a suction unit 11 , a sensing unit 12 , a front camera 13 , an upper camera 14 , a driving unit 15 , comprising elements 15 a to 15 g (FIG. 1), a memory 16 (FIG. 2), a transmitter 17 , and a controller 18 . The power source may comprise a battery 19 . [0032] The suction unit 11 is installed on a main body 10 a in order to collect dust on an opposing floor while drawing in air. The suction unit 11 can be constructed using well-known methods. As one example, the suction unit 11 has a suction motor (not shown), and a suction chamber, for collecting the air drawn in through a suction hole or a suction pipe formed opposite to the floor by driving of the suction motor. [0033] The sensing unit 12 sends a signal to commence the process of sensing the environment outside of the robot 10 cleaner. The sensing unit 12 comprises an obstacle detection sensor 12 a disposed at a side circumference of the body 10 a separated by predetermined intervals in order to receive a reflected signal, and a driving distance detection sensor 12 b for measuring distances driven by the robot 10 cleaner. [0034] The obstacle detection sensor 12 a has a plurality of infrared ray luminous elements 12 a 1 for projecting infrared rays and light-receiving elements 12 a 2 for receiving infrared rays. The infrared ray luminous elements 12 a 1 and receiving elements 12 a 2 are disposed along an outer circumference of the obstacle detection sensor 12 a by perpendicularly arranged pairs. On the other hand, the obstacle detection sensor 12 a can adopt an ultrasonic sensor capable of projecting an ultrasound and receiving a reflected ultrasound. The obstacle detection sensor 12 a is also used for measuring the distance between the robot cleaner and an obstacle or an adjacent wall. [0035] The driving distance detection sensor 12 b (FIG. 2) computes data received from a rotation detection sensor for detecting the degree or amount of rotation of wheels 15 a through 15 d. For example, the rotation detection sensor can adopt an encoder for detecting the degree of rotation of motors 15 e, 15 f, respectively. [0036] The front camera 13 is disposed on the main body 10 a is directed in the direction of travel in order to photograph a front image, and outputs the photographed image to the controller 18 . [0037] The upper camera 14 is disposed on the main body 10 a and directly upwardly in order to photograph an upper image, and outputs the photographed image to the controller 18 . [0038] The driving unit 15 comprises: two wheels 15 a, 15 b disposed at both sides of the front of body 10 a; two wheels 15 c, 15 d disposed at both sides of the back of body 10 a; motors 15 e, 15 f for respectively rotating the back wheels 15 c, 15 d; and a timing belt 15 g for transmitting power generated by the motors 15 e, 15 f to the back wheels 15 c, 15 d also to the front wheels 15 a, 15 b. The driving unit 15 independently rotates the motors 15 e, 15 f in a forward or an inverse direction in accordance with control signals received from the controller 18 . The angular rotation of the robot 10 can be performed by driving the motors 15 e, 15 f with different speeds of rotation or in opposite directions. The transmitter 17 sends target data through an antenna 17 a, and transmits a signal received by the transmitter 17 , through the antenna 17 a, to the controller 18 . [0039] The controller 18 processes the signal received by the transmitter 17 , and controls each of the elements. The controller 18 processes a key signal input from a key input apparatus, when the key input apparatus having a plurality of keys for manipulating to set-up functions of an apparatus is further provided on the main body 10 a. [0040] The controller 18 develops or arranges a driving path for the robot cleaner 10 by analyzing the image photographed by the upper camera 14 as the controller 18 controls the driving unit 15 to drive within a cleaning area according to a driving pattern determined by the command for cleaning. [0041] According to a first aspect of the present invention, the controller 18 creates an image map in regard to an upper area of the cleaning area, such as a ceiling, from the image photographed by the upper camera 14 by controlling the driving unit 15 to drive the robot cleaner 10 within the cleaning area in accordance with a predetermined driving pattern for creating the map. The controller then stores the created image map into the memory 16 , when a mode for creating the image map is set up. The controller 18 can be set up to perform the mode for creating the image map when a signal is received commanding performance of the mode for creating the image map by an external wireless input or from the key input apparatus. Alternatively, the controller 18 can be set up to perform the mode for creating the image map before performing any cleaning operations, when the command for cleaning is wirelessly transmitted from the outside or the key input apparatus to the robot 10 . [0042] The controller 18 controls the driving unit 15 in accordance with the driving pattern set up by the controller so as to photograph the cleaning area. Generally, the cleaning area is surrounded by an obstacle or a wall, and may define an entire room by dividing the room with reference to the data received from the upper camera 14 , when operating the mode for creating the image map. As an example of the driving pattern, the controller 18 advances the robot cleaner 10 forward from a current position, and when a wall or obstacle is detected by the obstacle sensor 12 a, sets up the current position as an initial position. After that, the controller 18 controls the driving unit 15 to drive the robot cleaner 10 until the robot cleaner 10 returns to its initial position by driving along the wall, thereby creating an image of a room outline or boundary. [0043] Then, the controller 18 drives the robot cleaner 10 within the area determined by the room outline along driving lines or legs separated by regular intervals. In other words, the controller 18 controls the driving unit 15 to drive the robot cleaner 10 along the driving line 22 planned with respect to the cleaning area 21 determined, as shown in FIG. 5. [0044] At this time, the interval separating the legs of the driving line 22 is determined to allow the upper images photographed by camera 14 to be consecutive. The upper image is photographed while the robot cleaner 10 is moving along the driving line 22 . Moreover, it is preferable that the photographing cycle is determined to provide frames having an overlap of about 10% to 20% with the adjacent image of the upper images photographed or extracted while moving along an adjacent leg of line 22 . The method for determining the photographing cycle can initially be done through a plurality of images photographed for several times. Alternatively, the photographing cycle may be set up in advance by considering an angle of vision of the upper camera 14 and the distance from the floor to ceiling in a normal room, and then the photographing can be done by a predetermined photographing cycle. [0045] The image photographed from the upper camera 14 during the driving process is stored in the memory 16 as the upper image map shown in FIG. 6. The stored image may include elements, as determined by the control program of the controller 18 , when elements, such as a bulb 31 , a fire sensor 32 , and a fluorescent lamp 33 , shown in FIG. 4, are photographed as being installed on the ceiling. [0046] Preferably, the controller 18 divides the image map stored in the memory 16 into several cells, as shown in FIG. 6. In addition, the controller 18 performs an image process for setting up one or more special features as standard coordinate points for recognizing the position so as to easily determine the position of the robot cleaner 10 by extracting the special feature among the images corresponding to each of the cells. For example, the bulb 31 , the fire sensor 32 , and the direct-light fluorescent lamp 33 , shown in FIG. 4, may be determined as the special features for the image processing method in regard to the image photographed for the corresponding elements 31 , 32 , 33 shown in of FIG. 6. [0047] The image processing method for extracting the special features from the photographed image can adopt well-known methods. For example, a method can be adopted using an algorithm that processes a coordinate point calculated by connecting pixel points having similar values, such as the special features, after converting the photographed image into a gray level. Moreover, an image area having a similar distribution as does the recorded data value can be determined as matching a corresponding special feature, after image data having a distribution type in regard to the special features are first stored in the memory 16 . [0048] According to a second aspect of the present invention, the controller 18 creates an image map by three-dimensionally mapping the front image photographed from the front camera 13 and the upper image photographed from the upper camera 14 and stores the created image map into the memory 16 . When the three-dimensional image map is created and used, the accuracy of the position recognition can be improved. In this case, it is preferable that the position recognition from the upper image received from camera 14 , having less variety of the installed elements, is processed first to provide information for recognizing the robot cleaner's position. When the position is not precisely recognized, it is advisable that the front image from camera 13 is referenced for additional information. [0049] The controller 18 recognizes the position of the robot cleaner 10 in reference to the stored image map by using the image map created when the robot cleaner 10 performs the cleaning after the image map is created. In other words, the controller 18 recognizes the current position of the robot cleaner 10 by comparing the current image input from the upper camera 14 alone, or from both the front camera 13 and the upper camera 14 , with the stored image map. The controller 18 then controls the driving unit 15 to follow the line 22 corresponding to the target driving path from the recognized position, when the signal for externally commanding the cleaning is wirelessly input from outside or from the key input apparatus. [0050] Here, the signal for commanding the cleaning may include an observation made through one or both of the cameras 13 , 14 or from the cleaning program. The controller 18 calculates the driving error by using the current position recognized by the driving distance measured from the encoder and comparing the current photographed image from the cameras with the stored image map, and controls the driving unit 15 to track the target driving path by compensating for any error. [0051] It has been described that the image map is directly created by the controller 18 , and the position of the robot cleaner 10 can be recognized by the controller by using the created image map. [0052] According to a third aspect of the present invention, the robot cleaning system may externally process the upper image map creation and position recognition of the robot cleaner 10 to reduce the operation load required for the creating of the image map of the robot cleaner 10 and for recognizing the position of the robot cleaner 10 . [0053] The robot cleaner 10 is constructed to wirelessly send the photographed image information to an external processor, such as central control unit 50 (FIG. 2), and to perform operations in accordance with the control signal transmitted from the external processor. Moreover, a remote controller 40 wirelessly controls the driving of the robot cleaner 10 , recognizes the position of the robot cleaner 10 , and creates the image map. [0054] The remote controller 40 comprises a wireless relaying apparatus 41 , an antenna 42 and a central control unit 50 . [0055] The wireless relaying apparatus 41 processes the wireless signal transmitted from the robot cleaner 10 and transmits the processed signal to the central control unit 50 through a wire. In addition, the wireless relaying apparatus 50 wirelessly sends the signal transmitted from the central control unit 50 to the robot cleaner 10 through antenna 42 . [0056] The central control unit 50 is established with a general computer, and one example of the central control unit 50 is shown in FIG. 3. Referring to FIG. 3, the central control unit 50 comprises a CPU (central process unit) 51 , a ROM 52 , a RAM 53 , a display apparatus 54 , an input apparatus 55 , a memory 56 , including a robot cleaner driver 56 a, and a communication apparatus 57 . [0057] The robot cleaner driver 56 a is used for controlling the robot cleaner 10 and for processing the signal transmitted from the robot cleaner 10 . [0058] The robot cleaner driver 56 a provides a menu for setting up the control of the robot cleaner 10 through the display unit 54 , and processes the menu choice selected by a user to be performed by the robot cleaner 10 , when being operated. It is preferable that the menu includes the cleaning area map creation, the cleaning command, and the observation operation. Moreover, it is advisable that an image map creation command, a target area selection list, and a method for cleaning are provided as sub-selection menus. [0059] In the case of the menu for creating the cleaning area map or the image map, it is preferable that the user can set up an update cycle at least once per week or once per month in regard to updating the status of the image map, when the robot cleaner 10 operates the cleaning process. [0060] When a signal for creating the image map is input through the input apparatus 55 by the user or at the time of creating the predetermined image map, the robot cleaner driver 56 a controls the robot cleaner 10 to receive the upper image, usually the ceiling image, of the entire cleaning area required for creating the image map, as described before. The robot cleaner driver 56 a creates the image map by mapping the image transmitted by the robot cleaner 10 , and stores the created image map into the memory 56 . In this case, the controller 18 (FIG. 1) of the robot cleaner 10 controls the driving unit 15 in accordance with control information transmitted from the robot cleaner driver 56 a through a wireless relaying apparatus 41 (FIG. 2), and thus the operation load in regard to creation of the image map is diminished significantly. In addition, the controller 18 transmits the upper image photographed during a regular cycle while the robot cleaner is driving in accordance with commands sent by the central control unit 50 through the wireless relaying apparatus 41 . The robot cleaner driver 56 a can create the image map by mapping the front image and the upper image, simultaneously. [0061] The position recognition method of the robot cleaner 10 operated by the above method will be described, referring to FIG. 7 for the method steps and to FIG. 1 for the hardware. [0062] First the controller 18 (FIG. 1) judges whether to perform the mode for creating the image map, step 100 . [0063] When the mode for creating the image map is required or commanded, the controller 18 drives the robot cleaner 10 to photograph the entire upper image of the ceiling, step 10 . [0064] The controller 18 creates the image map by mapping the upper image and, if necessary, the front image, photographed by the cameras 13 , 14 corresponding to the cleaning area, and stores the created image map into the memory 16 or 56 , step 120 . [0065] After that, the controller 18 makes a determination of whether the command for cleaning is being transmitted, step 130 . [0066] When it is judged that the command for cleaning has been transmitted, the controller 18 recognizes the position of the robot cleaner 10 by comparing the upper image transmitted from the upper camera 14 with the stored image map, step 140 . When the image map includes the information on the front image in the step 140 , the current front image can be also used for the step of recognizing of the position of the robot cleaner 10 . [0067] Then, the controller 18 calculates the driving path from the recognized current position, as determined in step 140 , for moving to the cleaning area or along the cleaning path corresponding to the transmitted command for cleaning, step 150 . [0068] Next, the controller 18 drives the robot cleaner 10 according to the calculated driving path, step 160 . [0069] After that, the controller 18 makes a determination whether the work command is completed, step 170 . The work command here means the cleaning work that is performed driving the cleaning path or moving to the target position. If the work is not completed, steps 140 to 160 are repeated until the work is completed. Alternatively, according to a fourth preferred embodiment of the present invention, when the ceiling has an orthogonal outline, a method is adopted for driving the robot cleaner 10 so as to reduce the compensation process load in regard to the driving path by photographing the ceiling. For example, as shown in FIG. 8, when the ceiling is arrayed with rectangle plaster boards 34 or when a plurality of direct-light fluorescent lamps 35 are installed on the ceiling, the controller 18 or/and the remote controller 40 are established to compensate for any driving error by using the condition of the ceiling that provides the orthogonal outline defined by the edges of the plaster boards 34 or fluorescent lamps 35 . [0070] To achieve this, the controller 18 extracts any linear elements from the image photographed from the upper camera 14 while the robot cleaner 10 is driving, by using a well-known method for processing an image of a detected edge, and arranges for the driving track by using the extracted linear element information. [0071] Preferably, the controller 18 compensates for any driving error detected with respect to a predetermined time or a predetermined distance from the encoder. After that, the controller 18 repeatedly compensates for the driving error by using the linear element of the image photographed from the upper camera. In other words, the controller 18 calculates the driving track error by detecting the driving track error with the encoder, and controls the driving unit 15 for allowing the robot cleaner 10 to return to a target driving track by compensating for the calculated error. After that, the controller 18 compensates for driving error by calculating the track deviation error of the robot cleaner 10 by using direction information of the linear elements extracted by analyzing the image data photographed from the upper camera 14 . [0072] The above method can be adapted to the robot cleaning system described above. [0073] Here, the method for processing an image of the detected edge can adopt various methods such as a ‘Sobel Algorithm,’ or a ‘Navatiark Babu Algorithm.’ [0074] The robot cleaner controlling process for compensating for the driving error by extracting the linear element from the upper image will be described in greater detail referring to FIG. 9 for the method steps and to FIGS. 1 and 8 for the hardware. [0075] First, the controller 18 determines whether to perform the mode for creating the work or cleaning area map, step 200 . [0076] When the mode for creating the cleaning area map is required or commanded, the controller 18 drives the robot cleaner 10 within the cleaning area, step 210 . [0077] The driving pattern of the robot cleaner 10 in regard to the mode for creating the cleaning area map is the same as the example described above. First, the robot cleaner 10 is driven forward, and when a wall or an obstacle is detected by the obstacle detection sensor 12 a, then the position is set up as the initial position. After that, the controller 18 controls the driving unit 15 to drive the robot cleaner 10 until the robot cleaner 10 returns to its initial position by driving along the outline of the room adjacent the wall. Next, the controller 18 drives the robot cleaner 10 within the area determined by the outline, as determined, along the driving line extending by incremental legs having, a predetermined interval between the legs. The controller 18 creates the cleaning area map by using the information on the obstacle or the driving track detected during the driving described above, and stores the cleaning area map, step 220 . On the other hand, the cleaning area map may be created using the same method as the mode for creating the image map described above, and thereafter stored. [0078] The controller 18 then determines whether the command for cleaning has been transmitted, step 230 . [0079] If the controller 18 determines that the command for cleaning has been transmitted, then the controller 18 calculates the driving path for moving to the commanded cleaning area or along the cleaning path corresponding to the transmitted command for cleaning, step 240 . [0080] Then, the controller 18 drives the robot cleaner 10 according to the calculated driving path, step 250 . [0081] The controller 18 extracts the linear element information from the image photographed from the upper camera 14 while the robot cleaner 10 is driving, and compensates for any driving error by using the extracted linear element information, step 260 . Here, it is preferable that the process for analyzing the image photographed from the upper camera 14 is performed once every cycle set up so as to reduce the image process load. [0082] Then, the controller 18 determines that the cleaning is completed by driving the robot cleaner 10 along the cleaning path according to the above process, step 270 . If the cleaning is not completed, the controller 18 repeats the steps 240 to 260 until the robot cleaner 10 completes the cleaning, as shown by the loop in FIG. 9. [0083] As described so far, the robot cleaner, the robot cleaning system, and the method for controlling the same according to the present invention can perform the commanded cleaning work more easily by reducing the driving error to the target position since the robot cleaner 10 can recognize the position more accurately by using the upper image having less variety of the installed elements. It is contemplated that unlike furniture, ceiling fixtures will not be moved as often. [0084] The preferred embodiments of the present invention have been illustrated and described herein. However, the present invention is not limited to the preferred embodiments described here, and someone skilled in the art can modify the present invention without distorting the point of the present invention claimed in the following claims.

A robot cleaner, robot cleaning system, and a method for controlling the same, the robot cleaner cleaning by wirelessly communicating with an external apparatus having a driving unit for driving a plurality of wheels; an upper camera disposed on a main body for photographing an upper image perpendicular to a direction of driving the robot cleaner; and a controller for controlling the driving unit to allow the robot cleaner to drive with a cleaning area according to a predetermined driving pattern, and compensating the driving path by analyzing the image photographed by the upper camera. In other embodiments, the robot cleaner may include a second forwardly directed camera which may be utilized to provide a three dimensional image of the cleaning area, and also sensors for sensing the walls defining a cleaning area or obstacles in the cleaning area. In yet another embodiment, and to reduce the image computing load on the robot cleaner, transmission of the image to an external processor/controller may be effected by a radio antenna. The robot cleaner, the robot cleaning system, and the method for controlling the same, can recognize the robot cleaner position more accurately as the position is recognized by using an upper image that does not experience as much alteration as does a floor. Therefore, a movement error to a target position is reduced, and a commanded work can be performed more easily.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION This patent application is related to the field of cable connectors and in particular to an integrated filter connector that performs the functions of a coaxial cable connector component combined with the functions of an in-line signal conditioning component. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION CATV systems presently utilize a wide range of in-line filters, traps, attenuators, and other line conditioning equipment. The line conditioning equipment is used to maintain or improve the quality and to control the content of the network signal to an individual subscriber's premises. Conversely, the above equipment is also used in order to maintain, protect or condition the signals generated by devices within the subscriber's premises location and returned to the CATV network. The ingress of RF energy is known to be a substantial factor in the degradation of the quality of the signals passed in each direction in a CATV network. Each connection (coupling) between a coaxial cable and the equipment in the distribution network is a potential point of ingress of RF energy that may interfere with the network signals. A particular source for RF ingress which is of concern to CATV system operators are low quality or poorly installed coaxial cable connectors, also referred to as coax cable connectors. Consequently, reducing the number of connectors and splices and improving the quality of the connections (couplings) between coaxial cable and distribution equipment reduces the opportunity of RF ingress. Substantial advances have been made over the years in the art of coaxial connectors that provide improved RF shielding and moisture sealing, such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,470,257; 5,632,651; 6,153,830; 6,558,194; and 6,716,062; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/892,645, filed on Jul. 16, 2004; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/092,197, filed on Mar. 29, 2005, all of which are assigned to John Mezzalingua Associates, Inc. of East Syracuse, New York. While such connectors are substantially less prone to installation errors, improper installation of the connector and improper seating (coupling) of the connector to an equipment port may still significantly contribute to signal interference from RF ingress. While most of the foregoing line conditioning devices are installed to improve system performance on an existing network on an as-needed basis, their use is widespread enough that for some systems these devices are essentially standard with each new installation or service call and are therefore considered permanent. In such instances, it is not necessary for these devices to be separate, removable hardware, having traditional connector interfaces at each end thereof. In fact and in many instances, it is a general desire of the system operator to ensure that line conditioning devices are used and to make omissions or removal of these devices difficult for the installer. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore a desired object of the present invention to provide an integrated filter connector that performs the functions of a coaxial cable connector component combined with the functions of an in-line signal conditioning component. Elimination of a connection (coupling) between a coaxial cable connector component and a fitting on a typical in-line conditioning device component will result in reducing the potential for RF ingress into a signal path traveling through the integrated filter connector. The advantages of incorporating an in-line device with a cable connector are not limited to regulating usage by the installers. Other advantages that become evident include elimination of ground contact points (as compared with a filter and connector that are joined conventionally) and moisture entry points, as well as reduced length, as compared with a non-integrated filter and connector. As will be noted herein and according to the invention, many other types of connector components may be incorporated as well as many in-line device types. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The objects and features of the invention can be better understood with reference to the claims and drawings described below. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, the emphasis is instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. Within the drawings, like reference numbers are used to indicate like parts throughout the various views. Differences between like parts may cause those parts to be indicated by different reference numbers. Unlike parts are indicated by different reference numbers. For a further understanding of these and objects of the present invention, reference will be made to the following Detailed Description, which is to be read in connection with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is an exploded perspective view of a first embodiment of an unassembled integrated filter connector made in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cut-away perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector of FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is the assembled perspective view of the integrated filter connector of FIGS. 1 and 2 ; FIG. 4 is a cut-away perspective view of a second embodiment of an integrated filter connector including a hand rotatable compression component design; FIG. 5 is a cut-away perspective view of a third embodiment of an integrated filter connector including a different set of compression related components as compared to those of the prior two embodiments; FIG. 6 is a cut-away perspective view of a fourth embodiment of an integrated filter connector including a different set of compression related components as compared to those of the prior three described embodiments; FIG. 7 is a cut-away perspective view of an integrated filter connector in accordance with a fifth embodiment of the present invention including an RCA style connector interface; FIG. 8 is a cut-away perspective view of a sixth embodiment of the integrated filter connector that includes a BNC style connector interface; FIG. 9 is a cut-away perspective view of a seventh embodiment of the integrated filter connector that includes an F style male connector interface; and FIG. 10 is a cut-away perspective view of an eighth embodiment of the integrated filter connector that includes an F style female connector interface. FIG. 11 is an exploded perspective view of a ninth embodiment of an unassembled integrated filter connector made in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 12 is a cut-away perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector of FIG. 11 . FIG. 13 is a perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector of FIGS. 11 and 12 . FIG. 14 is an exploded perspective view of a tenth embodiment of an unassembled integrated filter connector made in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 15 is a cut-away perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector of FIG. 14 . FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector of FIGS. 14 and 15 . FIG. 17 is a cut-away perspective view of an eleventh embodiment of an assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector having an externally threaded port connector. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is an exploded perspective view of a first embodiment of an unassembled integrated filter and connector assembly 10 made in accordance with the present invention. As shown, the integrated filter and connector assembly 10 , also referred to as an integrated filter connector 10 , includes a connector body 110 having a front body end (forward end) 102 and a rear body end (rear end) 104 , which is configured to enclose an electric circuit which in one form can be a printed circuit board (PCB) 112 that performs in-line signal conditioning and that functions as part of an integrated signal filter assembly. As assembled within the outer body 110 , a post 120 , including an attached circuit board support 118 , is configured to receive and to provide mechanical support to the circuit board 112 . The circuit board support 118 is constructed as a circular shaped member and includes slots 118 a and 118 b . The slots 118 a and 118 b are disposed at opposing locations along a circumference of the circular shaped member 118 and are oriented and dimensioned to receive and to provide mechanical support to the circuit board 112 . When receiving the circuit board 112 , the ground plane of the circuit board 112 may be electrically engaged with the post 120 . The circuit board 112 includes a forward electrode 114 and a rear electrode 116 , also referred to as a front terminal 114 and a rear terminal 116 , located at a first electrical end and a second electrical end respectively, of electrical circuitry residing within the circuit board 112 . Typically, the forward electrode 114 is implemented as a contact pin 114 and the rear electrode is implemented as a collet 116 . In some embodiments, the forward electrode is also implemented as a collet. The PCB 112 also includes a ground plane (not shown), a forward electrical contact pad (not shown) and a rear electrical contact pad (not shown) at each of two opposite ends. The forward electrical contact pad is in electrical contact with the forward electrode 114 . The rear electrical contact pad is in electrical contact with the rear electrode 116 . An insulator 122 is configured to surround and insulate the contact pin 114 from the outer body 110 . As shown, the insulator 122 is shaped as a disk 122 and is typically made of a compressible insulating material. The PCB 112 includes electrical components that collectively perform signal conditioning (processing) of a signal traveling between the forward electrode (contact pin) 114 and the rear electrode (collet) 116 . Signal conditioning includes various forms of signal filtering performed by electrical components included within one or more filtering circuits residing on the PCB 112 . Such filtering circuits are collectively included within what is referred to as a filter assembly. Additional details relating to the exemplary filter assembly described herein are provided in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,794,957 and 6,476,688, the relevant parts of which are herein incorporated by reference. A nut 130 including internal threads 132 may be rotationally attached to the outer body 110 at the forward end 102 of the integrated filter connector 10 and is configured to rotate independently of the outer body 110 . The nut 130 includes a plurality of exterior flats 134 , that enable the nut 130 to be engaged by a tool, such as a wrench (not shown). The nut 130 is configured to engage an externally threaded port (not shown), such as one included within a cable television distribution box. FIG. 2 is a cut-away perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector 10 of FIG. 1 . As depicted in FIG. 2 , the nut 130 includes an interior groove 187 located along the interior surface of the nut 130 . Likewise, the outer body 110 includes an exterior groove 182 located along the forward end of the exterior surface of the outer body 110 . Both the interior groove 187 and the exterior groove 182 are configured to receive a nut retaining ring 184 . The nut retaining ring 184 includes a gap to enable the ring 184 to be compressed (along its circumference) and fit into the exterior groove 182 prior to the nut 130 being slid over the front end of the outer body. The nut retaining ring 184 expands to snap engage the interior groove 187 of the nut 130 , allowing the nut to rotate independently of the body 110 . A moisture sealing member 188 may be disposed inside of a second groove 186 located along the exterior surface of the outer body 110 . The moisture sealing member 188 is preferably made of rubber and is configured to press upwards against the interior surface of the nut 130 in order to seal out moisture that could travel through the physical contact between the nut 130 and the outer body 110 . In this embodiment the moisture sealing member is in the form of an O ring. A set of compression related components, also referred to as a compression member assembly or a cable attachment mechanism, includes an insert sleeve 140 , a compression member 142 and a compression member housing 144 , also referred to as a housing member 144 , and a throughbore co-located at an opening of an internal bore 250 , and are disposed at the rear end 104 of the integrated filter connector 10 . The compression member 142 is located at a rear end of the compression assembly. The insert sleeve is located at a forward end of the compression assembly. The post 120 includes a front end and a rear end and is dimensioned to fit within an internal bore 250 , also referred to as a central passageway 250 or a through bore 250 , of the integrated filter connector 10 . The central passageway 250 is defined by an internal surface 248 . The front end and the rear end of the post 120 are disposed within the central passageway 250 . The post 120 includes a sleeve 220 , including a barbed portion 222 at a rear end of the post 120 , for insertion beneath at least the braided wire mesh (outer conductor) of a coaxial cable (not shown) that can be inserted within the internal bore 250 . As shown, the rear end of the post 120 optionally includes a plurality of barbs on the post serrations 222 to enable it to better mechanically and electrically engage the braided wire mesh (outer conductor) of the coaxial cable (not shown). The compression member 142 may be surrounded by a housing member 144 . A forward end of the housing member 144 includes a cylindrical sleeve that is dimensioned to fit and slide outside of and over a cylindrical shaped sleeve at the rear end of the outer body 110 . As shown, the housing member 144 optionally includes an inward flange 246 at its rear end. The inward flange 246 radially surrounds at least a portion of an edge located at the rear end of the compression member 142 . As assembled, the compression member 142 is configured to abut the tapered rear end of the insert sleeve 140 while the housing member 144 is configured to slide over the rear end of the outer body 110 and surrounds the compression member 142 (See FIG. 2 ). The compression member 142 is dimensioned to fit inside of a cavity 230 residing between the insert sleeve 140 and the outer surface of the sleeve 220 of the post 120 . The insert sleeve 140 is tapered at its rear end to enable the compression member 142 to slide into the insert sleeve 140 when an axial force (directed towards the forward end 102 ) is applied to advance the compression member 142 into the outer body 110 . As assembled, when axial force is applied to the housing member 144 , the tapered rear end of the insert sleeve 140 slides between the compression member 142 and the housing member 144 . As described, the insert sleeve 140 is disposed around and outside of the post 120 and inside of the outer body 110 . The compression member 142 is disposed abutting the insert sleeve 140 , while the housing member 144 is disposed around and outside of the outer body 110 . To attach the integrated filter connector 10 to a coaxial cable, a prepared end of a coaxial cable is inserted into the internal bore 250 and engaged with the post 120 so that the sleeve 220 of the post is inserted beneath the outer layers of the coaxial cable (not shown), including at least the braided wire mesh (not shown) of an outer conductor. The central (center) conductor is received by the collet 116 at the rear end of the PCB 112 . The coaxial cable typically includes a central (center) conductor, a surrounding dielectric layer, and a surrounding electrically conductive material layer, such as referred to as a braided wire mesh outer conductor and an outer protective layer (cover), also referred to as a protective outer jacket. The outer layers of the coaxial cable refer to the outer conductor and an outer insulating layer. The inward flange 246 is engaged with a compression tool (not shown) that applies the force to axially advance the housing member 144 , also referred to as a compression member cover 144 , and causes the compression member 142 to move (advance) towards the forward end 102 and further into the outer body 110 . Upon further axial advancement of the housing member 144 and of the compression member 142 , the compression member 142 is driven between the inner sleeve 140 and the outer layers of the coaxial cable. This axial advancement causes an inward radial deformation of the compression member 142 against the outer layers of the cable (not shown) that surround the post 120 . This inward radial deformation compresses and firmly grasps the outer layers of the coaxial cable between the compression member 142 and the post 120 retaining the cable within the integrated filter connector. A shoulder 212 located on the exterior surface of the outer body 110 is configured to act as a stop to limit the axial advancement of the housing member 144 and the compression member 142 in the direction towards the forward end 102 of the outer body 110 . FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector 10 of FIGS. 1 and 2 . Notice that, as assembled, the contact pin 114 is substantially centered (eqi-distant) between the internal threads 132 of the nut 130 . Once installed on a cable, a tool may be used (not shown) to engage the flats 134 of the nut 130 and rotate the nut. The nut 130 can be rotated to selectively engage or disengage the integrated filter connector 10 , to or from an externally threaded port (not shown), such as one included within a CATV distribution box. FIG. 4 is a cut-away perspective view of a second embodiment 400 of an integrated filter connector 10 including a hand rotatable compression component design 460 . The second embodiment 400 includes a structure that is substantially the same as described for the first embodiment 100 (See FIGS. 1-3 ) except for differences associated with a set of compression related components disposed at the rear end 104 of the integrated filter connector 10 . The outer body 410 is structured and functions in substantially the same way as the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 (See FIGS. 1-3 ). For example, the outer body 410 accommodates a rotatable nut 130 that is disposed at its front end 102 and provides substantially the same accommodation (shaped and dimensioned mechanical interface) for the aforementioned internal components that were described and provided by the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 . The external surface of the outer body 410 excludes the shoulder 212 of the first embodiment 100 (See FIG. 2 ). Further, the outer body 410 of the second embodiment 400 differs from the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 in that it accommodates a different compression component design 460 located at the rear end 104 of the outer body 410 . Specifically, the external surface of the outer body 410 includes external threads 456 disposed at its rear end 104 that are configured to engage threads of an internal surface of the rotatable housing member 452 , also disposed at its rear end. Like the first embodiment 100 , the compression component design 460 includes the inner sleeve 140 and the compression member 142 that are both disposed in substantially the same arrangement relative to the outer body 110 and its internal components, as described for the first embodiment 100 (See FIGS. 1-3 ). Unlike the first embodiment 100 , the compression component design 460 of the second embodiment 400 excludes the sliding housing member 144 of the first embodiment 100 and instead, includes a rotatable housing member 452 at its rear end 104 . In this second embodiment, the compression member 142 is surrounded by the rotatable housing member 452 . Like the sliding housing member 144 , the rotatable housing member 452 includes an inward flange 446 at its rear end 104 . The inward flange 446 radially surrounds at least a portion of the compression member 142 . A forward end of the rotatable housing member 452 includes an interior threaded surface 454 that is configured to engage an exterior threaded surface 456 disposed at the rear end 104 of the outer body 410 . Rotation of the housing member 452 axially advances over the exterior threaded surface 456 and towards the front end 102 of the outer body 410 . Axial advancement of the rotatable housing member 452 towards the front end 102 advances the compression member 142 into the inner sleeve 140 to cause inward radial deformation of the compression member 142 against the outer layers of a coaxial cable that is inserted into the internal bore 450 and engaged with the post, as described for the first embodiment 100 . The complementary threads 454 and 456 are configured to limit the axial advancement of the rotatable housing member 452 . Complete advancement of the rotatable housing member 452 fully compresses the integrated filter connector 10 to compress and firmly grasp the outer layers of the coaxial cable. FIG. 5 is a cut-away perspective view of a third embodiment 500 of an integrated filter connector 10 including a different set of compression related components as compared to those of the prior two embodiments. The third embodiment 500 includes forward structures that are substantially the same as described for the first embodiment 100 except for differences associated with a set of compression related components 560 that are disposed towards the rear end 104 of the integrated filter connector 10 . The outer body 510 is structured and functions in substantially the same way as the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 (See FIGS. 1-3 ). For example, the outer body 510 accommodates a rotatable nut 130 that is disposed towards its front end 102 and provides substantially the same accommodation (shaped and dimensioned mechanical interface) for the aforementioned non-compression related internal components that were described in association with the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 . The outer body 510 of the third embodiment 500 differs from the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 in that it accommodates a different compression component design 560 located proximate its rear end 104 . The external surface of the outer body 510 excludes the shoulder 212 of the first embodiment 100 (See FIG. 2 ) and excludes the threads 456 of the second embodiment 400 (See FIG. 4 ). The non-compression related internal components of the fourth embodiment 500 are substantially the same as those described of the first embodiment 100 . For example, the non-compression related internal components include the electrical circuit board 112 and its contact pin 114 and collet 116 , the insulator 122 surrounding the contact pin 114 , the post 120 and the circuit board support 118 and its slots 118 a and 118 b receiving the circuit board 112 . Like the first embodiment 100 , the set of compression related components 560 includes an inner sleeve 540 and the compression member 542 . Unlike the first embodiment, the set of compression related components 560 excludes the housing member 144 , includes an inner sleeve 540 having serrations 546 that are configured to make physical contact with a coaxial cable (not shown). The third embodiment 500 also includes a compression member 542 that is configured to be inserted into the outer body 510 , but over rather than into the inner sleeve 540 . As with the previous embodiments, a prepared end of a coaxial cable is inserted into the central passageway 550 of the outer body 510 . The central (center) conductor and dielectric layer are inserted into the sleeve 520 of the post. The braided wire mesh of the outer conductor and the outer protective layer of the cable occupy the annular space between the post 520 and the insert sleeve 546 . Axial advancement of the compression member 542 towards the front end of the outer body 510 causes the inner sleeve 540 to radially deflect inward towards the coaxial cable. In some embodiments, radial deflection of the inner sleeve 540 causes at least some crimping, meaning at least some non-elastic (plastic) deformation, to the coaxial cable. A tapered inner surface 544 of the compression member 542 causes inward radial deflection of the inner sleeve 540 towards the coaxial cable. Complete advancement of the compression member 542 fully compresses the integrated filter connector 10 to firmly grasp the outer layers of the coaxial cable and retain the cable within the integrated filter connector 10 . FIG. 6 is a cut-away perspective view of a fourth embodiment 600 of an integrated filter connector 10 including a different set of compression related components 660 as compared to those of the previously described embodiments. The fourth embodiment 600 includes forward structures that are substantially the same as described for the first embodiment 100 except for differences associated with a set of compression related components 660 that are disposed proximate to the rear end 104 of the integrated filter connector 10 . The outer body 610 is structured and functions in substantially the same way as the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 (See FIGS. 1-3 ). For example, the outer body 610 accommodates a rotatable nut 130 that is disposed towards its front end 102 and provides substantially the same accommodation (shaped and dimensioned mechanical interface) for the aforementioned non-compression related internal components that were described in association with the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 . The outer body 610 of the fourth embodiment 600 differs from the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 in that it accommodates a different compression component design 660 located proximate its rear end 104 and that it excludes the shoulder 212 of the first embodiment 100 . Also, outer body 610 excludes the external threaded surface 456 of the second embodiment 400 (See FIG. 4 ). The non-compression related internal components of the fourth embodiment 600 are substantially the same as those described of the first embodiment 100 . For example, the non-compression related internal components include the circuit board 112 and its contact pin 114 and collet 116 , the insulator 122 surrounding the contact pin 114 , the post 120 and the circuit board support 118 and its slots 118 a and 118 b receiving the circuit board 112 . The set of compression related components of the fourth embodiment includes a compression member 642 that is shaped differently than the compression member 142 of the first embodiment 100 (see FIGS. 1-2 ) and the set excludes the inner sleeve 140 and the housing member 144 (See FIGS. 1-2 ) of the first embodiment. As shown, the compression member 642 has an interior surface which includes a tapered portion 646 . The tapered inner surface has a substantially conical profile. An external surface of the compression member 642 optionally includes a flange 626 and a protruding ridge 618 , also referred to as a rib 618 . The rib 618 is configured to mate and slidingly engage with an internal groove 620 cut into an inner surface near the rear end of the outer body 610 . The groove 620 is configured to retain the compression member 642 in a first, uncompressed position, as shown. In the first, uncompressed position, a properly prepared end of a coaxial cable (not shown) may be inserted into an internal bore 650 through the compression member 642 to engage the post 120 . As shown, the rib 618 is optionally configured to assist in the axially advancement of the compression member 642 further into the outer body 610 towards the forward end 102 . The rib 618 may optionally be configured with an inclined forward face to assist with axial advancement of the compression member 642 further into the outer body 610 . The rib 618 may also include a rear face that may be either perpendicular to the external surface 648 of the compression member or inclined to inhibit or promote, respectively, the removal of the compression member 642 from the outer body 610 , as desired. As shown, the location of the flange 626 and the rear edge 612 of the outer body 610 are configured to act as a barrier (stopping mechanism) to limit the forward axial advancement of the compression member 642 . The rear end 104 of the compression member 642 includes an external flange 626 of greater diameter than that of an inner diameter of the rear end of the outer body 610 . Axial advancement of the compression member 642 is stopped when the flange 626 makes physical contact with the rear edge 612 of the outer body 610 . An external surface 648 of the compression member 642 that is located in the forward direction relative to the flange 626 has an external diameter substantially the same as or slightly greater than the inner diameter of the outer body 610 to create a press fit effect of the compression member 642 into the outer body 610 . The press fit effect inhibits the inadvertent removal of the compression member 642 after its compression (installation) into the outer body 610 . Alternatively, the external surface 648 of the compression member 642 may include a second rib (not shown) which engages the groove 620 located on the internal surface near the rear end of the outer body 610 to create an interference fit, also referred to as a snap engagement, between the compression member 642 and the outer body 610 during installation of a coaxial cable (not shown) via axial advancement (compression) of the compression member 642 into the outer body 610 . Upon axial advancement of the compression member 642 into the outer body 610 , the compression member 642 is driven into a cavity 630 located between the inner surface of the outer body 610 and the outer layers of the coaxial cable, that include at least the braided wire mesh and protective outer layers (not shown). The compression member 642 is dimensioned to fit inside of the cavity 630 and the axial advancement of the compression member 642 reduces the volume of the cavity 630 and compresses and firmly grasps the outer layers of the cable between the compression member and the post, retaining the cable within the integrated filter connector 10 . FIG. 7 is a cut-away perspective view of an integrated filter connector 10 in accordance with a fifth embodiment 700 of the present invention including an RCA style connector interface. An RCA style connector interface includes a male and a female connector that do not include threads and that are not required to be rotated to be engaged with each other. RCA style connectors are simply pushed together to be engaged and pulled apart to be disengaged. Hence, a nut 130 is not required and is excluded from the fifth embodiment 700 of the integrated filter connector 10 . The fifth embodiment 700 is structured in the same manner with respect to the compression related components of the fourth embodiment 600 and with respect to many of the non-compression related internal components of the fourth embodiment 600 (See FIG. 6 ). The non-compression related internal components include the circuit board 112 and its collet 116 , the post 120 and its attached circuit board support 118 and its slots 118 a and 118 b receiving the circuit board 112 . The contact pin 714 and the insulator 722 surrounding the contact pin 714 are configured to support the structure of an RCA style male connector 740 and may be different that those for previous described embodiments. The outer body 710 is structured and functions in substantially the same way, as the outer body 610 of the fourth embodiment 600 of the integrated filter connector 10 . Accordingly, the outer body 710 provides substantially the same mechanical support (accommodation) for the aforementioned compression and non-compression related components that were provided by the outer body 610 of the fourth embodiment. The outer body 710 of the fifth embodiment 700 differs from the outer body 110 of the first embodiment 100 in that it does not accommodate a nut 130 (See FIGS. 1-3 ) at its forward end 102 . Instead of the nut 130 , a male RCA connector 740 is disposed at the forward end 102 of this fifth embodiment 700 of the integrated filter connector 10 . The contact pin 714 is configured to constitute a “stinger” portion of the male RCA connector. FIG. 8 is a cut-away perspective view of a sixth embodiment 800 of the integrated filter connector 10 that includes a BNC style connector interface. In this embodiment, a BNC style connector interface substitutes for the RCA style interface of the fifth embodiment 700 . A BNC style connector interface includes a male and a female connector that do not include threads like that of the nut 130 of the first embodiment 100 (See FIGS. 1-3 ). BNC style connectors are pushed towards each other and twisted less than one full 360 degree turn to be engaged and disengaged. The sixth embodiment 800 is structured and functions substantially as the fifth embodiment 700 of the integrated filter connector 10 of FIG. 7 except that a BNC style male connector 840 is substituted for the RCA style male connector 740 (Shown in FIG. 7 ). The outer body 810 of the sixth embodiment 800 differs from the outer body 710 of the fifth embodiment 700 in that it accommodates a male BNC connector 840 instead of a male RCA connector 740 disposed at the forward end 102 . The contact pin 814 and its insulator 822 are configured to constitute a “stinger” portion of the male BNC connector. Other aspects of the sixth embodiment 800 , including the compression component design, are the same as that of the fifth embodiment 700 of FIG. 7 . FIG. 9 is a cut-away perspective view of a seventh embodiment 900 of the integrated filter connector 10 that includes an F style male connector interface. In this embodiment, an F style male connector interface substitutes for the RCA style connector 740 interface of the fifth embodiment 700 . An F style connector interface includes a male and a female connector that include threads like that of the nut 130 of the first embodiment 100 (see FIGS. 1-3 ). The F style connectors are engaged and rotated in a clockwise direction to be engaged and are rotated in a counter clockwise direction to be disengaged. The seventh embodiment 900 is structured in the same manner as the fifth embodiment 700 of the integrated filter connector 10 of FIG. 7 except that an F style male connector 940 is substituted for the RCA style male connector 740 (Shown in FIG. 7 ). Other aspects of the seventh embodiment, including the compression component design, are the same as that of the fifth embodiment 700 of FIG. 7 . FIG. 10 is a cut-away perspective view of an eighth embodiment 1000 of the integrated filter connector 10 that includes an F style female connector interface. In this embodiment, an F style female connector 1040 interface substitutes for the RCA style male connector 740 interface of the fifth embodiment 700 of FIG. 7 . An F style connector 1040 interface includes a male and a female connector that each include threads like that of the nut 130 of the first embodiment 100 (see FIGS. 1-3 ). The F style connectors are engaged and rotated in a clockwise direction to be engaged and are rotated in a counter clockwise direction to be disengaged. The eighth embodiment 1000 is structured in the same manner as the fifth embodiment 700 of the integrated filter connector 10 of FIG. 7 except that an F style female connector 1040 is substituted for the RCA style male connector 740 (Shown in FIG. 7 ). Instead of contact pin 714 , as shown in the fifth embodiment 700 , a collet 1014 is disposed proximate to the front end 102 of the integrated filter connector 10 . An insulator cap 1016 is disposed between the collet 1014 and the F-style female connector 1040 . As shown, the collet 1014 is surrounded by external threads 1034 . Other aspects of the eighth embodiment 1000 , including the set of compression related components, are the same as that of the fifth embodiment 700 of FIG. 7 . FIG. 11 is an exploded perspective view of a ninth embodiment 1100 of an unassembled integrated filter connector 10 made in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 12 is a cut-away perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector 10 of FIG. 11 . FIG. 13 is a perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector 10 of FIGS. 11 and 12 . As shown, the integrated filter connector 10 includes a forward end 102 and a rear end 104 , an outer body 1110 and an inner body 1118 , which is configured to enclose a printed circuit board (PCB) 112 that performs in-line signal conditioning and that functions as part of an integrated signal filter assembly. The forward end 102 of the inner body 1118 is capped by a forward header 1176 and the rear end 104 of the inner body 1118 is capped by a rear header 1124 . The inner body 1118 and outer body 110 are each also referred to as a cylindrical housing. The circuit board 112 includes a forward electrode 114 and a rear electrode 116 . Typically, the forward electrode is implemented as a contact pin 114 and the rear electrode is implemented as a collet 116 . In some embodiments, the forward electrode is also implemented as a collet 116 . The PCB 112 also includes a ground plane (not shown) and a forward electrical contact pad (not shown) and a rear electrical contact pad (not shown) at each of two opposite ends. The forward electrical contact pad is in electrical contact with the forward electrode 114 . The rear electrical contact pad is in electrical contact with the rear electrode 116 . A forward insulator 1172 is configured to surround and electrically isolate the forward contact pin 114 from the cylindrical inner body 1118 and the forward header 1176 . A rear insulator 1178 is configured to surround and electrically isolate the rear contact pin 116 from the rear header 1124 . As shown, the forward insulator 1172 is shaped as a disk and the rear insulator 1178 is shaped as a cylindrical sleeve. The insulators are typically made of an insulating material such as silicone rubber or non-conductive plastic. The cylindrical inner body 1118 that is also referred to herein as a circuit board support 1118 , is configured to receive and to provide mechanical support to the circuit board 112 . In this embodiment, the circuit board support 1118 is constructed as a cylindrical shaped tubular member and includes at least two opposing inwardly deflected tabs 1182 a - 1182 d , also referred to as inward tabs 1182 a - 1182 d , the ends of which form circuit board supporting slots. The inward tabs 1182 a - 1182 d are disposed at locations along an outer surface of the cylindrical inner body member 1118 and are oriented and dimensioned to receive and to provide mechanical support to the circuit board 112 . While in the current embodiment, the circuit board supporting slots formed by the inward tabs are aligned with the longitudinal axis of the inner cylindrical body member 1118 , the tabs could be positioned to support the PCB 112 off-set from the longitudinal axis. Moreover, while the circuit board 112 is shown oriented with the longitudinal axis of the cylindrical inner body 1118 , the board may also be disk shaped and oriented perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. In such an alternative embodiment, the contact pins and collet would connect to each face of the PCB 112 rather than opposing ends. The cylindrical inner body 1118 may also be configured with at least one access hole or passageway 1183 a - 1183 c to permit the tuning of filter components after the PCB 112 is inserted into cylindrical inner body 1118 . Where such tunable filter components are mounted on both sides of the circuit board, the access 1183 a - 1183 c holes may be located at several locations around the exterior surface of the cylindrical inner body 1118 . The cylindrical inner body 1118 may also be configured with end tabs 1184 a and 1184 b . The end tabs are provided to mate with corresponding slots 1179 , 1177 on the forward header 1176 and the rear header 1124 and provide the function of rotationally locking the headers to the inner body 1118 such that rotation of the header does not exert substantial torque upon the printed circuit board 112 that could damage the circuitry thereon and the effectiveness of the signal filter assembly. The forward end of the cylindrical inner body 1118 is capped by a forward header 1176 . The forward header may be configured to include opposing longitudinal slots 1177 , 1179 which are positioned to receive and support the forward corners of the PCB 112 . The rear end of the forward header 1176 may also be configured to receive the forward insulator 1172 . Either or both the forward header and the forward insulator may include a shoulder or groove to seat an O-ring 1188 b to form a seal between these adjacent components. The forward header 1176 has an inner surface defining a central throughbore. The inner surface includes an internal groove 1175 for the partial seating of the locking snap ring 1180 . The central throughbore of the forward header 1176 receives a nut 1130 having an inner surface, an outer surface, forward and rear ends. The inner surface at the forward end of the nut 1130 includes internal threads for mating with a threaded port or other fixture having corresponding external threads. The external surface of the rear end of the nut 1130 includes a groove 1134 for partially receiving the locking snap ring 1180 . With the snap ring 1180 partially seated in both grooves 1175 and 1134 , the nut 1130 is engaged with the forward header 1176 , but rotates independently thereof. A grip ring 1150 is press fit over a portion of the external surface of the nut 1130 . The press fit is sufficiently tight such that rotation of the grip ring 1150 causes rotation of the nut 1130 . As shown, the grip ring 1150 has a knurled outer surface 1150 a that enables a person to hand tighten the attachment (coupling) of the filter connector to a port, such as to a CATV port or to another coaxial cable connector. The integrated filter connector 10 may also include a port seal 1140 which is attached to the forward end of the nut 1130 to prevent the ingress of moisture along the threaded port and between the nut 1130 and the grip ring 1150 . In the present embodiment, the port seal 1140 is a bellows-type seal of the nature and general description contained in co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/876,386, filed Jun. 25, 2004, which is incorporated herein by reference. Alternatively, as is well-known in the art, the port seal 1140 may be configured as a tubular grommet comprised of silicone rubber and having interlocking shoulders or steps, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,869,679 issued on Sep. 26, 1989. The nut 1130 may also be configured to grasp and retain the port seal 1140 . In the present embodiment, the nut 1130 has a seal grasping surface which includes an external groove 1136 on the forward end of the nut 1130 . The port seal 1140 may also be configured with an internal shoulder at the rear end of the port seal that engages the forward side wall of the groove 1136 . The grip ring 1150 may also be configured to engage the rear portion of the port seal 1140 . The engagement of the port seal assists in both retaining the port seal as an integral part of the assembly 10 and in forming a seal to prevent the infiltration of moisture between the nut 1130 and the grip ring 1150 . Sealing members may be disposed between the components at the forward end of the integrated filter connector 10 to seal any potential paths for moisture infiltration. Shoulders, grooves or annular spaces are formed in the respective components to properly seat the sealing members. As depicted in FIGS. 11 and 12 , four sealing members in the form of O-rings 1188 b - 1188 e are disposed at the forward end of the assembly. Sealing member 1188 b is disposed between the forward insulator 1172 and the rear end of the forward header 1176 . Sealing member 1188 c is disposed between the forward end of the forward header 1176 and the outer body 1110 . Sealing member 1188 d is disposed between the forward end of the forward header and the grip ring 1150 . Sealing member 1188 e is disposed between forward end of the forward insulator and the nut 1130 . The rear end of the cylindrical inner body 1118 is capped by the rear header 1124 . The rear header 1124 is both press fit into the opening at the rear end of the inner body 1118 and rotationally locked by engagement of an end tab 1184 a in a corresponding longitudinal slot 1127 at the forward end of the rear header 1124 . Opposing longitudinal slots 1125 , 1127 are positioned to receive and support the rear corners of the circuit board 112 . The ground plane of the circuit board 112 may be electrically engaged by either the longitudinal slots formed by the tabs 1182 a - d or the longitudinal slots 1177 , 1179 in the forward 1176 or rear 1124 headers. The rear header 1124 has an inner surface defining a central throughbore. The rear header 1124 may also include an external shoulder or groove (not shown) to seat an O-ring 1188 a which forms a seal between the rear header 1124 and the outer body upon final assembly. Outer body 1110 is slid over the assembled inner body 1118 and headers. A press fit is formed between the outer body 1110 and circular flanges on each of the forward 1176 and rear 1124 headers. The rear end of the outer body 1110 is rolled over to seat the first O-ring 1188 a and seal the rear end of the assembly from moisture. The inner surface of the rear header 1124 includes an internal groove (not shown) for the partial seating of the locking member 1122 . The inner surface of the rear header 1124 may also be configured to receive the rear insulator 1178 . The inner surface of the rear header 1124 is also configured to receive a post 1120 which, in this embodiment includes a step or taper in the internal bore which mates with a corresponding shoulder or tapered surface on the post. The rear portion of the post generally includes a sleeve which is adapted to be inserted over the dielectric layer of the cable and electrically engage the outer conductor of the coaxial cable (not shown). Engagement of the outer conductor and retention of the integrated filter connector 10 on the coaxial cable may be assisted by the inclusion of a barb or other serrations on the post sleeve. A locking member 1122 is dimensioned and configured to be inserted into the central throughbore of the rear header 1124 . The locking member 1122 may include one or more protruding ridges that engage a corresponding groove (not shown) on the inner surface of the slide into the rear header component 1124 . The locking member 1122 is snap-engaged in a first position partially inserted into the rear end of the rear header 1124 such that a properly prepared end of a coaxial cable may be inserted into the rear header 1124 in a manner similar to co-owned U.S. Pat. No. 5,470,257 which is incorporated by reference herein. When fully inserted, the central (center) conductor of the coaxial cable engages the collet 116 attached to the rear contact pad at the rear of the PCB 112 ; the dielectric layer is inserted within the post 1120 ; the outer conductor and protective outer jacket of the coaxial cable are disposed within the annular space between the post sleeve and the inner surface of the rear header 1124 . After insertion of the cable, the locking member 1122 is axially advanced further into the rear end of the rear header 1124 until the end of the rear header 1124 abuts an exterior flange at the rear end of the locking member 1122 . In this embodiment, the locking member 1122 will be press fit into the rear end of the rear header 1124 . Alternatively, a second protruding shoulder could be formed on the exterior of the locking member 1122 that snap engages the locking member 1122 into a second compressed position, or a second internal groove (not shown) on the inner surface of the rear header 1124 into which the protruding ridge is engaged in such second compressed position. The outer surface of the rear header 1124 may include hexagonal flats 1123 for engagement by a tool, such as a box wrench, to assist in the rotation of the assembly. Upon advancement, a tapered inner surface of the locking member 1122 reduces the internal volume of the annular space within the rear header 1124 . The inner surface of the locking member 1122 grasps the outer layers of the coaxial cable against the post sleeve to retain the cable within the rear header 1124 of the integrated filter connector 10 . FIG. 14 is an exploded perspective view of a tenth embodiment 1400 of an unassembled integrated filter connector 10 made in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 15 is a cut-away perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector 1400 of FIG. 14 . FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector 10 of FIGS. 14 and 15 . As shown, the integrated filter connector 10 includes a forward end 102 , a rear end 104 , a filter body 1410 , and a header 1424 which are configured to enclose a printed circuit board (PCB) 112 that performs in-line signal conditioning and that functions as part of an integrated signal filter assembly. The tenth embodiment is similar to the ninth embodiment in many ways, however, the tenth embodiment eliminates the cylindrical inner body 1118 and incorporates many of the features of the forward header 1176 into the filter body 1410 . As the present embodiment eliminates components from the previous embodiment, fewer O-rings are required to seal the potential paths of moisture infiltration. As in the previous embodiment, the circuit board 112 includes a forward electrode 114 and a rear electrode 116 . The forward electrode is implemented as a contact pin 114 and the rear electrode is implemented as a collet 116 . The PCB 112 also includes a ground plane (not shown), a forward electrical contact pad (not shown) and a rear electrical contact pad (not shown) at each of two opposite ends. The forward electrical contact pad is in electrical contact with the forward electrode 114 . The rear electrical contact pad is in electrical contact with the rear electrode 116 . A forward insulator 1172 is configured to surround and electrically isolate the forward contact pin 114 from the filter body 1410 . A rear insulator 1178 is configured to surround and electrically isolate the rear contact pin 116 from the header 1424 . As shown, the forward insulator 1172 is shaped as a disk, and the rear insulator 1178 is shaped as a cylindrical sleeve. As assembled, the filter body 1410 is capped by header 1424 , also referred to as a rear header 1424 . The header 1424 is press fit into the open rear end of the filter body. The header 1424 may include a groove to seat a first O-ring seal 1488 a . Opposing longitudinal slots 1482 a and 1482 b (not shown) are positioned to receive and support the sides of the PCB 112 . The ground plane of the circuit board 112 may be electrically engaged by the longitudinal slots 1482 a - 1482 b in the header 1424 . The header 1424 has an inner surface defining a central throughbore. The inner surface includes an internal groove 1475 for the partial seating of the locking member 1422 . The inner surface of the header 1424 may also be configured to receive the rear insulator 1178 . The inner surface of the header 1424 is also configured to receive a post 1420 which is configured and operates in the same manner as post 1120 in the ninth embodiment described above. A locking member 1422 is similarly dimensioned and configured to be inserted into the central throughbore of the rear header 1424 . The locking member has substantially the same structure and operation as the locking member 1122 in the previous embodiment. The filter body 1410 has an inner surface defining a central throughbore. The inner surface near the forward end of the filter body 1410 includes an internal groove 1475 (See FIG. 15 ) for the partial seating of the locking snap ring 1180 . The forward end of the filter body receives a nut 1130 which is configured and operates in the same manner as nut 1130 in the ninth embodiment described above. The inner surface at the forward end of the nut 1130 includes internal threads for mating with a threaded port or other fixture having corresponding external threads. The external surface of the rear end of the nut 1130 includes a groove for partially receiving the locking snap ring 1480 . With the snap ring 1480 partially seated in both grooves 1475 and 1134 , the nut 1130 is engaged with the filter body 1410 , but rotates independently thereof. A grip ring 1450 is press fit over a portion of the external surface of the nut 1130 . The press fit is sufficiently tight such that rotation of the grip ring 1450 causes rotation of the nut 1130 . As shown, the grip ring 1450 has a knurled outer surface 1450 a that enables a person to hand tighten the filter connector 10 to a port, such as to a CATV port. The integrated filter connector 10 may also include a port seal 1140 which is attached to the forward end of the nut 1130 to prevent the ingress of moisture along the threaded port and between the nut 1130 and the grip ring 1450 . In the present embodiment, the port seal 1140 is a bellows-type seal described above. In the present embodiment, the nut 1130 has a seal grasping surface which includes an external groove 1136 on the forward end of the nut 1130 . The port seal 1140 may also be configured with an internal shoulder at the rear end of the seal that engages the forward side wall of the groove 1136 . The grip ring 1450 may also be configured to engage the rear portion of the port seal 1140 . The engagement of the port seal 1140 assists in both retaining the port seal 1140 as an integral part of the assembly 10 and in forming a seal to prevent the infiltration of moisture between the nut 1130 and the grip ring 1450 . Sealing members may be disposed between the components at the forward end of the integrated filter connector 10 to seal any potential paths for moisture infiltration. Shoulders, grooves or annular spaces are formed in the respective components to properly seat the sealing members. As depicted in FIGS. 14 and 15 , two sealing members in the form of O-rings 1488 b - 1488 c are disposed at the forward end 102 of the assembly. Sealing member 1488 b is disposed between the forward insulator 1172 and the inner surface of the filter body 1410 . Sealing member 1488 c is disposed between the nut 1130 and grip ring 1450 at the forward end of the filter body 1410 . Once installed on a cable, a person can hand grip and rotate the grip ring 1450 to rotate the nut 1130 (not shown). The nut 1130 can be rotated to selectively engage or disengage the integrated filter connector 10 , to or from an externally threaded port (not shown), such as included within a CATV distribution box. FIG. 17 is a cut-away perspective view of an eleventh embodiment of the assembled and uncompressed integrated filter connector 10 having an externally threaded port connector 1732 . The nut 1130 of FIG. 12 is substituted with the externally threaded (female) port connector 1732 that is integrally formed with a forward header 1776 . The forward header 1776 is press fitted into the forward end of the cylindrical inner body 1718 and outer body 1710 is slid over the assembled inner body 1718 and forward and rear headers disposed adjacent to the forward and rear ends of the inner body 1718 . In this embodiment, as is well known in the art, each end of the outer body is rolled around the forward and rear headers to enclose O-rings (not shown) used to seal each end of the assembly. While the present invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to the preferred mode as illustrated in the drawings, it will be understood by one skilled in the art that various changes in detail may be effected therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the following claims.

An integrated filter connector apparatus that performs the functions of a coaxial cable connector component combined with the functions of an in-line signal conditioning component. The apparatus eliminates at least one exposed point of connection between a separate coaxial cable connector component and an in-line signal conditioning component. Elimination of such a point of connection likely reduces RF ingress into a signal path and likely reduces interference with a signal traveling through the signal path. Embodiments of the connector apparatus provide various types of connector interfaces.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTON 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a machine structured to travel continuously along the length of a roof's surface and including a separating member or structure pivotally mounted thereon and capable of imparting a lifting and separating action, concurrently to the covering material and more particularly the under surface thereof so as to separate it from the exterior surface of the roof from which it is being removed. 2. Description of the Prior Art In the roofing industry, a large part of the business is dedicated to the repair and replacement of all or portions of the covering material initially or originally secured to the exterior surface thereof. Obviously, such covering material can take many forms and includes tile pieces as well as elongated strips of generally water-proof material, disposed in overlapping relation to one another so as to prevent water and moisture from seeping through and beyond the covering material. Frequently, numerous layers of tar or like sealing material are first placed on the roof surface between the exterior covering material such as the tiles, etc. so as to again insure a moisture seal barrier and prevent leakage or passing of the environmental elements, snow, rain, etc. from passing into the interior of the building through and beyond the covering material. However, one problem generally recognized in the industry and directly associated with the repair of a roof structure includes the rather laborious and time-consuming and certainly disagreeable process of removing the old or original covering material from the roof's surface in order to apply new material thereto. In the past the prior art has relied primarily on manual techniques for removing such covering material. Such techiques have been rather primitive relying primarily on the use of manual tools such as scrapers, cutters and like hand operated implements for the physical and laborious task of removing such covering material. Currently, there are no "automatic" or time-consuming machines in use which are recognized as being efficient and effective removal of tiles or other covering material from the exterior surface of the roof in a manner which will eliminate the use of the manual method as generally set forth above. Therefore, it is obvious that there is a recognized need in the roofing industry for a device, apparatus or machine capable of effectively, rapidly and efficiently removing covering material from a roof surface, regardless of its structure, so that the original exposed surface of the roof can be repaired and/or recovered in order to prevent leakage and insure that harsh environmental elements do not enter the building or otherwise damage the structural integrity of the building by causing rot of facilitating other deteriorating factors. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a machine or like automatic device for the effective and rapid removal of roof tiles or other similar covering material from the exterior surface of a roof for purposes of replacement of such cover material or the overall repair of the roof itself. More specifically the subject machine includes a frame which is movable across the roof surface, preferably manually. To facilitate such travel, the frame is supported on the roof surface by a plurality of wheels, rollers, etc. Further, the frame is structured and disposed to support the other operative components of the machine in a manner to be described in greater detail hereinafter. A separating means is pivotally secured to the frame and disposed at a leading, frontal portion thereof as the machine travels along the length of the roof. The separating means includes a lifting member, preferably in the form of a blade element which performs both separating, cutting and lifting function or action to the under surface of the cover material being removed and the exterior or exposed surface of the roof itself. For purposes of clarity and explanation, references hereinafter to the exterior surface of the roof. This is intended to include the exposed surface of a sealing layer of tar or other material which may be applied to the actual, physical exterior surface of the roof and to which the original covering material was initially bonded or secured. Therefore, an important feature of the present invention is the imparting of a concurrent motion to the separating means generally and more particularly to the lifting member defined by the aforementioned blade structure. The concurrent, operative motion of the lifting member is defined by a forward separating engagement of the blade with the under surface of the covering material for purposes of physically separating the covering material at its point of engagement or securement from the roof surface or any sealing barrier disposed thereon. At the same time, the lifting member or blade has imparted thereto a lifting motion such that the lifting member is reciprocally forced into a lifting or raised position as it travels forwardly. This in turn imparts a lifting action to the covering material forcing its separation from the roof surface or sealing or barrier material for which it was originally attached. The machine of the present invention further includes a drive means driven by a drive motor wherein the drive motor and drive means are mounted on the frame and travel therewith as the frame travels forwardly along the length of roof and separates the original covering material from the roof surface. The drive means is specifically structured to include an eccentrically configured cam which periodically or reciprocally engages a portion of the separating means causing its reciprocal and pivotal movement relative to the frame and thereby imparting the aforementioned periodic lifting motion to the under surface of the covering material as the frame moves concurrently forward along the roof causing a lifting and separation of the covering material from the roof surface. Further structural features of the subject machine include the provision of a transfer means mounted adjacent to the separating means but in generally overlying relation thereto. A leading end of the transfer means is disposed substantially adjacent to the lifting member and in direct receiving relation to the covering material once it is separated or removed from the roof's surface. The disposition of the transfer means is such as to substantially overly the separating means in a fixed attachment to the frame. Accordingly, the transfer means has sufficient length to effectively transfer or "carry" the covering material, once removed, from its original location on the roof's surface, by lifting and separating engagement with the blade or lifting member of the separating means. Further and additional structural features of the present invention will be described in greater detail hereinafter. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side view of the machine of the present invention shown mounted on a roof or other supporting surface in its operative position. FIG. 2 is a side view of a transfer structure associated with the machine. FIG. 3 is a top plan view of the transfer structure shown in FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a top plan detail view of the separating means and portion or the supporting frame attached thereto. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT As shown in FIG. 1, the machine of the present invention is generally indicated as 10 and includes a frame means 12 used to support various other components of the machine as will be explained in greater detail hereinafter. The frame 12 is supported on a roof surface schematically represented as 14 by a plurality of wheels 16 and 17 affixed to various portions of the frame clearly shown in FIG. 1. The machine as represented in FIG. 10 may be manually pushed along the length of the roof by an outwardly extending handle shown in partial detail and represented at 18 in FIG. 1. Obviously, it should be apparent that the handle may take a variety of forms and is dependent generally on the overall size and design of the machine. Suffice it to say that the handle 18 extends generally rearwardly of the intended forward direction of travel as indicated by the directional arrow 20. The machine 10 includes a drive motor generally indicated as 20 controlled by a switching assembly represented by the exterior housing 22 wherein an on/off activating switch 24 is represented thereon. A proper electrical conductor structure as at 26 and 28 serves respectively to direct power from a conventional source to the switching assembly 22 and from there directly to the working components to the drive motor 22. A power take-off of the drive motor is shown by take-off shaft 30 fixedly connected in driving relation by a connecting member 32 which serves to interconnect the power take-off shaft 30 to an input or drive shaft 34 of the drive means which is generally represented as 36. The drive means 36 includes an exterior housing as at 38 and 40 respectively disposed to include the protection and housing of gearing members and the like. In operation the drive motor 20 imparts a rotary output driving motion through output shaft 30. The shaft interconnection as at 32 imparts the same rotary motion to the intake shaft 34 of the drive means 36. Proper gearing located both in the housing segments 38 and 40 in turn imparts a rotary motion to a cam means generally indicated as 42. The cam means includes at least one but preferably two cam members (only one shown for purposes of clarity ) as at 44. Each of the cam members 44 curved generally eccentrically configured peripheral surfaces as at 46. Further, each of the cam members 44 are driven about an axis of rotation as at 48 defined by a mounting stub axle transversely located to the length of the input shaft 34 serving to drive the interior gearing within the housing segments 38 and 40. The transverse placement relative to the length of the housing segments 38 and 40 serves to allow periodic and successive engagement of the exterior driving peripheral surface 46 of cam member 44 with a cam seat member or structure 50 shown in both FIGS. 1 and 4. The seat member 50 is attached directly to the separating means which is generally indicated as at 52. As set forth above, in that each of the cam members 44 are eccentrically mounted as at one end at 48 and have their peripheries eccentrically configured as at curved portion 46 and straight portion 47, it should be apparent that engagement of the curved peripheral portion 46 of cam member 44 with seat 50 will cause a reciprocal pivotal movement or travel of the separating means 52 about supporting shaft 58. Also, the separating means 52 including both arms 60 are connected to the supporting shaft 58 so as to be pivotal thereto. Therefore, as the cam members 44 rotate continuously about the rotational axis 48 the curved periphery 46 will periodically come into driving engagement with the cam seats 50 thereon. This engegement will force the trailing end 53 of separation means 52 downwardly in accordance with directional arrow 55. However, when the curved periphery 46 of each of the cams 44 disengages from the cam seat 50 during the continuous rotation of the cam members 44, a biasing means in the form of biasing spring 63 will force the trailing end 53 of the separation means 52 upwardly in accordance with the directional arrow 57 of FIG. 1 thereby imparting to the separating means 52 a continuous reciprocal, pivotal motion about the shaft 58 and the pivotal axis 58' as shown in FIG. 1. The separating means 52 also includes a lifting member 59 which is generally in the form of a blade 64. The blade 64 has a leading peripheral cutting or separating edge as at 66 which actually comes into contact and establishes a cutting or separating engagement with the under portion of the covering material or roof tiles and its point of connection or securement to the exterior surface of the roof 14. As shown in FIG. 4, the actual configuration of the cutting peripheral edge 66 may vary from a straight line configuration to a serrated configuration as at 66'. The lifting member or blade 64 may be fixedly connected by appropriate connectors 65 to the leading end or portion of the separating means 52 generally as at 67. Therefore, it should be apparent that both a concurrently applied forward and separating lifting motion is imparted to the lifting member 59 due to the forward direction of travel of the machine 10 and the reciprocal motion of the separating means 52 to define an operative motion of the lifting member. Another feature of the present invention is the existence of a mounting structure 69 defining a portion of the frame 12 and disposed in a frontal leading portion theeof. The mounting structure 69 is oriented in a somewhat downward angular orientation as clearly shown in FIG. 1 in order to properly place the separating means 52 and more particularly the lifting member 59 and cutting edge 66 thereof in proper separating engagement between the under surface of the covering material and the roof surface 14. The mounting structure includes two spaced apart arms 70 and 72 and a supporting wheel or roller structure 17. The connecting shaft 58 is disposed between arms 70 and 72 and serves as a pivotal axis for the separating means 52 as set forth above. The concurrent lifting motion of the separating means 52 and forward motion of the machine 10 as it is forced to travel forwardly along the roof surface 14 in accordance with the directional arrow 21 will cause the cover material, once removed from the roof surface 14, to transfer up onto a transfer means generally indicated as 72. the transfer means is fixedly disposed to the frame substantially at the location 75 on the mounting structure 66 and 76 on the frame itself adjacent to the drive means 36. With reference to FIG. 3, the transfer means 70 includes a plurality of tines 74 disposed in spaced apart relation to one another as well as at least two handles 76 also disposed in spaced apart relation from one another and from the tine 74. The spacing between the tines 74 is dimensioned so as to allow non-interfering passage of the cam members 44 as they continuously rotate upon activation of the drive means 36. Further, the leading end 72' of the transfer means 72 is disposed immediately adjacent to and contiguous the lifting member 59. In this leading position and also in part due to the angular orientation of the transfer means 72, the cover mateerial, once removed from the roof's surface 14, will pass upwardly onto the outer exposed surface of the tines 74 and thereby be "carried" away from the point of separating engagement of the blade 64 and at such point it was connected to the roof's surface 14. Now that the invention has been described,

A machine for effectively and efficiently removing tiles as well as other covering material from the exterior of roof surfaces such as when the roof is to be repaired or such covering material is to be replaced. The machine travels over the roof surface and includes a separating structure reciprocally positionable between a forwardly directed separating engagement with the covering material and a lifting position relative thereto as the material is physically separated from the surface of the roof. In operation the machine may travel, under an operators control, continuously back and forth along the length of the roof until all the covering material has been removed therefrom.

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §§ 119 and/or 365 to Appln. No. 01811271.4 filed in Europe on Dec. 24, 2001; the entire content of which is hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention concerns the field of power electronics. It relates to a semiconductor module according to the precharacterizing clause of patent claim 1 and to a method of producing a semiconductor module according to the precharacterizing clause of patent claim 7 . BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A semiconductor module of this type is known for example from R. Zehringer et al., “ Power Semiconductor Materials and Devices”, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings , Volume 483, 1998, pages 369-380. This publication describes a semiconductor module with a module housing, a metallic base plate and a plurality of semiconductor elements, in this case IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) chips and diodes, arranged on said base plate and covered by said module housing. The module housing is generally filled with a silicone gel composition, which serves as an electrical insulating layer and as corrosion protection and also reduces tensile forces acting on connecting wires. The base plate is connected to a water cooling arrangement, to dissipate the heat generated by the semiconductor elements. Arranged on the base plate is a substrate in the form of a metal-coated ceramic board. It has an electrical insulation between the semiconductor elements and the base plate or water cooling arrangement and, moreover, has good thermal conductivity, to dissipate the heat of the semiconductor elements to the base plate. The base plate, ceramic board and semiconductor elements are soldered on one another, the metal layers of the ceramic board permitting the soldered connection. Good thermal conductivity and poor electrical conductivity can nowadays be combined in materials, so that there is no difficulty in producing insulating elements which are relatively thin but conduct heat well, for example from aluminum nitride (AIN), with a good electrical insulating capacity. For instance, a thickness of 1.5 to 2 mm is theoretically adequate to insulate 20 kV. Edge effects, caused in particular by edges and corners of the metal layers, adversely affect the dielectric strength of the semiconductor module, however, in particular in the case of high-power semiconductor modules above 1.2 kV. The edges and corners of the metal layers have an inhomogeneous, intensified electric field. This excessive field increase leads to partial discharges and limits the dielectric strength of the entire construction. In this case, the field strength at the edges is at least the square of the voltage, with the result that massively thicker electrical insulation would be necessary to avoid such partial discharges. Air bubbles that may be produced precisely in the edge zones when gel is filled into the module housing are conducive to partial discharges and constitute an additional critical factor with regard to the functionality of the semiconductor module. There are various approaches to solving this insulation problem. In DE 199 59 248, clearances are formed in field-critical regions and filled with gel, consequently forming an additional interface which prevents the spread of discharges. In EP 1 041 626, the field is reduced in critical regions by three-dimensional rounded portions in the substrate. Both solutions are complex and expensive to produce. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore an object of the invention to provide a semiconductor module of the type stated at the beginning which has an improved dielectric strength and at the same time is simple to produce. Furthermore, it is an object of the invention to provide a simplified and more reliable method of producing a semiconductor module of the type stated at the beginning. The objects are achieved by a semiconductor module with the features of patent claim 1 and by a method with the features of patent claim 7 . The semiconductor module according to the invention with a base element, at least one insulating element, which rests on the base element by a first of two metallizations arranged on opposite surfaces of the insulating element, and with at least one semiconductor element arranged on the second of the two metallizations, is distinguished by the fact that an electrically insulating layer is arranged in the edge region of the insulating element, and that the surface of the insulating layer forms a common planar surface with the surface of the second metallization. The blunting of the edges and corners of the metallization by level embedding of the entire metallized insulating element improves the insulating property of the semiconductor module in the area of the critical electrical field region. By comparison with conventional semiconductor modules filled with silicone gel, a considerable improvement is obtained with respect to the electrical insulation, while retaining the advantages of the flat, metallized insulating element, in particular the good thermal conductivity and the low production costs. For the contacting of the semiconductor elements, contacting elements are recessed into the insulating layer, the contact elements being electrically insulated both from the second metallization and from the base element by the insulating layer. The contacting elements have contacting areas, which form a common planar surface with the surfaces of the insulating layer and of the second metallization. The fact that all the other major parts of the semiconductor module form a common planar surface simplifies the processing and mounting of the semiconductor elements. In a second embodiment of the semiconductor module according to the invention, a depression in which the insulating element is arranged is recessed into the surface of the base element. The second metallization of the insulating element is electrically insulated from the base element by the insulating layer. The surfaces of the insulating element, of the second metallization and of the base element form a common planar surface. In this embodiment, semiconductor elements or other electronic components can be arranged next to one another and electrically insulated from one another both on the second metallization and on the base element itself. In particular in what are known as press-pack modules, in which semiconductor elements which can be contacted on two sides are contacted by means of a contact stamp and subjected to pressing force, this produces interesting possibilities. For example, two semiconductor elements arranged next to each other can be electrically connected in series without the geometry of the respective contact stamps having to be adapted. For the press-pack modules, the common surface of the second metallization of the insulating element and of the insulating layer saves a method step in production. Since conventional standard substrates, which are preferably used as the insulating element, do not satisfy the flatness requirements for use in a press-pack module, they must be machined, for example by milling. The precision milling can be carried out in one step during the production of the semiconductor module according to the invention, together with the milling away of the insulating layer and the preparation of the contacting areas. In the case of the method according to the invention of producing a semiconductor module, at least one insulating element is attached on a base element or in a surface depression of the base element by a first of two metallizations arranged on opposite surfaces of the insulating element. Semiconductor elements are attached on the second metallization and/or, if the insulating element is arranged in a depression, on the surface of the base element, and main terminals and/or control terminals of the semiconductor elements are contacted by wire connections or other electrical conductors and connected to contacting areas of contacting elements. The semiconductor module according to the invention is distinguished by the fact that, before the semiconductor elements are attached, the base element and the at least one insulating element are introduced together with the contacting elements into a casting mold, an insulating layer is formed by filling the volume of the casting mold not taken up by the base element, insulating element or contacting element with an electrically insulating material and by the insulating layer subsequently being cured and sufficient material removed from the cured insulating layer that the surface of the insulating layer forms a common planar surface with the surface of the second of the two metallizations, with contacting areas of the contacting elements and, if the insulating element is arranged in a depression, with the surface of the base element; and that, after the semiconductor elements have been attached, movable contacting pieces of the contacting elements are arranged upright, perpendicularly in relation to the surface of the insulating layer. The application of the insulating layer and the corresponding removal to the common surface before the semiconductor elements are attached makes it possible for the entire semiconductor module to be tested with respect to the electrical insulating strength before the semiconductor elements are attached and contacted in a complex and cost-intensive method step. The number of ready-fitted semiconductor modules with defect-free insulation can be significantly reduced as a result. In an additional advantageous step of the method according to the invention, the casting mold can be at least partially evacuated before filling with the electrically insulating material. This improves the structure of the insulating layer, in particular allowing the formation of air bubbles, which may be conducive to electrical discharges, to be avoided. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention is subsequently explained in more detail on the basis of preferred exemplary embodiments in conjunction with the drawings, in which: FIG. 1 shows a simplified sectional view of a first exemplary embodiment of a semiconductor module according to the invention before the module is introduced into a casting mold for applying an insulating layer, FIG. 2 shows the semiconductor module according to FIG. 1 in the casting mold when applying the insulating layer, FIG. 3 shows the semiconductor module according to FIG. 2 with the insulating layer applied, FIG. 4 shows the ready-to-mount semiconductor module according to FIG. 3 , and FIG. 5 shows a simplified sectional view of a second exemplary embodiment of a semiconductor module according to the invention. Identical designations relate to equivalent parts. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The production method according to the invention is explained on the basis of FIGS. 1 to 4 , which show a first exemplary embodiment of a semiconductor module according to the invention. In a first method step, an insulating element 2 is attached on a base element 1 . The insulating element is advantageously a substrate which is metallized on two sides and comprises, for example, an AlO 3 or AlN ceramic board provided with copper or aluminum metallization. The material of the base element, for example Mo, AlSiC or aluminum graphite or copper graphite, is advantageously adapted with respect to thermal expansion to the material of the insulating element. The insulating element 2 is attached by a first metallization 21 directly on the base element, for example by means of a soldered connection or what is known as low-temperature bonding (LTB). The second metallization 22 may comprise a plurality of regions electrically insulated from one another. Contacting elements 3 for contacting the semiconductor elements are provided in recesses of the base element 1 which are intended for this purpose. To this end, the base element 1 , insulating element 2 and contacting elements 3 are introduced into a trough-shaped casting mold 41 , which is represented in FIG. 1 . The contacting elements 3 are in this case positioned and aligned in relation to the base element 1 by corresponding guiding elements. The casting mold 41 is closed by a second casting mold part 42 . In FIG. 2 , an electrically insulating material 51 is subsequently poured (arrows) into a cavity 44 in the interior of the casting mold through openings 43 made in the casting mold. The cavity 44 corresponds to the interior volume of the casting mold not filled by the base element 1 , insulating element 2 and contacting elements 3 . However, the cavity 44 mainly extends to a region between the contacting elements 3 and the base element 1 . The material of this electrically insulating layer 51 produced in this way is advantageously a readily flowing plastic which cures well and in the cured state can be heated for a short time to above 220° C. without greatly deforming. This is important in particular in the case of those semiconductor modules in which semiconductor elements are soldered onto the metallization of the insulating element. Furthermore, the plastic should have a coefficient of thermal expansion which corresponds to that of the surrounding materials. Corresponding plastics are, for example, epoxies available under the trade names Stycast or Aratherm. These substances lie with the breakdown voltage approximately in the range of the silicone gel used in conventional semiconductor modules, but have considerably improved adhesion and a higher dielectric constant, reducing the electric field correspondingly. For semiconductor modules without soldered-on semiconductor elements, for example in press-pack modules, lower-cost materials can also be used, for example pourable polyurethanes, which are widely used for insulations in the interior area. For applications without great requirements in respect of mechanical rigidity, silicone rubber may be used. This withstands much higher temperatures and, moreover, has excellent adhesion on most materials, in particular in combination with what are known as primers. To reduce the coefficient of expansion and increase the thermal conductivity, casting resin fillers are mixed with the material of the insulating layer to up to over 50% of the casting composition. To facilitate the casting operation, and in particular ensure the homogeneity of the insulating layer 51 , the casting mold is advantageously evacuated before the casting. In this case, the air is sucked out of the interior of the casting mold through the openings 43 or other openings especially intended for this purpose. Processing under vacuum allows the formation of air bubbles in the interior of the insulating layer 51 to be prevented. Air bubbles may be conducive to the production of discharges. Following the casting operation, the semiconductor module is removed from the casting mold. The insulating layer 51 is cured to the extent that it can be mechanically worked. The insulating layer 51 is removed to a common surface with the surface of the second metallization 22 in one working step, for example by grinding. Contacting areas 31 of the contacting elements 3 likewise lie in this plane. The surfaces on which a wire or an electrode of a semiconductor element are subsequently attached, in particular the contacting areas 31 and the surface of the second metallization 22 , must be correspondingly pretreated. It is necessary in this case to remove from the insulating layer 51 in particular the casting skin which is unavoidably produced during casting and contains casting composition penetrating between the component and the casting mold, and may be very thin, for example a few mm, depending on the contact pressure and nature of the surface of the parts. Thanks to the arrangement in one plane, the surface preparation of the contacting areas 31 , of the second metallization 22 and of the insulating layer 51 can be performed together, in one mold and in one working step. As a result, the processing costs can be reduced considerably. Moreover, the absolutely flat working surface allows surface changes to be subsequently made in a simple way, for example the improvement or conservation of the contacting areas 31 . The flat working surface is likewise conducive for the next method step according to FIG. 3 , the application of the semiconductor elements 6 on the second metallization 22 . The semiconductor elements 6 are, for example, soldered onto the metallization or attached by means of low-temperature bonding. The semiconductor elements 6 are subsequently connected in an electrically conducting manner to one another and to the contacting areas 31 . For example by means of simple contacting wire connections 7 . The contacting elements 3 , which until this point in time have been of a substantially flat form, are subsequently bent in such a way that a contacting piece 32 protrudes perpendicularly in relation to the surface of the insulating layer 51 . The contacting elements 3 are correspondingly prepared, with a predetermined bending point which separates the region of the contacting areas 31 from the contacting piece. The contacting elements are produced from metal sheet and their size and thickness are adapted to the currents to be conducted. As can be seen from the figures, the contacting element comprises a lower region which is folded under an upper region. The upper region comprises a contacting area 31 and contacting piece 32 . Since only the upper region lies on the current path, the lower region serves as a field-shielding means. The corners and edges of the contacting elements, in particular of the lower region, are advantageously rounded, to avoid excessive field increases. The lower region is mechanically isolated from the upper region; the region of the fold is free from mechanical stress which could have adverse effects on the insulating layer, or its insulating property. Even when the contacting piece 32 is raised, this dielectrically critical region is not impaired. If the contacting elements are punched from metal sheet, for example from silver-plated copper sheet, a slightly rounded surface is obtained by the punching, and, with appropriate arrangement of the metal sheet with the rounding on the outside, said surface can contribute to reducing the electric field in the region of the folding. The semiconductor module is subsequently provided with a housing cover 9 , which is represented in FIG. 4 . Moreover, the cavity in the interior of the housing is filled with a silicone gel 52 as in the case of customary semiconductor modules. The perpendicularly protruding contacting pieces 32 , which are led out of the semiconductor module through the housing cover 9 , are contacted by means of contacting connectors 33 . To produce a semiconductor module according to the invention in a second embodiment according to FIG. 5 , the same method according to the invention is applied. In this case, in the first step, the insulating element 2 is arranged in a depression in the base element 1 and attached to the base element. Subsequently, the base element 1 and the insulating element 2 , with or without contacting elements, are introduced into the casting mold and corresponding cavities between the base element and the insulating element are filled with electrically insulating material. As represented in FIG. 5 , the surfaces of the second metallization 22 , of the base element 1 and of the insulating layer 51 are in a common plane. Since conventional standard substrates which are preferably used as the insulating element do not satisfy the flatness requirements for use in a press-pack module, they must be machined, for example by milling or grinding. Thanks to the arrangement with a common surface, the precision milling can be carried out together with the milling away of the insulating layer in one step during the production of the semiconductor module according to the invention. Apart from facilitating the mounting of the semiconductor elements, as already mentioned, this arrangement also makes it possible to use one and the same contact stamps 8 , which comprise contact springs and provide sufficient pressing force on the semiconductor elements 6 . List of Designations 1 base element 2 insulating element, substrate 21 , 22 metallizations 3 contacting element 31 contacting area 32 contacting piece 33 contacting connector 41 , 42 casting mold 43 inlet openings 44 cavity 51 insulating layer 52 insulating gel 6 semiconductor elements, chip 7 contacting wires 8 contact stamp 9 housing 10 cover plate

The semiconductor module comprises a base element ( 1 ), an insulating element ( 2 ), which is metallized on both sides and rests on the base element by one of the two metallizations, and at least one semiconductor element ( 6 ) arranged on the other of the two metallizations. An electrically insulating layer ( 51 ) is arranged in the edge region of the insulating element ( 2 ), the surface of this insulating layer forming a common planar surface with the surface of the second metallization. The blunting of the edges and corners of the metallization by level embedding of the entire metallized insulating element improves the insulating property of semiconductor module in the area of the critical electrical field region. Moreover, the arrangement in one plane permits simple and low-cost production.

RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a divisional of U.S. Ser. No. 13/844,206, filed Mar. 15, 2013 (now pending), which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/847,192, filed Aug. 29, 2007 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,518,225), which in turn is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/837,525, filed Apr. 29, 2004 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,279,451), which in turn is a continuation in part of each of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/694,272, filed Oct. 27, 2003 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,230,146) and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/694,273, filed Oct. 27, 2003 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,534,366), which in turn is related to and claims the priority benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/421,263 and 60/421,435, each of which was filed on Oct. 25, 2002. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/837,525, filed Apr. 29, 2004 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,279,457) is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/694,272, filed Oct. 27, 2003 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,230,146). The disclosure of each of the aforementioned patent applications and patents is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to compositions having utility in numerous applications, including particularly refrigeration systems, and to methods and systems utilizing such compositions. In preferred aspects, the present invention is directed to refrigerant compositions comprising at least one multi-fluorinated olefin of the present invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Fluorocarbon based fluids have found widespread use in many commercial and industrial applications. For example, fluorocarbon based fluids are frequently used as a working fluid in systems such as air conditioning, heat pump and refrigeration applications. The vapor compression cycle is one of the most commonly used type methods to accomplish cooling or heating in a refrigeration system. The vapor compression cycle usually involves the phase change of the refrigerant from the liquid to the vapor phase through heat absorption at a relatively low pressure and then from the vapor to the liquid phase through heat removal at a relatively low pressure and temperature, compressing the vapor to a relatively elevated pressure, condensing the vapor to the liquid phase through heat removal at this relatively elevated pressure and temperature, and then reducing the pressure to start the cycle over again. While the primary purpose of refrigeration is to remove heat from an object or other fluid at a relatively low temperature, the primary purpose of a heat pump is to add heat at a higher temperature relative to the environment. Certain fluorocarbons have been a preferred component in many heat exchange fluids, such as refrigerants, for many years in many applications. For, example, fluoroalkanes, such as chlorofluoromethane and chlorofluoroethane derivatives, have gained widespread use as refrigerants in applications including air conditioning and heat pump applications owing to their unique combination of chemical and physical properties. Many of the refrigerants commonly utilized in vapor compression systems are either single components fluids or azeotropic mixtures. Concern has increased in recent years about potential damage to the earth's atmosphere and climate, and certain chlorine-based compounds have been identified as particularly problematic in this regard. The use of chlorine-containing compositions (such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and the like) as refrigerants in air-conditioning and refrigeration systems has become disfavored because of the ozone-depleting properties associated with many of such compounds. There has thus been an increasing need for new fluorocarbon and hydrofluorocarbon compounds and compositions that offer alternatives for refrigeration and heat pump applications. For example, it has become desirable to retrofit chlorine-containing refrigeration systems by replacing chlorine-containing refrigerants with non-chlorine-containing refrigerant compounds that will not deplete the ozone layer, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). It is generally considered important, however, that any potential substitute refrigerant must also possess those properties present in many of the most widely used fluids, such as excellent heat transfer properties, chemical stability, low- or no-toxicity, non-flammability and lubricant compatibility, among others. Applicants have come to appreciate that lubricant compatibility is of particular importance in many of applications. More particularly, it is highly desirably for refrigeration fluids to be compatible with the lubricant utilized in the compressor unit, used in most refrigeration systems. Unfortunately, many non-chlorine-containing refrigeration fluids, including HFCs, are relatively insoluble and/or immiscible in the types of lubricants used traditionally with CFC's and HFCs, including, for example, mineral oils, alkylbenzenes or poly(alpha-olefins). In order for a refrigeration fluid-lubricant combination to work at a desirable level of efficiently within a compression refrigeration, air-conditioning and/or heat pump system, the lubricant should be sufficiently soluble in the refrigeration liquid over a wide range of operating temperatures. Such solubility lowers the viscosity of the lubricant and allows it to flow more easily throughout the system. In the absence of such solubility, lubricants tend to become lodged in the coils of the evaporator of the refrigeration, air-conditioning or heat pump system, as well as other parts of the system, and thus reduce the system efficiency. With regard to efficiency in use, it is important to note that a loss in refrigerant thermodynamic performance or energy efficiency may have secondary environmental impacts through increased fossil fuel usage arising from an increased demand for electrical energy. Furthermore, it is generally considered desirably for CFC refrigerant substitutes to be effective without major engineering changes to conventional vapor compression technology currently used with CFC refrigerants. Flammability is another important property for many applications. That is, it is considered either important or essential in many applications, including particularly in heat transfer applications, to use compositions, which are non-flammable. Thus, it is frequently beneficial to use in such compositions compounds, which are nonflammable. As used herein, the term “nonflammable” refers to compounds or compositions, which are determined to be nonflammable as determined in accordance with ASTM standard E-681, dated 2002, which is incorporated herein by reference. Unfortunately, many HFCs, which might otherwise be desirable for used in refrigerant compositions are not nonflammable. For example, the fluoroalkane difluoroethane (HFC-152a) and the fluoroalkene 1,1,1-trifluoropropene (HFO-1243zf) are each flammable and therefore not viable for use in many applications. Higher fluoroalkenes, that is fluorine-substituted alkenes having at least five carbon atoms, have been suggested for use as refrigerants. U.S. Pat. No. 4,788,352—Smutny is directed to production of fluorinated C 5 to C 8 compounds having at least some degree of unsaturation. The Smutny patent identifies such higher olefins as being known to have utility as refrigerants, pesticides, dielectric fluids, heat transfer fluids, solvents, and intermediates in various chemical reactions. (See column 1, lines 11-22). While the fluorinated olefins described in Smutny may have some level of effectiveness in heat transfer applications, it is believed that such compounds may also have certain disadvantages. For example, some of these compounds may tend to attack substrates, particularly general-purpose plastics such as acrylic resins and ABS resins. Furthermore, the higher olefinic compounds described in Smutny may also be undesirable in certain applications because of the potential level of toxicity of such compounds which may arise as a result of pesticide activity noted in Smutny. Also, such compounds may have a boiling point, which is too high to make them useful as a refrigerant in certain applications. Bromofluoromethane and bromochlorofluoromethane derivatives, particularly bromotrifluoromethane (Halon 1301) and bromochlorodifluoromethane (Halon 1211) have gained widespread use as fire extinguishing agents in enclosed areas such as airplane cabins and computer rooms. However, the use of various halons is being phased out due to their high ozone depletion. Moreover, as halons are frequently used in areas where humans are present, suitable replacements must also be safe to humans at concentrations necessary to suppress or extinguish fire. Applicants have thus come to appreciate a need for compositions, and particularly heat transfer compositions, fire extinguishing/suppression compositions, blowing agents, solvent compositions, and compatabilizing agents, that are potentially useful in numerous applications, including vapor compression heating and cooling systems and methods, while avoiding one or more of the disadvantages noted above. SUMMARY Applicants have found that the above-noted need, and other needs, can be satisfied by compositions comprising one or more C3 or C4 fluoroalkenes, preferably compounds having Formula I as follows: XCF z R 3-z   (I) where X is a C 2 or a C 3 unsaturated, substituted or unsubstituted, alkyl radical, each R is independently Cl, F, Br, I or H, and z is 1 to 3. Highly preferred among the compounds of Formula I are the cis- and trans-isomers of 1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234ze) The present invention provides also methods and systems which utilize the compositions of the present invention, including methods and systems for heat transfer, foam blowing, solvating, flavor and fragrance extraction and/or delivery, and aerosol generation. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 provides a sketch of the vessel as discussed in Example 1A. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The Compositions The present invention is directed to compositions comprising at least one fluoroalkene containing from 3 to 4 carbon atoms, preferably three carbon atoms, and at least one carbon-carbon double bond. The fluoroalkene compounds of the present invention are sometimes referred to herein for the purpose of convenience as hydrofluoro-olefins or “HFOs” if they contain at least one hydrogen. Although it is contemplated that the HFOs of the present invention may contain two carbon—carbon double bonds, such compounds at the present time are not considered to be preferred. As mentioned above, the present compositions comprise one or more compounds in accordance with Formula I. In preferred embodiments, the compositions include compounds of Formula II below: where each R is independently Cl, F, Br, I or H R′ is (CR 2 ) n Y, Y is CRF 2 and n is 0 or 1. In highly preferred embodiments, Y is CF 3 , n is 0 and at least one of the remaining Rs is F. Applicants believe that, in general, the compounds of the above identified Formulas I and II are generally effective and exhibit utility in refrigerant compositions, blowing agent compositions, compatibilizers, aerosols, propellants, fragrances, flavor formulations, and solvent compositions of the present invention. However, applicants have surprisingly and unexpectedly found that certain of the compounds having a structure in accordance with the formulas described above exhibit a highly desirable low level of toxicity compared to other of such compounds. As can be readily appreciated, this discovery is of potentially enormous advantage and benefit for the formulation of not only refrigerant compositions, but also any and all compositions, which would otherwise contain relatively toxic compounds satisfying the formulas described above. More particularly, applicants believe that a relatively low toxicity level is associated with compounds of Formula II, preferably wherein Y is CF 3 , wherein at least one R on the unsaturated terminal carbon is H, and at least one of the remaining Rs is F. Applicants believe also that all structural, geometric and stereoisomers of such compounds are effective and of beneficially low toxicity. In highly preferred embodiments, especially embodiments comprising the low toxicity compounds described above, n is zero in which the unsaturated terminal carbon has not more than one F substituent. Applicant has discovered that such compounds have a very low acute toxicity level, as measured by inhalation exposure to mice and rats. In certain highly preferred embodiments the compositions of the present invention comprise one or more tetrafluoropropenes. The term “HFO-1234” is used herein to refer to all tetrafluoropropenes. Among the tetrafluoropropenes, both cis- and trans-1, 3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234ze) are particularly preferred. The term HFO-1234ze is used herein generically to refer to 1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene, independent of whether it is the cis- or trans-form. The terms “cisHFO-1234ze” and “transHFO-1234ze” are used herein to describe the cis- and trans-forms of 1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene respectively. The term “HFO-1234ze” therefore includes within its scope cisHFO-1234ze, transHFO-1234ze, and all combinations and mixtures of these. Although the properties of cisHFO-1234ze and transHFO-1234ze differ in at least some respects, it is contemplated that each of these compounds is adaptable for use, either alone or together with other compounds including its stereoisomer, in connection with each of the applications, methods and systems described herein. For example, while transHFO-1234ze may be preferred for use in certain refrigeration systems because of its relatively low boiling point (−19° C.), it is nevertheless contemplated that cisHFO-1234ze, with a boiling point of +9° C., also has utility in certain refrigeration systems of the present invention. Accordingly, it is to be understood that the terms “HFO-1234ze” and 1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene refer to both stereo isomers, and the use of this term is intended to indicate that each of the cis- and trans-forms applies and/or is useful for the stated purpose unless otherwise indicated. HFO-1234 compounds are known materials and are listed in Chemical Abstracts databases. The production of fluoropropenes such as CF 3 CH═CH 2 by catalytic vapor phase fluorination of various saturated and unsaturated halogen-containing C 3 compounds is described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,889,379; 4,798,818 and 4,465,786, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. EP 974,571, also incorporated herein by reference, discloses the preparation of 1,1,1,3-tetrafluoropropene by contacting 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane (HFC-245fa) in the vapor phase with a chromium-based catalyst at elevated temperature, or in the liquid phase with an alcoholic solution of KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH) 2 or Mg(OH) 2 . In addition, methods for producing compounds in accordance with the present invention are described generally in connection with pending United States Patent Application entitled “Process for Producing Fluoropropenes” bearing U.S. Appln. No. 13/226,019, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,247,624), which is also incorporated herein by reference. The present compositions, particularly those comprising HFO-1234ze, are believed to possess properties that are advantageous for a number of important reasons. For example, applicants believe, based at least in part on mathematical modeling, that the fluoroolefins of the present invention will not have a substantial negative affect on atmospheric chemistry, being negligible contributors to ozone depletion in comparison to some other halogenated species. The preferred compositions of the present invention thus have the advantage of not contributing substantially to ozone depletion. The preferred compositions also do not contribute substantially to global warming compared to many of the hydrofluoroalkanes presently in use. In certain preferred forms, compositions of the present invention have a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of not greater than about 1000, more preferably not greater than about 500, and even more preferably not greater than about 150. In certain embodiments, the GWP of the present compositions is not greater than about 100 and even more preferably not greater than about 75. As used herein, “GWP” is measured relative to that of carbon dioxide and over a 100-year time horizon, as defined in “The Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, 2002, a report of the World Meteorological Association's Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project,” which is incorporated herein by reference. In certain preferred forms, the present compositions also preferably have an Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) of not greater than 0.05, more preferably not greater than 0.02 and even more preferably about zero. As used herein, “ODP” is as defined in “The Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, 2002, A report of the World Meteorological Association's Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project,” which is incorporated herein by reference. The amount of the Formula I compounds, particularly HFO-1234, contained in the present compositions can vary widely, depending the particular application, and compositions containing more than trace amounts and less than 100% of the compound are within broad the scope of the present invention. Moreover, the compositions of the present invention can be azeotropic, azeotrope-like or non-azeotropic. In preferred embodiments, the present compositions comprise HFO-1234, preferably HFO-1234ze, in amounts from about 5% by weight to about 99% by weight, and even more preferably from about 5% to about 95%. Many additional compounds may be included in the present compositions, and the presence of all such compounds is within the broad scope of the invention. In certain preferred embodiments, the present compositions include, in addition to HFO-1234ze, one or more of the following: Difluoromethane (HFC-32) Pentafluoroethane (HFC-125) 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134) 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a) Difluoroethane (HFC-152a) 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane (HFC-227ea) 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoropropane (HFC-236fa) 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane (HFC-245fa) 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluorobutane (HFC-365mfc) water CO 2 The relative amount of any of the above noted components, as well as any additional components which may be included in present compositions, can vary widely within the general broad scope of the present invention according to the particular application for the composition, and all such relative amounts are considered to be within the scope hereof. Heat Transfer Compositions Although it is contemplated that the compositions of the present invention may include the compounds of the present invention in widely ranging amounts, it is generally preferred that refrigerant compositions of the present invention comprise compound(s) in accordance with Formula I, more preferably in accordance with Formula II, and even more preferably HFO-1234ze, in an amount that is at least about 50% by weight, and even more preferably at least about 70% by weight, of the composition. In many embodiments, it is preferred that the heat transfer compositions of the present invention comprise transHFO-1234ze. In certain preferred embodiments, the heat transfer compositions of the present invention comprise a combination of cisHFO-1234ze and transHFO1234ze in a cis:trans weight ratio of from about 1:99 to about 10:99, more preferably from about 1:99 to about 5:95, and even more preferably from about 1:99 to about 3:97. The compositions of the present invention may include other components for the purpose of enhancing or providing certain functionality to the composition, or in some cases to reduce the cost of the composition. For example, refrigerant compositions according to the present invention, especially those used in vapor compression systems, include a lubricant, generally in amounts of from about 30 to about 50 percent by weight of the composition. Furthermore, the present compositions may also include a compatibilizer, such as propane, for the purpose of aiding compatibility and/or solubility of the lubricant. Such compatibilizers, including propane, butanes and pentanes, are preferably present in amounts of from about 0.5 to about 5 percent by weight of the composition. Combinations of surfactants and solubilizing agents may also be added to the present compositions to aid oil solubility, as disclosed by U.S. Pat. No. 6,516,837, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference. Commonly used refrigeration lubricants such as Polyol Esters (POEs) and Poly Alkylene Glycols (PAGs), silicone oil, mineral oil, alkyl benzenes (ABs) and poly(alpha-olefin) (PAO) that are used in refrigeration machinery with hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants may be used with the refrigerant compositions of the present invention. Many existing refrigeration systems are currently adapted for use in connection with existing refrigerants, and the compositions of the present invention are believed to be adaptable for use in many of such systems, either with or without system modification. In many applications the compositions of the present invention may provide an advantage as a replacement in systems, which are currently based on refrigerants having a relatively high capacity. Furthermore, in embodiments where it is desired to use a lower capacity refrigerant composition of the present invention, for reasons of cost for example, to replace a refrigerant of higher capacity, such embodiments of the present compositions provide a potential advantage. Thus, It is preferred in certain embodiments to use compositions of the present invention, particularly compositions comprising a substantial proportion of, and in some embodiments consisting essentially of transHFO-1234ze, as a replacement for existing refrigerants, such as HFC-134a. In certain applications, the refrigerants of the present invention potentially permit the beneficial use of larger displacement compressors, thereby resulting in better energy efficiency than other refrigerants, such as HFC-134a. Therefore the refrigerant compositions of the present invention, particularly compositions comprising transHFP-1234ze, provide the possibility of achieving a competitive advantage on an energy basis for refrigerant replacement applications. It is contemplated that the compositions of the present, including particularly those comprising HFO-1234ze, also have advantage (either in original systems or when used as a replacement for refrigerants such as R-12 and R-500), in chillers typically used in connection with commercial air conditioning systems. In certain of such embodiments it is preferred to including in the present HFO-1234ze compositions from about 0.5 to about 5% of a flammability suppressant, such as CF3I. The present methods, systems and compositions are thus adaptable for use in connection with automotive air conditioning systems and devices, commercial refrigeration systems and devices, chillers, residential refrigerator and freezers, general air conditioning systems, heat pumps, and the like. Blowing Agents, Foams and Foamable Compositions Blowing agents may also comprise or constitute one or more of the present compositions. As mentioned above, the compositions of the present invention may include the compounds of the present invention in widely ranging amounts. It is generally preferred, however, that for preferred compositions for use as blowing agents in accordance with the present invention, compound(s) in accordance with Formula I, and even more preferably Formula II, are present in an amount that is at least about 5% by weight, and even more preferably at least about 15% by weight, of the composition. In certain preferred embodiments, the blowing agent compositions of the present invention and include, in addition to HFO-1234 (preferably HFO-1234ze) one or more of the following components as a co-blowing agent, filler, vapor pressure modifier, or for any other purpose: Difluoromethane (HFC-32) Pentafluoroethane (HFC-125) 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134) 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a) Difluoroethane (HFC-152a) 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptafluoropropane (HFC-227ea) 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoropropane (HFC-236fa) 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoropropane (HFC-245fa) 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluorobutane (HFC-365mfc) water CO 2 it is contemplated that the blowing agent compositions of the present invention may comprise cisHFO-1234ze, transHFO1234ze or combinations thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the blowing agent composition of the present invention comprise his a combination of cisHFO-1234ze and transHFO1234ze in a cis:trans weight ratio of from about 1:99 to about 10:99, and even more preferably from about 1:99 to about 5:95. In other embodiments, the invention provides foamable compositions, and preferably polyurethane, polyisocyanurate and extruded thermoplastic foam compositions, prepared using the compositions of the present invention. In such foam embodiments, one or more of the present compositions are included as or part of a blowing agent in a foamable composition, which composition preferably includes one or more additional components capable of reacting and/or foaming under the proper conditions to form a foam or cellular structure, as is well known in the art. The invention also relates to foam, and preferably closed cell foam, prepared from a polymer foam formulation containing a blowing agent comprising the compositions of the invention. In yet other embodiments, the invention provides foamable compositions comprising thermoplastic or polyolefin foams, such as polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyethyleneterpthalate (PET) foams, preferably low-density foams. In certain preferred embodiments, dispersing agents, cell stabilizers, surfactants and other additives may also be incorporated into the blowing agent compositions of the present invention. Surfactants are optionally but preferably added to serve as cell stabilizers. Some representative materials are sold under the names of DC-193, B-8404, and L-5340 which are, generally, polysiloxane polyoxyalkylene block co-polymers such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,834,748, 2,917,480, and 2,846,458, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. Other optional additives for the blowing agent mixture may include flame retardants such as tri(2-chloroethyl)phosphate, tri(2-chloropropyl)phosphate, tri(2,3-dibromopropyl)-phosphate, tri(1,3-dichloropropyl) phosphate, diammonium phosphate, various halogenated aromatic compounds, antimony oxide, aluminum trihydrate, polyvinyl chloride, and the like. Propellant and Aerosol Compositions In another aspect, the present invention provides propellant compositions comprising or consisting essentially of a composition of the present invention, such propellant composition preferably being a sprayable composition. The propellant compositions of the present invention preferably comprise a material to be sprayed and a propellant comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a composition in accordance with the present invention. Inert ingredients, solvents, and other materials may also be present in the sprayable mixture. Preferably, the sprayable composition is an aerosol. Suitable materials to be sprayed include, without limitation, cosmetic materials such as deodorants, perfumes, hair sprays, cleansers, and polishing agents as well as medicinal materials such as anti-asthma components, anti-halitosis components and any other medication or the like, including preferably any other medicament or agent intended to be inhaled. The medicament or other therapeutic agent is preferably present in the composition in a therapeutic amount, with a substantial portion of the balance of the composition comprising a compound of Formula I of the present invention, preferably HFO-1234, and even more preferably HFO-1234ze. Aerosol products for industrial, consumer or medical use typically contain one or more propellants along with one or more active ingredients, inert ingredients or solvents. The propellant provides the force that expels the product in aerosolized form. While some aerosol products are propelled with compressed gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen, nitrous oxide and even air, most commercial aerosols use liquefied gas propellants. The most commonly used liquefied gas propellants are hydrocarbons such as butane, isobutane, and propane. Dimethyl ether and HFC-152a (1,1-difluoroethane) are also used, either alone or in blends with the hydrocarbon propellants. Unfortunately, all of these liquefied gas propellants are highly flammable and their incorporation into aerosol formulations will often result in flammable aerosol products. Applicants have come to appreciate the continuing need for nonflammable, liquefied gas propellants with which to formulate aerosol products. The present invention provides compositions of the present invention, particularly and preferably compositions comprising HFO-1234, and even more preferably HFO-1234ze, for use in certain industrial aerosol products, including for example spray cleaners, lubricants, and the like, and in medicinal aerosols, including for example to deliver medications to the lungs or mucosal membranes. Examples of this includes metered dose inhalers (MDIs) for the treatment of asthma and other chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases and for delivery of medicaments to accessible mucous membranes or intranasally. The present invention thus includes methods for treating ailments, diseases and similar health related problems of an organism (such as a human or animal) comprising applying a composition of the present invention containing a medicament or other therapeutic component to the organism in need of treatment. In certain preferred embodiments, the step of applying the present composition comprises providing a MDI containing the composition of the present invention (for example, introducing the composition into the MDI) and then discharging the present composition from the MDI. The compositions of the present invention, particularly compositions comprising or consisting essentially of HFO-1234ze, are capable of providing nonflammable, liquefied gas propellant and aerosols that do not contribute substantially to global warming. The present compositions can be used to formulate a variety of industrial aerosols or other sprayable compositions such as contact cleaners, dusters, lubricant sprays, and the like, and consumer aerosols such as personal care products, household products and automotive products. HFO-1234ze is particularly preferred for use as an important component of propellant compositions for in medicinal aerosols such as metered dose inhalers. The medicinal aerosol and/or propellant and/or sprayable compositions of the present invention in many applications include, in addition to compound of formula (I) or (II) (preferably HFO-1234ze), a medicament such as a beta-agonist, a corticosteroid or other medicament, and, optionally, other ingredients, such as surfactants, solvents, other propellants, flavorants and other excipients. The compositions of the present invention, unlike many compositions previously used in these applications, have good environmental properties and are not considered to be potential contributors to global warming. The present compositions therefore provide in certain preferred embodiments substantially nonflammable, liquefied gas propellants having very low Global Warming potentials. Flavorants and Fragrances The compositions of the present invention also provide advantage when used as part of, and in particular as a carrier for, flavor formulations and fragrance formulations. The suitability of the present compositions for this purpose is demonstrated by a test procedure in which 0.39 grams of Jasmone were put into a heavy walled glass tube. 1.73 grams of R-1234ze were added to the glass tube. The tube was then frozen and sealed. Upon thawing the tube, it was found that the mixture had one liquid phase. The solution contained 20 wt. % Jasome and 80 wt. % R-1234ze, thus establishing its favorable use as a carrier or part of delivery system for flavor formulations, in aerosol and other formulations. It also establishes its potential as an extractant of fragrances, including from plant matter. Methods and Systems The compositions of the present invention are useful in connection with numerous methods and systems, including as heat transfer fluids in methods and systems for transferring heat, such as refrigerants used in refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump systems. The present compositions are also advantageous for in use in systems and methods of generating aerosols, preferably comprising or consisting of the aerosol propellant in such systems and methods. Methods of forming foams and methods of extinguishing and suppressing fire are also included in certain aspects of the present invention. The present invention also provides in certain aspects methods of removing residue from articles in which the present compositions are used as solvent compositions in such methods and systems. Heat Transfer Methods The preferred heat transfer methods generally comprise providing a composition of the present invention and causing heat to be transferred to or from the composition changing the phase of the composition. For example, the present methods provide cooling by absorbing heat from a fluid or article, preferably by evaporating the present refrigerant composition in the vicinity of the body or fluid to be cooled to produce vapor comprising the present composition. Preferably the methods include the further step of compressing the refrigerant vapor, usually with a compressor or similar equipment to produce vapor of the present composition at a relatively elevated pressure. Generally, the step of compressing the vapor results in the addition of heat to the vapor, thus causing an increase in the temperature of the relatively high-pressure vapor. Preferably, the present methods include removing from this relatively high temperature, high pressure vapor at least a portion of the heat added by the evaporation and compression steps. The heat removal step preferably includes condensing the high temperature, high-pressure vapor while the vapor is in a relatively high-pressure condition to produce a relatively high-pressure liquid comprising a composition of the present invention. This relatively high-pressure liquid preferably then undergoes a nominally isoenthalpic reduction in pressure to produce a relatively low temperature, low-pressure liquid. In such embodiments, it is this reduced temperature refrigerant liquid which is then vaporized by heat transferred from the body or fluid to be cooled. In another process embodiment of the invention, the compositions of the invention may be used in a method for producing heating which comprises condensing a refrigerant comprising the compositions in the vicinity of a liquid or body to be heated. Such methods, as mentioned hereinbefore, frequently are reverse cycles to the refrigeration cycle described above. Foam Blowing Methods One embodiment of the present invention relates to methods of forming foams, and preferably polyurethane and polyisocyanurate foams. The methods generally comprise providing a blowing agent composition of the present inventions, adding (directly or indirectly) the blowing agent composition to a foamable composition, and reacting the foamable composition under the conditions effective to form a foam or cellular structure, as is well known in the art. Any of the methods well known in the art, such as those described in “Polyurethanes Chemistry and Technology,” Volumes I and II, Saunders and Frisch, 1962, John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y., which is incorporated herein by reference, may be used or adapted for use in accordance with the foam embodiments of the present invention. In general, such preferred methods comprise preparing polyurethane or polyisocyanurate foams by combining an isocyanate, a polyol or mixture of polyols, a blowing agent or mixture of blowing agents comprising one or more of the present compositions, and other materials such as catalysts, surfactants, and optionally, flame retardants, colorants, or other additives. It is convenient in many applications to provide the components for polyurethane or polyisocyanurate foams in pre-blended formulations. Most typically, the foam formulation is pre-blended into two components. The isocyanate and optionally certain surfactants and blowing agents comprise the first component, commonly referred to as the “A” component. The polyol or polyol mixture, surfactant, catalysts, blowing agents, flame retardant, and other isocyanate reactive components comprise the second component, commonly referred to as the “B” component. Accordingly, polyurethane or polyisocyanurate foams are readily prepared by bringing together the A and B side components either by hand mix for small preparations and, preferably, machine mix techniques to form blocks, slabs, laminates, pour-in-place panels and other items, spray applied foams, froths, and the like. Optionally, other ingredients such as fire retardants, colorants, auxiliary blowing agents, and even other polyols can be added as a third stream to the mix head or reaction site. Most preferably, however, they are all incorporated into one B-component as described above. It is also possible to produce thermoplastic foams using the compositions of the invention. For example, conventional polystyrene and polyethylene formulations may be combined with the compositions in a conventional manner to produce rigid foams. Cleaning Methods The present invention also provides methods of removing containments from a product, part, component, substrate, or any other article or portion thereof by applying to the article a composition of the present invention. For the purposes of convenience, the term “article” is used herein to refer to all such products, parts, components, substrates, and the like and is further intended to refer to any surface or portion thereof. Furthermore, the term “contaminant” is intended to refer to any unwanted material or substance present on the article, even if such substance is placed on the article intentionally. For example, in the manufacture of semiconductor devices it is common to deposit a photoresist material onto a substrate to form a mask for the etching operation and to subsequently remove the photoresist material from the substrate. The term “contaminant” as used herein is intended to cover and encompass such a photo resist material. Preferred methods of the present invention comprise applying the present composition to the article. Although it is contemplated that numerous and varied cleaning techniques can employ the compositions of the present invention to good advantage, it is considered to be particularly advantageous to use the present compositions in connection with supercritical cleaning techniques. Supercritical cleaning is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,589,355, which is assigned to the assignee of the present invention and incorporated herein by reference. For supercritical cleaning applications, is preferred in certain embodiments to include in the present cleaning compositions, in addition to the HFO-1234 (preferably HFO-1234ze), one or more additional components, such as CO 2 and other additional components known for use in connection with supercritical cleaning applications. It may also be possible and desirable in certain embodiments to use the present cleaning compositions in connection with particular vapor degreasing and solvent cleaning methods. Flammability Reduction Methods According to certain other preferred embodiments, the present invention provides methods for reducing the flammability of fluids, said methods comprising adding a compound or composition of the present invention to said fluid. The flammability associated with any of a wide range of otherwise flammable fluids may be reduced according to the present invention. For example, the flammability associated with fluids such as ethylene oxide, flammable hydrofluorocarbons and hydrocarbons, including: HFC-152a, 1,1,1-trifluoroethane (HFC-143a), difluoromethane (HFC-32), propane, hexane, octane, and the like can be reduced according to the present invention. For the purposes of the present invention, a flammable fluid may be any fluid exhibiting flammability ranges in air as measured via any standard conventional test method, such as ASTM E-681, and the like. Any suitable amounts of the present compounds or compositions may be added to reduce flammability of a fluid according to the present invention. As will be recognized by those of skill in the art, the amount added will depend, at least in part, on the degree to which the subject fluid is flammable and the degree to which it is desired to reduce the flammability thereof. In certain preferred embodiments, the amount of compound or composition added to the flammable fluid is effective to render the resulting fluid substantially non-flammable. Flame Suppression Methods The present invention further provides methods of suppressing a flame, said methods comprising contacting a flame with a fluid comprising a compound or composition of the present invention. Any suitable methods for contacting the flame with the present composition may be used. For example, a composition of the present invention may be sprayed, poured, and the like onto the flame, or at least a portion of the flame may be immersed in the composition. In light of the teachings herein, those of skill in the art will be readily able to adapt a variety of conventional apparatus and methods of flame suppression for use in the present invention. Sterilization Methods Many articles, devices and materials, particularly for use in the medical field, must be sterilized prior to use for the health and safety reasons, such as the health and safety of patients and hospital staff. The present invention provides methods of sterilizing comprising contacting the articles, devices or material to be sterilized with a compound or composition of the present invention comprising a compound of Formula I, preferably HFO-1234, and even more preferably HFO-1234ze, in combination with one or more sterilizing agents. While many sterilizing agents are known in the art and are considered to be adaptable for use in connection with the present invention, in certain preferred embodiments sterilizing agent comprises ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, chlorine dioxide, ozone and combinations of these. In certain embodiments, ethylene oxide is the preferred sterilizing agent. Those skilled in the art, in view of the teachings contained herein, will be able to readily determine the relative proportions of sterilizing agent and the present compound(s) to be used in connection with the present sterilizing compositions and methods, and all such ranges are within the broad scope hereof. As is known to those skilled in the art, certain sterilizing agents, such as ethylene oxide, are relatively flammable components, and the compound(s) in accordance with the present invention are included in the present compositions in amounts effective, together with other components present in the composition, to reduce the flammability of the sterilizing composition to acceptable levels. The sterilization methods of the present invention may be either high or low-temperature sterilization of the present invention involves the use of a compound or composition of the present invention at a temperature of from about 250° F. to about 270° F., preferably in a substantially sealed chamber. The process can be completed usually in less than about 2 hours. However, some articles, such as plastic articles and electrical components, cannot withstand such high temperatures and require low-temperature sterilization. In low temperature sterilization methods, the article to be sterilized is exposed to a fluid comprising a composition of the present invention at a temperature of from about room temperature to about 200° F., more preferably at a temperature of from about room temperature to about 100° F. The low-temperature sterilization of the present invention is preferably at least a two-step process performed in a substantially sealed, preferably air tight, chamber. In the first step (the sterilization step), the articles having been cleaned and wrapped in gas permeable bags are placed in the chamber. Air is then evacuated from the chamber by pulling a vacuum and perhaps by displacing the air with steam. In certain embodiments, it is preferable to inject steam into the chamber to achieve a relative humidity that ranges preferably from about 30% to about 70%. Such humidities may maximize the sterilizing effectiveness of the sterilant, which is introduced into the chamber after the desired relative humidity is achieved. After a period of time sufficient for the sterilant to permeate the wrapping and reach the interstices of the article, the sterilant and steam are evacuated from the chamber. In the preferred second step of the process (the aeration step), the articles are aerated to remove sterilant residues. Removing such residues is particularly important in the case of toxic sterilants, although it is optional in those cases in which the substantially non-toxic compounds of the present invention are used. Typical aeration processes include air washes, continuous aeration, and a combination of the two. An air wash is a batch process and usually comprises evacuating the chamber for a relatively short period, for example, 12 minutes, and then introducing air at atmospheric pressure or higher into the chamber. This cycle is repeated any number of times until the desired removal of sterilant is achieved. Continuous aeration typically involves introducing air through an inlet at one side of the chamber and then drawing it out through an outlet on the other side of the chamber by applying a slight vacuum to the outlet. Frequently, the two approaches are combined. For example, a common approach involves performing air washes and then an aeration cycle. EXAMPLES The following examples are provided for the purpose of illustrating the present invention but without limiting the scope thereof. Example 1 The coefficient of performance (COP) is a universally accepted measure of refrigerant performance, especially useful in representing the relative thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigerant in a specific heating or cooling cycle involving evaporation or condensation of the refrigerant. In refrigeration engineering, this term expresses the ratio of useful refrigeration to the energy applied by the compressor in compressing the vapor. The capacity of a refrigerant represents the amount of cooling or heating it provides and provides some measure of the capability of a compressor to pump quantities of heat for a given volumetric flow rate of refrigerant. In other words, given a specific compressor, a refrigerant with a higher capacity will deliver more cooling or heating power. One means for estimating COP of a refrigerant at specific operating conditions is from the thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant using standard refrigeration cycle analysis techniques (see for example, R. C. Downing, FLUOROCARBON REFRIGERANTS HANDBOOK, Chapter 3, Prentice-Hall, 1988). A refrigeration/air conditioning cycle system is provided where the condenser temperature is about 150° F. and the evaporator temperature is about −35° F. under nominally isentropic compression with a compressor inlet temperature of about 50° F. COP is determined for several compositions of the present invention over a range of condenser and evaporator temperatures and reported in Table I below, based upon HFC-134a having a COP value of 1.00, a capacity value of 1.00 and a discharge temperature of 175° F. TABLE I DISCHARGE REFRIGERANT Relative TEMPERATURE COMPOSITION Relative COP CAPACITY (° F.) HFO 1225ye 1.02 0.76 158 HFO trans-1234ze 1.04 0.70 165 HFO cis-1234ze 1.13 0.36 155 HFO 1234yf 0.98 1.10 168 This example shows that certain of the preferred compounds for use with the present compositions each have a better energy efficiency than HFC-134a (1.02, 1.04 and 1.13 compared to 1.00) and the compressor using the present refrigerant compositions will produce discharge temperatures (158, 165 and 155 compared to 175), which is advantageous since such result will likely leading to reduced maintenance problems. Example 2 The miscibility of HFO-1225ye and HFO-1234ze with various refrigeration lubricants is tested. The lubricants tested are mineral oil (C3), alkyl benzene (Zerol 150), ester oil (Mobil EAL 22 cc and Solest 120), polyalkylene glycol (PAG) oil (Goodwrench Refrigeration Oil for 134a systems), and a poly(alpha-olefin) oil (CP-6005-100). For each refrigerant/oil combination, three compositions are tested, namely 5, 20 and 50 weight percent of lubricant, with the balance of each being the compound of the present invention being tested The lubricant compositions are placed in heavy-walled glass tubes. The tubes are evacuated, the refrigerant compound in accordance with the present invention is added, and the tubes are then sealed. The tubes are then put into an air bath environmental chamber, the temperature of which is varied from about −50° C. to 70° C. At roughly 10° C. intervals, visual observations of the tube contents are made for the existence of one or more liquid phases. In a case where more than one liquid phase is observed, the mixture is reported to be immiscible. In a case where there is only one liquid phase observed, the mixture is reported to be miscible. In those cases where two liquid phases were observed, but with one of the liquid phases occupying only a very small volume, the mixture is reported to be partially miscible. The polyalkylene glycol and ester oil lubricants were judged to be miscible in all tested proportions over the entire temperature range, except that for the HFO-1225ye mixtures with polyalkylene glycol, the refrigerant mixture was found to be immiscible over the temperature range of −50° C. to −30° C. and to be partially miscible over from −20 to 50° C. At 50 weight percent concentration of the PAG in refrigerant and at 60°, the refrigerant/PAG mixture was miscible. At 70° C., it was miscible from 5 weight percent lubricant in refrigerant to 50 weight percent lubricant in refrigerant. Example 3 The compatibility of the refrigerant compounds and compositions of the present invention with PAG lubricating oils while in contact with metals used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems is tested at 350° C., representing conditions much more severe than are found in many refrigeration and air conditioning applications. Aluminum, copper and steel coupons are added to heavy walled glass tubes. Two grams of oil are added to the tubes. The tubes are then evacuated and one gram of refrigerant is added. The tubes are put into an oven at 350° F. for one week and visual observations are made. At the end of the exposure period, the tubes are removed. This procedure was done for the following combinations of oil and the compound of the present invention: a) HFO-1234ze and GM Goodwrench PAG oil b) HFO-1243 zf and GM Goodwrench oil PAG oil c) HFO-1234ze and MOPAR-56 PAG oil d) HFO-1243 zf and MOPAR-56 PAG oil e) HFO-1225 ye and MOPAR-56 PAG oil. In all cases, there is minimal change in the appearance of the contents of the tube. This indicates that the refrigerant compounds and compositions of the present invention are stable in contact with aluminum, steel and copper found in refrigeration and air conditioning systems, and the types of lubricating oils that are likely to be included in such compositions or used with such compositions in these types of systems. Comparative Example Aluminum, copper and steel coupons are added to a heavy walled glass tube with mineral oil and CFC-12 and heated for one week at 350° C., as in Example 3. At the end of the exposure period, the tube is removed and visual observations are made. The liquid contents are observed to turn black, indicating there is severe decomposition of the contents of the tube. CFC-12 and mineral oil have heretofore been the combination of choice in many refrigerant systems and methods. Thus, the refrigerant compounds and compositions of the present invention possess significantly better stability with many commonly used lubricating oils than the widely used prior art refrigerant-lubricating oil combination. Example 4—Polyol Foam This example illustrates the use of blowing agent in accordance with one of the preferred embodiments of the present invention, namely the use of HFO-1234ze, and the production of polyol foams in accordance with the present invention. The components of a polyol foam formulation are prepared in accordance with the following table: PBW Polyol Component* Voranol 490 50 Voranol 391 50 Water 0.5 B-8462 (surfactant) 2.0 Polycat 8 0.3 Polycat 41 3.0 HFO-1234ze 35 Total 140.8 Isocyanate M-20S 123.8 Index 1.10 *Voranol 490 is a sucrose-based polyol and Voranol 391 is a toluene diamine based polyol, and each are from Dow Chemical. B-8462 is a surfactant available from Degussa-Goldschmidt. Polycat catalysts are tertiary amine based and are available from Air Products. Isocyanate M-20S is a product of Bayer LLC. The foam is prepared by first mixing the ingredients thereof, but without the addition of blowing agent. Two Fisher-Porter tubes are each filled with about 52.6 grams of the polyol mixture (without blowing agent) and sealed and placed in a refrigerator to cool and form a slight vacuum. Using gas burets, about 17.4 grams of HFO-1234ze are added to each tube, and the tubes are then placed in an ultrasound bath in warm water and allowed to sit for 30 minutes. The solution produced is hazy, a vapor pressure measurement at room temperature indicates a vapor pressure of about 70 psig, indicating that the blowing agent is not in solution. The tubes are then placed in a freezer at 27° F. for 2 hours. The vapor pressure was again measured and found to be 14-psig. The isocyanate mixture, about 87.9 grams, is placed into a metal container and placed in a refrigerator and allowed to cool to about 50° F. The polyol tubes were then opened and weighed into a metal mixing container (about 100 grams of polyol blend are used). The isocyanate from the cooled metal container is then immediately poured into the polyol and mixed with an air mixer with double propellers at 3000 RPM's for 10 seconds. The blend immediately begins to froth with the agitation and is then poured into an 8×8×4 inch box and allowed to foam. Because of the froth, a cream time cannot be measured. The foam has a 4-minute gel time and a 5-minute tack free time. The foam is then allowed to cure for two days at room temperature. The foam is then cut to samples suitable for measuring physical properties and is found to have a density of 2.14 pcf. K-factors are measured and found to be as follows: Temperature K, BTU In / Ft 2 h ° F. 40° F. .1464 75° F. .1640 110° .1808 Example 5—Polystyrene Foam This example illustrates the use of blowing agent in accordance with two preferred embodiments of the present invention, namely the use each of the HFCO-1234ze and HFO-1234yf, and the production of polystyrene foam. A testing apparatus and protocol has been established as an aid to determining whether a specific blowing agent and polymer are capable of producing a foam and the quality of the foam. Ground polymer (Dow Polystyrene 685D) and blowing agent consisting essentially of each of HFCO-1234ze are combined in a vessel. The vessel volume is 200 cm 3 and it is made from two pipe flanges and a section of 2-inch diameter schedule 40 stainless steel pipe 4 inches long ( FIG. 1 ). The vessel is placed in an oven, with temperature set at from about 190° F. to about 285° F., preferably for polystyrene at 265° F., and remains there until temperature equilibrium is reached. The pressure in the vessel is then released, quickly producing a foamed polymer. The blowing agent plasticizes the polymer as it dissolves into it. The resulting density of the two foams thus produced using this method are given in Table 1 and graphed in FIG. 1 as the density of the foams produced using trans-HFO-1234ze and HFO-1234yf. The data show that foam polystyrene is obtainable in accordance with the present invention. The die temperature for R1234ze with polystyrene is about 250° F. TABLE 1 Dow polystyrene 685D Foam density (lb/ft 3 ) T ° F. transHFO-1234ze HFO-1234yf 275 55.15 260 22.14 14.27 250 7.28 24.17 240 16.93

Disclosed are the use of fluorine substituted olefins, including tetra- and penta-fluoropropenes, in a variety of applications, including in methods of depositing catalyst on a solid support, methods of sterilizing articles, cleaning methods and compositions, methods of applying medicaments, fire extinguishing/suppression compositions and methods, flavor formulations, fragrance formulations and inflating agents.

TECHNICAL FIELD [0001] The present invention relates to a solid composition containing a compound unstable to oxygen and a method for stabilizing the same. BACKGROUND ART [0002] Fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds have been used for various pharmaceutical products. Fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds wherein a benzene ring and a 4- to 7-membered saturated nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring are fused, particularly isoindoline compounds having a benzofuran ring as a substituent group on the nitrogen atom, recently, have been investigated for use as an agent for promoting nerve regeneration and/or an agent for promoting differentiation of neural stem cells. Such compounds have drawn attention as potential therapeutic drugs for Alzheimer's disease or the like. As examples of such fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds having a nerve regeneration-promoting activity, the compounds described in WO 00/34262 are known. However, fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds, particularly the compounds wherein a benzene ring and a 7 or less membered nitrogen-containing ring are fused including isoindoline compounds, have larger distortion and are more unstable as compared with the compounds wherein a benzene ring and 8 or more membered nitrogen-containing ring are fused. For example, by a pulverization step or the like in drug manufacture process and drug formulation process, the surface area of a drug increases and thereby the area that may contact with oxygen increases. As a result, a phenomenon wherein the saturated rings of compounds are oxidized to release hydrogen and then changed to aromatic rings, or the like is caused. In such a manner, these compounds in a solid state are unstable to oxygen and also unstable to light. [0003] On the other hand, in general, compounds in pharmaceutical preparations (e.g. tablets, powders, fine granules, granules, capsules) have reduced stability as compared with the compounds alone, due to strong interaction with other components in the pharmaceutical formulation. Thus, at the time of production and with the lapse of time, the content of a compound in a pharmaceutical preparation usually decreases and the color of the pharmaceutical preparation usually changes remarkably. In order to solve such a problem of instability, in investigations of formulation, compatibility tests or the like are performed to select excipients having better compatibility and then by using the selected excipients, appropriate stabilization of pharmaceutical preparations may be attained. However, although such a technique is conventional, such formulation and stabilization strategy comprising combination with suitable excipients vary depending on the characteristic physical properties of compounds to be used. Therefore, it is necessary to examine individually on individual compounds and to select individually suitable excipients to individual compounds, so that even a person skilled in the art cannot easily obtain the suitable formulation and stabilization strategy. OBJECT OF THE INVENTION [0004] The objective of the present invention is to stabilize a solid composition containing a compound unstable to oxygen. Particularly, the objective of the present invention is to stabilize a solid composition containing a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound unstable to oxygen and to obtain a stable pharmaceutical preparation. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] In view of the above-mentioned situation, the present inventors investigated how to stabilize a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound unstable to oxygen, and as a result, have found that bulk of a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound could be stabilized by formulation into pharmaceutical preparations. The present inventors have also found that stabilization of a pharmaceutical composition containing a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound can be achieved by applying a coating for protection from light to the composition and controlling the equilibrium moisture content of the composition and, if necessary, further by (1) incorporating ascorbic acid or a salt thereof in the composition and/or (2) precoating the composition with a film that does not contain a light blocking agent, as so-called an anchor coating. Furthermore, the present inventors have found such stabilization method is also effective in combination with stabilization by packing. Based on these findings and further investigations, the present inventors have completed the present invention. [0006] That is, the present invention provides: (1) a solid composition containing a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound unstable to oxygen, which is stabilized by [1] maintaining an equilibrium moisture content of 10% or above in the solid composition and/or [2] incorporating ascorbic acid or a salt thereof in the solid composition; (2) the solid composition described in the above (1), wherein the fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound is a compound represented by the formula: wherein, ring A is an optionally substituted benzene ring; ring B is a 4 to 7-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring which may be optionally substituted with halogen, an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring or an optionally substituted hydrocarbon group in addition to D; and D is a hydrogen atom, a heterocyclic group which may be optionally substituted and may optionally have a fused ring, or an optionally substituted hydrocarbon group, or a salt thereof (hereinafter, referred to as compound (I) in some cases); (3) the solid composition described in the above (1), wherein the fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound is an isoindoline compound; (4) the solid composition described in the above (3), wherein the fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound is (R)-(+)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-methylphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline, (R)-(+)-5,16-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(1-methylethylphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline, (R)-(+)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-bromophenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline, or a salt thereof; (5) the solid composition described in the above (2), which is coated with a film for protection from light; (6) the solid composition described in the above (5), which is precoated with a film that does not contain a light blocking agent; (7) a packed product obtained by packing the solid composition described in any one of the above (1) to (6) in one or more packaging forms selected from oxygen permeation-suppressing package, gas-replacement package, vacuum package and sealing package with an oxygen scavenger; (8) a packed product obtained by packing a solid-composition in nitrogen-replacement package, wherein the solid composition comprises a compound represented by the formula: wherein, ring A is an optionally substituted benzene ring; ring B is a 4 to 7-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring which may be optionally substituted with halogen, an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring or an optionally substituted hydrocarbon group in addition to D; and D is a hydrogen atom, a heterocyclic group which may be optionally substituted and may optionally have a fused ring, or an optionally substituted hydrocarbon group, or a salt thereof, and ascorbic acid or a salt thereof; is coated with a film for protection from light without being precoated with a film; and has an equilibrium moisture content of 10% or above; (9) a method for stabilizing a solid composition containing a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound unstable to oxygen, which comprises [1] maintaining an equilibrium moisture content of 10% or above in the solid composition, [2] incorporating ascorbic acid or a salt thereof in the solid composition, and/or [3] packing the solid composition in one or more packaging forms selected from oxygen permeation-suppressing package, gas-replacement package, vacuum package and sealing package with an oxygen scavenger; (10) the method described in the above (9), wherein the fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound is a compound represented by the formula: wherein, ring A is an optionally substituted benzene ring; ring B is a 4 to 7-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring which may be optionally substituted with halogen, an optionally substituted heterocyclic ring or an optionally substituted hydrocarbon group in addition to D; and D is a hydrogen atom, a heterocyclic group which may be optionally substituted and may optionally have a fused ring, or an optionally substituted hydrocarbon group, or a salt thereof; (11) the method described in the above (9), wherein the fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound is an isoindoline compound;. (12) the stabilization method described in the above (9), wherein the fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound is (R)-(+)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-methylphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline, (R)-(+)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(1-methylethylphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline, (R)-(+)-5,6-7dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-bromophenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline or a salt thereof; (13) a stabilized solid composition which comprises [1] a compound unstable to oxygen and [2] an antioxidant that is less oxidizable than said compound and wherein an equilibrium moisture content of 10% or above is maintained; (14) a packed product obtained by packing the composition described in the above (13) in one or more packaging forms selected from oxygen permeation-suppressing package, gas-replacement package, vacuum package, and sealing package with an oxygen scavenger; and (15) a method for stabilizing a solid composition containing a compound unstable to oxygen, which comprises [1] maintaining an equilibrium moisture content of 10% or above in the solid composition, [2] incorporating an antioxidant that is less oxidizable than the compound in the solid composition, and/or [3] packing the solid composition in one or more packaging forms selected from oxygen permeation-suppressing package, gas-replacement package, vacuum package, and sealing package with an oxygen scavenger. [0031] The present invention further provides: (16) the pharmaceutical solid composition described in the above (2), wherein ring B is a 4- to 5-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring: (17) a pharmaceutical solid composition as described in the above (1), wherein the fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound is a compound represented by the formula; wherein, ring A is an optionally substituted benzene ring; R 1 and R 2 are independently a hydrogen atom or an optionally substituted hydrocarbon group; R 3 is an optionally substituted aromatic group; ring B′ is a 4 to 7-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring which may be optionally substituted with halogen or an optionally substituted hydrocarbon group; and ring C is an optionally further substituted benzene ring, or a salt thereof (hereinafter, referred to as compound (II) in some cases); (18) the method as described in the above (9), wherein ring B is a 4- or 5-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring; and (19) a method as described in the above (9), wherein the fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound is the compound (II). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION [0036] A compound unstable to oxygen, as used herein, includes a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound unstable to oxygen. As such a compound, the above-mentioned compound (I) and especially the compound (II) are exemplified. These compounds are also unstable to light. The compound (II) has an activity for promoting nerve regeneration and/or an activity for promoting differentiation of neural stem cells. [0037] The ring A in the compound (I) is “an optionally substituted benzene ring”. Examples of a “substituent” for the ring A include (1) a halogen atom (e.g. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine, (2) C 1-3 alkylenedioxy (e.g. methylenedioxy and ethylenedioxy), (3) nitro, (4) cyano, (5) optionally halogenated C 1-6 alkyl, (6) optionally halogenated C 2-6 alkenyl, (7) optionally halogenated C 2-6 alkynyl, (8) optionally halogenated C 3-6 cycloalkyl, (9) C 6-14 aryl (e.g. phenyl, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl, biphenyl, 2-anthryl), (10) optionally halogenated C 1-6 alkoxy, (11) optionally halogenated C 1-6 alkylthio or mercapto, (12) hydroxy, (13) amino, (14) mono-C 1-6 alkylamino (e.g. methylamino and ethylamino), (15) mono-C 6-14 arylamino (e.g. phenylamino, 1-naphthylamino, and 2-naphthylamino), (16) di-C 1-6 alkylamino (e.g. dimethylamino and diethylamino), (17) di-C 6-14 arylamino (e.g. diphenylamino), (18) acyl, (19) acylamino, (20) acyloxy, (21) optionally substituted 5 to 7-membered saturated cyclic amino, (22) a 5 to 10-membered aromatic heterocyclic group (e.g. 2- or 3-thienyl, 2-, 3-, or 4-pyridyl, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, or 8-quinolyl, 1-, 3-, 4-, or 5-isoquinolyl, 1-, 2-, or 3-indolyl, 2-benzothiazolyl, 2-benzo[b]thienyl and benzo[b]furanyl), (23) sulfo, and (24) C 6-14 aryloxy (e.g. phenyloxy and naphthyloxy). The ring A may have 1 to 4 (preferably 1 or 2) substituents selected from the above substituents at the substitutable positions. If the ring A has 2 or more substituents, the substituents may be the same as of different from one another. [0038] The above-mentioned “optionally halogenated C 1-6 alkyl” may be C 1-6 alkyl (e.g. methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, and hexyl) which may optionally have 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3 halogen atoms (e.g. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine). Specific examples thereof include methyl, chloromethyl, difluoromethyl, trichloromethyl, trifluoromethyl, ethyl, 2-bromoethyl, 2,2,-2-trifluoroethyl, pentafluoroethyl, propyl, 3,3,3-trifluoropropyl, isopropyl, butyl, 4,4,4-trifluorobutyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, isopentyl, neopentyl, 5,5,5-trifluoropentyl, hexyl, 6,6,6-trifluorohexyl, and the like. [0039] The above-mentioned “optionally halogenated C 2-6 alkenyl” may be C 2-6 alkenyl (e.g. vinyl, allyl, isopropenyl, butenyl, isobutenyl, and sec-butenyl) which may optionally have 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3 halogen atoms (e.g. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine). Specific examples thereof include vinyl, allyl, isopropenyl, butenyl, isobutenyl, sec-butenyl, 3,3,3-trifluoro-1-propenyl, 4,4,4-trifluoro-1-butenyl, and the like. [0040] The above-mentioned “optionally halogenated C 2-6 alkynyl” may be C 2-6 alkynyl (e.g. ethynyl, propargyl, butynyl, and 1-hexynyl) which may optionally have 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3 halogen atoms (e.g. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) Specific examples thereof include ethynyl, propargyl, butynyl, 1-hexynyl, 3,3,3-trifluoro-1-propynyl, 4,4,4-trifluoro-1-butynyl and the like. [0041] The above-mentioned “optionally halogenated C 3-6 cycloalkyl” may be C 3-6 cycloalkyl (e.g. cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, and cyclohexyl) which may optionally have 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3 halogen atoms (e.g. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine). Specific examples thereof include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, 4,4-dichlorocyclohexyl, 2,2,3,3-tetrafluorocyclopentyl, 4-chlorocyclohexyl and the like. [0042] The above-mentioned “optionally halogenated C 1-6 alkoxyl” may be C 1-6 alkoxy (e.g. methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, isopropoxy, butoxy, isobutoxy, sec-butoxy, pentyloxy, and hexyloxy) which may optionally have 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3 halogen atoms (e.g. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine). Specific examples thereof include methoxy, difluoromethoxy, trifluoromethoxy, ethoxy, 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy, propoxy, isopropoxy, butoxy, 4,4,4-trifluorobutoxy, isobutoxy, sec-butoxy, pentyloxy, hexyloxy and the like. [0043] The above-mentioned “optionally halogenated C 1-6 alkylthio” may be C 1-6 alkylthio (e.g. methylthio, ethylthio, propoylthio, isopropylthio, butylthio, sec-butylthio, and tert-butylthio) which may optionally have 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3 halogen atoms (e.g. fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine). Specific examples thereof include methylthio, difluoromethylthio, trifluoromethylthio, ethylthio, propoylthio, isopropylthio, butylthio, 4,4,4-trifluorobutylthio, pentylthio, hexylthio, and the like. [0044] The above-mentioned “acyl” includes formyl, carboxy, carbamoyl, C 1-6 alkyl-carbonyl (e.g. acetyl and propionyl), C 3-6 cycloalkyl-carbonyl (e.g. cyclopropylcarbonyl, cyclopentylcarbonyl, and cyclohexylcarbonyl), C 1-6 -alkoxy-carbonyl (e.g. methoxycarbonyl, ethoxycarbonyl, propoxycarbonyl, and tert-butoxycarbonyl), C 6-14 aryl-carbonyl (e.g. benzoyl, 1-naphthoyl, and 2-naphthoyl), C 7-16 aralkyl-carbonyl (e.g. phenylacetyl and phenylpropionyl), C 6-14 aryloxy-carbonyl (e.g. phenoxycarbonyl), C 7-16 aralkyloxy-carbonyl (e.g. benzyloxycarbonyl and phenethyloxycarbonyl), 5 or 6-membered heterocyclic carbonyl (e.g. nicotinoyl, isonicotinoyl, 2-thenoyl, 3-thenoyl, 2-furoyl, 3-furoyl, morpholionocarbonyl, thiomorpholinocarbonyl, piperidinocarbonyl, and 1-pyrrolidinylcarbonyl), mono-C 1,6 alkyl-carbamoyl (e.g. methylcarbamoyl and ethylcarbamoyl), di-C 1,6 alkyl-carbamoyl (e.g. dimethylcarbamoyl, diethylcarbamoyl, and ethylmethylcarbamoyl), C 6-14 arylcarbamoyl (e.g. phenylcarbamoyl, 1-naphthylcarbamoyl, and 2-naphthylcarbamoyl), thiocarbamoyl, 5 or 6-membered hexacyclic carbamoyl (e.g. 2-pyridylcarbamoyl, 3-pyridylcarbamoyl, 4-pyridylcarbamoyl, 2-thienylcarbamoyl, and 3-thienylcarbamoyl), C 1-6 alkylsulfonyl (e.g. methylsulfonyl and ethylsulfonyl), C 6-14 arylsulfonyl (e.g. phenylsulfonyl, 1-naphthylsulfonyl, and 2-naphthylsulfonyl), C 1-6 alkylsulfinyl (e.g. methylsulfinyl and ethylsulfinyl), C 6-14 arylsulfinyl (e.g. phenylsulfinyl, 1-naphthylsulfinyl, and 2-naphthylsulfinyl), and the like. [0045] The above-mentioned “acylamino” includes formylamino, C 1-6 alkyl-carbonylamino (e.g. acetylamino), C 6-14 aryl-carbonylamino (e.g. phenylcarbonylamino and naphthylcarbonylamino), C 1-6 alkoxyl-carbonylamino (e.g. methoxycarbonylamino, ethoxycarbonylamino, propoxycarbonylamino, and butoxycarboylamino), C 1-6 alkylsulfonylamino (e.g. methylsulfonylamino, and ethylsulfonylamino), C 6-14 arylsulfonylamino (e.g. phenylsulfonylamino, 2-naphthylsulfonylamino, and 1-naphthylsulfonylamino), and the like. [0046] The above-mentioned “acyloxy” includes C 1-6 alkyl-carbonyloxy (e.g. acetoxy and propionyloxy), C 6-14 aryl-carbonyloxy (e.g. benzoyloxy and naphthylcarbonyloxy), C 1-6 alkoxy-carbonyloxy (e.g. methoxycarbonyloxy, ethoxycarbonyloxy, propoxycarbonyloxy and butoxycarbonyloxy), mono-C 1-6 alkyl-carbamoyloxy (e.g. methylcarbamoyloxy and ethylcarbamoyloxy), di-C 1-6 alkyl-carbamoyloxy (e.g. dimethylcarbamoyloxy and diethylcarbamoyloxy), C 6-14 aryl-carbamoyloxy (e.g. phenylcarbamoyloxy, naphthylcarbamoyloxy), nicotinoyloxy, and the like. [0047] The “5 to 7-membered saturated cyclic amino” for the above-mentioned “optionally substituted 5- to 7-membered saturated cyclic amino” includes morpholino, thiomorpholino, piperazin-1-yl, piperidino, pyrrolidin-1-yl, and the like. A “substituent” for the above-mentioned “optionally substituted 5 to 7-membered saturated cyclic amino” includes C 1-6 alkyl (e.g. methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, and hexyl), C 6-14 aryl (e.g. phenyl, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl, biphenylyl, and 2-anthryl), a 5 to 10-membered aromatic heterocyclic group (e.g. 2- or 3-thienyl, 2-, 3-, or 4-pyridyl, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, or 8-quinolyl, 1-, 3-, 4-, or 5-isoquinolyl, 1-, 2-, or 3-indolyl, 2-benzothiazolyl, 2-benzo[b]thienyl, and benzo[b]furanyl), and the like. The above-mentioned “optionally substituted 5 to 7-membered saturated cyclic amino” may have 1 to 3 of these substituents. [0048] The ring B in the compound (I) is a “4- to 7-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclic ring” and includes azetidine, azetidinone, pyrrole (e.g. 1H-pyrrole), dihydropyrrole (e.g. 2,5-dihydro-1H-pyrrole), dihydropyridine (e.g. 1,2-dihydropyridine), tetrahydropyridine (e.g. 1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyridine), azepine (e.g. 1H-azepine), dihydroazepine (e.g. 2,3-dihydro-1H-azepine, 2,5-dihydro-1H-azepine,. 2,7-dihydro-1H-azepine), tetrahydroazepine (e.g. 2,3,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-azepine, 2,3,4,7-tetrahydro-1H-azepine), and the like. [0049] The ring B may be optionally substituted with “halogen”, an “optionally substituted heterocyclic ring” or an “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” in addition to D. [0050] The “halogen” includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. [0051] A “heterocyclic group” for the “optionally substituted heterocyclic ring” includes 5- to 14-membered heterocyclic groups (aromatic heterocyclic groups, saturated or unsaturated non-aromatic heterocyclic groups) containing 1 to 4 heteroatoms selected from a nitrogen atom, a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom in addition to carbon atoms. [0052] The “aromatic heterocyclic group” includes 5- to 14-membered, preferably 5- to 10-membered aromatic heterocyclic groups containing one or more (e.g. 1 to 4) heteroatoms selected from a nitrogen atom, a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom in addition to carbon atoms and specifically, monovalent groups obtained by eliminating any optional hydrogen atom from aromatic heterocyclic rings such as thiophene, benzothiophene, benzofuran, benzimidazole, benzoxazole, benzothiazole, benzisothiazole, naphtho[2,3-b]thiophene, furan, isoindolizine, xanthrene, phenoxathiine, pyrrole, imidazole, pyrazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyrimidine, pyridazine, indole, isoindole, 1H-indazole, purine, 4H-quinolizine, isoquinoline, quinoline, phthalazine, naphthyridine, quinoxaline, quinazolin, cinnoline, carbazole, β-carboline, phthanthridine, actidine, phenazine, thiazole, isothiazole, phenothiazine, oxazole, isoxazole, furazan, and phenoxazine, or rings formed by condensing these rings (preferably monocyclic rings) with one or more (preferably 1 or 2) aromatic rings (e.g. benzene ring). [0053] Preferable examples of the “aromatic heterocyclic group” include 5- or 6-membered aromatic heterocyclic groups which may be fused with one benzene ring and specifically, 2-, 3- or 4-pyridyl, 2-, 3-, 4-,. 5- or 8-quinolyl, 1-, 3-, 4- or 5-isoquinolyl, 1-, 2- or 3-indolyl, 2-benzothiazolyl, 2-benzo[b]thienyl, benzo[b]furanyl, and 2- or 3-thienyl. More preferable examples thereof are 2- or 3-thienyl, 2-, 3- or 4-pyridyl, 2- or 3-quinolyl, 1-isoquinolyl, 1- or 2-indolyl, 2-benzothiazolyl, and the like. [0054] The “non-aromatic heterocyclic ring” includes 3 to 8-membered (preferably 5 or 6-membered) saturated or unsaturated (preferably saturated) non-aromatic heterocyclic groups (aliphatic heterocyclic groups) such as oxiranyl, azetidinyl, oxetanyl, thietanyl, pyrrolidinyl, tetrahydrofuryl, thiolanyl, piperidyl, tetrahydropyranyl, morpholinyl, thiomorpholinyl and piperazinyl. [0055] A “substituent” for the “optionally substituted heterocyclic group” includes those similar to the “substituent” for the above-mentioned ring A. The “optionally substituted heterocyclic group” may have 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3 the substituents at the substituable positions and if it has 2 or more substituents, the substituents may be the same as of different from one another. [0056] A “hydrocarbon group” for the “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” includes chain or cyclic hydrocarbon groups (e.g. alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, and aryl). Among them, chain or cyclic hydrocarbon groups containing 1 to 16 carbon atoms are preferred. [0057] The “alkyl” is preferably C 1-6 alkyl (e.g. methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, and hexyl). [0058] The “alkenyl” is preferably C 2-6 alkenyl (e.g. vinyl, allyl, isopropenyl, butenyl, isobutenyl, sec-butenyl). [0059] The “alkynyl” is preferably C 2-6 alkynyl (e.g. ethynyl, propargyl, butynyl, and 1-hexynyl). [0060] The “cycloalkyl” is preferably C 3-6 cycloalkyl. (e.g. cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, and cyclohexyl). [0061] The “aryl” is preferably C 6-14 aryl (e.g. phenyl, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl, biphenylyl, and 2-anthryl). [0062] A “substituent” for the “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” includes those similar to the substituents for the above-mentioned ring A. For example, the “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” may have 1 to 5, preferably 1 to 3 of the above-mentioned substituents at the substitutable positions and if it has 2 or more substituents, the substituents may be the same as or different from one another. [0063] Specific examples of a group represented by the formula: wherein each symbol is as defined above, include groups represented by the following formulas: wherein, R 4 and R 5 may be the same or different and each is a hydrogen atom, halogen, or an optionally substituted hydrocarbon group, and ring A is as defined above; preferably groups represented by the following formulas: wherein each symbol is as defined above; more preferably groups represented by the following formulas: wherein each symbol is as defined above; and most preferably groups represented by the following formula: wherein each symbol is as defined above. [0064] Representative compounds which may be used in the present invention include isoindoline compounds, that is, compounds having isoindoline as the partial structure. [0065] The “halogen” or “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” represented by R 4 and R 5 include those similar to the “halogen” or “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” exemplified as the “substituent” for the above-mentioned ring B, respectively. [0066] D in the compound (I) is a “hydrogen atom”, a “heterocyclic group which may be optionally substituted and may optionally have a fused ring” or an “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group”. [0067] A “substituent” and “heterocyclic group” for the “heterocyclic group which may be optionally substituted and may optionally have a fused ring” include those similar to groups exemplified with respect to the above-mentioned ring B. The “fused ring” includes monovalent groups obtained by eliminating any optional hydrogen from rings formed by condensing aromatic heterocyclic rings with one or more (preferable 1 or 2) aromatic rings (e.g. a benzene ring) Specific examples thereof are 2-, 3-, 4-, 5- or 8-quinolyl, 1-, 3-, 4- or 5-isoquinolyl, 1-, 2- or 3-indolyl, 2-benzothiazolyl, and 2-benzo[b]thienyl, benzo[b]furanyl and the like. [0068] The “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” represented by D includes those similar to the “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” which is a “substituent” for the above-mentioned ring B. [0069] The ring A of the compound (II) includes those similar to the ring A of the compound (I). [0070] The “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” represented by R 1 and R 2 in the compound (II) includes those similar to the “optionally substituted hydrocarbon groups” for the ring B in the compound (I). [0071] The “optionally substituted aromatic group”. represented by R 3 includes “optionally substituted C 6-14 aryl” and examples thereof are C 6-14 aryl group such as phenyl, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl, biphenylyl and anthryl, and the like. A “substituent” for the “optionally substituted C 6-14 aryl” includes those similar to the above-mentioned “substituents” for the “optionally substituted hydrocarbon group” for ring B of the compound (I). The number of substituents which the “optionally substituted C 6-14 aryl” may have is also similar to that of the “optionally. substituted hydrocarbon group” for ring B of the compound (I). [0072] The ring B′ of the compound (II) includes those similar to the ring B of the above-mentioned compound (I). [0073] The ring C of the compound (II) is a benzene ring which may optionally have a substituent group in addition to ring B′ and the “substituent” includes those similar to the above-mentioned substituents for the ring A of the compound (I). [0074] Particularly, the present invention can be preferably applied to isoindoline compounds, for example, (R)-(+)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-methylphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline, [(R)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-methylphenyl)benzofuran-5-yl]-2,3-dihydro-1H-isoindole, (R)-(+)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,m6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-methylethylphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline, (R)-(+)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-bromophenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline, and their salts. [0075] Examples of salts of the above-mentioned compounds (I) and (II) may be metal salts, ammonium salts, or salts with organic bases in the case that the compounds have an acidic group such as —COOH or the like, and salts with inorganic acid, organic acid, or basic or acidic amino acid as well as intermolecular salts in the case that the compounds have a basic group such as —NH 2 or the like. Preferable examples of the metal salts include alkali metal salts such as a sodium salt and a potassium salt; alkaline earth metal salts such as a calcium salt, a magnesium salt and a barium salt; and an aluminum salt. Preferable examples of the salts with organic bases include salts with trimethylamine, triethylamine, pyridine, picoline, ethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine, dicyclohexylamine, and N,N-dibenzylethylenediamine. Preferable examples of the salts with inorganic acid include salts with hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid. Preferable examples of the salts with organic acid include salts with formic acid, acetic acid, trifluoroacetic acid, fumaric acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid, maleic acid, citric acid, succinic acid, malic acid, methanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, and p-toluenesulfonic acid Preferable examples of salts with basic amino acid include salts with arginine, lysine, and ornithine. Preferable examples of salts with acidic amino acid include salts with aspartic acid and glutamic acid. [0076] Among them, pharmacologically acceptable salts are preferred and include, in the case that acidic functional groups exist in the compounds, inorganic salts such as alkali metal salts (e.g. a sodium salt and a potassium salt) and alkaline earth salts (e.g. a calcium salt, a magnesium salt, and a barium salt), and ammonium salts; and in the case basic functional groups exist in the compounds, inorganic salts such as hydrochloride, sulfate, phosphate and hydrobromide, and organic salts such as acetate, maleate, fumarate, succinate, methanesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate, citrate and tartarate. [0077] The compound (I) and the compound (II) can be produced by well-known methods, for example, methods described in WO 98/55454, WO 00/36262, WO 95/29907, JP-A 5-194466, U.S. Pat. No. 4,881,967, U.S. Pat. No. 4,212,865 and Tetrahedron Letters, vol. 37, no. 51, pp.9183-9186 (1996), or similar methods to these methods. [0078] The solid composition, as used herein, includes pharmaceutical preparations (e.g. tablets, powders, fine granules, granules, capsules) containing the above-mentioned fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound unstable to oxygen as an active component. [0079] As the packed product, for example, the products obtained by packing the above-mentioned pharmaceutical preparations in prescribed packaging forms are exemplified. [0080] Hereinafter, the solid composition, the packed product and the stabilization method of the present invention are explained. [0081] One of stabilization methods of the present invention is accomplished by maintaining the equilibrium moisture content (ERH) of the solid composition at a given level. Since the component of a solid composition generally becomes more unstable with an increase in the water content of the solid composition, stabilization of a solid composition is usually carried out by lowering the water content. However, the inventors of the present invention unexpectedly found that oxidation of a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound unstable to oxygen can be suppressed by controlling the ERH of a solid composition so as to prevent a decrease in the ERH and as a result, the solid composition can be stabilized. A method for controlling the ERH of a solid composition is not particularly limited and may be any method as long as the method is capable of controlling the ERH of the final solid composition so as to be 10% or more, preferably 20% or more, and more preferably 30% or more as. measured using, for example, Rotronic Hygrpskop DT (Rotronic Co.) under the. conditions shown in the following Experimental Example 3. The control of ERH may be, for example, process control during production of a solid composition or control of a water content by an additional step such as a humidification step after the production. Alternatively, a solid composition is packed and humidified in a package to allow the ERH to reach-to a given level. “Maintaining ERH” does not necessarily mean positive humidification. For example, if ERH is at the desired level or above, humidifying process is not required. [0082] Another stabilization method of the present invention is accomplished by incorporating an antioxidant that is less oxidizable than the “compound unstable to an acid” in the solid composition and maintaining the ERH of the solid composition at a given level or above. The antioxidant used is usually a compound that is more easily oxidizable than a compound to be prevented from oxidation, in order to allow the antioxidant to consume oxygen in preference to the compound to be prevented from oxidation. However, surprisingly, the present inventors have found that oxidation of a “compound unstable to an acid” can be prevented by combining a compound that is more easily oxidizable than the compound to be prevented from oxidation and maintaining the ERH at a given level or above. “Less oxidizable” means that the rate of a decrease in the weight of a substance is lower under the common laboratory environment (e.g. under atmospheric air, 25° C., and 50% humidity). The rate is expressed as a percentage of a decrease in the weight of a substance after leaving it under the common laboratory environment for a week. [0083] The ERH level may be maintained at the above-mentioned level or above by a similar method to the above-mentioned method. [0084] Such an antioxidant is not particularly limited as long as it is less oxidizable than a “compound unstable to oxygen” to be prevented from oxidation and may be any usually used antioxidant. Such an antioxidant includes ascorbic acid or a salt thereof (e.g. a sodium salt, a calcium salt, a magnesium salt, a potassium salt, a basic amino acid salt, a meglumine salt and the like), sodium nitrite, L-ascorbic acid stearic acid ester, sodium hydrogen sulfite, sodium sulfite, a salt of edetic acid (e.g. a sodium salt, a potassium salt, and a calcium salt), erithorbic acid, cysteine hydrochloride, citric acid, tocopherol acetate, cysteine, potassium dichloroisocyanurate, dibutylhydroxytoluene (BHT), soybean lecithin, sodium thioglycolate, thioglycerol, tocopherol (Vitamin E), d-5-tocopherol, sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate, ascorbic palmitate, sodium pyrosulfite, butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), 1,3-butylene glycol, benzotriazole, pentaerythrityl tetrakis(3-(3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)propionate], propyl gallate, and 2-mercaptobenzimidazole. [0085] The antioxidant to be used in the present invention, as is clear from the above, may be selected depending on the “compound unstable to oxygen” to be prevented from oxidation. [0086] If the “compound unstable to oxygen” is a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound, particularly the compound (I) or the compound (II), preferable examples of the antioxidant include ascorbic acid and a salt thereof (e.g. a sodium salt, a calcium salt, a magnesium'salt, a potassium salt, a basic amino acid salt, and a meglumine salt), sodium nitrite, sodium hydrogen sulfite, sodium sulfite, a salt of edetic acid (e.g. a sodium salt, a potassium salt, and a calcium salt), erithorbic acid, cysteine hydrochloride, citric acid, cysteine, potassium dichloroisocyanurate, sodium thioglycolate, thioglycerol, sodium formaldehyde sulfoxylate, sodium pyrosulfite, and 1,3-butylene glycol, and the particularly preferable examples are ascorbic acid and a salt thereof (e.g. a sodium salt, a calcium salt, a magnesium salt, a potassium salt, a basic amino acid salt, and a meglumine salt). [0087] These antioxidants may be used alone or two or more of them may be used in a combination. [0088] These antioxidants may be mixed with other components of the solid composition in any proper step of formulation process by well-known methods. Although the amount used of, the antioxidant is not particularly limited, it is usually 0.01% or above, preferably 0.1% or above, more preferably 1.0% or above, and most preferably 5.0% or above in the total weight of the solid composition. The antioxidant may be in any form as long as it is incorporated in the solid composition. [0089] If the “compound unstable to oxygen” is a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound, particularly the compound (I) or the compound (II), it is preferable that the solid composition is coated for protection from light by well-known methods. A coating base of the coating for protection from light includes hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, polyoxyethylene glycol, Tween 80, Pluronic F68, cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose phthalate, hydroxymethyl cellulose acetate succinate, Eudragit (Rohm Pharma, West Germany, methacrylic acid-acrylic acid copolymer), cetanol, polyvinyl alcohol and zein. A light blocking agent of the coating for protection from light includes titanium dioxide and talc. Other ingredients of the coating agent include yellow ferric oxide, red ferric oxide, polyethylene glycol, riboflavin, carboxyvinyl polymer, hydroxyethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate, gelatin, maltitol and serac. Talc can work as a light blocking agent and can be also used as a plasticizer. [0090] Further, in-order to ensure more improved stability in the presence-of oxygen and light, the solid composition may be precoated with a film that does not contain a light blocking agent, so-called an anchor coating, prior to the coating for protection from light. For such an anchor coating, those exemplified as the film base of the above-mentioned film coating can be used. For example, in the case of a tablet, the surface of a tablet is precoated with hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose or the like so as to attain a thickness of 0.1 to 30 mg/cm 2 , preferably 1 to 20 mg/cm 2 , and more preferably 3 to 10 mg/cm 2 , and the precoated tablet is then coated with a film coating solution comprising hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, Macrogol 6000, titanium dioxide, a pigment and the like so as to attain a thickness of about 3 to 10 mg/cm 2 . The coating tablet thus obtained shows excellent stability with little change in the appearance and little decrease in the content of the active component even after being stored for a long time. [0091] The purposes of the film coating may also include masking of taste, enteric property or durability. [0092] Generally, a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound unstable to oxygen by itself is quickly oxidized in the presence of oxygen. The stability of a compound in a solid composition is usually lower than that of the compound by itself, as described above. However, unexpectedly, the present inventors found that-oxidation of such a compound can be suppressed by formulation using a conventional method. [0093] The solid composition of the present invention can be produced by a well-known formulation process (e.g. the methods described in General Rules for Preparations of the Japanese Pharmacopoeia 10th edition) and can be formulated into dosage forms suitable for oral administration such as tablets, capsules, powders, granules and fine granules. For example, in the case of a tablet, a compound unstable to oxygen is mixed with an excipient and a disintegrant and further mixed with a binder to form granules, and the granules are then mixed with a lubricant and compressed into tablets. In the case of a granule, the granule can be produced by extrusion granulation in a similar manner to the above-mentioned tablet, or fluidized bed granulation. The granule can be also produced by coating nonpareils (containing 75% (W/W) of white sugar and 25% (W/W) of cornstarch) with powder containing a compound unstable to oxygen and additives (e.g. white sugar, cornstarch, crystalline cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, and polyvinylpyrrolidone) while spraying water or a binder solution (concentration: about 0.5 to 70% (W/V)) of white sugar, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose or, the like. In the case of a capsule, components are mixed simply and then filled in a capsule. [0094] The solid composition of the present invention may contain a pharmacologically acceptable carrier or an additive in addition to the above-mentioned antioxidant. A pharmacologically acceptable carrier or an additive to be employed in production of the solid composition of the present invention includes various organic or inorganic carrier substances that are conventionally used as pharmaceutical material, for example, excipients, lubricants, binders and disintegrants for solid preparations; and solvents, solubilizing agents, suspending agents, isotonic agents, buffers and soothing agents for liquid preparations. If necessary, conventional additives such as preservatives, coloring agents, sweeteners, adsorbents, wetting agents and the like may be also used. [0095] The excipients include lactose, white sugar, D-mannitol, starch, cornstarch, crystalline cellulose and light anhydrous silicic acid. [0096] The lubricants include magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, talc and colloidal silica. [0097] The binders include crystalline cellulose, white sugar, D-mannitol, dextrin, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, starch, sucrose, gelatin, methyl cellulose and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. [0098] The disintegrants include starch, carboxymethyl cellulose, calcium carboxymethyl cellulose, crosscarmelose sodium, carboxymethyl starch sodium and L-hydroxypropyl cellulose. [0099] The solvents include water for injection, alcohol, propylene glycol, macrogol, sesame oil, corn oil and olive oil. [0100] The solubilizing agents include polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol, D-mannitol, benzyl benzoate, ethanol, trisaminomethane, cholesterol, triethanolamine, sodium carbonate and sodium citrate. [0101] The suspending agents include surfactants such as stearyltriethanolamine, sodium lauryl sulfate, laurylaminopropionic acid, lecithin, benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride and glycerin monostearate; and hydrophilic polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinylpyrrolidone, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydroxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose and hydroxypropyl cellulose. [0102] The isotonic agents include glucose, D-sorbitol, sodium chloride, glycerin and D-mannitol. [0103] The buffers include buffer solutions such as phosphate, acetate, carbonate and citrate buffer. [0104] The soothing agents include benzyl alcohol. [0105] The preservatives include p-hydroxybenzoic acid esters, chlorobutanol, benzyl alcohol, phenethyl alcohol, dehydroacetic acid and sorbic acid. [0106] Another stabilization methods of the present invention is accomplished by taking a packaging form such as oxygen permeation-suppressing package, a method (gas replacement package) for replacing air with gas other than oxygen (e.g. nitrogen gas, argon gas, or carbon dioxide), vacuum package, oxygen scavenger-enclosing package, and the like. Such a packaging form leads to a decrease in the oxygen amount that may directly contact with the solid composition, and thereby the solid composition can be stabilized. In the case that an oxygen scavenger is enclosed, the solid composition may be packed in an oxygen-permeable package at first and then the packed product may be further packed in another package. To the allowable extent, the above-mentioned packaging forms can be combined with one another. For example, the oxygen permeation-suppressing package, gas replacement package and sealing package with an oxygen scavenger can be combined with one another. [0107] Combination of the above-mentioned stabilization methods makes further stabilization possible. [0108] Incidentally, in the case that the “compound unstable to oxygen” is the compound (I) or the compound (II) and nitrogen gas-replacement package is employed, stabilization can be achieved even without an anchor coating to the same extent as that in the case with an anchor coating. [0109] Among the fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds used in the present invention, for example, the compound (II) is useful for mammalian (e.g. mice, rats, hamsters, rabbits, cats, dogs, bovines, sheeps, monkeys, humans, and the like) as a substance for promoting growth of stem cells (e.g. embryonic stem cells, neural stem cells and the like) or a substance for promoting differentiation of neural precursor cells; or as a neurotrophic factor-like substance, a neurotrophic factor activation-enhancing substance or a neurodegeneration-inhibiting substance, and it suppresses neural cell death and promotes regeneration of the nerve tissues or function by neurotization and neural axon extension. Further, the compound (II) is also useful in preparation of neural stem cells or neural cells (including neural precursor cells) from fetal brain or patient brain tissues and embryonic stem cells for transplantation treatment, as well as promotes engraftment, differentiation and functional expression of neural stem cells or neural cells after the transplantation. [0110] Accordingly, stem cells and/or neural precursor cells proliferation- and/or differentiation-promoting agents comprising the compound (II) are effective against. neurodegenerative diseases (e.g. Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's disease, spinocerebellar degeneration and the like), psychoneurosis diseases (e.g. schizophrenia), head trauma, spinal cord injury, cerebrovascular disorder, cerebrovascular dementia, and the like and is usable as an agent for preventing or treating such central nervous system disorders. [0111] The compound (II) has low toxicity and can be administered orally and safely as it is or in the form of the above-mentioned solid composition obtained by mixing with a pharmacologically acceptable carrier by a known means. [0112] The content of the compound (II) in the composition of the present invention is about 0.01 to 100% by weight of the total weight of the composition. [0113] Although a dose of the composition of the present invention varies depending on a subject to be administered, a disease, and the like, it is about 0.1 to 20 mg /kg body weight, preferably about 0.2 to 10 mg/kg body weight, and more preferably about 0.5 to 10 mg/kg body weight of the compound (II) as an active component, when it is orally administered to an adult as a therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease. The dose may be administered once a day or more than once a day in several divided portions. EXAMPLE [0114] The present invention is explained further in details with reference to Reference Examples, Examples and Experimental Examples, which are not intended to limit the present invention. Reference Example 1 (Compound A) (R)-(+)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-methylphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]isoindoline [0115] Under argon atmosphere, 4,5-dimethoxyphthalic anhydride (4.43 g, 21,3 mmol) was added to a solution of (+)-2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-methylphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-amine (6.00 g, 20.3 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (50 mL) and the mixture was heated under reflux for 3 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide (WSC) hydrochloride (4.67 g, 24.4 mmol) and 1-hydroxy-1H-benzotriazole (HOBt) monohydrate (3.74 g, 24.4 mmol) were added. The resulting mixture was heated under reflux for 14 hours and then cooled to room temperature. To the reaction mixture were added water and an 8N aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide and the product was extracted twice with ethyl acetate. The extract was washed with an aqueous solution of saturated sodium hydrogen carbonate, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and then concentrated under reduced pressure to obtain a crude product of (+)-5,6-dimethoxy-2-[2,2,4,6,7-pentamethyl-3-(4-methylphenyl)-2,3-dihydro-1-benzofuran-5-yl]-1H-isoindol-1,3(2H)-dione (8.40 g). To a solution of aluminum chloride (13.6 g, 102 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (60 mL) was added Lithium aluminum hydride (3.87 g, 102 mmol) and stirred for 10 minutes. A solution of the above-mentioned crude product in tetrahydrofuran (30 mL) was added thereto and the mixture was heated under reflux for 3 hours. After cooled to room temperature, to the reaction mixture was added water and the mixture was then extracted twice with ethyl acetate. The extract was washed with a 1N aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and then concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was subjected to silica gel column chromatography (hexane-ethyl acetate 8:1) to obtain the title compound (6.23 g, yield 68%). Melting point: 157 to 159° C. [α] D =+62.30 (c=0.488, methanol) [0116] 1 H-NMR(CDCl 3 )δ:1.02 (3H,s), 1.51 (3H,s), 1.76 (3H,s), 2.17 (3H,s), 2.18 (3H,s), 2.31 (3H,s), 3.87 (6H,s), 4.10 (1H,s), 4.45 (4H,s), 6.70-7.15(6H,m). Experimental Example 1 [0117] After the bulk powder of the compound A and sodium ascorbate were left at 40° C. and 75% RH in atmospheric air for 1 month, their residual ratios were measured. As a result, the residual ratio of the compound A was 89.7% (W/W) and the residual ratio of sodium ascorbate was 99.0% (W/W). [0118] The quantitative determination of the compound A was carried out by a HPLC method under the following conditions: solvent: acetonitrile, measurement wavelength: 287 nm, column: CHIRALCEL OJ-R 4.6×150 mm (manufactured by Daicel Chemical Industries, Ltd. CPI Co.), mobile phase: a mixed (16:9) solution of acetonitrile/10 mM ammonium acetate aqueous solution, oven temperature: around 25° C. [0124] The quantitative determination of sodium ascorbate was carried out by iodine titration method (solvent: metaphosphoric acid solution (1→50), indicator: starch reagent solution). Example 1 [0125] The bulk powder of the compound A (1.8 g), D-mannitol (44.64 g), crosscarmelose sodium (2.7 g), and then a solution (4.32 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (1.62 g) were put in a mortar and then kneaded with a pestle. All the resulting wet kneaded mixture was dried in a vacuum drier (manufactured by Irie Seisakusho Co., Ltd.) to obtain a granule. The granule (45.12 g) was pulverized in a mortar with a pestle and sieved through a No. 20 sieve to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (42.3 g) was mixed with crosscarmelose sodium (2.25 g) and magnesium stearate (0.45 g) in a polyethylene bag. The mixed powder thus obtained was compressed into a tablet with a universal testing machine (manufactured by Shimadzu Corp.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 2 [0126] In a similar manner to Example 1, the bulk powder of the compound B (1.8 g), D-mannitol (44.64 g), crosscarmelose sodium (2.7 g), and then a solution (4.32 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (1.62 g) were put in a mortar and then kneaded with a pestle. All the resulting wet kneaded mixture was dried in a vacuum drier (manufactured by Irie Seisakusho Co., Ltd.) to obtain a granule. The granule (45.12g) was pulverized in a mortar with a pestle and sieved through a No. 20 sieve to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (42.3 g) was mixed with crosscarmelose sodium (2.25 g) and magnesium stearate (0.45 g) in a polyethylene bag. The mixed powder thus obtained was compressed into a tablet with a universal testing machine (manufactured by Shimadzu Corp.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 3 [0127] In a similar manner to Example 1, the bulk powder of the compound C (1.8 g), D-mannitol (44.64 g), crosscarmelose sodium (2.7 g), and then a solution (4.32 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (1.62 g) were put in a mortar and then kneaded with a pestle. All the resulting wet kneaded mixture was dried in a vacuum drier (manufactured by Irie Seisakusho Co., Ltd.) to obtain a granule. The granule (45.12 g) was pulverized in a mortar with a pestle and sieved through a No. 20 sieve to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (42.3 g) was mixed with crosscarmelose sodium (2.25 g) and magnesium stearate (0.45 g) in a polyethylene bag. The mixed powder thus obtained was compressed into a tablet with a universal testing machine (manufactured by Shimadzu Corp.) to obtain a plain tablet. Reference Example 2 [0128] In purified water (1,800 g) titanium dioxide (90 g), yellow ferric oxide (3.6 g) and red ferric oxide (3.6 g) were dispersed. In purified water (3,600 g) hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose 2910 (TC-5) (412.8 g) and Macrogol 6000 (90 g) were dissolved. The resulting dispersion and the resulting solution were mixed to obtain a coating agent. Reference Example 3 [0129] In purified water (5,400 g) hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose 2910. (TC-5) (600 g) was dissolved to obtain an undercoating agent. Example 4 [0130] The bulk powder of the compound A (3.5 g), D-mannitol (970.2 g), crosscarmelose sodium (52.5 g) and light anhydrous silicic acid (9.8 g) were put in a fluidized-bed granulation dryer (manufactured by Powrex Corp.), previously heated and mixed. The mixture was sprayed with a solution (816.7 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (49 g) to obtain a granule. The granule (930 g) was sized with a power mill (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (899 g), crosscarmelose sodium (48.43 g) and magnesium stearate (9.57 g) were mixed with a tumbler mixer (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain mixed powder. The mixed powder (924 g) was compressed into a tablet with a tableting machine (manufactured by Kikusui Seisakusho Ltd.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 5 [0131] The plain tablet obtained in Example 4 was sprayed with the undercoating agent obtained in Reference Example 3 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund). The undercoated tablet was then sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 2 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet to obtain a film-coated tablet. Example 6 [0132] The bulk powder of the compound A (3.5 g), D-mannitol (935.2 g), crosscarmelose sodium (52.5 g), light anhydrous silicic acid (9.8 g) and sodium ascorbate (35 g) were put in a fluidized-bed granulation dryer (manufactured by Powrex Corp.), previously heated and mixed. The mixture was sprayed with a solution (816.7 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (49 g) to obtain a granule. The granule (930 g) was sized with a power mill (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (899 g), crosscarmelose sodium (48.43 g) and magnesium stearate (9.57 g) were mixed with a tumbler mixer (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain mixed powder. The mixed-powder (924 g) was-compressed into a tablet with a tableting machine (manufactured by Kikusui Seisakusho Ltd.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 7 [0133] The plain tablet obtained in Example 6 was sprayed with the undercoating agent obtained in Reference Example-3 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund). The undercoated tablet was then sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 2 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet to obtain a film-coated tablet. Example 8 [0134] The bulk powder of the compound A (350 g), D-mannitol (588.7 g), crosscarmelose sodium (52.5 g), light anhydrous silicic acid (9.8 g) and sodium ascorbate (35 g) were put in a fluidized-bed granulation dryer (manufactured by Powrex Corp.), previously heated and mixed. The mixture was sprayed with a solution (816.7 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (49 g) to obtain a granule. The granule (930 g) was sized with a power mill (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (899 g), crosscarmelose sodium (48.43 g) and magnesium stearate (9.57 g) were mixed with a tumbler mixer (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho, Co.) to obtain mixed powder. The mixed powder (924 g) was. compressed into a tablet with a tableting machine (manufactured by Kikusui Seisakusho Ltd.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 9 [0135] The plain tablet obtained in Example 8 was sprayed with the undercoating agent obtained in Reference Example 3 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund). The undercoated tablet was then sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 2 so as to attain a coating at 15 mg/one tablet to obtain a film-coated tablet. Example 10 [0136] The bulk powder of the compound A (350 g), D-mannitol (623.7 g), crosscarmelose sodium (52.5 g) and light anhydrous silicic acid (9.8 g) were put in a fluidized-bed granulation dryer (manufactured by Powrex Corp.), previously heated and mixed. The mixture was sprayed with absolution (816.7 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (49 g) to obtain a granule. The granule (930 g) was sized with a power mill (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (899 g)., crosscarmelose sodium (48.43 g) and magnesium stearate (9.57 g) were mixed with a tumbler mixer (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain mixed powder. The mixed powder (924 g) was compressed into a tablet with a tableting machine (manufactured by Kikusui Seisakusho Ltd.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 11 [0137] The plain tablet obtained in Example 10 was sprayed with the undercoating agent obtained in Reference Example 3 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund). The undercoated tablet was then sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 2 so as to attain a coating at 15 mg/one tablet to obtain a film-coated tablet. Reference Example 4 [0138] In purified water (1,440 g) titanium dioxide (48 g) and yellow ferric oxide (1.44 g) were dispersed. In purified water (2,880 g) hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose 2910 (TC-5) (358.56 g) and Macrogol 6000 (72 g) were dissolved. The resulting dispersion and the resulting solution were mixed to obtain a coating agent. Reference Example 5 [0139] In purified water (5,400 g) hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose 2910 (TC-5) (600 g) was dissolved to obtain an undercoating agent. Example 12 [0140] The bulk powder of the compound A (3.5 g), D-mannitol (847 g), crosscarmelose sodium (52.5 g) and sodium ascorbate (52.5 g) were put in a fluidized-bed granulation dryer (manufactured by Powrex Corp.), previously heated and mixed. The mixture was sprayed with a solution (525 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (31.5 g) to obtain a granule. The granule (846 g) was sized with a power mill (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (817.8 g), cornstarch (121.8 g) and magnesium stearate (17.4 g) were mixed with a tumbler mixer (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain mixed powder. The mixed powder (924 g) was compressed into a tablet with a tableting machine (manufactured by Kikusui Seisakusho Ltd.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 13 [0141] The plain tablet obtained in Example 12 was sprayed with the undercoating agent obtained in Reference Example 5 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund). The undercoated tablet was then sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 4 so as to attain a coating at 12 mg/one tablet to obtain a film-coated tablet. Example 14 [0142] The plain tablet obtained in Example 12 was sprayed with- the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 4 so as to attain a coating of 12 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund) to obtain a film-coated tablet. Experimental Example 2 [0143] The tablet obtained in Example 1 was put in a capped glass bottle and sealed. After storage at 60° C. for 2 weeks, the contents of the compound A and the related substances in the tablet were measured. Similarly, the bulk powder used for production of the tablet in Example 1 was stored under the same conditions and then the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured. A comparison of stabilities between the formulated tablet and the bulk powder was made. [0144] Measurement of the contents of the compound A and the related substances was carried out by a HPLC method under the following conditions: solvent: water/acetonitrile mixed solution (4:6), measurement wavelength: 287 nm, column: XTerra MS C18 3.5 μm 4.6 mm×150 mm (manufactured by Waters Co., Ltd.), mobile phase: a gradient of 10 mM ammonium acetate solution/acetonitrile mixed solution (4:3) and acetonitril/10 mM ammonium acetate solution mixed solution (9:1), and oven temperature: around 40° C. [0150] As a result, as shown in Table 1, there was no significant change in the content of the compound A caused by formulation, but an increase of the related substances was remarkably suppressed by formulation, which confirms improvement in the stability. TABLE 1 Related substances (%) Sample Storage condition Residual ratio (%) A B C D E F bulk initial 100.0 0.46 — 0.24 0.32 0.13 3.01 60° C. 2 W 87.9 1.74 0.59 1.13 2.12 0.78 10.41 Example 1 initial 100.0 0.25 — 0.25 0.40 0.12 3.62 60° C. 2 W 86.8 1.05 0.52 1.63 1.90 0.15 7.93 Initial: Immediately after production, 60° C. 2 W: After 2-week storage at 60° C. Experimental Example 3 [0151] The 1 mg tablet that did not contain sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 5 and the 1 mg tablet containing sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 7 were dried in vacuum and placed within desiccators containing a saturated potassium carbonate solution for 3 days to control the humidity. The equilibrium moisture content (ERH) of each tablet was measured by the following method. The results were 3.0% and 3.4%, respectively. [0000] (Method for Measuring Equilibrium Moisture Content of Formulated Agent) [0152] The measurement was carried out at 20 to 25° C. by using 5 to 30 plain tablets or film-coated tablets and Rotronic Hygroskop DT (manufactured by Rotronic Co.). [0153] These tablets were put in a capped glass bottle and sealed. After storage at 40° C. for 1 month, the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured. The content of the compound A was measured in the same manner as the measurement method in Experimental Example 2, except that a water/acetonitrile mixed solution (4:6) was used as a solvent. The measurement of the related substances was carried out in the same manner as Experimental Example 3. [0154] Since the related substance A could not be separated from sodium ascorbate in the measurement, it was not evaluated. As a result, as shown in Table 2, the tablet containing sodium ascorbate did not have a decrease in the content of the compound A and an increase of the related substances. In addition, it was confirmed that sodium ascorbate incorporated in a tablet suppressed-decomposition of the main drug during production of the tablet, which led to stabilization of the tablet, based on a comparison of the initial contents of the related substances between the tablets of Example 5 and Example 7, wherein both tablets were produced from the same bulk. TABLE 2 Storage Residual Related substances (%) Sample condition ratio (%) B C D E F Example initial 100.0 — 1.40 1.74 — 9.29 5 40° C. 1 M 76.8 1.29 7.08 6.53 — 15.02 Example initial 100.0 — 0.36 0.57 — 4.69 7 40° C. 1 M 89.3 — 2.20 2.00 — 10.23 Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C. 1 M: After 1-month storage at 40° C. [0155] The contents of the related substances A to F in the bulk used were as follows: related substance A: 0.31%, related substance B: 0.08%, related substance C: 0.40%, related substance. D: 0.43%, related substance E: 0.08%, related substance A: 2.69%. Experimental Example 4 [0159] The 1 mg tablet obtained in Example 5 was dried in vacuum. A portion of the tablets. was placed within a desiccator containing a saturated potassium carbonate solution for 3 days to control the humidity. The equilibrium moisture content (ERH) of each sample was measured by the above-mentioned method. The results were 3.0% for the vacuum-dried sample and 46.6% for the humidity-controlled sample. Each sample was put in a capped glass bottle and sealed. After storage at 40° C. for 1 month, the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner as Experimental Example 3. As a result, as shown in Table 3, the sample with more than ERH 10% had less decrease in the content of the compound A and less increase of the related substances, as compared with the sample with less than ERH 10%. TABLE 3 Related substance (%) Sample Storage condition Residual ratio (%) A B C D E F Vacuum-dried initial 100.0 0.70 — 1.40 1.74 — 9.29 product (ERH: 3.0%) 40° C. 1 M 76.8 5.12 1.29 7.08 6.53 — 15.02 Humidity-controlled initial 100.0 0.70 — 1.40 1.74 — 9.29 product (ERH: 46.6%) 40° C. 1 M 83.5 2.55 0.88 5.62 5.26 — 12.94 Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C. 1 M: After 1-month storage at 40° C. Experimental Example 5 [0160] The film-coated tablet obtained in Example 13, which was coated with an anchor coating and then with a usual-film coating, and the film-coated tablet obtained in Example 14, which was coated with a usual film coating, were put in glass bottles and sealed. After storage at 40° C./15% RH for 3 months, the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner as Experimental Example 3. Since the related substance A could not be separated from sodium ascorbate in the measurement, it was not evaluated. As a result, as shown in Table 4, a decrease in the content of the compound A and an increase of the related substances were lessened by applying the anchor coating. TABLE 4 Related substances (%) Sample Storage condition Residual ratio (%) B C D E F Example 13 (with initial 100.0 — 0.39 0.27 — 3.07 anchor coating) 40° C./75% RH 3 M 94.2 — — 1.06 — 6.82 Example 14 (without initial 100.0 — 0.44 0.55 — 3.23 anchor coating) 40° C./75% RH 3 M 92.3 0.05 — 1.49 0.17 7.70 Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C./75% RH 3 M: After 3-month storage at 40° C. and 75% RH Experimental Example 6 [0161] The tablet obtained in Example 5 was dried in vacuum. The equilibrium moisture content (ERH) of the tablet was measured by the above-mentioned method. The result was 3.0%. The vacuum-dried sample was put in two glass bottles. One bottle was sealed with a cap as it was. The other was sealed with a cap after the inside was replaced with nitrogen gas. After the both bottles were kept at 40° C. for 1 month, the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner as Experimental Example 3. As a result, as shown in Table 5, no significant decrease in the content of the compound A and no increase of the related substances were observed for the sample kept under nitrogen-replaced condition. TABLE 5 Storage Related substances (%) Sample condition Residual ratio (%) A B C D E F without replacement initial 100.0 0.70 — 1.40 1.74 — 9.29 with nitrogen 40° C. 1 M 76.8 5.12 1.29 7.08 6.53 15.02 with replacement initial 100.0 0.70 — 1.40 1.74 — 9.29 with nitrogen 40° C. 1 M 97.6 2.07 — 1.68 1.87 — 10.58 Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C. 1 M: After 1-month storage at 40° C. Experimental Example 7 [0162] The tablet obtained in Example 5 was dried in vacuum. The equilibrium moisture content (ERH) of the tablet was measured by the above-mentioned method. The result was 3.0%. The vacuum-dried sample was put in two glass bottles. One bottle was sealed with a cap as it was. The other bottle was sealed with a cap after an oxygen scavenger (Ageless (Z-20PT): manufactured by Mitsubishi Gas Chem. Co., Ltd.) was put in the bottle. After the both bottles were kept at 40° C. for 1 month, the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner as Experimental Example 3. As a result, as shown in Table 6, no decrease in the content of the compound A and no remarkable increase of the related substances were observed for the sample kept together with the oxygen scavenger, Ageless Z-20 PT. TABLE 6 Residual ratio Related substances (%) Sample Storage condition (%) A B C D E F without oxygen initial 100.0 0.70 — 1.40 1.74 — 9.29 scavenger 40° C. 1 M 76.8 5.12 1.29 7.08 6.53 — 15.02 with oxygen initial 100.0 0.70 — 1.40 1.74 — 9.29 scavenger 40° C. 1 M 99.8 0.86 — 1.57 1.79 — 7.15 Initial:. Immediately after production, 40° C. 1 M: After 1-month storage at 40° C. Experimental Example 8 [0163] The plain tablet produced in Example 12, the film-coated tablet produced in Example 13, which was coated with an anchor coating and then with a usual film coating, and these tablets covered with aluminum foil for-shielding from light were exposed to the light of a xenon lamp at 100,000 lux for 12 hours (1,200,000 lux·h) by using a light resistance tester (manufactured by Suga Test Instruments Co., Ltd.) and then the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured. The contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner as Experimental Example 2. Since the related substance A could not be separated from sodium ascorbate in the measurement, it was not evaluated. As a result, as shown in Table 7, a decrease in the content of the compound A and an increase of the related substances were suppressed by applying the film-coating. TABLE 7 Storage Content Related substances (%) Sample condition (%) B C D E F Example exposure 97.8 — 0.69 0.81 — 3.39 13 to light shielding 97.9 — 0.47 0.59 — 2.94 from light Example exposure 90.4 — 1.25 1.43 — 3.91 12 to light shielding 98.1 — 0.44 0.54 — 2.84 from light Experimental Example 9 [0164] The 1 mg tablet containing sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 7 and the 100 mg tablet containing sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 9 were dried in vacuum and then placed within desiccators containing a saturated potassium carbonate solution for 3 days to control the humidity. The equilibrium moisture contents (ERH) of each sample was measured by the above-mentioned method. The results were 46.2% and 44.5%, respectively. These samples were put in glass bottles. The bottles were sealed with caps after oxygen scavengers (Ageless (Z-20PT): manufactured by Mitsubishi Gas Chem. Co., Ltd.) were put therein. After the bottles were kept at 40° C. for 1 month, the content of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner as Experimental Example 3. The equilibrium moisture contents (ERH) were 65.3% and 65.1%, respectively, after the storage. As a result, as shown in Table 8, there were no significant decrease in the. content of the compound A and no significant increase of the related substances, which show that these tablets were stable. In addition, each sample was put in a glass bottle, which was sealed with a cap and kept at room temperature (23 to 28° C.). During the storage for 21 days, each bottle was opened to take a tablet from the bottle and then sealed with a cap again every day. The content of the compound A and the related substances in the tablet taken from the bottle on the 21st day were measured. The equilibrium moisture contents (ERH) were 42.0% and 38.3%, respectively. As a result, as shown in Table 9, there were no significant decrease in the content of the compound A and no significant increase of the related substances, which confirmed that these-tablets were stable even after opening the bottles. These evaluations were carried out for the related substances C, D, and F which showed considerable changes. TABLE 8 Storage Residual Related substances (%) Sample condition ratio (%) C D F Example 7 initial 100.0 0.36 0.57 4.69 40° C. 1 M 10.1.1 0.59 0.64 3.58 Example 9 initial 100.0 0.39 0.23 3.51 40° C. 1 M 102.4 0.24 — 3.65 Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C. 1 M: After 1-month storage at 40° C. [0165] TABLE 9 Storage Residual Related substances (%) Sample condition ratio (%) C D F Example 7 initial 100.0 0.36 0.57 4.69 after 21 99.8 0.56 0.63 3.24 days Example 9 initial 100.0 0.39 0.23 3.51 after 21 97.8 0.59 0.67 3.73 days Initial: Immediately after production Experimental Example 10 [0166] The 1 mg tablet containing sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 7 and the 100 mg tablet containing sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 9 were dried in vacuum and then placed within desiccators containing a saturated potassium carbonate solution for 3days to control the humidity. The equilibrium moisture content (ERH) of each sample was measured by the above-mentioned method. The results were 46.2% and 44.5%, respectively. These samples were put in glass bottles. The bottles were sealed with caps after the insides were replaced with nitrogen gas. After the bottles were kept at 40° C. for 1 month, the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner Experimental Example 3. As a result, as shown in Table 10, there were no significant decrease in the content of the compound A and no significant increase of the related substances after the storage, which confirmed that these tablets were stable. These evaluations were carried out for the related substances C, D, and F which showed considerable changes. TABLE 10 Storage Residual Related substances (%) Sample condition ratio (%) C D F Example 7 initial 100.0 0.36 0.57 4.69 40° C. 1 M 98.3 0.57 0.63 3.30 Example 9 initial 100.0 0.39 0.23 3.51 40° C. 1 M 106.3 0.39 0.25 4.02 Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C. 1 M: After 1-month storage at 40° C. Experimental Example 11 [0167] The 1 mg tablet containing no sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 5 and the 100 mg tablet that did not contain sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 11 were dried in vacuum and then placed within desiccators containing a saturated potassium carbonate solution for 3 days to control the humidity. The equilibrium moisture content (ERH) of each sample was measured by the above-mentioned method. The results were 46.6% and 37.4%, respectively. These samples were put in glass bottles. The bottles were sealed with caps after oxygen scavengers (Ageless (Z-20PT): manufactured by Mitsubishi Gas Chem. Co., Ltd.) were put therein. After the bottles were kept at 40° C. for 1 month, the content of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner as Experimental Example 3. The equilibrium moisture contents (ERH) were 65.2% and 66.9%, respectively, after the storage. As a result, as shown in Table 11, there were no significant decrease in the content of the compound A and no significant increase of the related substances after the storage, which confirmed that these tablets were stable. These evaluations were carried out for the related substances C, D, and F which showed considerable changes. TABLE 11 Storage Residual Related substances (%) Sample condition ratio (%) C D F Example 5 initial 100.0 1.40 1.74 9.29 40° C. 1 M 99.8 1.73 1.86 6.77 Example initial 100.0 2.30 0.39 4.43 11 40° C. 1 M 103.0 0.30 0.40 3.97 Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C. 1 M: After 1-month storage at 40° C. Experimental Example 12 [0168] The 1 mg tablet containing no sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 5. and the 100 mg tablet that did not contain sodium ascorbate obtained in Example 11 were dried in vacuum and then placed within desiccators containing a saturated potassium carbonate solution for 3 days to control the humidity. The equilibrium moisture content (ERH) of each sample was measured by the above-mentioned method. The results were 46.6% and 37.4%, respectively. These samples were put in glass bottles. The bottles were sealed with caps after the insides were replaced with nitrogen gas. After the bottles were kept at 40° C. for 1 month, the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner as Experimental Example 3. As a result, as shown in Table 12, there were no significant decrease in the content of the compound A and no significant increase of the related substances after the storage, which confirmed that these tablets were stable. These evaluations were carried out for the related substances C, D, and F which showed considerable changes. TABLE 12 Storage Residual Related substances (%) Sample condition ratio (%) C D F Example 5 initial 100.0 1.40 1.74 9.29 40° C. 1 M 96.3 2.23 2.27 9.72 Example initial 100.0 2.30 0.39 4.43 11 40° C. 1 M 105.1 0.31 0.52 4.18 Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C. 1 M: After 1-month storage at 40° C. Reference Example 6 [0169] In purified water (800 g) titanium dioxide (45.0 g), yellow ferric oxide (1.80 g) and red ferric oxide (1.80 g) were dispersed. In purified water (1,700 g) hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose 2910 (TC-5) (206.4 g) and Macrogol 6000 (45.0 g) were dissolved. The resulting dispersion, the resulting solution and purified water (200 g) were mixed to obtain a coating agent. Reference Example 7 [0170] In purified water (1,350 g) hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose 2910 (TC-5) (150 g) was dissolved to obtain an undercoating agent. Example 15 [0171] The bulk powder of the compound A (82.6 g), D-mannitol (4208.6 g), crosscarmelose sodium (240.0 g), light anhydrous silicic acid (44.8 g) and sodium ascorbate (160.0 g) were put in a fluidized-bed granulation dryer (manufactured by Powrex Corp.), previously heated and mixed. The mixture was sprayed with a solution (3733.3 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (224.0 g) to obtain a granule. The granule (4495 g) was sized with a power mill (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (4185 g), crosscarmelose sodium (225.5 g) and magnesium stearate (44.6 g) were mixed with a tumbler mixer (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain mixed powder. [0172] The mixed powder (4207.5 g) was compressed into a tablet with a tableting machine (manufactured by Kikusui Seisakusho Ltd.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 16 [0173] The plain tablet obtained in Example 15 was sprayed with the undercoating agent obtained in Reference Example 7 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund). The undercoated tablet was then sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 6 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet to obtain a film-coated tablet. Example 17 [0174] The plain tablet obtained in Example 15 was sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 6 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund) to obtain a film-coated tablet. Experimental Example 13 [0175] The film-coated tablet obtained in Example 16, which was coated with an anchor coating and then with a usual film coating, and the film-coated tablet obtained in Example 17, which was coated with a usual film coating, were put in glass bottles. The bottles were sealed with caps, after small glass bottles containing a saturated sodium bromide solution were placed therein and then the insides were replaced with nitrogen gas. After the bottles were kept at 40° C. for 2 months, the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured by a HPLC method. [0176] The measurement of the compound A and the related substances B to F was carried out under the following conditions: column: XTerra MS C18 3.5 μm 4.6 mm×150 mm (manufactured by Waters Co., Ltd.), mobile phase: a gradient of 10 mM ammonium acetate-solution/acetonitrile mixed solution (4:3) and acetonitril/10 mM ammonium acetate solution mixture (9:1) [0179] The measurement of the related substances G and H was carried out under the following conditions: column: CAPCELL PAK C18 MG 5 μm 4.6 mm×150 mm (manufactured by Shiseido Co., Ltd), mobile phase: a gradient of 10 mM ammonium acetate solution/acetonitrile mixed solution (50:1) and acetonitril/10 mM ammonium acetate solution mixture (9:1). [0182] Both cases were carried out under the following conditions: measurement wavelength: 287 nm, oven temperature: around 25° C., solvent: acetonitril/10 mM ammonium acetate solution mixture (7:3). [0186] With respect to the related substance A, it was found that the substance could be separated into the related substances G and related substances H by a new testing method. [0187] The equilibrium moisture contents (ERH) of the samples were measured by the following method. The results were 23.3% at the initial and 53.9% after the storage for the tablet of Example 16 and 25.0% at the initial and 51.7% after the storage for the tablet of Example 17. (Method for measuring equilibrium moisture content of formulated agent) [0188] The measurement was carried out at 20 to 25° C. by using 5 to 30 plain tablets or film-coated tablets and Rotronic Hygroskop DT. (manufactured by Rotronic Co.). [0189] As a result, as shown in Table 13, there were no significant difference in the residual ratios and no significant increase or decrease in the related substances depending on the existence of the anchor coating. TABLE 13 Storage Residual Related substances (%) Sample condition ratio (%) B C D E F G H Example 16 initial 100.0 0.12 0.59 0.60 0.09 5.50 0.25 0.15 (with anchor 40° C./ 99.2 0.14 0.66 0.66 — 5.43 0.16 — coating) nitrogen- replaced 2 M Example 17 initial 100.0 0.12 0.56 0.57 0.10 5.43 0.24 0.14 (without anchor 40° C./ 99.4 0.13 0.65 0.64 — 5.36 0.14 — coating) nitrogen- replaced 2M Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C./nitrogen-replaced 2 M: After 2-month storage at 40° C. in a sealed container wherein the saturated potassium acetate solution was enclosed and of which the inside was replaced with nitrogen gas. Example 18 [0190] The bulk powder of the compound A (1315 g), D-mannitol (2297 g), crosscarmelose sodium (195 g) and sodium ascorbate (130 g) were put in a fluidized-bed granulation dryer (manufactured by Powrex Corp.), previously heated-and mixed. The mixture was sprayed with a solution (2600 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (130 g) to obtain a granule. The granule was sized with a power mill (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain a sized granule. The obtained sized granule (930 g), crosscarmelose sodium (50.1 g) and magnesium stearate (9.9 g) were mixed to obtain mixed powder. The mixed powder was compressed into a tablet with a tableting machine (manufactured by Kikusui Seisakusho Ltd.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 19 [0191] The plain tablet obtained in Example 18 was sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 6 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund) to obtain a film-coated tablet. Experimental Example 14 [0192] The tablet obtained in Example 19 was put in a glass bottle. The bottle was sealed with caps, after a small glass bottle containing a saturated potassium acetate solution was placed therein and then the inside was replaced with nitrogen gas. After the bottle was-kept at 40° C. for 2 months, the contents of the compound A and the related substances were measured in the same manner as Experimental Example 12. With respect to the related substance A, it was found that the substance could be separated into the related substances G and related substances H by a new testing method. [0193] The equilibrium moisture contents (ERH) of the sample was measured by the following method. The results were 17.3% at the initial and 19.85% after the storage. [0000] (Method for Measuring Equilibrium Moisture Content of Formulated Agent) [0194] The measurement was carried out at 20 to 25° C. by using 5 to 30 plain tablets or film-coated tablets and Rotronic Hygroskop DT (manufactured by Rotronic Co.). [0195] As a result, as shown in Table 14, neither a decrease in the content of the compound A nor an increase of the related substances was observed. TABLE 14 Related substances (%) Sample Storage condition Residual ratio (%) B C D E F G H Example 19 initial 100.0 — 0.13 0.14 — 2.18 — — 40° C./nitrogen- 101.5 — 0.12 0.13 — 2.23 — — replaced 2 M Initial: Immediately after production, 40° C./nitrogen-replaced 2 M: After 2-month storage at 40° C. in a sealed container wherein the saturated potassium acetate solution was enclosed and of which the inside was replaced with nitrogen gas. Reference Example 8 [0196] In purified water (1600 g) titanium dioxide (90.0 g), yellow ferric oxide (3.60 g) and red ferric oxide (3.60 g) were dispersed. In purified water (3400 g) hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose 2910 (TC-5) (412.8 g) and Macrogol 6000 (90.0 g) were dissolved. The resulting dispersion, the resulting solution and purified water (400 g) were mixed to obtain a coating agent. Example 20 [0197] The bulk powder of the compound A (407 g), D-mannitol (3994 g), crosscarmelose sodium (240 g) and sodium ascorbate (160 g) were put in a fluidized-bed granulation dryer (manufactured by Powrex Corp.), previously heated and mixed. The mixture was sprayed with a solution (3200 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (160 g) to obtain a granule. The granule (4588 g) was sized with a power mill (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain a sized granule. This batch process was carried out 2 times. The obtained sized granule (8742 g), crosscarmelose sodium (471 g) and magnesium stearate (93.1 g) were mixed with a tumbler mixer (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain mixed powder. The mixed powder (8976 g) was compressed into a tablet with a tableting machine (manufactured by Kikusui Seisakusho Ltd.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 21 [0198] The plain tablet obtained in Example 20 was sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 8 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund) to obtain a film-coated tablet. Example 22 [0199] The bulk powder of the compound A (1626 g), D-mannitol (2774 g), crosscarmelose sodium (240 g) and sodium ascorbate (160 g) were put in a fluidized-bed granulation dryer (manufactured by Powrex Corp.), previously heated and mixed. The mixture was sprayed with a solution (3200 g) of hydroxypropyl cellulose (160 g) to obtain a granule. The granule (4588 g) was sized with a power mill (manufactured by Showa. Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain a sized granule. This batch process was carried out 2 times. The obtained sized granule (8742 g), crosscarmelose sodium (471 g) and magnesium stearate (93.1 g) were mixed with a tumbler mixer (manufactured by Showa Kagaku Kikaikosakusho Co.) to obtain mixed powder. The mixed powder (8976 g) was compressed into a tablet with a tableting machine (manufactured by Kikusui Seisakusho Ltd.) to obtain a plain tablet. Example 23 [0200] The plain tablet obtained in Example 22 was sprayed with the coating agent obtained in Reference Example 8 so as to attain a coating of 15 mg/one tablet, in a film coating machine (manufactured by Freund) to obtain a film-coated tablet. [0000] Industrial Applicability [0201] According to the present invention, a stable pharmaceutical composition wherein a fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compound unstable to oxygen, particularly the above-mentioned compound (I) or (II) is stabilized can be obtained.

The present invention aims at stabilizing a solid composition containing a nitrogenous fused-heterocycle compound unstable to oxygen to provide a stable pharmaceutical preparation. The stabilization can be attained by keeping the equilibrium moisture content at 10% or above and/or adding ascorbic acid or a salt thereof, by preliminarily applying a film coating free from light blocking agents, or by applying one or more packaging selected from among oxygen-barrier packaging, inert gas replacement packaging, vacuum packaging and sealing packaging with an oxygen absorber.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field The present invention relates to machine tools furnished with: a bed; a table on which a workpiece is carried and which is disposed on the bed; a main spindle for retaining a tool, and provided, with its axis disposed perpendicularly, to rotate freely centered on the axis; and a feed mechanism for shifting the table and the main spindle relatively to each other along three orthogonal axes. 2. Description of the Related Art Such machine tools known to date include the example disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent App. Pub. 2001-87964. This machine tool primarily is made up of: a bed; a column arranged on the bed; a saddle that is supported on the front of the column and is shiftable horizontally (along the X-axis); a spindle head that is supported on the saddle and is shiftable vertically (along the Z-axis); a main spindle for retaining a tool and being supported by the spindle head so that the axis of the main spindle is perpendicular and the main spindle is rotatable about the main spindle axis; and a table on which a workpiece is carried, the table being arranged on the upper face of the bed and provided below the main spindle, provided to be shiftable along an axis (the Y-axis) that is orthogonal in the horizontal plane to the course along which the saddle shifts. This machine tool also has a rotational drive mechanism for rotating the main spindle on the main spindle axis, an X-axis guide mechanism for guiding movement along the X-axis of the saddle, a Z-axis guide mechanism for guiding movement along the Z-axis of the spindle head, a Y-axis guide mechanism for guiding movement along the Y-axis of the table, an X-axis feed mechanism for moving the saddle on the X-axis, a Z-axis feed mechanism for moving the spindle head on the Z-axis, a Y-axis feed mechanism for moving the table on the Y-axis, a machine tool cover that is attached to the bed and surrounds the machine tool, an X-axis cover disposed in front of the cover, a Z-axis cover disposed in front of the cover, a Y-axis cover disposed above the bed, and a guide cover disposed above the bed on both sides of the table on the X-axis. The X-axis guide mechanism comprises a first X-axis guide surface formed along the X-axis in front of the column, and a second X-axis guide surface formed behind the saddle so that the second X-axis guide surface connects with the first X-axis guide surface. The Z-axis guide mechanism comprises a first Z-axis guide surface formed along the Z-axis in front of the saddle, and a second Z-axis guide surface formed behind the spindle head so that the second Z-axis guide surface connects with the first Z-axis guide surface. The Y-axis guide mechanism comprises a first Y-axis guide surface formed along the Y-axis above the bed, and a second Y-axis guide surface formed below the table so that the second Y-axis guide surface connects with the first Y-axis guide surface. The X-axis feed mechanism comprises an X-axis drive motor disposed to the column, an X-axis ball screw disposed along the X-axis in front of the column and axially rotated by the X-axis drive motor, and an X-axis nut that is affixed to the back of the saddle and screws onto the X-axis ball screw. The Z-axis feed mechanism comprises a Z-axis drive motor disposed to the saddle, a Z-axis ball screw disposed along the Z-axis in front of the saddle and axially rotated by the Z-axis drive motor, and a Z-axis nut that is affixed to the back of the spindle head and screws onto the Z-axis ball screw. The Y-axis feed mechanism comprises a Y-axis drive motor disposed to the bed, a Y-axis ball screw disposed along the Y-axis above the bed and axially rotated by the Y-axis drive motor, and a Y-axis nut that is affixed to the bottom of the table and screws onto the Y-axis ball screw. The X-axis cover is a telescopic cover disposed in front of the column to allow movement of the saddle along the X-axis with both side portions and the top portion of the cover connected to the inside of the machine tool cover. The Z-axis cover is a roll-up cover disposed in front of the saddle covering the Z-axis guide mechanism and the Z-axis feed mechanism to allow movement of the spindle head along the Z-axis. The Y-axis is a telescopic cover disposed above the bed covering the Y-axis guide mechanism and Y-axis feed mechanism to allow movement of the table along the Y-axis, and is rendered so that the top of the Y-axis cover declines to both sides from the middle portion of the Y-axis cover on the X-axis. The covers prevent chips, swarf and other cutting waste and cutting fluid from flying outside the machine tool and from entering the X-axis guide mechanism and X-axis feed mechanism, the Z-axis guide mechanism and Z-axis feed mechanism, and the Y-axis guide mechanism and Y-axis feed mechanism. The guide cover is disposed below the X-axis cover, the Z-axis cover, and the Y-axis cover, and guides waste and cutting fluid into a collection box located below drain holes appropriately formed in the bed along the X-axis on both sides of the table. When the X-axis drive motor in this machine tool rotates the X-axis ball screw and the X-axis nut moves along the X-axis ball screw, the saddle moves along the X-axis guided by the first X-axis guide surface and the second X-axis guide surface. When the Z-axis drive motor rotates the Z-axis ball screw and the Z-axis nut moves along the Z-axis ball screw, the spindle head moves along the Z-axis guided by the first Z-axis guide surface and the second Z-axis guide surface. When the Y-axis drive motor rotates the Y-axis ball screw and the Y-axis nut moves along the Y-axis ball screw, the table moves along the Y-axis guided by the first Y-axis guide surface and the second Y-axis guide surface. The rotational drive mechanism drives the main spindle rotationally on the main spindle axis. The workpiece held on the table is thus processed by the tool held in the main spindle as the saddle, spindle head, and table move on their respective axes while the main spindle rotates on the main spindle axis. Waste produced by machining the workpiece and cutting fluid supplied appropriately to the point of contact between the tool and the workpiece during processing are also prevented from entering the X-axis guide mechanism and X-axis feed mechanism, the Z-axis guide mechanism and Z-axis feed mechanism, and the Y-axis guide mechanism and Y-axis feed mechanism by the X-axis cover, the Z-axis cover, and the Y-axis cover, respectively, and from flying outside the machine tool by the machine tool cover. In addition, waste and cutting fluid also fall down along the inside surface of the machine tool cover, the X-axis cover, and the Z-axis cover, and are guided downward to both sides along the X-axis by the inclined surface of the top of the Y-axis cover. The waste and cutting fluid then fall onto the top of the guide cover whereby they are guided towards the collection box and exit. With this conventional machine tool, the Y-axis guide mechanism that guides table movement and the Y-axis feed mechanism that moves the table are located below the top of the table, and waste and cutting fluid always flow over the top of the Y-axis cover. Waste and cutting fluid can therefore enter the Y-axis guide mechanism and Y-axis feed mechanism more easily than the X-axis guide mechanism and X-axis feed mechanism or the Z-axis guide mechanism and Z-axis feed mechanism. As a result, the Y-axis cover requires frequent maintenance, or requires using a complicated and costly construction. Another problem with the conventional technology is that the heavy saddle is supported at the front of the column and the similarly heavy spindle head is supported at the front of the saddle with the saddle and spindle head protruding to the front of the machine tool. This results in deflection or deformation of the column or saddle and thus prevents high precision machining. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to solving these problems, and an object of the invention is to provide a machine tool that affords easy maintenance, reduces manufacturing cost, and enables high precision processing. To achieve this object, a machine tool according to a preferred aspect of the invention comprises: a bed comprising a rectangular base, two sidewalls rising vertically from opposing left and right sides of the base across an interval between the sidewalls, and a rear sidewall disposed at the back vertically to the base between the right and left sidewalls; a table disposed to the bed in a space surrounded by the three sidewalls of the bed; a first saddle having a rectangular frame shape with both lengthwise end parts supported by a top portion of the left and right sidewalls of the bed, and disposed freely movably back and forth in a horizontal plane; a second saddle disposed freely movably side-to-side in a horizontal plane inside the frame of the first saddle, and comprising a vertical through-hole; a spindle head disposed freely movably vertically inside the through-hole of the second saddle; a main spindle disposed above the table with the main spindle axis vertical and the main spindle supported by the spindle head freely rotatably on the main spindle axis; a first guide mechanism for guiding the first saddle back and forth; a second guide mechanism for guiding the second saddle side-to-side; a third guide mechanism for guiding vertical movement of the spindle head; a first feed mechanism for moving the first saddle back and forth; a second feed mechanism for moving the second saddle side-to-side; a third feed mechanism for moving the spindle head vertically; and a first rotation drive mechanism for rotating the main spindle on the main spindle axis. With the machine tool according to this aspect of the invention the first saddle is guided by the first guide mechanism and moved back and forth by the first feed mechanism, the second saddle is guided by the second guide mechanism and moved side-to-side by the second feed mechanism, the spindle head is guided by the third guide mechanism and moved vertically by the third feed mechanism, the main spindle is driven rotationally on its axis by the first rotation drive mechanism, and the work held on the table is thus machined by the tool held by the main spindle. In a machine tool according to this aspect of the invention the table is disposed inside the space enclosed by the three sidewalls of the bed, both ends of the long sides of the first saddle are supported and move freely back and forth on top of the right and left sidewalls of the bed, the second saddle is disposed movably side-to-side (right and left) inside the frame of the first saddle, and the spindle head is disposed to move vertically inside the through-hole in the second saddle. As a result, the first saddle, the second saddle, and the spindle head can also be disposed above the top of the table. A machine tool according to this invention therefore makes it more difficult for waste and cutting fluid to enter the first feed mechanism and first guide mechanism, the second feed mechanism and second guide mechanism, and the third feed mechanism and third guide mechanism when compared with a prior art machine tool in which the feed mechanism for moving the table and the guide mechanism for guiding table movement are disposed below the top of the table. The manufacturing cost and construction of the cover that prevents waste and cutting fluid from entering the slide and guide mechanisms can thus be reduced, and cover maintenance can be simplified. Furthermore, the first saddle is rendered with a rectangular frame shape, the second saddle is disposed inside the frame of the first saddle, and the spindle head is disposed inside a through-hole formed vertically through the second saddle. Unlike the prior art machine tool, the saddle therefore does not project from the front and a support structure for the spindle head is not needed. Deflection and other deformation of the bed, first saddle, and second saddle are thus prevented, and work can be machined with high precision. Furthermore, by rendering a recess at the front outside surface between the ends of the long sides of the first saddle, the front outside surface of the first saddle can be prevented from striking a worker working at the front of the bed when the first saddle moves to the front side of the bed. In another aspect of the invention the table is supported by the rear sidewall of the bed, can rotate freely on an axis of rotation perpendicular to the top surface of the table, and can swivel freely on a swivel axis parallel to the direction of first saddle movement. In addition, the machine tool further comprises: a second rotation drive mechanism for rotating the table on the axis of rotation and indexing the table to a specific rotational angle position; and a swivel drive mechanism for swiveling the table on the swivel axis and indexing the table to a specific swivel angle position. The table can be rotated on the axis of rotation and indexed to a specific rotational angle position by means of the second rotation drive mechanism, and can be rotated on the swivel axis and indexed to a specific swivel angle position by means of the swivel drive mechanism, to index the work on the table to an appropriate position. The work therefore needs to be mounted on the table only once in order to complete a processing sequence including machining the outside of the work, thus improving efficiency and machining precision. In a machine tool according to another aspect of the invention the bed comprises a tool changing opening passing from the outside to the inside through any one of the right, left, and rear sidewalls, and the machine tool further comprises a tool changing device for carrying tools in and out through the tool changing opening, and replacing a tool held in the main spindle with a new tool. Tools can thus be changed efficiently by means of the tool changing device replacing the tool held by the main spindle with a new tool. Furthermore, because the desired new tool can be delivered through the tool changing opening rendered in any one of the sidewalls of the bed, and the replaced tool that was held by the main spindle can be removed through the tool changing opening, the tool changing device does not interfere with the performance of a worker working at the front of the bed. In a machine tool according to another aspect of the invention the bed comprises a pallet changing opening passing from the outside to the inside through any one of the right, left, and rear sidewalls, and the machine tool further comprises a pallet changing device for carrying pallets in and out through the pallet changing opening, and replacing a pallet holding processed work on the table with a new pallet holding unprocessed work. Pallets can thus be changed efficiently by means of the pallet changing device replacing the pallet holding processed work on the table with a new pallet holding unprocessed work. Furthermore, because the new pallet can be delivered through the pallet changing opening rendered in any one of the sidewalls of the bed, and the replaced pallet that was held on the table can be removed through the pallet changing opening, the pallet changing device does not interfere with the performance of a worker working at the front of the bed. In a machine tool according to another aspect of the invention the bed comprises a pallet changing opening passing from the outside to the inside through any two of the right, left, and rear sidewalls, and the machine tool further comprises a pallet changing device for carrying pallets in from one pallet changing opening and out through the other pallet changing opening, and replacing a pallet holding processed work on the table with a new pallet holding unprocessed work. This arrangement enables delivering the new pallet through one of the two pallet changing openings rendered in any two of the sidewalls of the bed, and removing the replaced pallet fixed to the table from the other pallet changing opening. As a result, pallets can be changed efficiently by means of the pallet changing device and the pallet changing device does not interfere with the performance of a worker working at the front of the bed. A machine tool according to another aspect of the invention also has a discharge means disposed below the table for discharging fluid toward the table, and a fluid supply means for supplying and discharging the fluid from the discharge means. The swivel drive mechanism can swivel the table in at least one table swiveling direction between a first swivel angle position where the top of the table is horizontal and a second swivel angle position where the table top is swiveled 90 degrees or more from the first swivel angle position, and the discharge means discharges fluid supplied from the fluid supply means toward the table swiveled to the second swivel angle position by the swivel drive mechanism. When processing the work is finished, the swivel drive mechanism swivels the table to the second swivel angle position rotated 90 degrees or more from the first swivel angle position, and fluid is then supplied by the fluid supply means and discharged from the discharge means. The direction in which the fluid is discharged from the discharge means is toward the table after the table has been swiveled to the second swivel angle position by the swivel drive means, and waste left on the table or on the work held on the table is removed by the fluid discharged from the discharge means. This causes the waste to fall so that it can be efficiently removed. Production costs can also be reduced because a special device for removing waste accumulated on or adhering to the work is not needed. Alternatively, the discharge means can be rendered to discharge the fluid supplied from the fluid supply means toward the table after the table is swiveled by the swivel drive mechanism to a swivel angle position of 90 degrees or more from the first swivel angle position, and the fluid supply means can be rendered to supply the fluid to the discharge means while the table is being swiveled by the swivel drive mechanism from a swivel angle position of 90 degrees or more toward the second swivel angle position. In this aspect of the invention the fluid is discharged from the discharge means while the table is swiveling and the table swivels through the streams of discharged fluid. Swiveling the table and removing waste by discharging fluid thus proceed in parallel, and the waste can be remove in less time and more efficiently. In another aspect of the invention the bed has a waste discharge opening of which one end opens to the top of the base and the other end opens to the outside of the bed, and the machine tool further comprises a waste recovery means disposed inside the waste discharge opening for recovering waste falling from the open portion in the top of the base of the bed. Waste can thus be efficiently discharged from the one end of the waste discharge opening rendered below and around the table in the top of the base of the bed, and can be recovered into the waste recovery means. A machine tool according to the present invention thus renders the first saddle, second saddle, and spindle head movable in respective specific slide directions at a position above the top of the table, thus making it difficult for waste and cutting fluid to enter the first feed mechanism and first guide mechanism, the second feed mechanism and second guide mechanism, and the third feed mechanism and third guide mechanism. The construction and manufacturing cost of covers used to prevent such unwanted penetration of waste and cutting fluid can therefore be reduced and cover maintenance can be simplified. Furthermore, because the second saddle is rendered inside the frame of the first saddle and the spindle head is disposed in a through-hole in the second saddle, the first saddle and second saddle are more resistant to deflection and other deformation, thus affording high precision machining. From the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, the foregoing and other objects, features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an oblique schematic view of a machine tool according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is an oblique schematic view of a machine tool according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3 is an oblique schematic view showing the machine tool, a tool changing device, and a pallet changing device according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 is an oblique schematic view showing the machine tool, a tool changing device, and a pallet changing device according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 is a front view showing a part of a machine tool according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 is a section view through line A-A in FIG. 5 . FIG. 7 is a plan view showing a part of the top cover in a preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 is a plan view showing a part of the top cover in a preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 9 is a section view through line B-B in FIG. 7 . FIG. 10 is a section view through line C-C in FIG. 8 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION A preferred embodiment of the invention is described below with reference to the accompanying figures wherein FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 are oblique schematic views of a machine tool according to a preferred embodiment of the invention, and FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 are oblique schematic views showing the machine tool, a tool changing device, and a pallet changing device according to this preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 is a front view showing a part of a machine tool according to this preferred embodiment of the invention, and FIG. 6 is a section view through line A-A in FIG. 5 . FIG. 7 and FIG. 8 are plan views showing a part of the top cover in this preferred embodiment of the invention, FIG. 9 is a section view through line B-B in FIG. 7 , and FIG. 10 is a section view through line C-C in FIG. 8 . As shown in FIG. 1 to FIG. 6 , a machine tool 1 according to this embodiment of the invention has a machine tool unit 10 of a type known as a vertical machining center, a tool changing device 40 , pallet changing device 45 , and a waste recovery device 50 attached to the machine tool unit 10 , and a cover 60 covering at least the machine tool unit 10 , tool changing device 40 , and pallet changing device 45 . The machine tool unit 10 comprises a bed 11 , a first saddle 16 that is disposed to the bed 11 and moves freely in a horizontal plane in the front-rear direction (along the Y-axis), a second saddle 17 that is disposed to the first saddle 16 and moves freely in a horizontal plane side to side (along the X-axis), a spindle head 18 that is disposed to the second saddle 17 and moves freely vertically (along the Z-axis), a main spindle 19 that holds a tool T and is supported by the spindle head 18 to rotate freely on the main spindle axis, and a table 20 on which a pallet P is mounted. Work W is fixed on top of the pallet P. The table 20 is disposed to the bed 11 and can swivel freely on an axis of rotation (B-axis) parallel to the Y-axis and rotate freely an axis of rotation (C axis) perpendicular to the top surface of the pallet P. The machine tool unit 10 also comprises a Y-axis guide mechanism 21 for guiding movement of the first saddle 16 along the Y-axis, a X-axis guide mechanism 22 for guiding movement of the second saddle 17 along the X-axis, a Z-axis guide mechanism (not shown in the figures) for guiding movement of the spindle head 18 along the Z-axis, a Y-axis feed mechanism 24 for moving the first saddle 16 along the Y-axis, an X-axis feed mechanism 25 for moving the second saddle 17 along the X-axis, a Z-axis feed mechanism 26 for moving the spindle head 18 along the Z-axis, a main spindle rotational drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) for rotating the main spindle 19 on its axis, a first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) for swiveling the table 20 on the B-axis for indexing to a specific rotational angle position, and a second table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) for rotating the table 20 on the C axis for indexing to a specific rotational angle position. The bed 11 comprises with a rectangular base when seen in plan view, left and right sidewalls 13 and 14 (left sidewall 13 on the front left side and right sidewall 14 on the front right side) disposed vertically on both sides of the base 12 across an interval therebetween on the X-axis, and a sidewall 15 (rear sidewall) disposed vertically to the base 12 at the back between the right and left sidewalls 13 and 14 . The base 12 has a waste removal hole 12 a of which one end opens to the top center portion of the base 12 and the other end opens to the back outside surface of the base 12 . The top of the base 12 and the base portion of the left sidewall 13 and the base portion of the right sidewall 14 decline into the opening to the waste removal hole 12 a. A tool changing opening 13 a is formed through from the outside to the inside of the left sidewall 13 so that a tool T can be delivered into and removed from the inside of the machine tool unit 10 (the space enclosed by sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 ) when the tool changing device 40 changes the tool T. A pallet changing opening 14 a is formed through from the outside to the inside of the right sidewall 14 so that a pallet P can be delivered into and removed from the inside of the machine tool unit 10 (the space enclosed by sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 ) when the pallet changing device 45 changes the pallet P. The table 20 comprises a pallet mounting unit 20 a on which a pallet P is mounted, and a support unit 20 b which is supported on the inside of the rear sidewall 15 of the bed 11 to swivel freely on the B-axis and supports the pallet mounting unit 20 a to rotate freely on the C axis. The table 20 is located in the space enclosed by the sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 so that the pallet P mounted on the pallet mounting unit 20 a is substantially positioned above the waste removal hole 12 a , and there is a constant gap between the bottom of the support unit 20 b and the top of the base 12 . The pallet mounting unit 20 a is rotated on the C axis by the second table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) and indexed to a specific rotational angle position, and the support unit 20 b is swiveled on the B-axis by the first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) and indexed to a specific rotational angle position. The work W on the pallet P can thus be indexed to a desired angular position by rotating the support unit 20 b on the B-axis to swivel the pallet P on the B-axis, and by rotating the pallet P with the pallet mounting unit 20 a on the C axis. A pallet P on the pallet mounting unit 20 a can be swiveled both to the right and to the left on the B-axis by the first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) to any position on the B-axis between a position where the top of the pallet P is horizontal and facing up (with the pallet P at a swivel angle of 0 degrees) to a position where the top of the pallet P is horizontal and facing down (with the pallet P at a swivel angle of 180 degrees). The first saddle 16 has a rectangular frame shape with the transverse side parallel to the X-axis and the longitudinal side parallel to the Y-axis. The end portions of the long transverse sides are supported to move freely along the Y-axis on the top of the left sidewall 13 and right sidewall 14 of the bed 11 . A recess 16 a is formed in the front outside surface between both ends of the long side of the first saddle 16 . As shown in FIG. 6 , when the first saddle 16 moves toward the front of the bed 11 , the recess 16 a prevents the front outside surface of the first saddle 16 from striking a worker S working at the front side of the bed 11 . The second saddle 17 comprises a shoulder 17 a extending to each side in the Y-axis direction, and a through-hole 17 b passing vertically through the second saddle 17 . The second saddle 17 is disposed within the frame of the first saddle 16 with the shoulders 17 a supported by the top of the transverse portions of the first saddle 16 so that the second saddle 17 can move freely on the X-axis. The spindle head 18 is supported to move freely on the Z-axis inside the through-hole 17 b in the second saddle 17 . The main spindle 19 is disposed above the table 20 with the main spindle axis parallel to the Z-axis and the main spindle 19 freely rotatably supported by the bottom portion of the spindle head 18 . The Y-axis guide mechanism 21 comprises guide rails 21 a aligned with the Y-axis on the top of the left sidewall 13 and right sidewall 14 of the bed 11 , and sliders 21 b that are affixed to the bottom of both long end parts of the first saddle 16 and engage and move freely on the guide rails 21 a. The Y-axis feed mechanism 24 comprises drive motors 24 a disposed on the top of left sidewall 13 and right sidewall 14 of the bed 11 , ball screws 24 b , and nuts 24 c . The ball screws 24 b are disposed aligned with the Y-axis on the top of the left sidewall 13 and right sidewall 14 of the bed 11 , and are axially rotated by the corresponding drive motors 24 a . The nuts 24 c are affixed to the outside surfaces of the longitudinal portions of the first saddle 16 , and screw onto the matching ball screws 24 b. When the drive motors 24 a of this Y-axis feed mechanism 24 are driven and the ball screws 24 b thus turn axially, the nuts 24 c move along the ball screws 24 b and the first saddle 16 thus moves on the Y-axis guided by the guide rails 21 a and sliders 21 b of the Y-axis guide mechanism 21 . The X-axis guide mechanism 22 comprises guide rails 22 a disposed aligned with the X-axis on the top of the transverse side portions of the first saddle 16 , and sliders 22 b that are affixed to the bottoms of the shoulders 17 a of the second saddle 17 and engage and move freely on the guide rails 22 a. The X-axis feed mechanism 25 comprises a drive motor 25 a disposed to one longitudinal side portion of the of the first saddle 16 , a ball screw 25 b that is disposed on the X-axis inside the frame of the first saddle 16 and is axially rotated by the drive motor 25 a , and a nut (not shown in the figures) that is affixed to the second saddle 17 and screws onto the ball screw 25 b. When the drive motor 25 a of this X-axis feed mechanism 25 is driven and the ball screw 25 b turns axially, the nut moves along the ball screw 25 b and the second saddle 17 thus moves along the X-axis guided by the guide rails 22 a and sliders 22 b of the X-axis guide mechanism 22 . The Z-axis guide mechanism (not shown in the figures) comprises guide rails (not shown in the figures) aligned with the Z-axis on the inside of both X-axis sides of the through-hole 17 b of the second saddle 17 , and sliders (not shown in the figures) that are affixed to the outside of both X-axis sides of the spindle head 18 and engage and move freely on these guide rails (not shown in the figures). The Z-axis feed mechanism 26 comprises drive motors 26 a disposed on the top of both X-axis sides of the second saddle 17 , ball screws (not shown in the figures) that are disposed aligned with the Z-axis on the inside of both X-axis sides of the second saddle 17 and are axially rotated by the drive motors 26 a , and nuts (not shown in the figures) that are affixed to the outside of both X-axis sides of the spindle head 18 and screw onto the ball screws (not shown in the figures). When the drive motors 26 a of this Z-axis feed mechanism 26 are driven and the ball screws (not shown in the figures) turn axially, the nuts (not shown in the figures) move along the ball screws so that the spindle head 18 moves on the Z-axis guided by the guide rails (not shown in the figures) and sliders (not shown in the figures) of the Z-axis guide mechanism (not shown in the figures). The tool changing device 40 comprises a tool magazine 41 , a tool changing arm 42 , and a drive mechanism unit 43 . The tool magazine 41 is supported on the outside of the left sidewall 13 of the bed 11 , and has a plurality of holding units 41 a each holding a tool T. The tool changing arm 42 swivels horizontally, grips the tool T held in the main spindle 19 on one end, and is inserted from the tool magazine 41 through the tool changing opening 13 a in the left sidewall 13 to the inside of the machine tool unit 10 to grip the (next) tool T positioned at a predetermined position with the other end. The drive mechanism unit 43 is supported on the inside surface of the left sidewall 13 and supports the tool changing arm 42 , and causes the tool changing arm 42 to rotate horizontally and move vertically. The tool changing device 40 replaces the tool T on the main spindle 19 with the next tool T set to a predetermined position (indicated by the imaginary line in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 ) as a result of the horizontal rotation and vertical movement of the tool changing arm 42 driven by the drive mechanism unit 43 , and introduces and removes the tools T through the tool changing opening 13 a in the left sidewall 13 . The pallet changing device 45 has pallet moving table 46 and a pallet moving mechanism 47 . The pallet moving table 46 has a plurality of pallet tables 46 a on top of which the pallets P are placed, and rotates the pallet tables 46 a on a vertical axis of rotation in the direction of the arrows shown in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4 . The pallet moving mechanism 47 is located between the machine tool unit 10 and the pallet moving table 46 , and moves a pallet P between the pallet table 46 a rotated to a predetermined position by the pallet moving table 46 and the table 20 inside the machine tool unit 10 . The pallet moving mechanism 47 has a conveyance member 47 a that can move to and away from the table 20 through the pallet changing opening 14 a in the right sidewall 14 of the bed 11 . When moving a pallet P, the conveyance member 47 a moves to the table 20 to place or remove a pallet P on the table 20 through the pallet changing opening 14 a , and thus replaces the pallet P carrying the processed work W on the table 20 with a new pallet P carrying unprocessed work W. Loading and unloading work W on a pallet P is done by a worker, for example, after the pallet moving table 46 has rotated the pallet table 46 a (pallet P) to a predetermined rotational position where the processed work W is removed from the pallet P and an unprocessed work W is mounted on the pallet P. The waste recovery device 50 comprises a discharge mechanism 51 , a storage tank 54 , a collection box 55 , a nozzles 56 , and a supply pump (not shown in the figures). The discharge mechanism 51 conveys cutting waste resulting from processing the work W in a specific transportation direction and removes the waste from the machine tool unit 10 . The storage tank 54 is disposed below the discharge mechanism 51 on the upstream side in the waste transportation direction, and stores the cutting fluid. The collection box 55 is disposed below the discharge mechanism 51 at the downstream end of the transportation direction. A plurality of nozzles 56 are disposed inside the waste removal hole 12 a at the top of the opening in the base 12 , and on the rear sidewall 15 at the top of the waste removal hole 12 a in the base 12 . The supply pump (not shown in the figures) supplies cutting fluid from the storage tank 54 to the plural nozzles 56 for discharge to the work W. The discharge mechanism 51 comprises a conveyor belt 52 composed of a plurality of plates connected in an endless loop for carrying cutting waste to the collection box 55 , and a support unit 53 that houses and enables the conveyor belt 52 to move freely in a loop. The support unit 53 has a horizontal portion 53 a disposed inside the waste removal hole 12 a , and an incline portion 53 c disposed outside the machine tool 1 . The discharge mechanism 51 also has a drive motor (not shown in the figures) that causes the conveyor belt 52 to move in the direction of the arrows shown in FIG. 6 . The horizontal portion 53 a of the support unit 53 is open on the top and bottom. Waste and cutting fluid drop from this open portion 53 b onto the conveyor belt 52 , and cutting fluid that drops onto the conveyor belt 52 flows down through this open portion 53 b into the storage tank 54 as further described below. The bottom of the downstream end part of the incline portion 53 c of the support unit 53 is open, and waste conveyed by the conveyor belt 52 drops through this opening (not shown in the figures) into the collection box 55 below. The storage tank 54 is located below the horizontal portion 53 a of the support unit 53 and collects the cutting fluid that drops from the conveyor belt 52 . The nozzles 56 are arranged to discharge cutting fluid supplied by the supply pump (not shown in the figures) through supply tubes not shown upward toward the pallet P on the table 20 , which has been swiveled 180 degrees on the B-axis to the upside down position by the first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures). With this waste recovery device 50 , waste and cutting fluid are guided into the waste removal hole 12 a by the inclined top of the base 12 , the inclined based portions where the left sidewall 13 and right sidewall 14 meet the base 12 , and covers not shown disposed appropriately in the space enclosed by the sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 , and drop from this waste removal hole 12 a onto the conveyor belt 52 , which is driven in a circle by a drive motor (not shown in the figures). The cutting waste is then conveyed outside the machining center by the conveyor belt 52 , falls into the collection box 55 located below the downstream end of the conveyor belt 52 , and is recovered. The cutting fluid drops from the conveyor belt 52 and is collected in the storage tank 54 . As shown in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 , the support unit 20 b of the table 20 is swiveled 180 degrees on the B-axis by the first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) so that the support unit 20 b and the work W on the pallet P attached to the pallet mounting unit 20 a are upside down. Cutting fluid is then supplied from the supply pump (not shown in the figures) and discharged from the nozzles 56 to remove any cutting waste left on the support unit 20 b , the pallet mounting unit 20 a , the pallet P, and the work W, for example. The waste thus removed drops onto the conveyor belt 52 from the waste removal hole 12 a , and is conveyed outside the machine tool unit 10 and recovered. The cover 60 includes a first cover 61 covering the outside of the machine tool unit 10 and the tool changing device 40 ; a second cover 62 that is connected to the first cover 61 and covers the pallet changing device 45 ; a top cover 70 that is connected to the first cover 61 and covers the top of the opening enclosed by the sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 of the bed 11 ; a telescopic third cover 63 that is rendered inside the frame of the first saddle 16 of the machine tool unit 10 to enable movement of the second saddle 17 on the X-axis; a tool changer door for closing the tool changing opening 13 a in the left sidewall 13 of the bed 11 ; and a pallet changer door (not shown in the figures) for closing the pallet changing opening 14 a in the right sidewall 14 of the bed 11 . The tool changer door (not shown in the figures) can be opened as needed during the tool changing operation of the tool changing device 40 , and the pallet changer door (not shown in the figures) can be opened as needed during the pallet changing operation of the pallet changing device 45 . The first cover 61 comprises a left door 61 a that opens by sliding to the left sidewall 13 of the bed 11 at the front of the machine tool unit 10 , and a right door 61 b that slides to the right sidewall 15 to open. The opened doors 61 a and 61 b are housed in pockets 61 c rendered in the front of the first cover 61 . The second cover 62 comprises doors 62 a that slide to the right and left to open similarly to the first cover 61 . Work W can be placed on and removed from the pallets P on the pallet moving table 46 of the pallet changing device 45 through the opening afforded by these doors 62 a. The top cover 70 comprises a guide rail 71 disposed on the front top portion of the first saddle 16 and aligned with the X-axis; a left moving member 72 and right moving member 73 having sliders 72 a and 73 a that engage and move freely on the guide rail 71 ; a first left top cover 74 and a first right top cover 75 disposed below the guide rail 71 ; a second left top cover 76 and a second right top cover 77 disposed above the first top covers 74 and 75 with the front and back end parts of the covers 76 and 77 connected to the top inside surface of the doors 61 a and 61 b of the first cover 61 and the moving members 72 and 73 ; and a left linkage member 78 and a right linkage member 79 disposed above the second top covers 76 and 77 with the end parts connected to the top inside of the doors 61 a and 61 b of the first cover 61 and the moving members 72 and 73 . The first top covers 74 and 75 are telescopic covers that enable movement of the first saddle 16 on the Y-axis. The first left top cover 74 is installed with the bottom part attached to the top of the left sidewall 13 of the bed 11 inside of the guide rails 21 a of the Y-axis guide mechanism 21 , the back part below the guide rail 71 at the front left end part of the long side of the first saddle 16 , and the front part attached to the top inside part of the first cover 61 . The first right top cover 75 is installed with the bottom part attached to the top of the right sidewall 14 of the bed 11 inside of the guide rails 21 a of the Y-axis guide mechanism 21 , the back part below the guide rail 71 at the front right end part of the long side of the first saddle 16 , and the front part attached to the top inside part of the first cover 61 . The first top covers 74 and 75 do not cover the Y-axis guide mechanism 21 and Y-axis feed mechanism 24 because the bottom part of the covers is disposed inside of the guide rails 21 a at the top of the sidewalls 13 and 14 of the bed 11 . The second top covers 76 and 77 are bellows-like covers enabling movement of the first saddle 16 on the Y-axis. The front part of the second left top cover 76 is attached to the top inside part of the left door 61 a , and the back part is attached to the left moving member 72 . The front part of the second right top cover 77 is attached to the top inside part of the right door 61 b , and the back part is attached to the right moving member 73 . The linkage members 78 and 79 comprise a pantograph mechanism enabling movement of the first saddle 16 on the Y-axis, and two linkage members are disposed to each of the second top covers 76 and 77 . The ends of the left linkage member 78 are affixed to the top inside part of the left door 61 a and the left moving member 72 , and the ends of the right linkage member 79 are affixed to the top inside part of the right door 61 b and right moving member 73 . The first cover 61 , third cover 63 , top cover 70 , tool changer door (not shown in the figures), and pallet changer door (not shown in the figures) of the cover 60 , and the covers (not shown in the figures) appropriately disposed to the inside of the sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 of the bed 11 , close the space (machining area) contained within the sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 , and prevent waste and cutting fluid from flying outside. When the doors 61 a and 61 b of the first cover 61 open and close as shown in FIG. 1 , FIG. 2 , FIG. 7 , and FIG. 8 , the second top covers 76 and 77 are guided by the guide rail 71 and sliders 72 a and 73 a and move on the X-axis together with the linkage members 78 and 79 and moving members 72 and 73 . As a result, opening and closing the doors 61 a and 61 b opens and closes the top part of the working area. With the machine tool 1 according to this embodiment of the invention the first saddle 16 is guided by the Y-axis guide mechanism 21 and moved along the Y-axis by the Y-axis feed mechanism 24 , the second saddle 17 is guided by the X-axis guide mechanism 22 and moved along the X-axis by the X-axis feed mechanism 25 , the spindle head 18 is guided by the Z-axis guide mechanism (not shown in the figures) and moved along the Z-axis by the Z-axis feed mechanism 26 , and the main spindle 19 is driven rotationally on its axis by the main spindle rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures), and the work W held on the pallet P placed on the table 20 is thus machined by the tool T held on the main spindle 19 . Waste produced by machining and cutting fluid supplied appropriately to where the tool T and work W contact drop from the waste removal hole 12 a onto the conveyor belt 52 . The waste is conveyed by the conveyor belt 52 and recovered in the collection box 55 , and the cutting fluid flows down and off the conveyor belt 52 into the storage tank 54 located below the conveyor belt 52 . The pallet mounting unit 20 a of the table 20 is rotated on the C axis and indexed to a predetermined rotational angle position by the second table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures), and the support unit 20 b of the table 20 is swiveled on the B-axis by the first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) and indexed to a predetermined rotational angle position, to index the pallet P (the work W on the pallet P) to a specific rotational angle position on the C axis and a specific rotational angle position on the B-axis for processing. The tool changing device 40 also changes the tool T as needed through the tool changing opening 13 a in the left sidewall 13 of the bed 11 . When the machining process is completed, the first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) swivels the support unit 20 b of the table 20 on the B-axis to turn the work W on the pallet P upside down, and cutting fluid is then discharged from the nozzles 56 to remove any waste from the support unit 20 b , the pallet mounting unit 20 a , the pallet P, or the work W, for example. The removed waste drops through the waste removal hole 12 a onto the conveyor belt 52 whereby the waste is conveyed out from the working area and recovered into the collection box 55 . The first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) then again swivels the support unit 20 b of the table 20 on the B-axis to the upright horizontal position, and the pallet changing device 45 changes the pallet P through the pallet changing opening 14 a in the right sidewall 14 of the bed 11 . In a machine tool 1 according to this embodiment of the invention the table 20 is disposed inside the space enclosed by the three sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 of the bed 11 , both ends of the long sides of the first saddle 16 are supported on top of the right and left sidewalls 13 and 14 to move freely on the Y-axis, the second saddle 17 is disposed movably on the X-axis inside the frame of the first saddle 16 , and the spindle head 18 is disposed movably on the Z-axis inside the through-hole 17 b of the second saddle 17 . As a result, the first saddle 16 , the second saddle 17 , and the spindle head 18 can also be disposed above the top of the table 20 . A machine tool 1 according to this embodiment of the invention makes it more difficult for cutting waste and cutting fluid to enter the Y-axis feed mechanism 24 and Y-axis guide mechanism 21 , the X-axis feed mechanism 25 and X-axis guide mechanism 22 , and the Z-axis feed mechanism 26 and Z-axis guide mechanism (not shown in the figures) when compared with a prior art machine tool in which the feed mechanism for moving the table and the guide mechanism for guiding table movement are disposed below the top of the table. Waste and cutting fluid can therefore be prevented from entering the Y-axis, X-axis, and Z-axis feed mechanisms 24 , 25 , 26 and the Y-axis, X-axis, and Z-axis guide mechanisms 21 and 22 using only the top cover 70 and third cover 63 , and separate covers for the Y-axis, X-axis, and Z-axis feed mechanisms 24 , 25 , 26 and the Y-axis, X-axis, and Z-axis guide mechanisms 21 and 22 are not needed. As a result, the parts count and the manufacturing cost of the cover 60 can be reduced, and maintenance of the cover 60 can be simplified. The first saddle 16 is also rendered with a rectangular frame shape, the second saddle 17 is disposed inside the frame of the first saddle 16 , and the spindle head 18 is disposed inside a through-hole 17 b formed vertically through the second saddle 17 . Unlike the prior art machine tool, the saddle therefore does not project from the front and a support structure for the spindle head is not needed. Deflection and other deformation of the bed 11 , first saddle 16 , and second saddle 17 are thus prevented, and work W can be machined with high precision. Play and a change in attitude can also be prevented when moving the first saddle 16 and spindle head 18 , and high precision machining is thus afforded, by driving both long-end portions of the first saddle 16 by means of a Y-axis feed mechanism 24 comprising two drive motors 24 a , ball screws 24 b , and nuts 24 c , and driving both ends of the spindle head 18 by means of a Z-axis feed mechanism 26 comprising two drive motors 26 a , ball screws (not shown in the figures), and nuts (not shown in the figures). Yet further, by rendering a recess 16 a at the front outside surface between the ends of the long sides of the first saddle 16 , the front outside surface of the first saddle 16 can be prevented from striking a worker S working at the front of the bed 11 when the first saddle 16 moves to the front side of the bed 11 . A pallet P on the table 20 can be swiveled and indexed on the B-axis by means of a first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) and can also be rotated and indexed on the C axis by means of a second table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures). The work W (pallet P) therefore needs to be mounted on the table 20 only once in order to complete a processing sequence, including machining the outside of the work W, thus improving efficiency and machining precision. The tool changing device 40 and pallet changing device 45 also enable more efficient tool changing and pallet changing, the tool changing device 40 is disposed on the left sidewall 13 side of the bed 11 and changes tools through a tool changing opening 13 a in the left sidewall 13 , and the pallet changing device 45 is disposed on the right sidewall 14 side of the bed 11 and changes the pallets through a pallet changing opening 14 a in the right sidewall 14 . Thus rendering the tool changing device 40 and pallet changing device 45 on the sides prevents interference with tasks performed by a worker S at the front of the bed 11 . Furthermore, when processing the work W is finished, the first table rotation drive mechanism (not shown in the figures) swivels the support unit 20 b on the table 20 180 degrees on the B-axis to invert the work W on the pallet P, and cutting fluid is then discharged towards the pallet P from nozzles 56 located below the table 20 to effectively and efficiently remove any waste accumulated on or clinging to the support unit 20 b , the pallet mounting unit 20 a , the pallet P, and the work W. Waste and cutting fluid are thus prevented from being removed with the pallet P and work W from the machine tool unit 10 . The processing cost can also be reduced because dedicated equipment for removing waste adhering to the work W is not needed. A waste removal hole 12 a is rendered as an opening in the top of the base 12 of the bed 11 , and a waste recovery device 50 is disposed inside the waste removal hole 12 a . Waste and cutting fluid can thus be efficiently discharged from the opening of the waste removal hole 12 a in the base 12 and recovered by the waste recovery device 50 . A preferred embodiment of the present invention is described above, and it will be obvious to one with ordinary skill in the related art that the invention is not limited to this embodiment. A tool changing device 40 and pallet changing device 45 are disposed to the machine tool unit 10 in this embodiment of the invention, but the invention is not so limited as the machine tool unit 10 could be equipped with only the tool changing device 40 or only the pallet changing device 45 . In such an arrangement only the corresponding tool changing opening 13 a or pallet changing opening 14 a is rendered in one of the three sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 of the bed 11 . The arrangement of the tool changing device 40 and pallet changing device 45 is also not limited to the preferred embodiment described above. For example, a pallet changing opening 14 a can be rendered in any two of the three sidewalls 13 , 14 , 15 of the bed 11 so that the pallet changing device 45 delivers a pallet P from one pallet changing opening 14 a and removes the pallet P from the other pallet changing opening 14 a , thereby replacing the pallet P holding the processed work W on the table 20 with a new pallet P carrying unprocessed work W. Yet further, cutting fluid is discharged from each of plural nozzles 56 in this preferred embodiment of the invention, but the invention is not so limited and the nozzles 56 could instead discharge compressed air. Furthermore, the nozzles 56 only need to be located below the table 20 , and are not limited to being located directly below the table 20 . The construction of the table 20 and the construction of the machine tool unit 10 are also not limited to this embodiment of the invention. The rotational angle position of the table 20 when the cutting fluid is discharged from the nozzles 56 is also not limited to the 180 degree inverted position described above, and can be any angle of 90 degrees or more. In addition, discharging the cutting fluid from the nozzles 56 is not limited to after the table 20 has been swiveled 180 degrees on the B-axis, and the cutting fluid can be discharged while the table 20 is swiveling. In this situation the table 20 crosses the streams of discharged cutting fluid while the table 20 swivels. Swiveling the table 20 and removing waste by discharging cutting fluid are thus parallel operations, and the waste can be removed in less time and more efficiently. Furthermore, pallets P (work W) are changed by the pallet changing device 45 in this embodiment of the invention, but a crane or other type of hoist device can be used to load the work W on the table 20 instead of using a pallet changing device 45 . Work W can be efficiently loaded and unloaded from the table 20 in this arrangement because the top cover 70 opens together with the doors 61 a and 61 b of the first cover 61 .

Machine tool simplifying maintenance, reducing manufacturing costs, and enabling high precision machining. The machine tool is equipped with: a bed furnished with a rectangular base, right and left sidewalls provided standing either side of the base, and a rear sidewall provided standing along the back of the base; a table disposed in the space surrounded by the three sidewalls; a first saddle shaped in the form of a rectangular frame shape, provided free to shift back and forth supported on the tops of the left and right sidewalls; a second saddle penetrated by a perpendicular through-hole and arranged free to shift sideways inside the first saddle frame; and a spindle head arranged free to shift perpendicularly inside the through-hole in the second saddle; and a main spindle arranged over the table and supported by the spindle head free to rotate centered on its axis.

[0001] The invention broadly concerns the application of actives, especially pharmaceutical drug substances, to mammalian, especially human, skin. In one aspect, the invention concerns the treatment of pathological skin conditions including irritation, pain, itching, inflammation and/or skin damage. More specifically the invention concerns the use of extended surface aggregates, including bilayer membranes, based on amphipathic components, especially lipids, in the manufacture of pharmaceutical preparations for the treatment of such pathological skin conditions. [0002] In another aspect, the invention relates to methods and formulations suitable for modifying skin pigmentation in living organisms provided with pigmented skin, and especially in humans and animals. Specifically, the invention is concerned with formulations and methods suitable to induce depigmentation in vivo, without causing skin damage. The invention is also concerned with methods of treating diseases related to hyperpigmentation and pigment cell proliferation. [0003] The skin, including the skin of all mammals, has evolved to become one of the best biological barriers known to mankind. This barrier function is required both to keep necessary substances from leaving the body, and to keep undesired substances from entering the body. [0004] In mammals, this barrier function of the skin is mainly provided by the outermost horny layer of the skin, the stratum corneum. [0005] Many attempts have been made in the past to find transdermal formulations, capable of transporting actives (e.g. pharmaceutical agents) to their destined location in the body (e.g. in muscle tissue or organs) through the intact skin. Generally, such early attempts have been insufficiently effective. [0006] A major breakthrough in transdermal therapy was achieved when it was found that specific mixed lipid bilayers with high permeability and high flexibility characteristics are capable of overcoming narrow, normally confining pores. Often, these take the form of extremely deformable vesicles enclosed by a (generally single) bilayer membrane. The bilayers are formed from amphipathic substances e.g. phosphatidylcholine, which typically form liposomes. Their flexibility is provided by admixture of membrane softening compounds, e.g. surfactants. Vesicles provided with such mixed lipid bilayer membranes can permeate through passages in the skin which would otherwise not even permit the penetration of their constituent molecules. It is assumed that this is based on the opening of initially very narrow (0.4 nm) intercellular hydrophilic channels in the stratum corneum lipid layer by these vesicles, to form hydrophilic pores approx. 20 nm wide, through which the ultradeformable vesicles can then permeate. [0007] This technology is protected by a series of granted patents and patent applications. An early example is EP 0 475 160. A more recent example is WO 2004/032900. A recent scientific article explaining this technology is G. Cevc, A. G. Schätzlein, H. Richardsen and U. Vierl, “Overcoming semi permeable barriers, such as the skin, with ultradeformable mixed lipid vesicles, transfersomes, liposomes or mixed lipid micelles”, Langmuir 2003, 19, 10753-10763. In the literature, vesicles incorporating this technology are often indicated using a trademark owned by the instant applicant, comprising the term “transfersome”. In the context of this description, the term “transfersome” will be used to designate an ultra-deformable vesicle incorporating this technology, as described in the above-mentioned references and commercially available from the applicant. More generally, highly deformable mixed lipid bilayers (whether vesicular or not) will be referred to as “Extended Surface Aggregates” or ESA's. [0008] The published literature describes the use of transfersomes for the transport of actives through the skin, to that part of the body, where their pharmaceutical activity is required. Especially the older transfersome literature stresses the fact that transfersome vesicles penetrate the skin intact, i.e. with the active ingredient carried (as associated with the transfersome material) not only into, but also through and out of the (widened) pores in the stratum corneum, through the underlying epidermal strata and through the dermis, without destruction of the vesicle (although some average size reduction may, in case, be observed). In the treatment of body parts interior of the dermis, this is necessary, to avoid the active being carried off by the blood circulation system, before the destined locus is reached. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0009] The present invention is based on the concept of using such mixed lipid bilayer structures or extended surface aggregates, (ESA's) as generally described in the above-mentioned literature (especially in WO 2004/032900) for the treatment of the skin itself, where a skin condition in need of such treatment exists. [0010] Pathological skin conditions do not necessarily involve major structural changes in the skin, and specifically do not generally involve the loss of the stratum corneum's barrier function. Indeed, the pathological skin conditions on which the present invention is mainly focused, leave the barrier function of the stratum corneum basically intact. [0011] Typical such pathological skin conditions include skin irritation, pain, itching, inflammation and/or skin damage, without concurrent loss of the skin's barrier function. Thus, while the skin is not in its natural condition, the skin barrier is functioning. Typical examples include sunburn and other forms of dermatitis. [0012] The skin condition may alternatively have been caused by a treatment that at least partly removes the outer skin cell layers, e.g. erosive laser treatments as used for therapeutic and cosmetic purposes. [0013] The skin condition may be caused by exposure to chemicals, especially skin irritants. The invention e.g. includes the use of ESA's in the therapy of allergies, such as contact allergies. [0014] Generally, reference to therapeutical uses herein is to be understood to include, besides therapy of already existing pathological conditions, also the prevention of such conditions. [0015] In another aspect, the invention concerns the modification of skin pigmentation. It is known that the changes in skin pigmentation can be induced by pharmaceutically active substances. [0016] Skin pigmentation can for example be increased by stimulation of melanocytes, and this may be caused by the application of drugs like cyclophosphamid, MTX, 5-FU, chlofazimin, phenotiazine, thiazide, tetracycline and also NSAIDs (i.e. Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs). [0017] Depigmentation or hypopigmentation, i.e. the decrease of the concentration of pigments in the skin, can be caused by skin damage (e.g. drug eruptions, contact dermatitis, scarring) induced by various pharmaceutically active substances, including NSAIDs. [0018] In an article by Zailaie, Saudi Med J. 2004 November; 25 (11): 1656-63, in-vitro studies in cell cultures are reported, which appeared to show that in such cell cultures, low concentrations of acetylsalicylic acid stimulate melanocytes, whereas very high concentrations may cause melanocyte apoptosis. [0019] To the Applicant's knowledge, it has not yet been reported that actives such as NSAIDs can induce depigmentation in vivo, in human or animal skin that has not initially been damaged by the drug. [0020] It has now surprisingly been found in the context of a clinical trial, as described below, that transfersome preparations of NSAIDs as described herein can induce profound depigmentation (or hypopigmentation) in vivo, in the absence of any skin damage. Without wishing to be bound to any theory, it is presently assumed that the unparalleled efficacy of transfersomes (and other such amphipathic aggregates, as e.g. described in U.S. Ser. No. 10/357,617) in transporting actives through the stratum corneum, to (and beyond) the deeper strata of the skin, creates exposure of the melanocytes to such high local concentrations of active, that impairment of melanocyte function or even apoptosis can be induced. [0021] Formulations suitable for providing this depigmentation effect include the ones described in above-mentioned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/357,617. [0022] Methods of treatment in accordance with this invention include the application of such formulations onto the skin to be treated for extended time periods, up to several days or even weeks, as found necessary. [0023] This invention is useful where treatment of hyperpigmentation or melanocyte dysfunction is desired. [0024] Another potential use of the invention is in the treatment of undesired pigmentation. It is expected that by suitably selecting the pharmaceutically active substance, by selecting its concentration in the formulation and by selecting the time period of treatment, very different effects can be achieved, ranging from a persistent general hypopigmentation, which might just meet cosmetical needs, through the treatment of melasma and melanoma. It is expected that at suitably high active concentrations and suitably long treatment, apoptosis (cell-death) of melanocytes exposed to the treatment can be induced, so that it is possible that undesired growth of melanocytes can be reduced, or noxious melanocyte populations may indeed be entirely removed, which could provide a treatment for e.g. melanoma. DEFINITIONS [0025] In the present invention, the general terms employed hereinbefore and hereinafter have the following meanings. [0026] The term “active” means a pharmaceutical active or drug. [0027] The term “aggregate” denotes a group of more than just a few amphipaths of similar or different kind. Typically, an aggregate referred to in this invention contains at least 100 molecules, i.e. has an aggregation number n a >100. More often aggregation number is n a >1000 and most preferably n a >10.000. An aggregate comprising an aqueous core surrounded with at least one lipid (bilayer) membrane is called a lipid vesicle, and often a liposome. [0028] The term aggregate “adaptability” is defined in this document as the ability of a given aggregate to change easily and more or less reversibly its properties, such as shape, elongation ratio, and surface to volume ratio. Adaptability also implies that an aggregate can sustain unidirectional force or stress, such as a hydrostatic pressure, without significant fragmentation, as is defined for the “stable” aggregates. An easy and reversible change in aggregate shape furthermore implies high aggregate deformability and requires large surface-to-volume ratio adaptation. For vesicular aggregates, the latter is associated with material exchange between the outer and inner vesicle volume, i.e. with at least transient vesicle membrane permeabilisation. The experimentally determined capability of given aggregate suspension to pass through narrow pores in a semi-permeable barrier thus offers simple means for functionally testing aggregate adaptability and deformability (vide supra), as is described in the Practical Examples. [0029] To assess aggregate adaptability it is useful to employ the following method: 1) measure fluxj a of aggregate suspension through a semi-permeable barrier (e.g. gravimetrically) for different transport-driving trans-barrier pressures delta p; 2) calculate the pressure dependence of barrier penetrability P for given suspension by dividing each measured flux value with the corresponding driving pressure value: P (delta p)=j a (deltap)/delta p; 3) monitor the ratio of final and starting vesicle diameter 2r ves (delta p)/2r ves,0 (e.g. with the dynamic light scattering), wherein 2r ves (deltap)/is the vesicle diameter after semi-permeable barrier passage driven by delta p and 2r ves,0 is the starting vesicle diameter, and if necessary making corrections for the flow-rate effects; 4) align both data sets P (delta p) vs. r ves (delta p)/r ves,0 , to determine the co-existence range for high aggregate adaptability and stability; it is also useful, but not absolutely essential, to parameterise experimental penetrability data within the framework of Maxwell-approximation in terms of the necessary pressure value p and of maximum penetrability value P max , which are defined graphically in the following illustrative schemes. [0034] It is plausible to sum up all the contributions to a moving aggregate energy (deformation energy/ies, thermal energy, the shearing work, etc.) into a single, total energy. The equilibrium population density of aggregate's energetic levels then may be taken to correspond to Maxwell's distribution, All aggregates with a total energy greater than the activation energy, E f E A , are finally concluded to penetrate the barrier. The pore-crossing probability for such aggregates is then given by: P ⁡ ( e ) = 1 - erf ⁡ ( 1 ⅇ ) + 4 π ⁢   ⁢ ⅇ · exp ⁡ [ - 1 ⅇ ] , e being dimensionless aggregate energy in units of the activation energy E A . [0035] It is therefore plausible to write barrier penetrability to a given suspension as a function of transport driving pressure (=driving pressure difference) p (=delta p) as: P ⁡ ( p ) = p max · { 1 - erf ⁡ ( p * p ) + 4 ⁢ p * π ⁢   ⁢ p · exp ⁡ [ - p * p ] } (* ) P max is the maximum possible penetrability of a given barrier. (For the aggregates with zero transport resistance this penetrability is identical to the penetrability of the suspending medium flux.) p* is an adjustable parameter that describes the pressure sensitivity, and thus the transport resistance, of the tested system. (For barriers with a fixed pore radius this sensitivity is a function of aggregate properties solely. For non-interacting particles the sensitivity is dominated by aggregate adaptability, allowing to make the assumption: a a proportional to 1/p*.) [0036] The formula (*) is used to calculate aggregate adaptability from suspension flux, or more precisely from the corresponding penetrability (=P(p)=Flux/Pressure=Flux/p data). [0037] This formula is explained, in more detail, in our co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/357,618 “Aggregates with increased deformability, comprising at least three amphipaths, for improved transport through semi-permeable barriers and for the non-invasive drug application in vivo, especially through the skin”, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. [0038] The term “apparent dissociation constant” refers to the measured dissociation (i.e. ionisation) constant of a drug. This constant for many drugs, including NSAIDs, is different in the bulk and in the homo- or heteroaggregates. For ketoprofen, the pKa in the bulk is approx. 4.4 whereas the pKa value measured above the drug association concentration is approx. 5, and decreases approximately linearly with the inverse ionic strength of the bulk solution. pKa of ketoprofen bound to lipid bilayers increases with total lipid concentration as well, and is approx. 6 and 6.45 in suspensions with 5 w-% and 16 w-% total lipid in a 50 mM monovalent buffer, respectively. For diclofenac, the pKa in the bulk is around 4, whereas for this drug in lipid bilayers pKa ˜6.1 was determined. The bulk pKa reported in the literature for meloxicam, piroxicam, naproxen, indomethacin and ibuprofen is 4.2 (and 1.9), 5.3, 4.2-4.7, 4.5, and 4.3 (or in some reports 5.3), respectively. [0039] The term aggregate “deformability” is closely related to the term “adaptability”. Any major change in aggregate shape that does not result in a significant aggregate fragmentation is indicative of sufficient aggregate deformability, and also implies a large change in the deformed aggregate surface-to-volume ratio. Deformability can therefore be measured in the same kind of experiments as is proposed for determining aggregate adaptability, or else can be assessed by optical measurements that reveal reversible shape changes. [0040] The term “narrow” used in connection with a pore implies that the pore diameter is significantly, typically at least 30%, smaller than the diameter of the entity tested with regard to its ability to cross the pore. [0041] The term “NSAID” (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) typically indicates a chemical entity which acts as cyclooxygenase-1 and/or cyclooxygenase-2 antagonist. Within the framework of this invention lipoxygenase inhibitors are also considered to be part of the class of NSAID's. [0042] Examples include salts of substituted phenylacetic acids or 2-phenylpropionic acids, such as alclofenac, ibufenac, ibuprofen, clindanac, fenclorac, ketoprofen, fenoprofen, indoprofen, fenclofenac, diclofenac, flurbiprofen, pirprofen, naproxen, benoxaprofen, carprofen or cicloprofen; analgesically active heteroarylacetic acids or 2-heteroarylpropionic acids having a 2-indol-3-yl or pyrrol-2-yl radical, for example indomethacin, oxmetacin, intrazol, acemetazin, cinmetacin, zomepirac, tolmetin, colpirac or tiaprofenic acid; analgesically active indenylacetic acids, for example sulindac; analgesically active heteroaryloxyacetic acids, for example benzadac; NSAIDS from the oxicam family include piroxicam, droxicam, meloxicam, tenoxicam; further interesting drugs from NSAID class are, meclofenamate, etc. [0043] The term “phospholipid” means, for example, compounds corresponding to the formula in which one of the radicals R1 and R2 represents hydrogen, hydroxy or C1-C4-alkyl, and the other radical represents a long fatty chain, especially an alkyl, alkenyl, alkoxy, alkenyloxy or acyloxy, each having from 10 to 24 carbon atoms, or both radicals R1 and R2 represent a long fatty chain, especially an alkyl, alkenyl, alkoxy, alkenyloxy or acyloxy each having from 10 to 24 carbon atoms, R3 represents hydrogen or C1-C4-alkyl, and R4 represents hydrogen, optionally substituted C1-C7-alkyl or a carbohydrate radical having from 5 to 12 carbon atoms or, if both radicals R1 and R2 represent hydrogen or hydroxy, R4 represents a steroid radical, or is a salt thereof. The radicals R1, R2, R3, and R4 are typically selected so as to ensure that lipid bilayer membrane is in the fluid lamellar phase during practical application and is a good match to the drug of choice. [0044] In a phospholipid of the formula 1, R1, R2 or R3 having the meaning C1-C4-alkyl is preferably methyl, but may also be ethyl, n-propyl, or n-butyl. [0045] The terms alkyl, alkenyl, alkoxy, alkenyloxy or acyloxy have their usual meaning, expressed in detail in parallel patent application. The long fatty chains attached to a phospholipid can also be substituted in any of usual ways. [0046] A steroid radical R4 is, for example, a sterol radical that is esterified by the phosphatidyl group by way of the hydroxy group located in the 3-position of the steroid nucleus. If R4 represents a steroid radical, R1 and R2 are preferably hydroxy and R3 is hydrogen. [0047] Phospholipids of the formula 1 can be in the form of free acids or in the form of salts. Salts are formed by reaction of the free acid of the formula II with a base, for example a dilute, aqueous solution of alkali metal hydroxide, for example lithium, sodium or potassium hydroxide, magnesium or calcium hydroxide, a dilute aqueous ammonia solution or an aqueous solution of an amine, for example a mono-, di- or tri-lower alkylamine, for example ethyl-, diethyl- or triethyl-amine, 2-hydroxyethyl-tri-C1-C4-alkyl-amine, for example choline, and a basic amino acid, for example lysine or arginine. [0048] A phospholipid of the formula 1 has especially two acyloxy radicals R1 and R2, for example alkanoyloxy or alkenoyloxy, for example lauroyloxy, myristoyloxy, palmitoyloxy, stearoyloxy, arachinoyloxy, oleoyloxy, linoyloxy or linoleoyloxy, and is, for example, natural lecithin (R3=hydrogen, R4=2-trimethylammonium ethyl) or cephalin (R3=hydrogen, R4=2-ammonium ethyl) having different acyloxy radicals R1 and R2, for example egg lecithin or egg cephalin or lecithin or cephalin from soya beans, synthetic lecithin or cephalin having different or identical acyloxy radicals R1 and R2, for Example 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl lecithin or cephalin or dipalmitoyl, distearoyl, diarachinoyl, dioIeoyl, dilinoyl or dilinoleoyl lecithin or cephalin, natural phosphatidyl serine (R3=hydrogen, R4=2-amino-2-carboxyethyl) having different acyloxy radicals R1 and R2, for example phosphatidyl serine from bovine brain, synthetic phosphatidylserine having different or identical acyloxy radicals R1 and R2, for example dioleoyl-, dimyristoyl- or dipalmitoyl-phosphatidyl serine, or natural phosphatidic acid (R3 and R4=hydrogen) having different acyloxy radicals R1 and R2. [0049] A phospholipid of the formula 1 is also a phospholipid in which R1 and R2 represent two identical alkoxy radicals, for example n-tetradecyloxy or n-hexadecyloxy (synthetic ditetradecyl or dihexadecyl lecithin or cephalin), R1 represents alkenyl and R2 represents acyloxy, for example myristoyloxy or palmitoyloxy (plasmalogen, R3=hydrogen, R4=2-trimethylammonium ethyl), R1 represents acyloxy and R2 represents hydroxy (natural or synthetic lys6lecithin or lysocephalin, for Example 1-myristoyl- or 1-palmitoyl-lyso-lecithin or -cephalin; natural or synthetic lysophosphatidyl serine, R3=hydrogen, R4=2-amino-2-carboxyethyl, for example lysophosphatidyl serine from bovine brain or 1-myristoyl- or 1-palmitoyl-lysophosphatidyl serine, synthetic lysophosphatidyl glycerine, R3=hydrogen, R4=CH 2 OH—CHOH—CH 2 —, natural or synthetic lysophosphatidic acid, R3=hydrogen, R4=hydrogen, for example egg lysophosphatidic acid or 1-lauroyl-, 1-myristoyl- or 1-palmitoyl-lysophosphatidic acid). [0050] The term “semipermeable” used in connection with a barrier implies that a suspension can cross transbarrier openings whereas a suspension of non-adaptable aggregates 150-200% larger than the diameter of such openings cannot achieve this. Conventional lipid vesicles (liposomes) made from any common phospholipid in the gel lamellar phase or else from any biological phosphatidylcholine/cholesterol 1/1 mol/mol mixture or else comparably large oil droplets, all having the specified relative diameter, are three examples for such non-adaptable aggregates. [0051] The terms “stable” and “sufficiently stable” mean that the tested aggregate does not change its diameter spontaneously or under relevant mechanical stress (e.g. during passage through a semipermeable barrier) to a practically (most often: pharmaceutically) unacceptable degree. A 2040% change is considered acceptable; the halving of aggregate diameter or a 100% diameter increase is not. [0052] The term “sterol radical” means, for example, the lanosterol, sitosterol, coprostanol, cholestanol, glycocholic acid, ergosterol or stigmasterol radical, is preferably the cholesterol radical, but can also be any other sterol radical known in the art. [0053] The term “surfactant” also has its usual meaning. A long list of relevant surfactants and surfactant related definitions is given in EP 0 475 160 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,165,500 which are herewith explicitly included by reference and in appropriate surfactant or pharmaceutical Handbooks, such as Handbook of Industrial Surfactants or US Pharmacopoeia, Pharm. Eu., etc. Surfactants are typically chosen to be in a fluid chain state or at least to be compatible with the maintenance of fluid-chain state in carrier aggregates. [0054] The term “surfactant like phospholipid” means a phospholipid with solubility, and other relevant properties, similar to those of the corresponding surfactants mentioned in this application, especially in the claims 10 and 1 . A non-ionic surfactant like phospholipid therefore should have water solubility, and ideally also water diffusion/exchange rates, etc., similar to those of a relevant non-ionic surfactant. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0055] In the context of this description, the invention will be exemplified in the context of skin analgesia and inflammation, in the context of skin pigmentation, and in treating itch. It is to be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to such treatments, and in fact extends to all preventive and therapeutical treatments of the skin, especially the human skin, which involve correspondingly usable pharmaceutical actives. [0056] In the preferred embodiments, the use of NSAIDs is exemplified. NSAIDs are a preferred class of drugs for practising this invention. It should be understood, however, that other classes of drugs can as well be used in similar treatments of pathological skin conditions. The invention is also not limited to analgesic applications, but extends to the treatment of all kinds of pathological conditions of the mammalian skin. [0057] NSAIDs (“non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs”) are a class of drugs with many very well known members. A definition is provided below in the “Definitions” section. [0058] The only currently marketed NSAID formulation in the US for the treatment of any pathological skin condition (Solaraze®) is a diclofenac product for use in actinic ceratosis (praecancerois). This product is reported to cause skin irritation in up to 60% of the treated patients, and seems to be unacceptable for use in inflamed skin conditions. [0059] Sunburn is a model of skin inflammation and a major source of skin pain experienced by humans. It is a clinical response to acute cutaneous solar photo damage after an excessive exposure to ultraviolet, especially UVB light and ranges from mild, painless cutaneous erythema to painful erythemateous skin with associate oedema and blistering. There are no standard treatments for sunburn. A combination of non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatment modalities is currently used to treat sunburn, including topical application of hydrocortisone, but none of these current therapies is considered to be sufficiently efficient. [0060] It is basically known that painful, inflammatory skin conditions such as sunburn and other types of dermatitis, react to the use of NSAIDs, such as indomethacin (Khidbey and Kurban, Journal of Investigative Dermatology 66, 153-156 (1976); Farr and Diffey, British Journal of Dermatology (1986) 115, 453-456; Juhlin and Shroot, Acta derm. Venereol. (Stockh 1992); 72: 222-223). Herein, indomethacin was used in a gel base or in alcoholic solution, and found to provide some inhibition of the appearance of erythema. [0061] Presently, no NSAID formulation is however approved for the treatment of any painful, inflammatory skin condition. In fact, NSAID formulations are contraindicated for the use on irritated and pre-damaged skin. While NSAIDs such as indomethacin may be (limitedly) effective, the irritation potential of corresponding preparations basically prevents use on irritated and predamaged skin. [0062] Besides sunburn there are several comparable painful and often inflammatory skin conditions, which might benefit from anti inflammatory and analgesic treatments. Besides other forms of dermatitis, these include itching, skin damage and skin irritations caused by treatments such as laser therapy. [0063] However (on top of their irritative properties), the known topical formulations are not sufficiently efficient. In the absence of penetration enhancers, such as alcohol, hardly any active actually passes the stratum corneum, which prevents the required pharmaceutical effect. The use of penetration enhancers, especially alcohol, is in itself detrimental where the skin is irritated or damaged, since the use of penetration enhancers then often leads to increased irritation. Even in the presence of penetration enhances, the actives do not penetrate the stratum corneum in sufficient concentrations, to provide the required pharmaceutical efficacy. [0064] Mechanical and electrical methods for providing enhanced transdermal efficiency (iontophoresis, electroporation etc.) are generally unsuitable, because they again increase irritation and pain, where the skin is already irritated and/or damaged. [0065] A need therefore exists for pharmaceutical preparations for the treatment of pathological mammalian skin conditions, which may include skin irritation, skin inflammation and/or skin damage, which makes it possible to transport suitable pharmaceutical actives to their desired locus of activity, and which provides efficient transport of the pharmaceutical active through the stratum corneum, especially without the irritative side-effects of the known preparations. [0066] One object of the invention is therefore to provide pharmaceutical preparations, which may provide a higher efficacy of active penetration through the stratum corneum, for the treatment of pathological mammalian skin conditions, including but not limited to inflammatory conditions, dermatitis, skin irritation, pain, hyperpigmentation and pigment cell proliferation, and itching. [0067] Another important object of the invention is to provide such pharmaceutical preparations which are safe to be used on irritated and/or pre-damaged skin. [0068] Yet another object of the invention is to provide such pharmaceutical preparations which can carry a sufficient drug load through the stratum corneum into the dermis. [0069] In another aspect, the objectives of the invention comprise the provision of new or improved treatments for the above-outlined undesired skin conditions. [0070] In one major aspect of the invention, these objectives are attained by the use of extended surface aggregates (ESAs) comprising at least one first amphipathic component which is a membrane forming lipid component and at least one second amphipathic component which is a membrane destabilising component, whereby the ESA is also capable of penetrating semi-permeable barriers with pores, the greatest diameter of said pores being at least 50% smaller than the average diameter of the ESAs before the penetration, without changing the average ESA diameter by more than 25%, in the manufacture of a pharmaceutical preparation for the treatment of pathological mammalian skin conditions including skin irritation, skin inflammation and/or skin damage. [0071] In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the ESAs comprise at least one third amphipathic component which is also a membrane destabilising component. [0072] In a highly preferred embodiment of the invention, one membrane destabilising component in the extended surface aggregate is itself an active, especially a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). [0073] The penetration capability of the ESAs is evaluated using semi-permeable barriers with pores, typically formed by synthetic membranes with known, sufficiently homogenous pore diameters. [0074] The use of such semi-permeable synthetic membranes as a barrier model is described in the art, e.g. in the above mentioned article by Cevc et al. in Langmuir, Volume 19, Number 26, Pages 10753-10763. Such membranes preferably have pore diameters around 20 nm, since this corresponds to the pore size in mammalian skin when the hydrophilic skin pores are widened by the permeation of the inventive extended surface aggregates (ESAs), especially transfersomes. [0075] Generally speaking, ESAs suitable for practicing this invention are known in the art, for different applications. Specifically, such ESAs are described in WO 2004/032900, as above mentioned, the complete contents whereof are therefore hereby incorporated by reference. Some parts of the disclosure of WO 2004/032900 are recited below. [0076] The main difference between this art and the invention lies in the fact that in the reference, the specific use of ESAs to treat pathological mammalian skin conditions is not disclosed, and the preferred parameters which render this use most effective, are not specifically disclosed either. These parameters specifically include the preferred area doses, which differ in the inventive dermatological applications, from the area doses required for transdermal applications in deeper body tissues, such as muscle. The applied area doses suitable for practicing this invention vary, depending on the active used. [0077] One highly preferred active for practicing the present invention is ketoprofen. Ketoprofen is especially preferred, since it is both a Cox 1 and Cox 2 inhibitor and inhibits lipoxygenase activity, so that it can reduce prostaglandin and leucotriene mediated inflammatory reactions. [0078] Typical applied area doses for ketoprofen on human skin are above 0.005 mg per cm 2 of skin area, more preferably above 0.01 mg and even more preferably lie at 0.02 mg per cm 2 of skin area or above. [0079] Typically, the applied area dose will not exceed 1 mg per cm 2 , more preferably 0.5 mg per cm 2 and even more preferred, not more than 0.25 mg per cm 2 . [0080] In presently preferred embodiments, the applied area dose is between 0.01 and 0.07 mg, even more preferred between 0.02 and 0.06 mg ketoprofen per cm 2 of human skin. 0.06 mg/cm 2 is a highly preferred applied area dose. [0081] Similar applied area doses may be used for diclofenac, flurbiprofen, piroxicam and other oxicam actives such as meloxicam, tenoxicam etc., as well as other actives with a potency comparable to ketoprofen. [0082] Applied area doses for other NSAIDs, including indomethacin, ketorolac, ibuprofen and naproxen, would be higher, preferably up to and including 10 times higher than the above values given for ketoprofen. For other actives such as salicylates, pyrazalone derivatives (phenylbutazone etc.) or tolmetine, applied area doses would be even higher, up to and including 100 times the above given range for ketoprofen. [0083] The formulations used will generally be as little skin irritating as possible. The ESAs used in accordance with this invention are by definition provided with transdermal activity, which involves the widening of skin pores and therefore some active interference with the epidermis. They generally do not need added penetration enhancers in order to perform. It is therefore possible, and also desirable, to keep the use, and respective concentration, of chemical skin irritants as components of these systems, as low as possible. Thus, formulations using e.g. very little alcohol or no alcohol (especially ethanol) as possible, may be beneficial. [0084] The same applies with respective other potentials skin irritants. [0085] The relatively small applied area does of this invention assist in avoiding skin irritation caused by the pharmaceutical preparation. The preferred use of low dosage formulations such as spray formulations contributes to irritation avoidance. [0086] Quite detailed recommendations on the preparation of inventive combinations are given in EP 0 475 160 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,165,500, which are herewith included by reference, using filtering material with pore diameters between 0.01 μm and 0.1 μm, more preferably with pore diameters between 0.02 μm and 0.3 μm and even more advisable filters with pore diameters between 0.05 μm and 0.15 μm to homogenise final vesicle suspension, when filtration is used for the purpose. Other methods of mechanical homogenisation or for lipid vesicle preparation known in the art are useful as well. [0087] The lipids and certain surfactants mentioned hereinbefore and hereinafter having a chiral carbon atom can be present both in the form of racemic mixtures and in the form of optically pure enantiomers in the pharmaceutical compositions that can be prepared and used according to the invention. [0088] To manufacture a pharmaceutical formulation, it may advisable or necessary to prepare the product in several steps, changing temperature, pH, ion strength, individual component (e.g. membrane destabiliser, formulation stabiliser or microbicide) or total lipid concentration, or suspension viscosity during the process. [0089] A list of relevant and practically useful thickening agents is given e.g. in PCT/EP98/08421, which also suggests numerous interesting microbicides and antioxidants; the corresponding sections of PCT/EP98/08421 are therefore included into the present application by reference. Practical experiments have confirmed that sulphites, such as sodium sulphite, potassium sulphite, bisulphite and metasulphite; and potentially other water soluble antioxidants, which also contain a sulphur or else a phosphorus atom (e.g. in pyrosulphate, pyrophosphate, polyphosphate), erythorbate, tartrate, glutamate, etc. or even L-tryptophan), ideally with a spectrum of activity similar to that of sulphites) offer some anti-oxidative protection to said formulations, final selection being subject to regulatory constraints. Any hydrophilic antioxidant should always be combined with a lipophilic antioxidant, however, such as BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) or BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole). EMBODIMENT EXAMPLES [0090] The invention will now be illustrated in more detail, based on the following examples. Example 1 [0091] In a first embodiment example, a ketoprofen formulation for the topical treatment of painful skin conditions according to the invention is composed as in Table 1: TABLE 1 Concentration Compound Function (mg/g) Ketoprofen, EP Active agent 23.82 Soy phosphatidylcholine (SPC) Carrier agent 71.46 Ethanol 96%, EP Solvent 35.00 Polysorbate 80, EP Carrier agent 4.72 Sodium hydroxide, EP Base 4.10 Disodium phosphate Buffering agent 16.39 dodecahydrate, EP Sodium dihydrogen phosphate Buffering agent 0.66 dihydrate, EP Sodium metabisulphite, EP Antioxidant 0.50 Disodium edetate, EP Chelator 3.00 Butylhydroxyanisole, EP Antioxidant 0.20 Methyl parahydroxybenzoate, EP Preservative 2.50 Ethyl parahydroxybenzoate, EP Preservative 1.70 Propyl parahydroxybenzoate, EP Preservative 0.50 Linalool, FCC Odor masking agent 1.00 Benzyl alcohol, EP (optional) Preservative and 5.25 stabiliser Glycerol 85%, EP Humectant 50.00 Water, purified, EP Solvent 779.20 Total 1000.00 Example 2 [0092] It will be noted that the composition of Example 1 comprises relevant amounts of lower aliphatic alcohol (ethanol) which may irritate the skin. A presently more preferred embodiment, comprising no ethanol, is shown in Table 2: TABLE 2 Concen- tration Compound Function (mg/g) Ketoprofen, EP Active agent 4.76 Soy phosphatidylcholine (SPC) Carrier agent 14.30 Polysorbate 80, EP Carrier agent 0.94 Sodium hydroxide, EP Base 0.70 Disodium phosphate Buffering agent 8.20 dodecahydrate, EP Sodium dihydrogen phosphate Buffering agent 0.33 dihydrate, EP Sodium metabisulphite, EP Antioxidant 0.30 Disodium edetate, EP Chelator 1.00 Butylhydroxyanisole, EP Antioxidant 0.08 Propyl parahydroxybenzoate, EP Preservative 1.00 Butyl parahydroxybenzoate, EP Preservative 1.00 (optional) Linalool, FCC Odor masking agent 0.50 Glycerol 85%, EP Humectant 20.00 Water, purified, EP Solvent 946.89 Total 1000.00 Example 3 [0093] Another preferred embodiment, with a small ethanol content, has the following composition: Compound Concentration (mg/g) SPC S100 14.30 Ketoprofen 4.76 Tween 80 0.94 Ethanol 3.00 Glycerol 20.00 Imidazolidinyl urea 2.50 BHA 0.04 Na-Metabisulfite 0.25 EDTA 3.00 Linalool 0.20 Na 2 HPO 4 × 12 H 2 O 8.34 NaH 2 PO 4 × 2 H 2 O 0.27 NaOH 1.13 Water, purified, EP 941.27 Total 1000.00 [0094] Total lipid concentration is 2 wt %. Active content (Ketoprofen) is 0.476 wt %. The final product has a pH of 7.9. Example 4 [0095] A clinical trial was carried out, to study the effect of inventive treatments, on pathological skin conditions including pain and inflammation. [0096] The preparation used was as described in Example 1 above. [0097] The study had a randomised, double-blind, placebo and active controlled format. The primary objective was to compare the effects of a pharmaceutical preparation in accordance with this invention, with placebo, on UVB-skin inflammation. The study involved 25 volunteers. [0098] The study included healthy volunteers of skin type II according to Fitzpatrick, aged 18-45 years. All subjects were non-smokers or infrequent smokers (less than 5 cigarettes per day) and willing not to smoke at least one hour before the procedure started. Exclusion criteria comprised sun tanning four weeks prior to study; pregnancy or lactation; dermal and systemic diseases; mental disorders; any other chronic or acute illness requiring treatment, including dysplastic naevi and praecancerosis. Exclusion criteria further comprised subjects who had used immuno-suppressants (e.g. corticosteroids) within two weeks prior to the study, or had a known sensitivity to NSAIDs, a known photo-allergen/light dermatosis, and substance abusers. The measure of the study was the effect on threshold to heat-induced local pain and erythema following specified UVB irradiation. [0099] Further objectives included the comparison with an equal volume of a commercial product containing hydrocortisone-21-acetate (HC), as well as the testing of lower doses of the inventive preparation, and an evaluation of different application regimes—either immediately after UVB irradiation, or with a delay in treatment. [0100] A comparison was made between skin areas receiving no treatment and no irradiation (control); areas receiving 20 μl of the formulation describes in Example 1 above; areas receiving 20 μl placebo, and areas receiving 20 μl of 0.25 wt % solution of hydrocortisone-21-acetate. [0101] While some skin areas received their treatment directly after UVB irradiation another group received their treatment six hours after UVB irradiation. [0102] In a dose finding part of the study, the amount of formulation according to Example 1 above was varied between 20 μl, 10 μl and 5 μl. [0103] Pain threshold was evaluated in degrees centigrade, erythema and oedema were evaluated on a subjective categorical scale from 0 to 4. [0104] In evaluating the study's primary objective, the effect of 20 μl of a preparation according to Example 1 above was compared to placebo on subjects with UVB-induced sunburn and corresponding induced hyperalgesia to heat. [0105] FIG. 1 shows the result for treatment directly after UVB irradiation (3 MED). At 12-36 h read-out, the inventive treatment shows a statistically significant effect over control and placebo. [0106] FIG. 2 shows the effect of 20 μl of the Example 1 formulation, on UVB (sunburn) induced hyperalgesia, again for treatment immediately after UVB exposure and at 12-36 h read-out, this time compared to the effect of 20 μl hydrocortisone-21-acetate solution. The effect provided by the invention, as compared to hydrocortisone, is statistically significant superior. [0107] FIGS. 3, 4 and 5 show the results of dose-finding part of the study, again based on the formulation of Example 1, for immediate treatment (3 MED) and read-out at 12-36 h. [0108] FIG. 5 compares applied doses of 5 μl, 10 μl and 20 μl of the inventive formulation, to, on the one hand, placebo and, on the other hand, 20 μl of 0.25 wt % hydrocortisone solution. [0109] FIG. 3 shows the effect on pain threshold. All three doses tested are significantly superior to placebo and hydrocortisone; there is no relevant effect of dose variation within the tested limits. This may be due to a ceiling effect. [0110] FIG. 4 shows the same comparison, this time in terms of the number of patients where the occurrence of erythema was fully or at least substantially suppressed. Again, the superiority of the invention over hydrocortisone and placebo is statistically significant. [0111] FIG. 5 compares the invention to hydrocortisone and placebo, in terms of the average rank erythema scores, and those patients which produced erythema. It can be seen that only the invention produced any relevant improvement. Again, there is no significant relevance of the dose used. [0112] The next aspect evaluated in the study was the effect of the various compared medications, when applied with delay after radiation exposure. All treatments were applied 6 hours after UVB exposure. FIGS. 6 and 7 show the results (read-out at 12-36 h). [0113] Specifically, FIG. 6 showed that after delayed application of 20 μl of the formulation of Example 1, compared to placebo and hydrdcortisone, a statistical significant positive treatment effect on hyperalgesia was experienced by the patients (UVB: 3 MED), whereas hydrocortisone was not significantly different from placebo and control. [0114] In FIG. 7 , the same treatments are compared in terms of average rank erythema scores. Again, an effect of any statistical significance is only provided by the invention, whereas hydrocortisone is ineffective at 6 hours delay of treatment. [0115] Lastly, FIG. 8 shows the effect of the invention on oedema development. The number of observations of either oedema or erythema after UVB exposure (3 MED) is given, for read-out at 12-36 hours. All subjects developed either no or minor oedema, the majority of subjects developing no oedema at all, when treated with the inventive formulation. [0116] As the study shows, the invention is comparable to the known hydrocortisone treatment in increasing the heat induced pain threshold, where the medication is applied immediately after UVB exposure. This is specifically shown in comparison to untreated but irradiated controls. [0117] In the clinical more relevant situation where the medication occurs with delay (as shown in the 6 hours after UVB exposure tests), only the invention increases the pain threshold, whereas hydrocortisone is ineffective. [0118] The invention prevents erythema development very effectively, both when used directly after UVB exposure and when used with 6 hours delay after the exposure. In both cases, hydrocortisone is ineffective. [0119] The invention effectively prevents oedema formation. [0120] No evidence of dermal intolerance or other adverse events were noted. Example 5 [0121] Again using basically the formulation of Example 1 above, but at two different concentrations of ketoprofen, a study was carried out on the effect of inventive treatments on contact dermatitis in pigs. [0122] Allergic contact dermatitis was induced in pigs by application of dinitrofluorobenzene on the skin. The resulting contact eczema were evaluated using the criteria in of Table 3: TABLE 3 Criteria (max. score = 12) Score Extent Intensity Induration 0 no erythema no erythema normal finding 1 barely perceptible macules of pinhead nodules of pinhead eryth. size size 2 slight erythema lentil-sized macules doughy lentil-size nodules 3 moderate erythema confluent macules confluent firm nodules 4 severe erythema diffuse macules diffuse hard lesion [0123] The effects observed at 24 hours post treatment are notable from FIG. 9 . [0124] At both applied area doses of 120 μg per cm 2 and 480 μg per cm 2 , a significant effect was observed, with the higher dose somewhat more effective than the lower one. Example 6 [0125] In another study, the development of ketoprofen skin concentration (ng/mg) with time was studied at two different applied area doses of a ketoprofen formulation, again as shown in Example 1 above. [0126] At an applied area dose of 0.24 mg ketoprofen per cm 2 of pig skin, the skin concentration was significantly higher initially, falling off to basically the same skin concentration as provided by an applied area doses of 0.06 mg per cm 2 after 8 hours post application. The comparison is shown in FIG. 10 . [0127] A comparison with orally administered ketoprofen is shown in Table 4. This lists the applied area dose, the applied total dose and the amount of ketoprofen found in various body tissues after application. The amount in the tissue is given in terms of the AUC (area under the curve) value, for the first 24 hours post application. [0128] The data in Table 4 show the significantly higher skin concentration of active as compared to the concentration in subcutaneous fat, or even deeper lying body tissues such as superficial muscle and deep muscle. As expected, the data indicate that oral ketoprofen provides no topical effect in the skin. TABLE 4 AUC 1-24 h [ng × h × mg −1 ] Product Ex. 1 Ex. 1 Ex. 1 oral KT Applied area dose (KT/cm 2 ) 0.5 mg 0.24 mg 0.06 mg n.a. Applied total KT dose 50 mg 24 mg 6 mg 50 mg AUC Skin n.d. 1022  539  n.d. AUC subcutaneous fat 710 140  104  11 AUC Superficial muscle 299 89 44 7 AUC Deep muscle 267 59 34 9 n.d. not determined due to inavailability of tissue samples Example 7 [0129] Safety of the inventive preparation was studied in a dermal irritation/corrosion study according to Council Directive 92/69/EEC, Annex, Method B.4 in rabbits, which was performed with the clinical trial formulation. The rabbits were treated topically on upper dorsum twice daily ten hours apart for 42 consecutive days with an area: dose of 0.23 mg KT per cm 2 , the same area dose that has also been used in the clinical study Rabbits were Draize-scored (scores from 0 to 4) twice daily prior to test article application for erythema and oedema, also allowing half-value readings. [0130] All animals showed only slight temporary signs of dermal irritation. At the end of the study (day 42) none of the rabbits showed signs of dermal irritation. [0131] Due to the lower drug concentration and overall lower excipient concentrations in formulations as given in Example 2 it is expected that its skin tolerability will be further improved compared to Example 1. Example 8 [0132] The relatively high drug concentration mediated by the invention's technology might be able to induce therapeutic effects unrelated to the well known prostaglandin-mediated pharmacology. Those effects would be related to direct effects to the nociceptors. [0133] Histamine is often used in the art to induce a neurogenic flare reaction. Recent evidence suggests that there is an itch-specific neural pathway. Human histamine-sensitive C-fibers (small unmyelinated primary afferents) have been characterised by mechanical insensitivity, slow conduction velocity, and huge receptive fields [Schmelz et al., 1997]. [0134] The composition of Example 1 was used to study the effectiveness of inventive preparation in reducing histamine-induced itch. This test was part of the study described in Example 4. [0135] The study involved 38 healthy volunteers, who received either an itch-inducing dose of histamine or placebo. Treatment with the formulation of Example 1 showed a trend towards reducing the itching caused by the histamine, as shown by the AUC for Example 1, least square mean: 45.15 (95% cl: 42.46-47.83) compared to placebo, least square mean: 47.83 (95% cl: 45.15-50.52). Example 9 [0136] The depigmentation effect of the invention was seen in the context of a clinical trial. A 47 year old women with naturally pigmented, brown skin, used a 2.29% ketoprofen gel based on Transfersomes®, as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/357,617. More specifically, the formulation was closely based on Example 32 of said US patent application, comprising Weight-% 2.290 Ketoprofen 6.870 Soy Phosphatidylcholine (SPC) 0.850 Polysorbate (Tween 80) 3.651 Ethanol 96% 0.930 NaOH (sodium hydroxide) 0.235 Phosphate buffer salts 0.50 Sodium metabisulphite 0.20 Butylhydroxytoluene (BHT) 0.100 Disodium edentate (EDTA) 0.250 Methyl parahydroxybenzoate 0.525 Benzyl alcohol 0.100 Linalool 1.250 Carbomer (Carbopol 980) 3.00 Glycerol 79.879 Water [0137] The test person was affected by epicondylitis of the right hand, and received concomitant corresponding medication that was unchanged during the time of treatment with the gel. The ketoprofen Transfersome-® gel was repeatedly used over a period of nine days. [0138] Over this time period, a profound depigmentation of the skin topically treated with the ketoprofen gel, became visible. In the skin areas where the gel was applied, the pigmentation was largely destroyed, so that the skin took a white or “bleached” appearance. [0139] After nine days, the use of the transfersome gel was discontinued. The depigmentation effect persisted for more than two months thereafter. [0140] It is assumed that the usefulness of the invention is not limited to ketoprofen, and extends at least to the NSAIDs' class of pharmaceutically active substances. It may be expected that besides ketoprofen, those NSAIDs would be useful in the context of the present invention which show similar depigmentation effectiveness on damaged skin. [0141] It is further expected that beyond NSAIDs, the invention can be used with other drugs that are known to cause depigmentation or hypopigmentation on damaged skin. It is generally assumed that the invention can be practiced with any type of active, in a suitable concentration, that may cause depigmentation, especially by inducing melanocyte apoptosis. [0142] It is also expected that the invention can be used to stimulate pigmentation, where this is desired. This would likely require the application of suitable (low) doses of corresponding actives known to stimulate pigment production by the melanocytes. [0143] The present invention therefore has important potential usefulness in cosmetic as well as medical applications, including the treatment of skin cancer. [0144] Clinical details of the intended treatment will vary, depending on the desired effect, and still need to be studied. Presently, the available evidence is a case report, as described below. Based on general experience and skill, it is however expected that the presently available observations can be extended other patients, and are not limited to any specific patient group.

The invention relates to the use of extended surface aggregates (ESAs) comprising at least one first amphipathic component, which is a basic aggregate-forming component, and at least one second amphipathic component, which decreases aggregate sensitivity to physical stress, including stress created by enforced passage of said ESAs through pores with an average pore diameter at least 50% smaller than the average diameter of the ESAs before said passage, such that the average ESA diameter change induced by such physical stress is reduced by 10% or more, compared to the diameter change induced by such stress in a reference system comprising just the first or just the second aggregate component, in the manufacture of a pharmaceutical preparation for enduring treatment of pathological mammalian skin conditions, including skin irritation, skin inflammation and/or skin damage after topical application, for modifying skin pigmentation and/or for treatment of skin itch.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] This invention relates to the treatment of disorders of the digestive system, such disorders including allergies, treatment infectious agents and cancer. More particularly, the present invention provides methods and oral dosage forms for increasing interferon expression and interferon concentration that is locally increased in the digestive system, including the intestines, liver and pancreas, but remains systemically low in relation to the locally higher digestive system interferon concentration. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Endogenous Type 1 interferons, such as IFN; α, β, τ, and ω, are secreted largely by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), and play a critical role in the recruitment of cells involved in innate immune responses, as well as development of an adaptive immune response. Interferons directly activate macrophage and NK lymphocytes. [0003] Through specific IFN receptors, interferons initiate activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) complexes leading to association with Janus Kinase (JAK) and interferon regulatory factor 9 (IRF9), forming an IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 complex, which is translocated to the cell nucleus, binding to specific nucleotide sequences known as IFN-stimulated response elements (ISREs) in the promoters of IFN stimulated genes (ISGs). In this way, interferons initiate a cascade of cytokines that in turn recruit lymphocytes and directly combat infectious agents and tumors. [0004] In addition, Interferons upregulate major histocompatibility complex types I and II (MHC class I and II) and increases the activity of immunoproteosomes in affected cells, for presentation to cytotoxic T cells (MHC class I) and helper T-cells (MHC class II). [0005] Because interferons are capable of initiating pluripotent immune responses, such as facilitation of intercellular communication and inducing the transcription of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), the expression of which produces an antiviral state within the cell, they are sometimes given as a primary or adjunctive therapy for the treatment of viral infection or cancer. [0006] For example, hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) virus that is easily transmissible through perinatal, percutaneous and sexual exposure. Those subjects who develop a chronic HBV infection (CHB) are also at substantial risk of cirrhosis, hepatic decompensation and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), which will afflict 15-40% of CHB patients. The availability of a vaccine has reduced the incidence of new HBV infections in the U.S. since the mid 1980's; however, due to immigration from endemic areas in Asia and the Pacific islands, sub-Saharan Africa, the Amazon Basin, and Eastern Europe, the prevalence of CHB remains high, at 0.3-0.5% of the US population. Approximately 4,000 deaths per year result from HBV-related complications in the U.S. alone. [0007] HBV S Antigen (HBsAg) is produced from HBV-infected cells via the replication intermediate: covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA). The production of HBsAg diverges from that of circulating virus particles and is not directly inhibited by oral antivirals (OAVs). Therefore, the loss of circulating HBsAg may be a marker for the removal of infected cells. [0008] Recent treatment guidelines such as AASLD 2009, EASL 2009 and APASL 2008, acknowledge the importance of HBsAg clearance in CHB. An emerging theme is that HBsAg clearance is associated with definitive remission of the activity of CHB and an improved long term outcome. [0009] Recent data show that the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is lower if HBsAg clearance occurs before 50 years of age. Loss of HBsAg is thus a primary goal of CHB therapy. [0010] Often, because interferon must be administered intravenously, derivatives of interferon are administered, such as PEGylated interferon a, to improve (lower) renal clearance. These interferon preparations include, without limitation, pegylated rIFN-alpha 2b, pegylated rIFN-alpha 2a, rIFN-alpha 2b, rIFN-alpha 2a, consensus IFN alpha (infergen), feron, reaferon, intermax alpha, r-IFN-beta, infergen+actimmune, IFN-omega with DUROS, albuferon, locteron, Albuferon, Rebif, Oral interferon alpha, IFNalpha-2b XL, AVI-005, PEG-Infergen, and Pegylated IFN-beta. [0011] As exogenously administered IFN exerts similar effects, it is mechanistically consistent that IFN has demonstrated substantial therapeutic benefit in patients with chronic HCV and HBV infection. A course of IFN-α/PEG given in HBV, and of IFN-PEG administered with ribavirin to HCV-infected patients, can result in responses equivalent to a clinical cure of the virus in approximately 5% or 40% of treated patients (with HBV and HCV respectively). [0012] Unfortunately, administration of interferons is associated with a constellation of adverse events, including constitutional symptoms (i.e., flu-like symptoms), myelosuppression, elevated liver enzyme levels, and neurologic symptoms, which to some extent affect the majority of patients. [0013] Interferons are themselves stimulated in vivo by pattern recognition receptor proteins, such as toll-like receptors (TLR). There are eleven known TLRs in man. These pattern recognition receptors are activated by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), for example, conserved microbial motifs such as peptidoglycan (TLR2), CpG DNA (TLR9), viral RNA (TLR3/7/8), bacterial flagellin (TLR5) and lipopolysacharide (LPS) associated with Gram negative bacteria (TLR4). TLR1 and TLR6 form heterodimers with TLR2, and act to stabilize TLR2. TLRs are present in pDCs, where they assist in the sentry role of these cells. [0014] Because TLRs can initiate an interferon response in patients, one treatment strategy has been to develop agonists of relevant TLRs to provide an alternative to IFN administration. Unfortunately, many of the side effects inherent in IFN therapy are also found in patients after TLR agonist administration. [0015] Therefore, it would be desirable to provide a method of treating diseases and conditions associated with improvement with interferon therapy, without inducing the unwanted side effects associated with interferon therapy. [0016] Some attempts have been made to avoid the side effects associated with systemic interferon therapy. For example, the imiquimod, 3-(2-methylpropyl)-3,5,8-triazatricyclo[7.4.0.02,6]trideca-1(9),2(6),4,7,10,12-hexaen-7-amine, is formulated for topical use on the skin More recently, the compounds SM-324405 and AZ12441970, both from AstraZeneca, are formulated for aerosol inhalation for the treatment of asthma, were developed as antedrugs, having ester groups that are rapidly cleaved in plasma to reduce systemic exposure. [0017] There is a need for an orally available. TLR agonist for treating gastrointestinal disorders, including liver disorders. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0018] It has now been discovered that providing a presystemic oral dose of an orally available TLR agonist compound will lead to localized induction of IFN in the gastrointestinal system, particularly in the intestines, pancreas and liver, without inducing significant systemic IFN in a patient in need thereof. [0019] Thus, there is provided a method of treating a gastrointestinal disorder in a human patient in need thereof, comprising administering to the patient an orally administered amount of a TLR modulator sufficient to provide modified IFN expression in the gastrointestinal area, but in an amount less than sufficient to significantly alter systemic IFN. [0020] In one embodiment of the invention, there is provided a method of treating a gastrointestinal disorder, including a disorder of the liver or pancreas, comprising as a modality of treatment wherein a TLR-7 agonist compound having the formula: 4-amino-2-butoxy-8-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-ylmethyl)benzyl)-7,8-dihydropteridin-6(5H)-one [0000] [0000] is administered to a patient in need thereof, in a total dose of less than 12 mg per day. [0022] In another embodiment, a TLR-7 agonist compound having the formula: 4-amino-2-butoxy-8-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-ylmethyl)benzyl)-7,8-dihydropteridin-6(5H)-one [0000] [0000] is administered to a patient in need thereof, in a total dose of less than 12 mg every other day. [0024] In another embodiment, a TLR-7 agonist compound having the formula: 4-amino-2-butoxy-8-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-ylmethyl)benzyl)-7,8-dihydropteridin-6(5H)-one [0000] [0000] is administered to a patient in need thereof, in a total dose of less than 12 mg twice per week. [0026] In another embodiment, a TLR-7 agonist compound having the formula: 4-amino-2-butoxy-8-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-ylmethyl)benzyl)-7,8-dihydropteridin-6(5H)-one [0000] [0000] is administered to a patient in need thereof in a total dose of less than 12 mg once per week. I. Treatment of Diseases and Conditions with the Present Invention [0028] A variety of diseases and disorders are treatable with the methods and compositions of the present invention. [0029] For example, viral diseases of the liver, such as hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or hepatitis D, solid tumors such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), [0030] Allergic and autoimmune disorders in the gastrointestinal system would be amenable to treatment, such as Crohns disease, graft vs. host disease, gastrointestinal organ transplant, including liver and pancreas transplant, and food allergies, including peanut allergies. [0031] These disorders are merely exemplary. Exemplary Compounds [0032] A) A compound of structural formula: [0000] 6-amino-2-butoxy-9-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-ylmethyl)benzyl)-9H-purin-8-ol; [0034] B) A compound of structural formula: [0000] 4-amino-2-butoxy-8-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-ylmethyl)benzyl)-7,8-dihydropteridin-6(5H)-one; [0036] Compound A is a TLR-7 agonist. Compound A, and methods to make it are disclosed in U.S. Published patent application US2008/007955. [0037] Compound B is also a TLR-7 agonist. Compound B, and methods to make it are disclosed in U.S. Published patent application US2010/0143301. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. Definitions [0000] AE adverse event ALT alanine aminotransferase AST aspartate aminotransferase BLQ below limit of quantitation DAA direct-acting antiviral DNA complementary deoxyribonucleic acid DLT dose-limiting toxicity GALT gut-associated lymphoid tissue GGT gamma-glutamyltransferase HBV hepatitis B virus HCC hepatocellular carcinoma HCV hepatitis C virus HED human equivalent dose IFE initial food effect IFN-α interferon-α IND Investigational New Drug Application ISG interferon-stimulated gene IV intravenous N/A Not Applicable ND not determined NOAEL no observed adverse effect-level PBMC peripheral blood mononuclear cells PEG pegylated interferon Peg-IFN-alfa-2a peginterferon alfa 2a Peg-IFN-alfa-2b peginterferon alfa 2b PD pDC Pharmacodynamic plasmacytoid dendritic cells PK pharmacokinetic QOD every other day RBV ribavirin RNA ribonucleic acid S/MAD single/multiple ascending dose TLR-7 toll-like receptor-7 WHV woodchuck hepatitis virus Pharmacokinetic Abbreviations [0000] AUC Area under the concentration versus time curve AUCinf Area under the concentration versus time curve extrapolated to infinite time, calculated as AUClast+(Clastaz) AUClast AUCtau Salt Forms of the Compounds of the Present Invention [0079] Typically, but not absolutely, the salts of the present invention are pharmaceutically acceptable salts. Salts encompassed within the term “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” refer to non-toxic salts of the compounds of this invention. [0080] Examples of suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts include inorganic acid addition salts such as chloride, bromide, sulfate, phosphate, and nitrate; organic acid addition salts such as acetate, galactarate, propionate, succinate, lactate, glycolate, malate, tartrate, citrate, maleate, fumarate, methanesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate, and ascorbate; salts with acidic amino acid such as aspartate and glutamate; alkali metal salts such as sodium salt and potassium salt; alkaline earth metal salts such as magnesium salt and calcium salt; ammonium salt; organic basic salts such as trimethylamine salt, triethylamine salt, pyridine salt, picoline salt, dicyclohexylamine salt, and N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine salt; and salts with basic amino acid such as lysine salt and arginine salt. The salts may be in some cases hydrates or ethanol solvates. Thus, where the term “a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, tautomer, or prodrug thereof” is used, it is to be appreciated that each of these forms is independent of the others, and also includes combinations thereof. For example, the term “a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, tautomer, or prodrug thereof” includes, without limitation, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt alone, two or more pharmaceutically acceptable salts together, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt and prodrug, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of a prodrug, and a pharmaceutically acceptable salt which is a solvate, for example. In the case of tautomers, when tautomerization is possible in a compound, a given illustrative chemical structure, even when illustrating only one form, is to be interpreted as including its tautomeric structural form as well. Pharmaceutical Formulations [0081] The compounds of this invention are typically formulated with conventional carriers and excipients, which will be selected in accord with ordinary practice. Tablets will contain excipients, glidants, fillers, binders and the like. Aqueous formulations are prepared in sterile form, and when intended for delivery by other than oral administration generally will be isotonic. All formulations will optionally contain excipients such as those set forth in the Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients (1986), herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Excipients include ascorbic acid and other antioxidants, chelating agents such as EDTA, carbohydrates such as dextrin, hydroxyalkylcellulose, hydroxyalkylmethylcellulose, stearic acid and the like. The pH of the formulations ranges from about 3 to about 11, but is ordinarily about 7 to 10. [0082] While it is possible for the active ingredients to be administered alone it may be preferable to present them as pharmaceutical formulations. The formulations of the invention, both for veterinary and for human use, comprise at least one active ingredient, together with one or more acceptable carriers and optionally other therapeutic ingredients. The carrier is “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation and physiologically innocuous to the recipient thereof. [0083] The formulations include those suitable for the foregoing administration routes. The formulations may conveniently be presented in unit dosage form and may be prepared by any of the methods well known in the art of pharmacy. Techniques and formulations generally are found in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa.), herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Such methods include the step of bringing into association the active ingredient with the carrier which constitutes one or more accessory ingredients. In general the formulations are prepared by uniformly and intimately bringing into association the active ingredient with liquid carriers or finely divided solid carriers or both, and then, if necessary, shaping the product. [0084] Formulations of the present invention suitable for oral administration may be presented as discrete units such as capsules, cachets or tablets each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient; as a powder or granules; as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid; or as an oil-in-water liquid emulsion or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion. The active ingredient may also be administered as a bolus, electuary or paste. [0085] A tablet is made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as a powder or granules, optionally mixed with a binder, lubricant, inert diluent, preservative, surface active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made by molding in a suitable machine a mixture of the powdered active ingredient moistened with an inert liquid diluent. The tablets may optionally be coated or scored and optionally are formulated so as to provide slow or controlled release of the active ingredient. [0086] Pharmaceutical formulations according to the present invention comprise one or more compounds of the invention together with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or excipients and optionally other therapeutic agents. Pharmaceutical formulations containing the active ingredient may be in any form suitable for the intended method of administration. Tablets, troches, lozenges, aqueous or oil suspensions, dispersible powders or granules, emulsions, hard or soft capsules, syrups or elixirs may be prepared. Compositions intended for oral use may be prepared according to any method known to the art for the manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions and such compositions may contain one or more agents including sweetening agents, flavoring agents, coloring agents and preserving agents, in order to provide a palatable preparation. Tablets containing the active ingredient in admixture with non-toxic pharmaceutically acceptable excipient which are suitable for manufacture of tablets are acceptable. These excipients may be, for example, inert diluents, such as calcium or sodium carbonate, lactose, lactose monohydrate, croscarmellose sodium, povidone, calcium or sodium phosphate; granulating and disintegrating agents, such as maize starch, or alginic acid; binding agents, such as cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, starch, gelatin or acacia; and lubricating agents, such as magnesium stearate, stearic acid or talc. Tablets may be uncoated or may be coated by known techniques including microencapsulation to delay disintegration and adsorption in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby provide a sustained action over a longer period. For example, a time delay material such as glyceryl monostearate or glyceryl distearate alone or with a wax may be employed. [0087] Tablets may be formed with Compound A or Compound B as an active ingredient, and may be dosed as 0.1-mg, 0.5-mg, 1-mg, 2-mg, and 5-mg strength tablets. The tablets may contain commonly used excipients including lactose anhydrous, microcrystalline cellulose, croscarmellose sodium, magnesium stearate, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, talc, and titanium dioxide [0088] Formulations for oral use may be also presented as hard gelatin capsules where the active ingredient is mixed with an inert solid diluent, for example calcium phosphate or kaolin, or as soft gelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with water or an oil medium, such as peanut oil, liquid paraffin or olive oil. [0089] Aqueous suspensions of the invention contain the active materials in admixture with excipients suitable for the manufacture of aqueous suspensions. Such excipients include a suspending agent, such as sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcelluose, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, gum tragacanth and gum acacia, and dispersing or wetting agents such as a naturally occurring phosphatide (e.g., lecithin), a condensation product of an alkylene oxide with a fatty acid (e.g., polyoxyethylene stearate), a condensation product of ethylene oxide with a long chain aliphatic alcohol (e.g., heptadecaethyleneoxycetanol), a condensation product of ethylene oxide with a partial ester derived from a fatty acid and a hexitol anhydride (e.g., polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate). The aqueous suspension may also contain one or more preservatives such as ethyl or n-propyl p-hydroxy-benzoate, one or more coloring agents, one or more flavoring agents and one or more sweetening agents, such as sucrose or saccharin. [0090] Oil suspensions may be formulated by suspending the active ingredient in a vegetable oil, such as arachis oil, olive oil, sesame oil or coconut oil, or in a mineral oil such as liquid paraffin. The oral suspensions may contain a thickening agent, such as beeswax, hard paraffin or cetyl alcohol. Sweetening agents, such as those set forth herein, and flavoring agents may be added to provide a palatable oral preparation. These compositions may be preserved by the addition of an antioxidant such as ascorbic acid. [0091] Dispersible powders and granules of the invention suitable for preparation of an aqueous suspension by the addition of water provide the active ingredient in admixture with a dispersing or wetting agent, a suspending agent, and one or more preservatives. Suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents are exemplified by those disclosed above. Additional excipients, for example sweetening, flavoring and coloring agents, may also be present. [0092] The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may also be in the form of oil-in-water emulsions. The oily phase may be a vegetable oil, such as olive oil or arachis oil, a mineral oil, such as liquid paraffin, or a mixture of these. Suitable emulsifying agents include naturally-occurring gums, such as gum acacia and gum tragacanth, naturally occurring phosphatides, such as soybean lecithin, esters or partial esters derived from fatty acids and hexitol anhydrides, such as sorbitan monooleate, and condensation products of these partial esters with ethylene oxide, such as polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate. The emulsion may also contain sweetening and flavoring agents. Syrups and elixirs may be formulated with sweetening agents, such as glycerol, sorbitol or sucrose. Such formulations may also contain a demulcent, a preservative, a flavoring or a coloring agent. [0093] The amount of active ingredient that may be combined with the carrier material to produce a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host treated and the particular mode of administration. For example, a time-release formulation intended for oral administration to humans may contain approximately 0.5 to 12 mg of active material compounded with an appropriate and convenient amount of carrier material which may vary from about 1 to about 95% of the total compositions (weight:weight). The pharmaceutical composition can be prepared to provide easily measurable amounts for administration. For example, an aqueous solution intended for intravenous infusion may contain from about 3 to 500 μg of the active ingredient per milliliter of solution in order that infusion of a suitable volume at a rate of about 30 mL/hr can occur. [0094] Formulations for rectal administration may be presented as a suppository with a suitable base comprising for example cocoa butter or a salicylate. [0095] Compounds of the invention can also be formulated to provide controlled release of the active ingredient to allow less frequent dosing or to improve the pharmacokinetic or toxicity profile of the active ingredient. Accordingly, the invention also provided compositions comprising one or more compounds of the invention formulated for sustained or controlled release. Combination Therapy [0096] In another embodiment, the compounds of the present invention may be combined with one or more active agent. [0097] Combinations for the treatment of hepatitis B with compound A or compound B include nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors; non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors; protease inhibitors; cyclophilin inhibitors; immune modulators; and combinations thereof. [0098] Exemplary combination products for treatment of hepatitis B with compound A or compound B include: etbecavir, telbivudine, lamisvudine, adofovir dipivoxil, entecavir, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, emtricitabine, tenofovir dipivoxil and its salts and co-crystals; and yeast-based therapeutic vaccinations, such as Tarmogens®, from GlobeImmune, inc.; and combinations thereof. [0099] Combinations for treatment of hepatitis C with compound A or compound B include: Nucleoside or nucleotide inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase; non-nucleoside inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase, HCV NS5A inhibitors; HCV NS3 protease inhibitors; HCV NS4B protease cofactor inhibitors; cyclophilin inhibitors; HCV internal ribosome entry site (IRES) inhibitors; and combinations thereof. [0100] Exemplary combination active ingredients for treatment of hepatitis C with compound A or compound B include: ribavirin; sofosbuvir; declatasvir; tegobuvir; boceprevir; telaprevir; GS-5885 (NS5A inhibitor); GS-9451 (protease inhibitor); GS-5816 (protease inhibitor); MK-5172 (protease inhibitor); filibuvir; GS-9857 (protease inhibitor); GS-9669 (non-nucleoside polymerase inhibitor); ABT-450 (protease inhibitor); ABT-450 with ritonavir; ABT-333 (polymerase inhibitor); ABT-267 (NS5A inhibitor); and combinations thereof. [0101] Combinations for the treatment of HIV with compound A or compound B include: Entry inhibitors; capsid inhibitors; nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI); non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI); protease inhibitors (PI); integrase inhibitors; maturation inhibitors; and combinations thereof. [0102] Exemplary combination products for treatment of HIV with compound A or compound B include: Maraviroc (Selzentry®); enfuvirtide (Fuzeon®); tenofovir disoproxil fumarate with emtricitabine (Truvada®); tenofavir disoproxil fumarate with emtricitabine and efavirenz (Atripla®); elvitegravir with emtricitabine, cobisistat and tenofavir disoproxil fumarate (Stribild®); lamivudine with zidovudine (Combivir®); abacavir with zidovudine and lamivudine (Trizivir®); lopinavir with ritonovir (Kaletra®); abacavir with lamivudine (Epzicom®—United States, Kivexa®—Europe), rilpivarine with tenofavir disoproxil fumarate and emtricitabine (Complera®); elvitegravir with emtricitabine, cobisistat and tenofovir dipivoxil and its salts and co-crystals; and combinations thereof. [0103] In yet another embodiment, there is disclosed a pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound of the present invention, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, in combination with at least one additional active agent, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. In yet another embodiment, the present application provides a combination pharmaceutical agent with two or more therapeutic agents in a unitary dosage form. Thus, it is also possible to combine any compound of the invention with one or more other active agents in a unitary dosage form. [0104] The combination therapy may be administered as a simultaneous or sequential regimen. When administered sequentially, the combination may be administered in two or more administrations. [0105] Co-administration of a compound of the invention with one or more other active agents generally refers to simultaneous or sequential administration of a compound of the invention and one or more other active agents, such that therapeutically effective amounts of the compound of the invention and one or more other active agents are both present in the body of the patient. [0106] Co-administration includes administration of unit dosages of the compounds of the invention before or after administration of unit dosages of one or more other active agents, for example, administration of the compounds of the invention within seconds, minutes, or hours of the administration of one or more other active agents. For example, a unit dose of a compound of the invention can be administered first, followed within seconds or minutes by administration of a unit dose of one or more other active agents. Alternatively, a unit dose of one or more other active agents can be administered first, followed by administration of a unit dose of a compound of the invention within seconds or minutes. In some cases, it may be desirable to administer a unit dose of a compound of the invention first, followed, after a period of hours (e.g., 1-12 hours), by administration of a unit dose of one or more other active agents. In other cases, it may be desirable to administer a unit dose of one or more other active agents first, followed, after a period of hours (e.g., 1-12 hours), by administration of a unit dose of a compound of the invention. [0107] The combination therapy may provide “synergy” and “synergistic effect”, i.e. the effect achieved when the active ingredients used together is greater than the sum of the effects that results from using the compounds separately. A synergistic effect may be attained when the active ingredients are: (1) co-formulated and administered or delivered simultaneously in a combined formulation; (2) delivered by alternation or in parallel as separate formulations; or (3) by some other regimen. When delivered in alternation therapy, a synergistic effect may be attained when the compounds are administered or delivered sequentially, e.g., in separate tablets, pills or capsules, or by different injections in separate syringes. In general, during alternation therapy, an effective dosage of each active ingredient is administered sequentially, i.e. serially, whereas in combination therapy, effective dosages of two or more active ingredients are administered together. Kits [0108] In another embodiment, a kit comprising a course of treatment, with or without instructions for use, is provided. For example, a kit comprising an oral dosage form pharmaceutical composition of compound B, in a package adapted for distribution of said oral dosage form pharmaceutical composition in an amount between 0.5 mg and 12 mg. once per week. Such a kit typically provides a sequential series of solid dosage form tablets or capsules, provided in a structure adapted to provide a total daily, twice weekly or weekly dose of less than 12 mg. of compound A or compound B per day, over the course of a week or a month, for example. Alternatively, a kit is provided that contains multiple solid, oral dosage form tablets or capsules in a dispenser, said dispenser including a reminding device. The reminding device may be in the form of a calendar, or may provide an audible signal for reminding a patient that the oral dosage form composition should be taken at a predetermined interval, such as once or twice per week. [0109] In one embodiment of the kit, a blister pack is provided with a single dose of less than 12 mg. of compound A or B in one section of the blister pack, with inactive ingredient tablets in the remaining sections of the blister pack. For example, a weekly dosage pack may contain a tablet containing a single dose of less than 12 mg. of compound B in one blister section, with six additional blister sections containing tablets with no active ingredients. [0110] In the case of single dosage form combination products formulated with an appropriate active ingredient other than compound A or compound B together with compound A or compound B, the blister pack may contain seven sections per week, with a single tablet containing both compound A or compound B together with the additional active ingredient or ingredients, and the remaining six sections of the weekly regimen blister pack containing tablets with only active ingredient or ingredients other than compound A or compound B. [0111] For example, a four week regimen blister pack may contain a series of four, seven day sections, with a first section comprising a solid, orally available dosage form with a combination of compound B and one or more additional active ingredients, and the remaining six sections containing a solid, orally available dosage form with a combination of the active ingredients without compound B. Biological Data [0112] Referring to FIG. 1, plasmacytoid dendritic cells present in the gut and/or liver are activated by local exposure to an orally available TLR agonist compound to produce IFN-α and stimulate ISG induction in lymphocytes and other cells as they circulate through the GALT and liver. ISG induction may occur in the liver by a similar effect (through either local IFN-α produced from stimulated pDCs residing in the liver or from a first pass effect on the liver from portal blood IFN-α produced from pDCs in the GALT). ISGs produced by IFN-α can mediate antiviral effects. As a consequence of the presystemic stimulation of TLR-7, local ISGs and other effectors of an interferon-mediated antiviral response may occur at reduced oral doses of an orally available TLR agonist compound that do not cause induction of serum/systemic IFN-α or clinical signs (increased body temperature and heart rate). [0113] Presystemic (local) induction of an innate immune response can be detected noninvasively by at least 2 methods. In healthy subjects, the level of ISG induction in circulating blood cells reflects exposure of white blood cells trafficking through the GALT and the liver with exposure to an interferon-rich environment. Additionally, in subjects with viral hepatitis, increases in local interferon production may be detected by a reduction in serum viremia. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics [0114] Table 1 and Table 2 present the PK parameters of Compound B following the administration of a single dose of Compound B in the fasted cohorts and fed cohorts, respectively. Mean maximal plasma concentration values (Cmax) were higher with increasing dose in the fasted treatment groups. Mean maximal plasma concentration values were lower when Compound B (8 mg) was administered with moderate- or high-fat meal or following a high fat-meal than when Compound B was administered under fasting conditions. Similarly, mean AUC values in the fed cohorts were 47% to 73% of those values in the fasted cohorts; the lowest exposures were observed when Compound B 8 mg was coadministered with a moderate-fat meal. Median terminal Compound B half-life values ranged from 14.65 to 26.92 hours except for the 0.3-mg group for which plasma concentrations were measured only to 24 hours postdose. [0000] TABLE 1 Compound B Pharmacokinetic Parameters Following Administration of a Single Dose of Compound B by Treatment (Pharmacokinetic Analysis Set) Cohort 1 Cohort 2 Cohort 3 Cohort 4 Cohort 5 Cohort 6 Cohort 7 COMPOUND B 0.3 mg 1 mg 2 mg 4 mg 6 mg 8 mg 12 mg PK PARAMETER (N = 6) (N = 6) (N = 6) (N = 6) (N = 6) (N = 6) (N = 6) Cmax (pg/mL) 184.2 440.1 633.2 2928.7 7261.2 8335.6 11,968.9 Mean (% CV) (75.5) (59.0) (88.9) (42.9) (71.7) (51.7) (12.3) Tmax (h) 3.00 3.00 6.00 4.00 2.50 2.51 1.51 Median (Q1, (2.00, (1.00, (4.00, (2.00, (2.00, (2.00, (1.00, Q3) 4.00) 6.00) 6.00) 4.00) 3.00) 4.00) 2.00) AUCinf (pg · h/mL) 2969.4 9231.0 11,267.9 57,179.6 76,864.8 109,110.3 140,368.7 Mean (% CV) (86.2)a (29.7) (48.0) (45.7) (64.0) (73.9) (54.4) T½ (h) 10.38 26.92 24.30 17.16 14.65 19.54 16.29 Median (Q1, Q3) (6.66, (18.62, (19.64, (15.00, (12.52, (14.72, (15.33, 21.52) a 29.09) 26.72) 26.07) 17.33) 22.16) 20.16) Note: 48-hour plasma PK sample was not drawn for subjects enrolled in Cohort 1. a The 0.3-mg group had limited data available data during the terminal elimination phase relative to the long half-life for Compound B, and high intersubject variability was observed in that cohort. These values should be interpreted with caution. [0000] TABLE 2 Compound B Pharmacokinetic Parameters Following Administration of a Single Dose of Compound B Fasted, With a Moderate-fat Meal, With a High-fat Meal, and Following a High-fat Meal (4 Hours) (Pharmacokinetic Analysis Set) Cohort 8 IFE Cohort 8 mg with a Cohort 9 Cohort 6 8 mg with a moderate-fat 8 mg post COMPOUND B 8 mg fasted high-fat meal meal high-fat meal PK PARAMETER (N = 6) (N = 6) (N = 6) (N = 6) Cmax (pg/mL) 8335.6 5238.7 2040.6 4532.8 Mean (% CV) (51.7) (85.3) (42.6) (54.5) Tmax (h) 2.51 3.00 2.00 5.00 Median (Q1, Q3) (2.00, 4.00) (3.00, 3.00) (1.00, 3.00) (4.00, 6.00) AUCinf (pg · h/mL) 109,110.3 71,433.3 51,089.2 79,533.9 Mean (% CV) (73.9) (55.1) (41.8) (44.3) T½ (h) 19.54 23.55 21.64 20.54 Median (Q1, Q3) (14.72, 22.16) (19.86, 28.51) (16.42, 27.32) (16.22, 29.53) IFE, initial food effect [0115] In humans, Compound B signals through both the Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 and 8 pathways, inducing cytokines including IFN-α, interleukin (IL)-12 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) from innate immune cells [0116] Two randomized, double-blind phase IIa studies of Compound B administered two times per week for 4 weeks. Multicenter study (U.S.): 12 subjects received Compound B 0.01 mg/kg and 4 received placebo. Single center study (France): 6 subjects received 0.01 mg/kg, 11 received 0.02 mg/kg and 6 received placebo. Results [0117] Compound B 0.01 mg/kg was tolerated; two 0.2 mg/kg subjects discontinued treatment. More subjects reported severe grade adverse events at 0.02 mg/kg; events were consistent with systemic cytokine induction, including fever, headache, shivering, and lymphopenia. Mean maximum serum Compound B concentrations were 3.82±1.47 and 7.55±4.17 ng/mL for 0.01 mg/kg and 0.02 mg/kg, respectively. At 0.02 mg/kg, two, three and one subjects had maximal reductions in viral levels of at least 1-, 2- and 3-logs, respectively; reductions were generally transient. Interferon-alpha levels appeared correlated with decreases in viral titer and lymphocyte counts, as well as increase in neutrophil counts. Conclusions [0000] Oral administration of Compound B 0.02 mg/kg transiently reduced viral levels but was associated with adverse effects similar to interferon-alpha. [0120] In a placebo-controlled, single administration study in 48 healthy adults of up to 0.05 mg/kg, the maximum tolerated oral dose of Compound B was 0.03 mg/kg; in a placebo-controlled, multiple administration study in 25 healthy adults, the maximum administered regimen of 0.2 mg/kg two times per week for 2 weeks followed by 0.03 mg/kg two times per week for 2 weeks was adequately tolerated. [0121] For both studies, major inclusion criteria were males or females 18-70 years of age who had evidence of chronic HCV infection with all of the following: positive HCV serology by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, serum HCV RNA>10,000 copies/mL, elevated serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) level within 6 months, and a liver biopsy within 24 months demonstrating changes consistent with HCV infection. Exclusion criteria included clinically meaningful cirrhosis on prior liver biopsy (U.S. study), positive serology for possible autoimmune hepatitis (ANA˜1:640, ASMA>1:320, ALKM antibody>1:320), hepatocellular neoplasia, anemia (<12 g/dL for men, <11 for women), thrombocytopenia (<90,000/μL), leukopenia (<2500 cells/μL), neutropenia (<1500 cells/μL, U.S. study), ALT>1000 U/L (French study) or aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or ALT>500 U/L (U.S. study), bilirubin>1 mg/dL, decompensated liver disease, other liver diseases, positive serology for HIV, positive HBsAg, prior organ transplantation, significant psychiatric disease, alcohol or drug abuse within 12 months, systemic immunomodulatory or investigational therapy within 3 months, and significant cardiac, pulmonary, systemic inflammatory or thyroid disease. [0122] For both studies, treatment assignment within each cohort (16 subjects U.S. study; 8 subjects French study) was determined via computer-generated randomization. In the U.S. study, subjects were assigned centrally across centers. Active to placebo assignment was 3:1 for each cohort. Sample sizes were not prospectively powered. 2.2. Study Design [0123] All subjects were to receive study drug two times per week for 4 weeks. Subjects self-administered study drug at home except on study visits with pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic sampling where it was administered in the clinic. Compound B or matching placebo was administered as oral capsules (3M Pharmaceuticals, Saint Paul, Minn.). In the U.S. study, subjects received 0.01 mg/kg of resiquimod. In the French study, sequential cohorts were to have received 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 mg/kg (due to an adverse event, this dose level was not enrolled, see Results) of Compound B per dose, respectively; a safety review was performed prior to escalation. Pharmacodynamics [0124] Serum HCV RNA was measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (NGI). Subjects were categorized as responders (reduction from baseline of ˜2 logs) or non-responders at the end-of-treatment visit (day 29), and at the last follow-up visit (day 113 U.S. study, and day 57 French study). [0125] Samples for cytokines were obtained at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 h after the first dose, prior to dosing at days 8, 15, 22 or 25 (see above regarding pharmacokinetics) and day 29. Serum IL-6, IL-1RA, TNF-α and IFN-γ were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Immunotech, Cedex, France) and neopterin by immunoenzymatic assay (Immunotech, Cedex, France). Serum type I IFN levels were determined by bioassay [16]. Serum 2′,5′ oligoadenylate synthetase (2′5′ AS) was measured by radioimmunoassay (Eiken Chemical Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Serum IL-12 p40 was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.) Immunophenotyping of T lymphocytes in the U.S. study was performed at NGI. Results [0126] In both studies, there were no clinically meaningful changes in physical examinations. A dose-dependent initial increase in absolute neutrophil count (ANC) and decrease in absolute lymphocyte count were observed post-dose (Table 3); ANC subsequently appeared decreased, overall, in the Compound B groups (Table 3). Subjects in the 0.02 mg/kg group had greater maximum grade ANC and ALC toxicity (at any time during treatment period) by Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE) (Table 3). Of the 9 subjects with severe pyrexia, 6 had grade 3 and 2 had grade 4 ALC decrease, and 2 each had grade 2 and grade 3 ANC decrease. [0000] TABLE 3 Change from baseline in absolute neutrophil and lymphocyte counts Change in absolute neutrophil count Change in absolute lymphocyte count (cells/mm3) (cells/mm3) Combined studies Placebo 0.01 mg/kg 0.02 mg/kg Placebo 0.01 mg/kg 0.02 mg/kg Day 1 (8 h) N 10 18 11 10 18 11 Median  480  677 3170  174 −595 −1720 (range) (54, 3130) (−970, 5200) (−2270, 6460) (−600, 650) (−1595, 508) (−3080, −50) Mean ± SD 760 ± 881  804 ± 1312 2875 ± 2411  123 ± 364 −638 ± 641 −1638 ± 774 Day 1 (24 h) N 4a 11a 6a 4a 11a 6a Median  43 −533 −650 −232 −148  −520 (range) (−326, 788) (−1098, 1667) (−4530, 1700) (−416, −65) (−755, 656) (−2550, −250) Mean ± SD 137 ± 546 −152 ± 781 −878 ± 2148 −236 ± 162 −156 ± 398  −965 ± 892 Day 29 end-of-treatment visit N 10 18 9b 10 18 9b Median −166  −65 −470 −251 −153  −295 (range) (−1060, 980) (−3680, 491) (−3790, 1760) (−930, 340) (−1440, 969) (−2040, 250) Mean ± SD −54 ± 549 −452 ± 999 −727 ± 1647  271 ± 385 −166 ± 506  −478 ± 620 Maximum decrease during treatment period N 10 18 11 10 18 11 Median −328 −738 −730 −550 −865 −1796 (range) (−1244, 300) (−4780, −15) (−4530, 360) (−1228, −10) (−1595, 0) (−3080, −310) Mean ± SD −374 ± 463   966 ± 1078 −1359 ± 1370  −530 ± 370 −889 ± 510 −1670 ± 723 Maximum toxicity Neutropeniac (subject N, %) Lymphopeniad (subject N, %) Grade 1 3 (30%) 5 (28%) 1 (9%) 1 (10%) 1 (6%) 2 (18%) Grade 2 2 (20%) 5 (28%) 3 (27%) 0 1 (6%) 0 Grade 3 1 (10%) 0 2 (18%) 0 0 6 (55%) Grade 4 0 0 0 0 0 2 (18%) aNot all subjects in French study had sampling at 24 h post dosing Day 1. One subject in U.S. study missing sample. bTwo subjects discontinued treatment prior to day 29 end-of-treatment visit. c ANC grade 1 < lower limits of normal to 1500, grade 2 < 1500-1000, grade 3 < 1000-500, grade 4 < 500 cells/μL. Lower limits of normal 2250 cells/mm3 for U.S. and 1700 cells/mm3 for French study. d ALC grade 1 < lower limits of normal to 800, grade 2 < 800-500, grade 3 < 500-200, grade 4 < 200 cells/μL. Lower limits of normal 675 cells/mm3 for U.S. and 1200 cells/mm3 for French study. [0127] Neither ALT nor AST levels appeared to be affected in the U.S. study (data not shown). In the French study, the proportion of subjects with AST and ALT elevations decreased slightly from day 1 to day 29 in the 0.02 mg/kg group, 55% (6/11) to 11% (1/9) and 82% (9/11) to 56% (5/9), respectively. Pharmacokinetics [0128] Compound B concentrations after single (Table 4) and multiple dosing rose rapidly, reaching Cmax between 0.5 and 2.0 h post-dose. Thereafter, Compound B concentrations appeared to decline in a biphasic manner, the terminal phase becoming apparent between 8 and 16 h post-dose. With dose doubling there was almost a 2-fold increase in both mean serum Compound B Cmax and area under the curve (AUC), suggesting linear kinetics within the dose range studied (Table 4). There was little or no evidence of drug accumulation on repeat dosing as determined by drug levels measured on day 22/25 for the U.S. study or day 15 for the French study (data not shown). Large inter-subject variability was observed, with day 1 coefficients of variance for Cmax of 39% and 44% for 0.01 mg/kg (U.S. study and French study, respectively) and 55% for 0.02 mg/kg. Despite the large inter-subject variability, little intra-subject variability was observed for Cmax or AUC; comparable values were obtained after single and repeated administration for a subject (data not shown). The two 0.02 mg/kg subjects who discontinued treatment for severe grade lymphopenia and for severe grade flu-like symptoms had Compound B Cmax values of 12.7 and 10.8 ng/mL, respectively. [0000] TABLE 4 Pharmacokinetic parameters of Compound B following oral administration, first dose, studies combined 0.01 mg/kg 0.02 mg/kg Total subjects 12 11 Tmaxa (h) 1.0 1.0 Cmaxb (ng/mL) 3.82 ± 1.47 7.55 ± 4.17 AUCc (ng h/mL) 20.97 ± 13.65 45.66 ± 43.98 T½, z (h) 6.77 ± 3.10 6.82 ± 3.51 CL/F (L/h/kg) 0.57 ± 0.42 1.11 ± 1.54 Vz/F (L/kg) 4.29 ± 1.84 6.58 ± 3.83 T½, z: terminal phase half-life. Ln2 divided by apparent terminal phase rate constant estimated by log linear regression of at least three data concentration-time points after Tmax. Results reported as means ± standard deviation. CL/F: apparent clearance. Results reported as means ± standard deviation. Vz/F: apparent volume of distribution. Results reported as means ± standard deviation. aTmax: time of maximum drug concentration, determined by direct inspection of the drug concentration versus time data point values. Results reported as median. bCmax: maximum observed drug concentration, determined by direct inspection of the drug concentration versus time data point values. Results reported as means ± standard deviation. cAUC: area under the curve concentration versus time curve extrapolated to infinity, calculated by extrapolation of the elimination slope from tz to infinity (tz = time point for last sample on pharmacokinetic profile with quantifiable drug). Results reported as means ± standard deviation. Pharmacodynamics [0129] After the first dose, there appeared to be a dose-dependent decrease in serum HCV RNA levels peaking at about 24 h and trending toward baseline by 48 h (FIG. 1). One, five and six subjects had at least a 1-log reduction in HCV levels at any time during the study for the placebo, Compound B 0.01 and 0.02 mg/kg groups, respectively (FIG. 2). Two, three and one subjects in the 0.02 mg/kg group had maximal decreases of at least 1-, 2- and 3-logs, respectively (FIG. 2). Of the 11 Compound B subjects with at least a 1-log reduction at anytime during, the study, the HCV Rmax occurred within 48 h after dose 1 in 6 subjects, and at day 29 or after in 5 subjects. At end-of-treatment visit only one subject (0.02 mg/kg) was considered a responder per protocol (□2 log reduction); this was not sustained on follow-up. [0130] There appeared to be a possible relationship between Compound B Cmax and Rmax after dose 1 for HCV RNA (adjusted R2 0.4833, Spearman correlation coefficient 0.51503, p<0.0008), IFN-γ (0.5940, 0.6196, <0.0001), IL-1RA (0.6350, 0.7698, <0.0001), IFN-α (0.5118, 0.6354, <0.0001) and NPT (0.5301, 0.68610, <0.0001; FIGS. 3 a - c ). IFN-α Rmax appeared to be associated with HCV Rmax (adjusted R2 0.4944, Spearman correlation coefficient 0.6204, p<0.0001; FIG. 3 d ) and 8 h change ALC (0.7369, −0.7495, <0.0001) and possibly within 8 h change in ANC (0.3628, 0.4598, 0.0032; FIG. 3 d ) Median IFN-α Rmax after dose 1 appeared to be higher in those subjects who had a maximum CTCAE grade of 3 for ANC, 3 or 4 for ALC, and who had severe pyrexia (FIG. 3 f ). The two Compound B 0.02 mg/kg subjects who discontinued treatment for severe grade lymphopenia and for severe grade flu-like symptoms had IFN-α Rmax post-dose 1 of 15,557 and 3946 IU/mL, respectively. There did not appear to be evidence of a relationship between Compound B Cmax and the Rmax after the dose 1 with IL-6 (adjusted R2 0.1280, Spearman correlation coefficient 0.4023, p<0.0111), IL-12 p40 (0.0156, 0.2062, 0.2079), 2′5′ AS (0.0194, 0.1945, 0.2354) and TNF-α (−0.0244, 0.0989, 0.5491). Clinically relevant changes in CD4+ lymphocyte counts or CD4+/CD8+ lymphocyte ratios were not observed.

Methods of treating gastrointestinal disorders, in a patient in need thereof, including disorders of the liver and pancreas, using an amount of an orally dosed TLR-7 compound in an amount sufficient to increase IFN in the gastrointestinal area, including the liver, but not significantly increasing systemic IFN.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to urns for the cremated remains of people and pets. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Someone who loses a loved one, such as a child, parent, or close friend, often needs to memorialize the strong emotional bond resulting from love or friendship. In a similar way, owners and pets usually have a strong emotional bond between them, and when an owner loses a pet, the owner often needs a fitting way to memorialize that loss, such as by formally burying the pet in a pet cemetery, or by suitable treatment of ashes produced by cremation of the pet remains. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,023,882 discloses a decorative housing in the general form of the deceased pet, and is constructed to hold pet ashes in a sealed chamber. Although previous urns for holding ashes do memorialize a deceased person or pet, the effect is often not sufficient for those who wish to express more clearly the love and devotion that existed. This invention provides an urn which more nearly meets that need. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention provides an urn for storing the ashes (cremated remains) of a deceased person or a pet. The urn includes a housing in the shape of a protective angel on a support having an outwardly extending shelf adjacent the angel, and on which a representation, such as a photograph or replica of the person or pet may rest. An outwardly opening cavity in the housing receives the cremated remains, and a cover secured over the cavity confines the cremated remains within the housing. Preferably, the face of the angel shows loving concern, and the angel leans slightly over the shelf to present a sheltering and caring mien. In another preferred form, the angel looks down at the shelf which can hold a representation or replica of the deceased person or pet, and has outstretched wings to increase the expression of care and sheltering. Moreover, an outstretched arm from the angel further connotes loving concern. Preferably the housing includes a portion with an exterior surface shaped to replicate a structure of stones to impart an aura of durability. A recess in an exterior part of the housing is shaped to receive a label with information relative to the person or pet. Preferably, the cavity opens out of the bottom of the housing, and the cover is secured to one edge of the cavity by a hinge. In one form, a magnetic closure holds the cover in a closed position over the cavity. In another embodiment, a mechanical latch releasably secures the cover in a closed position over the cavity. A gasket is disposed between the housing and cover to seal the cavity when the cover is in the closed position. The housing adjacent the unhinged portion of the cover has a recess to permit the edge of the cover to be grasped and pulled open against the force of the magnetic closure, or to facilitate the release of the mechanical latch. In one form, the mechanical latch has a slidable bolt which can be moved between a locked and an unlocked position for the cover. Opening of the cover is also facilitated by providing a notch in the free edge of the cover adjacent the recess in the bottom of the housing. The cover and surrounding portion of the bottom of the housing present a flat, smooth surface so the urn can be easily placed in a stable position. These and other aspects of the invention will be more fully understood from the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a front elevation of one embodiment of the urn; FIG. 2 is a bottom view of the urn; FIG. 3 is a view taken on staggered line 3 — 3 of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is an enlarged view, partly broken away, taken in the area of the dotted circle A of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a fragmentary view of the bottom of the urn showing an alternate latch for the cover; and FIG. 6 is a view taken on line 6 — 6 of FIG. 5 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to FIG. 1, an urn 10 includes a molded housing 12 in the shape of an angel 14 sitting on a pedestal 16 formed integrally within the top of a base 18 having an outwardly extending flat shelf 20 . The pedestal, base and platform are molded so the exterior surfaces of those elements resemble stones 21 set with mortar 22 . A recessed rectangular panel 23 in the front face of the base receives a label (not shown) with appropriate indicia. The recessed rectangular panel 23 , which is about 3 mm deep, permits the label to be mounted so that its exterior surface does not project beyond that of the base, thus protecting the label from accidental abrasion. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the angel leans slightly over the base, and gazes in the direction of the base. The left hand and forearm 24 of the angel extend outwardly over the rear portion of the base, and the right hand 25 of the angel is adjacent the chin of the angel. A pair of wings 26 molded integrally with the back of the angel extend outwardly on each side of the angel and open toward the platform 20 , which is adapted to hold a representation on replica 30 of the deceased person or pet (shown only in phantom line). Thus, the effect of the angel sitting on the pedestal presents a protective pose and reverential contemplation of the space adapted to receive the replica of the person or pet. As shown best in FIGS. 2 and 3, the bottom of the housing includes a downwardly opening cavity 32 adapted to hold a container 34 of ashes of the cremated remains of a deceased person or pet, or both of them. Preferably, the upper portion of the angel is solid, rather than hollow, as shown in FIG. 3, to provide greater strength for the urn. The container 34 can be any suitable device, such as a well-known Ziploc plastic bag. As shown in FIG. 2, the cavity 32 is of an elongated, generally rectangular shape, and includes an inwardly extending ledge 36 around the periphery of the opening of the cavity. A rectangular cover 38 is shaped to make a close fit within cavity 32 and rest on ledge 36 . As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, a gasket 39 in an upwardly opening recess 40 around the top surface of the cover makes a hermetic seal between the cover and the housing ledge. A pair of hinges 42 secure one end of the cover to an adjacent end of the cavity. A first magnet 44 embedded in the shelf 36 at the end of the cavity remote from the hinges mates with a second magnet 46 embedded in the upper surface of the end of the cover remote from the hinges, and holds the cover in the closed position shown in FIG. 3 . A downwardly opening indentation 48 in the lower surface of the urn housing, and adjacent the free end of the cover, facilitates opening the cover against the force of the magnets. Opening the cover is further facilitated by an outwardly opening notch 50 in the free edge of the cover remote from the hinges. The indentation 48 is sufficiently large to permit one to insert a finger into that space, and engage notch 50 so that the cover can be pulled and pivoted about the hinges in a counterclockwise direction (as viewed in FIG. 3) to open the bottom of the urn so that the container with the ashes of the cremated remains of a person or pet can be inserted into the cavity 32 . Preferably, the cavity is sufficiently large to hold both the cremated remains of a pet and the owner of the pet. Thereafter the cover is moved to the closed position in FIG. 3, and held in that position by the magnets. More than one set of magnets can be used at the interface between the ledge 36 and cover 38 to provide additional force for holding the cover in the closed position. If the weight of the cremated remains stored in the cavity is too large to be reliably held by magnets, a mechanical latch 60 (FIGS. 3 and 4) is secured by screws 62 through ears 64 on opposite sides of the latch to hold the latch against the upper surface 68 of the indentation 48 . The latch includes a slidable bolt 70 in a latch cylinder 72 . A compression spring 74 in the cylinder urges the latch to slide to the right (as viewed in FIG. 4) so the right end of the bolt fits snugly in a cylindrical bore 76 in the free edge of the cover. A downwardly extending pin 78 is threaded at its upper end into the lower portion of the bolt, and is adapted to travel in a longitudinal slot 80 in the cylinder, so the pin 78 can be moved to the left (as viewed in FIG. 4) to withdraw the bolt from bore 76 , and permit the cover to be pulled away from the cavity. The right (as viewed in FIG. 3) end of the bolt is curved to present a downwardly facing convex section 77 , which merges with an upwardly and outwardly sloping segment 78 , to engage a upwardly convex curved surface 84 at the upper edge of the free end of the cover so that closing and locking the cover in the closed position shown in FIG. 3 is easily done by pivoting the cover about the hinges in a clockwise direction (as viewed in FIG. 4) so that the curved surface 84 on the cover engages the convex section 77 and the sloping segment 78 on the right end of the bolt to force the bolt to the left so the cover can move to the closed position shown in FIG. 3 . Compression spring 74 snaps the bolt into the bore 76 so the cover is locked in the closed position. The urn 10 can be made of any suitable material used for casting statues. However, I presently prefer to use unsaturated polyester resin pottery plaster, which simulates the appearance of marble. Any suitable pigment can be mixed with the casting material to give the urn any desired color. Referring to FIGS. 5 and 6, which show the bottom of a base 90 of an alternate urn 91 of this invention, a cover 92 is secured at one edge by a hinge 93 to the bottom of the base to make a snug fit over an opening 94 in the base. A conventional two-piece latch 95 is secured by screws 96 to the base and cover. The piece of the latch secured to the base includes an elongated tongue 97 with a central opening 98 , which makes a snug fit over a downwardly extending latch post 99 on the piece of the latch secured to the lid. The upper surface of the perimeter of the lid (FIG. 6) makes a snug fit against a gasket 100 on a downwardly facing ledge 101 around a cavity 102 opening out of the bottom of the base. The gasket extends around the perimeter of the lid to seal the cavity from the elements. To release the cover from the closed position shown in FIG. 1, the tongue 97 is pulled downwardly (as viewed in FIG. 6) so the tongue pivots in a clockwise direction about the anchor piece secured to the base. Once the tongue clears the retaining pin 99 , the lid is free to swing to the open position. The lid is moved into and secured in the closed position by reversing the opening procedure just described.

An urn for storing the ashes of cremated remains of a person or a pet includes a housing in the shape of a protective angel on a support having an outwardly extending shelf adjacent the angel, and on which a representation of the person or pet may rest. An outwardly opening cavity in the housing receives the cremated remains, and a cover secured over the cavity confines the cremated remains within the housing. The arms and wings of the angel are disposed to symbolize loving concern for the deceased.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims priority from Korean Patent Application No. 10-2007-0077016 filed on Jul. 31, 2007 in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a semiconductor technology, and, in particular, to a CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) image sensor that has an expanded dynamic range. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, high-resolution camera-equipped apparatuses, such as digital cameras, camera-equipped cellular phones, and surveillance cameras, have become widespread. As an imaging device for such a camera, a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) or a CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) image sensor is used. The CMOS image sensor has features of ease of manufacturing and low cost compared with the CCD, and thus it is popular in solid-state imaging. Further, a unit pixel of the CMOS image sensor is composed of MOS transistors, and thus it can be implemented in a smaller area than that of the CCD, thereby providing high resolution. In addition, signal-processing logic can be formed in an image circuit, in which pixels are formed, such that the image circuit and the signal-processing circuit can be incorporated into a single body. Since the CMOS image sensor generally has a dynamic range of approximately 60 dB, there is a limit to generating an image in a wide illuminance range. For this reason, in a screen having a bright image and a dark image, a bright portion may be saturated and become white, and a dark portion may not be expressed. In addition, as a digital camera or a camera-equipped cellular phone is reduced in size, low-voltage driving is performed due to demands for reducing a unit area in the pixels of the image sensor and realizing low power consumption, which makes it difficult to ensure a sufficient dynamic range. In the related art, in order to solve the above-described problems, the structure shown in FIG. 1 is used to expand the dynamic range of the image sensor. FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram showing a unit pixel having a general 4-T structure in a CMOS image sensor. Referring to FIG. 1 , the pixel having a 4-T structure is composed of one photodiode (PD) 110 , and four NMOS transistors, that is, a transfer transistor (Tx) 120 , a reset transistor (Rx) 122 , a drive transistor (Dx) 124 , and a select transistor (Sx) 126 . In a state where the transfer transistor (Tx) 120 is turned off, if light is irradiated onto the surface of the photodiode (PD) 110 , holes and electrons are separated. Then, the holes flow to a ground to be then removed, and electrons accumulate in the photodiode (PD) 110 . The transfer transistor (Tx) 120 functions as a transmission channel to apply a predetermined voltage to a gate 121 of the transfer transistor (Tx) 120 , and to transfer the electrons accumulated in the photodiode (PD) 110 by light to a floating diffusion region (FD) 130 . Further, the transfer transistor (Tx) 120 performs a reset function to completely remove the electrons from the photodiode (PD) 110 . The reset transistor (Rx) 122 resets the floating diffusion region (FD) 130 by setting the potential of the floating diffusion region (FD) 130 to a desired value and eliminating charge. That is, the reset transistor (Rx) 122 eliminates the charge that has accumulated in the floating diffusion region (FD) 130 for signal detection. The drive transistor (Dx) 124 operates according to the charge accumulated in the floating diffusion region (FD) 130 , and functions as a buffer amplifier having the configuration of a source follower. The select transistor (Sx) 126 is switched for addressing. If charge accumulates in the photodiode (PD) 110 , a high voltage is applied to a gate of the reset transistor (Rx) 122 to set the voltage of the floating diffusion region (FD) 130 to V DD , and then a corresponding voltage value is read. Next, a high voltage is applied to the gate of the transfer transistor (Tx) 120 to transfer the charge that has accumulated in the photodiode (PD) 110 to the floating diffusion region (FD) 130 , a corresponding voltage value is read, and subsequently a difference between the read voltage values is read. In this structure, in order to expand the dynamic range, the capacitance of the floating diffusion region (FD) 130 is increased to receive the charge from the photodiode (PD) 110 without overflow. However, if the capacitance is increased, sensitivity of the CMOS image sensor is decreased, and a dark image may not be expressed. Therefore, it is not desirable to simply increase the capacitance of the floating diffusion region (FD) 130 . SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to provide a CMOS image sensor, in which a plurality of floating diffusion regions are provided in a pixel, having the advantage of obtaining an expanded dynamic range without sacrificing sensitivity. Objects of the present invention are not limited to those mentioned above, and other objects of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art through the following description. According to the embodiments of the present invention, a plurality of floating diffusion regions are provided in a pixel to have different capacitance, and thus an expanded dynamic range can be obtained without sacrificing sensitivity. According to the embodiments of the present invention, the floating diffusion regions are separated from each other. Therefore, at low illuminance, a vivid image can be obtained with high sensitivity. In addition, at high illuminance, a vivid image can be obtained without causing an image to be saturated and whitened. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent by describing in detail preferred embodiments thereof with reference to the attached drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram showing a unit pixel having a general 4-T structure in a CMOS image sensor; FIG. 2 is a circuit diagram showing a unit pixel of a CMOS image sensor having two floating diffusion regions according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a timing chart illustrating the operation of the circuit shown in FIG. 2 ; FIG. 4 is a circuit diagram showing the structure of a CMOS image sensor according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a circuit diagram showing a unit pixel of a CMOS image sensor according to still another embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 6 is a timing chart illustrating the operation of the circuit shown in FIG. 5 . DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Advantages and features of the present invention and methods of accomplishing the same may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of preferred embodiments and the accompanying drawings. The present invention may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as being limited to the embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete and will fully convey the concept of the present invention to those skilled in the art, and the present invention will only be defined by the appended claims. FIG. 2 is a circuit diagram showing a unit pixel of a CMOS image sensor having two floating diffusion regions according to an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 2 , a CMOS image sensor according to an embodiment of the present invention has a first floating diffusion region (FD 1 ) 230 a and a second floating diffusion region (FD 2 ) 230 b per unit pixel. FD 1 230 a and FD 2 230 b are separated from each other by a second transfer transistor (Tx 2 ) 220 b . In addition, a first transfer transistor (Tx 1 ) 220 a is disposed between a photodiode (PD) 210 and FD 1 230 a. The photodiode (PD) 210 functions as a light-receiving unit that converts light into charge. It should be understood that any unit can be applied to the present invention insofar as it is a light-receiving unit that can convert light into charge. FD 1 230 a is connected to a gate of a first drive transistor (Dx 1 ) 224 a and a first reset transistor (Rx 1 ) 222 a , and FD 2 230 b is connected to a gate of a second drive transistor (Dx 2 ) 224 b and a second reset transistor (Rx 2 ) 222 b. A final image for a pixel is obtained by synthesizing signals Vout 1 and Vout 2 that are output from a first select transistor (Sx 1 ) 226 a and a second select transistor (Sx 2 ) 226 b. The transfer transistors 220 a and 220 b , the reset transistors 222 a and 222 b , the drive transistors 224 a and 224 b , and the select transistors 226 a and 226 b shown in FIG. 2 have the same functions as the transistors shown in FIG. 1 . Referring to FIG. 2 , FD 1 230 a is disposed close to the four transistors Tx 1 220 a , Tx 2 220 b , Rx 1 222 a , and Dx 1 224 a , and thus it has a capacitance larger than FD 2 230 b that is disposed close to the three transistors Tx 2 220 b , Rx 2 222 b , and Dx 2 224 b. At this time, the capacitance of FD 1 230 a is maximized within a predetermined range to receive large amounts of charge while the sensitivity is low. Further, the capacitance of FD 2 230 b is minimized within the predetermined range to increase the sensitivity while not receiving large amounts of charge. In such a manner, a signal having a wide dynamic range with respect to illuminance but low sensitivity can be acquired in FD 1 230 a , and a signal having a small dynamic range with respect to illuminance but high sensitivity can be acquired in FD 2 230 b. That is, the charge accumulated in the photodiode 210 is transmitted to FD 1 230 a through the first transfer transistor (Tx 1 ) 220 a to obtain a wide dynamic range signal, and then the wide dynamic range signal is output as Vout 1 through Dx 1 224 a and Sx 1 226 a . Next, the wide dynamic range signal obtained in FD 1 230 a is transmitted to FD 2 230 b through the second transfer transistor (Tx 2 ) 220 b to obtain a high-sensitive signal, and then the high-sensitivity signal is outputs as Vout 2 through Dx 2 224 b and Sx 2 226 b. The signals Vout 1 and Vout 2 are synthesized, thereby obtaining the final image for a pixel. FIG. 3 is a timing chart illustrating the operation of the circuit shown in FIG. 2 . Referring to FIG. 3 , Sx 1 226 a is turned on at time t 0 when a selection control signal rises, and a column including a corresponding CMOS pixel element is selected. Next, Rx 1 222 a is turned on at time t 1 to reset FD 1 230 a to V DD , and then a corresponding voltage value is read. At time t 2 , a high voltage is applied to a gate of the Tx 1 220 a to transmit the charge accumulated in the photodiode 210 to FD 1 230 a , and a corresponding voltage value is read. A difference between the two voltage values is output as a final signal value. That is, the output signal covers a wide range of illuminance, and thus a vivid image can be obtained with high illuminance without causing saturation. After time t 2 , Sx 2 226 b is turned on, and a column including a corresponding CMOS pixel element is selected. In this case, the same column is selected by Sx 1 226 a and Sx 2 226 b. At time t 3 , the Rx 2 222 b is turned on to rest FD 2 230 b to V DD , and then a corresponding voltage value is read. Next, at time t 4 , a high voltage is applied to a gate of the Tx 2 220 b to transmit the charge accumulated in FD 1 230 a to FD 2 230 b , and then a corresponding voltage value is read. A difference between the two voltage values is output as a final signal value. In FD 2 230 b , a high-sensitivity signal is output due to low capacitance, such that a vivid image can be obtained with low illuminance. As a result, the two final signal values are synthesized after a time t 4 , such that an illuminance range can be expanded while the sensitivity of the CMOS image sensor can be maintained. FIG. 4 is a circuit diagram showing the structure of a CMOS image sensor according to another embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 4 , images from two pixels of the CMOS image sensor are processed by a single circuit. That is, an image-processing circuit block 450 shown in FIG. 4 has the same configuration and function as the circuit shown in FIG. 2 . In FIG. 4 , however, a first floating region (FD 1 ) 430 a is connected to a third transfer transistor (Tx 3 ) 420 c , and Tx 3 420 c is connected to a second photodiode (PD 2 ) 410 b. A first photodiode (PD 1 ) 410 a and a second photodiode (PD 2 ) 410 b respectively function as light-receiving units of first and second pixels in the CMOS image sensor. For example, charge collected by the PD 1 410 a is transmitted to FD 1 430 a and FD 2 430 b under the control of Tx 1 420 a , thereby obtaining output signals Vout 1 and Vout 2 for the first pixel. In this case, since Tx 3 420 c does not operate, charge collected in the PD 2 410 b is not transmitted to FD 1 430 a. Subsequently, the Tx 1 420 a does not operate and the Tx 3 420 c operates. Then, the charge collected in the PD 2 410 b is transmitted to FD 1 430 a and FD 2 430 b , thereby obtaining output signals Vout 1 and Vout 2 for the second pixel. In this case, since the Tx 1 420 a does not operate, the charge collected in the PD 1 410 a is not transmitted to FD 1 430 a. That is, a single image-processing circuit block 450 is shared by two light-receiving units, and thus the integration of the CMOS image sensor can be increased. FIG. 5 is a circuit diagram showing a unit pixel of a CMOS image sensor according to still another embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 5 , it can be seen that the circuit shown in FIG. 5 has the same configuration as the circuit shown in FIG. 2 , excluding a capacitor 550 . The capacitor 550 is connected to a gate of a Dx 2 524 b , that is, a FD 2 530 b , to increase capacitance of FD 2 530 b . Accordingly, FD 1 530 a functions as a high-sensitivity output unit, and FD 2 530 b functions as a wide dynamic range/low-sensitivity output unit, unlike the circuit shown in FIG. 2 , in which FD 1 230 a functions as a wide dynamic range output signal and FD 2 230 b functions as a high-sensitivity output unit. Therefore, referring to FIG. 5 , the wide dynamic range signal is output as Vout 2 , and the high-sensitivity signal is output as Vout 1 . FIG. 6 is a timing chart illustrating the operation of the circuit shown in FIG. 5 . Referring to FIG. 6 , Sx 1 526 a and the Sx 2 526 b are simultaneously turned on at time t 0 when the selection control signal rises, and a column including a corresponding CMOS pixel element is selected. Next, at time t 1 , the reset transistor (Rx 1 ) 522 a and the reset transistor (Rx 2 ) 522 b are simultaneously turned on to set FD 1 530 a and FD 2 530 b to V DD , and then a corresponding voltage value is read. At time t 2 , a voltage V h is applied to the first transfer transistor (Tx 1 ) 520 a , and a voltage V m is applied to the second transfer transistor (Tx 2 ) 520 b . At this time, the voltage V m is lower than the voltage V h . Subsequently, at time t 2 , FD 2 530 b receives the excessive charge in FD 1 530 a , such that a high-sensitivity signal is obtained from FD 1 530 a , and a low-sensitivity/wide dynamic range signal is obtained from FD 2 530 b . Next, the two signals are synthesized, thereby acquiring a wide dynamic range/high-sensitivity signal. Similar to the CMOS image sensor shown in FIG. 4 , the circuit shown in FIG. 5 can be shared by at least two light-receiving units. This change can be easily made by those skilled in the art from FIG. 4 . Although the present invention has been described in connection with the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and changes may be made thereto without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention. Therefore, it should be understood that the above embodiments are not limitative, but illustrative in all aspects.

A CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) image sensor is provided. A CMOS image sensor includes a first light-receiving unit converting light into charge, a first floating diffusion region, in which a first potential corresponding to the converted amount of charge is generated and a second floating diffusion region, to which the charge in the first floating diffusion region is transmitted, and in which a second potential is generated, wherein a wide dynamic range signal is acquired from the first floating diffusion region, a high-sensitively signal is acquired from the second floating diffusion region, and the acquired signals are synthesized and output.

This is a continuation-in-part of co-pending application Ser. No. 08/301,244 filed Sep. 6, 1994. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to devices for machining or rebuilding internal combustion engines and, more specifically, to devices for boring engine overhead camshaft cylinder heads. The cylinder heads of overhead cam engines have bearings for supporting the camshaft. Each bearing is located in a tower that positions the camshaft relative to the cylinder head. The most commonly used type of bearing consists only of the interior surface of the tower. Typically, between two and seven bearings and corresponding towers are distributed along the length of the camshaft in the cylinder head. Each tower comprises a portion that is formed integrally with the remainder of the cylinder head. In a few types of cylinder heads, the entire tower is integrally formed with the cylinder head. Such a tower completely encircles the camshaft with the inner surface of the tower forming the bearing. However, in most types of cylinder heads, the tower is in two sections, the base portion of which is formed integrally with the cylinder head. The camshaft is supported between a semicircular bearing surface in the base portion and a corresponding semicircular bearing surface in the cap. The cap is secured to the base portion using two bolts. The camshaft rotates smoothly so long as the bearings remain aligned along the camshaft axis of rotation. The cylinder head may, however, warp as a result of engine overheating. In every case, this warpage results in a concave deformation of the cylinder head. In addition, the bearings may wear over time as a result of use. Both cylinder head warping and bearing wear may cause the camshaft to vibrate and ultimately may prevent the camshaft from turning at all, or the camshaft bearings may wear so quickly and severely that the oil pressure drops, causing engine failure. Thus, it is apparent that when cylinder head warpage and bearing wear occurs, the camshaft bearings must be repaired in order to avoid costly repairs or engine replacement. A line boring machine is a device having a table, a rotating steel boring spindle or boring bar, and a motor connected to the bar. The cylinder head is secured to the table, which functions as a reference plane. The boring bar is received horizontally through all the cylinder head bearings. The boring bar has mounting recesses distributed along its length for receiving cutting bits. In conventional boring bars, the mounting recesses are arranged along a common line parallel to the bar's axis. One bit is mounted adjacent each tower. The machine includes drive mechanisms for rotating the bar and moving the bar longitudinally along its axis of rotation. The bar is simultaneously rotated and fed longitudinally. Each cutting bit engages a bearing and removes metal to enlarge the bearing diameter. The cylinder head may then be removed from the machine. In order to provide the proper bearing diameter to meet OEM specifications, "repair bearings," which are annular inserts, usually made of steel, having an inside diameter equal to the proper diameter for the camshaft bearings and an outside diameter approximately equal to the diameter of the newly enlarged bearing, are inserted into the enlarged bearings and are retained by the resulting friction-fit. The camshaft may then be re-inserted through the repair bearings. The use of repair bearings has several disadvantages. The friction-fit holding the repair bearings may loosen, allowing the repair bearings to rotate with respect to the cylinder head. Such rotation will quickly result in engine failure and require further repairs. In addition, heat conduction between the cylinder head, which is typically aluminum, and the steel repair bearings is poor and may prevent heat generated by the camshaft friction from dissipating properly into the cylinder head. The non-uniform heat distribution and the different coefficients of thermal expansion of the two metals increase the risk of loss of adhesion between the repair bearings and the cylinder head. The use of the line boring machine described above to repair camshaft bearings creates a problem. The boring bar and its cutting bits must remain precisely axially aligned with the bearings during the process. In prior art line boring machines, the boring bar must be supported because the effect of gravity on the horizontal bar tends to sag or bow downward, thereby preventing it from boring along a perfectly straight axis. Line boring machines attempt to minimize this problem by supporting the bar at multiple points along its length. The line boring machine includes multiple support arms that have bearings in which the bar rotates. When a cylinder head is mounted on the table of the machine, the arms extend between the towers. If the towers are spaced closely together, however, as is common in small engines, insufficient space exists between the towers to accommodate an arm. Moreover, both the distance between the arms and the distance between each arm and the table can be adjusted. It is therefore both time-consuming and difficult to obtain the required alignment among all of the arms. Another solution that has been attempted involves supporting the boring bar by the two camshaft bearings at the extreme ends of the cylinder head. A bearing ring is inserted into each end bearing, and the boring bar is inserted through the bearing rings. This method is not effective, however, if the end bearings are themselves in poor alignment with each other. When this method is used, the end bearings tend to wear more quickly than the other bearings. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the method decreases with increasing cylinder head length. These problems and deficiencies are clearly felt in the art and are solved by the present invention in the manner described below. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is an apparatus and method for repairing overhead cam engine cylinder heads. The method comprises the steps of removing the caps from the bases of the bearing towers or housings, removing material from the legs of the caps, replacing the caps on the bases, and boring the resulting bearings to produce bearings of the proper diameter. The apparatus comprises a device for machining a bearing cap and a device for boring the bearings. Each bearing tower comprises a base and a cap. As originally manufactured, the bearing is defined by a semi-cylindrical surface inside the base and a corresponding semi-cylindrical surface inside the cap. When the cap is mounted on the base, the resulting bearing is cylindrical. To remove a cap from its base, the bolts that extend downward through the legs of the cap are removed. The legs are then machined to remove a small amount of material to decrease the cap height. The present invention comprises a rotary cutting tool mounted on an axially movable carriage, a mounting block, and a suitable drive means such as an electric motor. The mounting block has two prongs or rods extending from it toward the cutting tool. To machine the legs of a cap, the rods are inserted into the bolt holes in the legs of the cap. The motor drives the cutting tool, which is advanced by a feed means such as a second electric motor, toward the bottom surfaces of the cap legs. When a sufficient amount of material has been removed from the cap legs, the cap is removed from the mounting and replaced on the tower base using the bolts. When the cap is replaced on the tower base, the resulting bearing is asymmetrical because the portion of the bearing defined by the cap is no longer semi-cylindrical. The bearing is then bored to the diameter specified by the manufacturer, thereby restoring the cylindrical shape without requiring the insertion of repair bearings. The present invention also comprises a line boring device that may be used for boring the bearings. The device has a boring bar that is supported for alignment with the drive motor by two half-shell inserts which are placed in the end bearings of the cylinder head. Once the proper height is determined, a pair of support stands, one at each end of the cylinder head, is adjusted in height to align the supports with the bar. Quick-release pillow blocks hold the boring bar onto the support stands so that the bar can rotate at the pre-determined height. The height of the drive motor is adjusted to align it with respect to the boring bar supported by the half shells. The boring bar does not require support other than at its ends because it is made of an extremely stiff, hard and dense material, preferably a dense tungsten alloy such as DENAL™ or a ceramic-coated metal. The high density and/or ceramic coating minimizes vibration. The boring bar receives cutting bits at multiple locations along its length which are radially staggered, i.e., not in a linear arrangement. The device has a drive means, such as an electric motor, which is attached by a universal joint to the bar for rotating the bar. A feed means, such as a second electric motor, advances the bar in an axial direction, thereby engaging each cutting bit with one of the bearings. All bearings may thus be bored simultaneously. The carbide cutting bits are configured with an adjustable collar ring to permit the appropriate depth of the blade to be pre-set before installation in the boring bar. All blades are set to the same depth and may be inserted into any of the mounting locations within the boring bar. All blades are set to the same depth and may be inserted into any of the mounting locations within the boring bar. The foregoing, together with other features and advantages of the present invention, will become more apparent when referring to the following specification, claims, and accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention, reference is now made to the following detailed description of the embodiments illustrated in the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a machine for boring multiple axially aligned bearings and for machining bearing caps, showing an overhead cam engine cylinder head mounted on the boring device and a bearing cap mounted on the cap machining device; FIG. 2 is a sectional view taken on line 2--2 of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a sectional view of the boring bar taken on line 3--3 of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a sectional view of the boring bar taken on line 4--4 of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a side elevation view of the device for machining bearing caps; FIG. 6 is a side elevation view of a bearing tower, showing removal of the cap; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a portion of the device for machining bearing caps, showing a cap mounted on the device prior to machining the cap legs; FIG. 8 is a side elevation view of a bearing tower, showing a cap re-mounted on the tower base following machining of the cap legs; and FIG. 9 is a side elevation view of the bearing tower of FIG. 8 following boring; FIG. 10 is a side elevation of a universal joint for connecting the drive motor to the boring bar; FIG. 11 is a diagrammatic view of the cutter depth adjustment mechanism; FIG. 12 is a side elevation of the boring bar; FIG. 13 is a side elevation of a cutting bit; and FIG. 14 is a perspective view of a pillow block. DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS As illustrated in FIG. 1, the present invention comprises a line boring machine 10 and a bearing cap machine 12. As described in further detail below, both machines 10 and 12 are powered by a common drive means. Line boring machine 10 has a base 14, a drive housing 16, two workpiece mounts 18 and 20, a boring bar 22, two boring bar supports 24 and 26 and an electronic controller 28. A workpiece 30, such as an overhead cam engine cylinder head, may be mounted on workpiece mounts 18 and 20. A horizontal mount slot 32 that engages a portion of mounts 18 and 20 facilitates adjustment of the horizontal or axial position of mounts 18 and 20. Similarly, vertical bar slots 34, 36 and 38, in drive housing 16, support 24 and support 26, respectively, facilitate adjustment of the vertical position of boring bar 22. Boring bar 22 is supported only by supports 24 and 26. Boring bar 22 is made of an extremely rigid and dense material, such as tungsten alloys having greater than 91% tungsten content. Typically the desired materials will have a modulus of elasticity on the order of 1.5 or more times that for a high strength steel. A preferred material is produced by the Cime Bocuze Company of Lyon, France under the trademark DENAL™. DENAL™ is a tungsten-nickel-iron alloy which increases in density and modulus of elasticity with increased tungsten content while showing little change in hardness. The preferred grade of DENAL™ has a density of between 17.6 and 18.5 g/cm 3 , a hardness of between 300 and 490 Hv, and a modulus of elasticity of between 1000 and 1350 MPa (145,000 psi-197,750 PSI). The use of DENAL™ in the prior art is believed to be almost exclusively for armor penetrators in military ordnance. It has been determined in the present invention that the same properties of extreme rigidity and density that render DENAL™ useful for military ordnance are useful in boring bars for minimizing sagging and the resulting vibration. When made of such a material, boring bar 22 will sag no more than 0.02 mm between supports spaced approximately 90 cm apart. Another suitable material that minimizes vibration in a boring bar is steel coated with a ceramic material. The ceramic coating imparts a sufficient degree of hardness and rigidity to the steel that it approximates the properties of the DENAL™. The boring bar 22, illustrated in FIG. 12, has multiple mounting bores 44, each of which will accept one of the cutting bits 48. The spacing between the bores 44 is configured to match the spacing between the bearing towers of the cylinder head to be machined. In order to minimize torque on the boring bar, the bores 44 are staggered to distribute the torsional forces uniformly. The cutting bits 48 are preferably carbide. The cutting edge 49, shown in detail in FIG. 13, is configured in an asymmetric paraboloid such that the rotational orientation of the cutting edge within the mounting bar is not critical and cutting can occur at any orientation of the bit. Two electric motors 40 and 41 are disposed in drive housing 16. Motor 40 rotates boring bar 22 via a homo-kinetic coupling 42. Motor 40 may drive coupling 42 either directly or via suitable gearing (not shown) in drive housing 16. Motor 41 moves drive housing 16, which rides on a track or slot 43, in an axial or longitudinal direction. Boring bar 22 is, in turn, fed in the axial direction. Controller 28 controls these actions in response to commands entered by an operator. Controller 28 preferably maintains a rate of axial movement or feed rate that varies linearly with rotation speed. An operator may select a rotation speed, e.g., 600 RPM, and a feed distance per revolution, e.g., 0.02 mm per revolution. If the operator thereafter selects a different rotation speed, e.g., 400 RPM, controller 28 automatically adjusts the feed rate (from 12 mm/min. to 8 mm/min. in the present example) to maintain the selected feed distance per revolution. Persons of skill in the art will readily be capable of designing suitable electronics, including microprocessors and associated software or other computer components, to control motor speed and feed rate in the manner described above. As illustrated in FIGS. 2-4 and 12, boring bar 22 has multiple cutting bit mounting bores 44 distributed along its length. Each mounting bore 44 has a countersunk recess 46 at its upper end. Recesses 46 function as reference planes because all are located at precisely the same distance from the axis of rotation of boring bar 22. A carbide-tipped cutting bit 48 is disposed in one of mounting bores 44 which has sufficient length (depth) to accommodate varied lengths of cutting bits. A collar 50, disposed around cutting bit 48, determines the distance that cutting bit 48 extends with respect to recess 46. A set screw 52 disposed in a threaded bore in boring rod 22 perpendicular to cutting bit 48 retains cutting bit 48 in rod 22. FIG. 5 illustrates bearing cap machine 12 in further detail. A drive shaft 54 is rotated by a third motor 56. Controller 28 controls the rotation speed of drive shaft 54 in the manner described above with respect to boring bar 22. A cutting wheel 58 is connected to the end of drive shaft 54. A carbide-tipped cutting bit 60, mounted on cutting wheel 58 at a suitable radius, rotates with shaft 54. A "L"-shaped brace 62 is mounted to base 14 with a pivot pin 64. An adjusting screw 66 extends through a threaded bore below pivot pin 64 and contacts base 14. An operator may thus adjust the pivot angle of brace 62 with respect to base 14 by rotating adjusting screw 66. Brace 62 can be mounted on tracks which permit lateral movement of the brace 62 with respect to the base 14. Alternatively, cap block 72 can be mounted on rails or tracks to permit lateral movement relative to brace 62. A cap mount 68 on the upper surface of brace 62 slides toward and away from cutting wheel 58 along a track or slot 70. Cap mount 68 comprises a cap block 72 and two arms 74, each having a rod 76 extending therefrom toward cutting wheel 58. The distance between arms 74 is adjustable by sliding them apart or toward one another. Pivoting a handle 78 in the direction indicated by the arrow in FIG. 5 draws arms 74 toward cap block 72 and locks arms 74 in position at the selected separation distance. Similarly, the angular orientation of cap mount 68 with respect to a vertical axis 80 can also be adjusted by rotating cap mount 68 to a selected orientation and then pivoting a handle 82 in the direction indicated by the arrow in FIG. 5 to lock cap mount 68 down against the surface of brace 62. FIGS. 6-9 illustrate a method for repairing an overhead cam engine cylinder head using the apparatus described above. As illustrated in FIG. 6, a bearing cap 84 is removed from the base 86 of one of bearing housings or towers 77, 79, 81, 83 and 85 (FIG. 1) by removing two bolts 88. As illustrated in FIG. 7, cap 84 is mounted on cap mount 68 by inserting rods 76 into the bolt holes 90 of cap 84. The separation distance between rods 76 may be adjusted as described above to accommodate the dimensions of cap 84. It is important to assure that the bottom faces of the cap legs 94 are perpendicular to the cutting tool 58. This perpendicular alignment is facilitated by inserting the two rods 76 through bolt holes 90, making sure that the top of the cap is flush against the cap mount 68. A thickness 92 of material is removed from each leg 94 of cap 84 using bearing cap machine 12. In response to commands entered by an operator, controller 28 starts motors 41 and 56. As described above, motor 41 advances drive housing 16. Cutting wheel 58, which is connected to drive housing 16 and is rotated by motor 56 inside drive housing 16, advances with drive housing 16. The rotating cutting bit 60 is thus moved into contact with legs 94 of cap 84 by the forward motion of drive housing 16. Controller 28 stops motors 41 and 56 in response to operator commands when machining of legs 94 is completed. Cap 84 is then removed from cap mount 68 and replaced on base 86 of the bearing tower using bolts 88. All of the bearing caps of the cylinder head are similarly machined in this manner. If lateral movement is provided between brace 62 and base 14 or between cap block 72 and brace 62, the cap 84 can be slowly tracked radially across the cutting wheel 58 to assure the most uniform cut possible. During the cut, the cap 84 can be moved radially outward with respect to the cutting wheel 58, then moved back inward to assure uniformity. Using this technique, it takes approximately 40 seconds to machine one cap. As illustrated in FIG. 8, the resulting bearing 95 is asymmetrical due to the reduced lengths of legs 94 and the arcuate bearing surface inside cap 84. (It should be noted that the figures are not drawn to scale, and the asymmetry is exaggerated for illustrative purposes.) Line boring machine 10 may be used to bore bearing 95 as indicated in dashed line in FIG. 8. The cylinder head, i.e., workpiece 30, is loosely placed on workpiece mounts 18 and 20 of line boring machine 10. To aid aligning supports 24 and 26 with respect to boring bar 22, half-shell inserts 96, 97 shown in FIG. 2, may be inserted in the end bearing tower 85. Insert 96 has an outer diameter equal to that of the bearing and an inner diameter equal to that of boring bar 22. With the half-shell inserts 96, 97 in place the supports 24, 26 are raised or lowered to align the boring bar 22 with respect to the corresponding channels 100, 102 in the inner halves 104, 106 of the pillow blocks which will rotatably retain the boring bar 22 during the machining process. Once aligned, the boring bar 22 is fixed in place by attaching the outer halves 108, 110 of the pillow blocks to the inner halves 104, 106. Providing more detail in FIG. 14, outer half 108 has a pair of bores 112, 113 which are connected to arcuate channels 114, 115. Pegs 116, 117 extend outward, perpendicular to the inside face of the inner half 104, and mate with bores 112, 113. The outer half 108 is rotated around center pin 118 to guide pegs 116, 117 into the channels 114, 115 until it locks into place. The cam configuration, along with needle pressure stops are used for quick attachment and to assure the correct pressure is applied to hold the bar in place while allowing bar 22 to rotate freely. The supports 24, 26 are locked down the workpiece mounts 18 and 20 and the half-shells 96, 97 are removed. The top caps are remounted on each of the bearing towers 77, 79, 81, 83 and 85 and the nuts are torqued to OEM specifications. Inserts 96 are removed from beneath boring bar 22 after it has been aligned and supports 24 and 26 have been secured. The drive motor 41 is connected to the bar 22 by a universal joint 42 which is shown in detail in FIG. 10. Universal joint 42 has ends 142 and 144 which mate with the ends of boring bar 22 and the drive shaft 146 of drive motor 40 respectively. Joint ends 142 and 144 are joined together to center segment 148 by pivot pins 149, 150, 151 and 152 to form a double homokinetic joint. This universal joint 42 permits a quick connection and also compensates concentricity differences of up to several millimeters between the bar 22 or drive motor 41, assuring that the bar 22 is fully centered during machining. The drive motor 40 can be adjusted vertically to further align it with the boring bar 22. The vertical travel is controlled by linear ball bearing slides and linear ball bearing screws for a smooth feed. The carbide cutting bits 48 are adjusted to machine the bearing caps to the OEM-specified diameter by placing the cutting bits 48, one-by-one, into the adjustment mechanism which may be built into the overall line boring system. The adjustment mechanism, shown in FIG. 11, comprises a micrometer 160 which is positioned in a fixed relationship to and above holder 162 in which is placed a cutting bit 48. The holder 162 has a spring 154 which pushes upward against the bottom of bit 48 to bias the top of bit 48 against the contact surface of the micrometer. Locking screw 164 is loosened to allow bit 48 to step within collar 50, so that collar 50 fits within the corresponding recessed area of holder 162. Spring 154 pushes the tip of bit 48 against the micrometer 160 which is adjusted as desired. Locking screw 164 is tightened to set the appropriate cutting depth and the cutting bit 48 is removed from the adjustment mechanism and dropped into any bit location in the boring bar 22. Cutting bits 48 are secured in mounting bores 44 by tightening locking screws 52. In response to commands entered by an operator, controller 28 starts motors 40 and 41. As described above, motor 40 rotates boring bar 22 and motor 41 advances drive housing 16 to feed boring bar 22 at the selected feed rate. In the preferred embodiment, the motor 40 is a d.c. motor with variable speed (˜18-1800 rpm) and constant torque. Drive housing 16 has linear ball bearing slides and linear ball bearing screws to give a smooth feed. The feed may be automatically set in coordination with rotation speed or may be manual. Material is removed as cutting bits 48 contact the bearings. All bearings can thus be bored simultaneously, however, this arrangement also allows the bearings to be bored one at a time. Cutting bits 48 should be adjusted as described above to remove material to a depth that results in a bearing 98 having the diameter specified by the engine manufacturer, as illustrated in FIG. 9. After the bearings have been machined the bearing caps are removed, the boring bar 22 is released from the pillow blocks and lifted away from the cylinder head. The cylinder head is released from the clamps and may be prepared for reassembly. The novel method for repairing overhead cam engine cylinder heads is economical because it avoids the use of repair bearings. Moreover, it eliminates heat dissipation problems and other problems associated with the use of repair bearings. The present invention is also economical because the cutting tool feed for both line boring machine 10 and bearing cap machine 12 is provided by a common drive mechanism and because no intermediate supports are necessary to prevent sagging in boring bar 22. Furthermore, the present invention can be quickly and easily set up because there are no intermediate supports to align. Obviously, other embodiments and modifications of the present invention will occur readily to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of these teachings. Therefore, this invention is to be limited only by the following claims, which include all such other embodiments and modifications when viewed in conjunction with the above specification and accompanying drawings.

A method and machine for repairing overhead cam engine cylinder heads. The method includes the steps of removing the caps from the bases of the bearing towers or housings, removing material from the legs of the caps to reduce their height, replacing the caps on the bases, and boring the resulting bearings to produce bearings of the proper diameter. The machine includes a device for machining a bearing cap and a device for boring the bearings. The device for boring the bearings has a boring bar that is supported only at opposite ends of the cylinder head. The bar does not sag or chatter because it is made of an extremely hard and dense material such as a dense tungsten alloy or a ceramic-coated metal.

This is a division of application Ser. No. 08/815,110, filed Mar. 11, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,853,818, which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a method for manufacturing a multi-domain liquid crystal cell, and more particularly to a method for manufacturing a multi-domain liquid crystal cell in which the liquid crystal director is aligned by irradiating an alignment layer with light. Liquid crystal displays, or LCDs, generally include two transparent substrates with liquid crystal material injected therebetween. The liquid crystal (LC) material typically includes anisotropic molecules, the average direction of the long axes which are referred to as the director of the LC material. The director distribution in bulk LC material is determined by its azimuthal anchoring energy of the LC molecules on the substrates and characterized, in part, by the axes of easy orientation, which correspond to the minimum surface energy of the LC material. Additional parameters determining the director distribution include the pretilt angle between the director and the substrate plane. In order to obtain uniform brightness and high contrast ratio of the LCD, the LC molecules must be appropriately aligned or homogeneously aligned after being injected between the substrates of the display. Alignment of the LC molecules is achieved by providing an alignment layer on the surface of the substrate. Preferably, the alignment layer includes a plurality of directional “domains” or regions having different alignment directions. If a plurality of binary domains, i.e., domains oriented in different directions, are provided on the surface of the alignment layer, a uniform viewing angle can be achieved. Both the value of the director tilt and the direction of this tilt (i.e., direction of the axis of easy orientation) are important for normal operation of LC devices having such binary, as well as multi-domain structures. The alignment layer is typically fabricated by depositing a specially treated polymer on the surfaces of the substrates of the display. In accordance with one conventional technique, homogenous alignment is achieved by subjecting the polymer to a rubbing process to mechanically form alignment microgrooves in the polymer layer. The liquid crystal molecules are thus homogeneously or uniformly aligned due to the intermolecular interaction between the polymer of the alignment layer and the liquid crystal molecules. In the above described rubbing process, however, defects are formed in the microgrooves which cause light scattering and random phase distortion. Moreover, dust and electrostatic discharges are produced in the alignment layer, so that the substrate is damaged and yield is decreased. LC alignment by irradiation of photosensitive polymers with polarized UV light has been proposed as an alternative to rubbing (M. Schadt et al., Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 31 (1992). p. 2155; T. Marusii and Yu. Reznikov et al., Mol., Master., 39, 1993, p. 161). The aligning ability of these photosensitive materials is determined by their anisotropic photo-induced properties. In the present invention, the photoalignment process is applied to create an array of domains where the easy orientation axes can possess two possible orthogonal directions. Materials based on polyvinyl cinnamate, polysiloxane and polyamide are the most common photoaligning materials for LC displays. The directions of the easy axes in the plane of an aligning material were reported to be usually perpendicular to UV light polarized electron. Such alignment techniques have advantages over the conventional rubbing method described above. In particular, electrostatic charges and dust are not produced on the aligning surface, as in the rubbing process. Further, by appropriate exposure of the photosensitive polymer, it is possible to control the direction of the easy orientation axis on the aligning surface and the azimuthal anchoring energy value. Further, the prescribed director distribution in an LC cell can be created. Photoalignment techniques can also be used to generate a plurality of binary domains or a binary multi-domain structure. In one such technique described in W. Gibbon et al. (Nature, 351 (1991), p. 49), a first photosensitive substrate is rubbed unidirectionally, followed by irradiation of the substrate through a mask with polarized light to induce the easy axis perpendicular to the direction of rubbing. When the LC cell is assembled by injecting LC molecules between the first substrate and a second polymer-coated substrate which was rubbed in the same direction as the photosensitive material, the LC molecules are oriented with a 90°-twisted in regions corresponding to the transparent parts of the mask. Instead of a mask, an image formation optical system in the plane of the substrate can be used. The main drawback of this method is the necessity to use rubbing, which leads to the accumulation of dust and electrostatic charge, as well as the formation of distorted microgrooves on the aligning surfaces. In another technique described in P. Shenon et al. (Nature, 368 (1994), p. 532), instead of rubbing the photoaligning surface, the photoalignment layer is exposed with polarized light to impart on an initial background alignment director. This method is free of the drawbacks described above, but has its own disadvantages. Namely, this method requires a double exposure of light with orthogonal polarization that requires rearrangement of the apparatus used to perform the optical exposure. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to provide a simple method for producing binary multi-domain directional alignment in an LC cell, which does not possess the drawbacks of the known methods. It is a further object of the present invention to create binary multi-domain directors in an alignment layer without any rearrangement of the optical scheme. It has been discovered that the initial easy axis of the polymer fused in photoalignment techniques change sharply by 90° when the intensity or dose of incident light exceeds a particular threshold. Thus, in accordance with the present invention a method for controlling the alignment direction is provided, comprising the steps of coating a substrate with an alignment layer of a photosensitive material; irradiating the alignment layer with a first energy dose of light to impart a first alignment direction; irradiating the alignment layer with a second energy dose of light to impart a second alignment direction, the second alignment direction being perpendicular to the first alignment direction. In addition, the method for fabricating a multi-domain LC cell using the substrate made from the above method comprises the steps of providing a first substrate and a second substrate, the first substrate is covered with a first alignment layer and the second substrate is covered with a second alignment layer; irradiating the first and second alignment layers with light to impart different alignment directions depending upon the light energy dose absorbed in each domain; assembling a cell from two substrates where the alignment layers face one another; and injecting LC material between the first and second substrates. Control of the energy dose absorbed in each domain can be achieved by varying the radiation intensity or duration. According to another aspect of the present invention, the photosensitive material for the alignment layer comprises polymers illustrated in FIGS. 1-4. The invention will be set forth in part by the detailed description that follows and, in part, will be made obvious from this description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objectives and advantages of the invention will be realized and attained by means of the actions action and their combinations pointed out in the appended claims. The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate an embodiment of the invention and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows the chemical structure of photoalignment material PSCN- 1 according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 shows the chemical structure of photoalignment material PSCN- 2 according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 shows the chemical structure of photoalignment material PSCN- 3 according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 shows the chemical structure of photoalignment material PSCN- 4 according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 shows a device for controlling alignment direction according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 shows a partial perspective view of FIG. 5 . FIG. 7 shows cross-sectional view illustrating a Two-Domain TN structure invention. FIG. 8 shows a graph illustrating relationship between the photo-energy and alignment direction. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION It has been discovered that, in certain materials, the alignment axis can change depending on the intensity of incident light and/or duration thereof. For example, FIG. 8 illustrates the relationship between the alignment direction (φ) and the energy density of the incident light for a material such as PSCN- 1 . As seen in FIG. 7, φ is approximately zero for energy densities below range W. In range W, however, φ is indeterminate or undefined , and is some unstable angle other than zero, e.g., 90 degrees. Therefore, the direction of the alignment axis can vary in accordance with energy dose of incident light (D=I exp ×t exp ). For example, the direction of the orientation of standard LC molecules in contact with an alignment layer formed with a material, such as PSCN- 1 , can shift by 90° if the energy density of incident light exceeds a predetermined value. Specifically, the irradiation of PSCN- 1 material (shown in FIG. 1) by polarized nonfiltered light emitted by an Hg lamp with intensity I exp =2 mW/cm 2 at wavelength 250 nm, for an expansion time t exp =5 min, results in a dose (D=0.6 J) creating an easy axis e parallel to the direction polarization of the light E exp . In contrast, for exposure time t exp =t thr >10 min (D thr =1.6 J), however the direction [e] becomes perpendicular to E exp . In the intermediate region, no stable alignment is found. Instead of irradiation during t exp , one can change the intensity of light I exp to obtain the same effect. Accordingly, for example, PSCN- 1 material can have a light-induced easy axis e parallel to E exp at t exp =5 min and I exp =2 mW/cm 2 . However, an orthogonal direction can be obtained for the same t exp , i.e., t exp =5 min, but with I exp =4 mW/cm 2 . Moreover, the exposure time needed to change the orthogonal position can be effectively controlled by doping PSCN- 1 with a material causing the PSCN- 1 to be more susceptible to only one easy axis direction. In addition, the exposure intensity is saved by doping PSCN- 1 with 10% by weight of the photoorientant PSCN- 2 , as shown in FIG. 2, herefore, having a stable easy axis perpendicular to E exp can be obtained with half the threshold dose D thr as that noted above. Thus, with an exposure energy density of 1 mW/cm 2 , the above described mixture of PSCN- 1 can be exposed for 5 minutes to impart an alignment direction parallel to the polarization of the incident light, and for 10 minutes to impart an alignment direction perpendicular to the polarization of the incident light. The same effect was observed for other photoalignment direction perpendicular to the polarization of the incident light. The same effect was observed for other photoalignment materials, PSCN- 3 , PSCN- 4 , the chemical structures of which are shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, respectively. In accordance with the present invention, these materials, and other such compounds, can thus be used to control the easy axes direction on an alignment surface by changing the irradiation dose of light to produce a binary multi-domain director orientation in an LC cell. Further, multi-domain LCDs can be readily created with wide viewing angle characteristics while reducing the number of photomasks used in the process, and without rearranging the optical scheme or exposure apparatus during domain fabrication. Moreover, the present invention can be used to manufacture high density optical information storage cells where information is encoded in accordance with the binary direction of the easy axis. FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing a device for controlling an alignment direction according to the present invention. Substrate 60 is covered with photosensitive material 50 preferably having an easy axis direction for the LC molecules which can be shifted depending upon the dose of incident UV light (D). Photosensitive material 50 is irradiating with the UV light from an Hg-lamp 10 transmitted through a lens 20 , polarizer 30 , and photomask 40 positioned close to the substrate 60 . As shown in FIG. 6, Photomask 40 includes first regions having a first transmissivity T 1 , and second regions having a second transparency T 2 . The radiation dose transmitted through the first regions of photomask 40 is preferably smaller than the threshold D thr (a threshold dose of light, above which the alignment direction is perpendicular to E exp ), but is enough to produce a first alignment direction parallel to E exp in corresponding first portions of photosensitive mask 40 having transmissivity T 2 is larger than D thr . As a result, the first portions of layer 50 impart easy axes to the LC molecules parallel to E exp , and the second portions impart easy axes e perpendicular to E exp . In accordance with a further embodiment of the present invention, the first and second portions of photosensitive layer 50 are produced by controlling exposure time to match the conditions required for producing orthogonal easy axes. That is, the substrate can be irradiated twice through a photomask having “dark” and “transparent” regions. In the first step, the entire photosensitive material layer 50 is illuminated without a mask for a time necessary to establish the first alignment direction (E exp ). In the second step, using a mask, only portions of photosensitive layer 50 corresponding to “transparent” regions of the mask are illuminated for a time necessary to shift the first alignment direction to a second alignment direction E exp , which is perpendicular to the first alignment direction. As a result, regions of photosensitive layer 50 not exposed during the second step have the first alignment direction parallel to E exp while portions irradiated during the second step through transparent parts of the mask have the second alignment direction E exp perpendicular to E exp . The method according to the present invention can be used for information storage in an LC well where optical information is recorded as a binary code by producing pixels with LC molecules oriented along orthogonal directions. In accordance with the present invention, a binary domain LCD with wide viewing angle characteristics can be obtained. FIG. 7 illustrates a schematic diagram of two-domain TN (twisted nematic) structure of this invention. Each domain corresponds to an asymmetric viewing angle characteristic, but the total viewing characteristic, which is the sum of the asymmetric viewing angle characteristic of each domain, has a symmetric viewing angle. Thus, the main viewing angle is compensated. The preferred embodiment of the present invention will now be further described in reference to specific examples. It should be understood that these examples are intended to be illustrative only and the present invention is not limited to the conditions and materials noted therein. Various modifications can be achieved within the technical scope of the present invention. For example, as a modification of the proposed method, a scanned light beam can be used instead of the irradiation through a photomask. In which case, the intensity of the beam can be varied in order to deliver an appropriate energy dose to the desired portion of the photosensitive layer. EXAMPLE 1 A solution polymer material PSCN- 1 in a 1:1 mixture of 1,2-dichloroethane an chlorobenzene was prepared. The concentration of the polymer was 10 g/l. A polymer film was then spin-coated onto a substrate with a rotation speed of 2500 rev/min. The substrate coated with the polymer film was prebaked after centrifuging at a temperature of 200° C. for 2 hours. The substrate were then positioned in the set up depicted in FIG. 5 . The Hg-lamp 10 served as a source of the UV-light and the total power of the UV light in the plane of the photomask was 2 mW at 250 nm. A photomask having a binary transparent pattern was provided. Each square pattern of pixels of the mask had an area of 4 mm×4 mm. The illuminated area of the photomask was 2 cm×3 cm. The transparency of the “transparent” region was 85%, while transparency of the “semi-transparent” region was 30%. The substrate was irradiated for 10 minutes. After irradiating and drying the substrates, the LC cell having a gap of 50 micrometers was assembled by a commonly used sandwich technique. The cell was filled with LC material, ZLI 4801-000, at room temperature, and the orientation was measured with a polarized microscope. EXAMPLE 2 The process of the second example is identical to the first[,]. except the photosensitive materials includes 20% PSCN- 2 and 80% PSCN- 1 . The substrates were irradiated for 5 minutes with the same result as in the first example. EXAMPLE 3 The process of the third example is similar to the first, except PSCN- 3 was used as the photosensitive material. The cell was filled at an evaluated temperature of 100° C. and the LC, ZLI4801-000, was injected while in an isotropic phase. The substrates were irradiated for 16 minutes and yielded the same result as in the first example. EXAMPLE 4 The process of the fourth embodiment is the same as the first example[,]. except the cell was filled as an elevated temperature of 100° C. and the LC, ZLI4801-000, was injected in an isotropic phase. The substrates were irradiated for 20 minutes, and the same result was obtained as in the first example. EXAMPLE 5 The substrates were first prepared as in the first example. At first, the entire substrates were irradiated without a photomask for 5 minutes. The substrates were then irradiated through a binary photomask for 10 minutes. The photomask has a pixel pattern having alternating opaque and transparent regions, with each square pixel occupying an area of 4 mm×4 mm, and illuminated area of the photomask was 2 cm×2 cm. The transmissivity of the “transparent” region was 98%, and the transmissivity of the “dark” or opaque region was 1%. The photomask was then removed and the LC cell was assembled and filled with LC, ZLI 4801 000, as described in the first example. EXAMPLE 6 Two substrates were successively coated with a transparent electrode layer and photoalignment material were prepared as in the first example. The substrates were irradiated through a photomask having a checker board pattern of “semi-transparent (T=30%)” and “transparent (T=85%)” square regions, each with an area of 3 mm×3 mm. The substrate was irradiated for 15 minutes. The LC cell with a cell gap of 5 μm was assembled with domain twist structures having appropriate director orientations. The cell was filled at an elevated temperature of 100° C. and the injected LC, ZLI 4801-000, was in an isotropic phase. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made in the method for manufacturing a liquid crystal display of the present invention without departing from the scope or spirit of the invention. Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims.

A method for fabricating a multi-domain liquid crystal cell is disclosed, wherein first and second alignment directions are formed in first and second portions of an alignment layer provided on a substrate by selectively subjecting the first and second portions to different energy doses of linearly polarized ultraviolet light. Liquid crystal material is then injected between the one substrate and another substrate and into contact with the alignment layer, thereby obtaining a wide viewing angle in the liquid crystal device.

RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation-in-part of copending U.S. application Ser. No. 10/366,227, filed on Feb. 13, 2003, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/835,500, filed on Apr. 16, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,553,998, which is a continuation of Ser. No. 09/350,581, filed on Jul. 9, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,345,623, which is a continuation, under 35 U.S.C. §120 of PCT international application number PCT/GB98/02713 filed Sep. 9, 1998 and designating the United States, which claims priority to Great Britain patent application No. 9719520.0 filed Sep. 12, 1997. By this reference, the full disclosure of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/350,581, PCT international application No. PCT/GB98/02713, and Great Britain patent application No. 9719520.0 are incorporated herein as though fully set forth in their respective entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] This invention relates in general to surgical drapes and heads, and more particularly but not by way of limitation, to surgical drapes and heads for wound treatment devices adapted to deliver fluid to a wound and to remove fluid from the wound. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Surgical drapes are widely used in surgical operations for the purpose of reducing infection and facilitating the handling of skin around incisions. Normally, they are transparent or translucent. Typically, they consist of a flexible, plastic film which is adhesive-coated and which is applied to the area of the operation, prior to making the incision. Surgical drapes are also used for attaching treatment devices to patients after an operation, such as catheters or drainage tubes. [0004] A further, recently developed use is for connecting a suction tube to a wound for the purpose of stimulating healing of the wound. Such use is described in our earlier applications Nos. WO 96/05873 and WO 97/18007. [0005] Various proposals have been made in the past to design the surgical drape so that handling of the sticky, flexible, plastic film is facilitated. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,437,622 describes a surgical drape which is a laminate of three materials. The first material comprises a transparent, thin plastic film which is adhesive-coated and the adhesive face protected with a layer of release-coated paper. The other face of the adhesive-coated film is strengthened with a reinforcing layer of a less flexible, plastic film. Handling bars or strips are attached to the flexible, plastic film at its lateral edge to facilitate handling of the flexible, plastic film after stripping away the protective releasable layer. [0006] Where is it is desirable to use a surgical drape primarily to attach a device such as a catheter to a wound area after an operation or for long term treatment, it is inconvenient for the surgeon or nurse to have to adapt a standard surgical drape for this purpose. It would be more convenient to have a surgical drape which was suitable without adaptation to accommodate the treatment device. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0007] One aspect of the present invention is directed to a solution to this problem. A second aspect provides a combined surgical drape and suction head for applying suction to a wound area to facilitate application of negative pressure therapy. [0008] According to one aspect of the present invention there is provided a surgical drape which comprises a thin, flexible, adhesive-coated plastic film and a strengthening layer applied to the face opposite to the adhesive coating, the strengthening layer being a plastic film which is thicker or less flexible than said adhesive-coated film, and a protective, releasable layer applied to the adhesive coating, the drape having an aperture through at least the strengthening and adhesive coated film to permit, in use, access to a wound area, a first edge of the drape having non-adhesive coated handling bars for separating the adhesive-coated film from the protective layer, and wherein the protective layer comprises a separate strip extending parallel to the first edge of the drape, and which protects the adhesive coating in the region of the aperture and carries a flap overlapping the adjacent portion of the protective layer, said flap constituting a handle for facilitating removal of said strip prior to use. Preferably, non-adhesive coated handling bars are positioned at opposite lateral edges of the drape. [0009] In practice, surgical drapes may be manufactured by laminating an adhesive-coated flexible film, such as a polyurethane film, to a protective releasable layer, such as a siliconized paper. A strengthening layer of thicker plastic material, e.g. a polyolefin such a polyethylene, may be applied to the non-adhesive coated face of the flexible film, so that a three-layer laminate is produced. These laminates are produced in substantial width and may be slit longitudinally to the desired width and then laterally to form drapes of the desired size. [0010] After slitting to a desired width, handling bars are normally applied to the adhesive-coated layers at one or both lateral edges to facilitate separation of the film from the protective, releasable layer. While an aperture could be cut at the desired position through the layers to accommodate a catheter or a device such as those described in our above-mentioned applications, it is difficult to handle the highly pliable and adhesive film after the releasable layer has been stripped off. [0011] Although the strengthening layer does somewhat improve the handling characteristics, this is not a complete answer to the problem. However, the handling characteristics are substantially improved by providing a protective layer which is in at least two portions, one of which is in the form of a strip, e.g. one extending parallel to the lateral edges of the drape, and covering the peripheral area around the aperture through the drape. By providing a flap on this portion of the releasable layer, it can be stripped off initially so that the drape is first positioned around the device which is to pass through the aperture, and then the remaining part of the protective releasable layer is stripped off to adhere the drape to the patient's skin around the area to be treated. [0012] In a preferred form of the invention in which negative pressure therapy is applied to a wound area, the surgical drape described above is combined with a suction head having a connector piece which is adapted to be connected to a suction tube. Thus, in this embodiment, the suction head can be adhered to the patient's skin in the area of the wound after removing the strip of protective releasable layer, and then the remaining part of the drape affixed to the patient's skin. In this way, the suction head is held firmly in place and, at the same time, seals the suction head to the wound area and prevents leakage of air from atmosphere into the wound area. [0013] The invention also includes a suction head having a design which facilitates the suction of fluid from a wound area. [0014] According to a further feature of the invention, therefore, a suction head for applying suction to a wound may also be used as a head to instill fluids to a wound from a fluid reservoir similar to an intravenous solution bag. The area of which comprises a generally planar flange portion and a tubular connector piece on a first face, for connecting a fluid reservoir tube to a fluid reservoir through the flange portion to the other face, said other face having projections defining flow channels facilitating flow of fluid towards a wound [0015] According to a further feature of the invention, therefore, there is provided a suction head for applying suction to a wound area which comprises a generally planar flange portion and a tubular connector piece on a first face, for connecting a suction tube to an aperture through the flange portion to the other face, said other face having projections defining flow channels facilitating flow of fluid towards said aperture. [0016] Preferably, the suction head described above is combined with a surgical drape, the drape comprising a thin, flexible, adhesive-coated plastic film, and the tubular connector piece extends through an opening in the plastic film with the adhesive coating adhered to said first face of the flange portion. [0017] Preferably, the suction head is used in conjunction with an open-celled foam pad so that one surface of the foam pad is placed in contact with a wound area and the suction head applied to the other surface of the foam pad. In the case of deep wounds the foam may be shaped and placed so that it is packed into the wound cavity as described in our above-cited PCT applications. According to another technique, which is particularly applicable to superficial wounds, the foam pad may be a relatively thin pad which is placed over the wound. The suction head is placed in contact with the open face of the foam pad and the drape applied over the suction head to fix the assembly to the patient's skin. [0018] Various types of open celled foams can be used as described in our above-cited PCT applications. The foam may be a polyurethane foam but polyvinyl acetate (PVA) foams are preferred, especially when used as a pad which placed over the wound. These are to some extent hydrophilic, which seems to exhibit beneficial comfort properties when applied to the skin. Wound healing is stimulated by maintenance of moist conditions in the wound area, and this is facilitated by using a hydrophilic foam. [0019] Finally, many other features, objects and advantages of the present invention will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the relevant arts, especially in light of the foregoing discussions and the following drawings, exemplary detailed description and appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0020] Although the scope of the present invention is much broader than any particular embodiment, a detailed description of the preferred embodiment follows together with illustrative figures, wherein like reference numerals refer to like components, and wherein: [0021] FIG. 1 represents a conventional design of surgical drape; [0022] FIG. 2 represents a variation in the design of the handling bars at one end of the drape shown in FIG. 1 ; [0023] FIG. 3 is a view similar to FIG. 1 of a surgical drape in accordance with the invention; [0024] FIG. 4 is a plan view of the surgical drape shown in FIG. 3 ; [0025] FIG. 5 is a plan view from beneath of a suction head in accordance with the invention; [0026] FIG. 6 is a side elevation of the suction head shown in FIG. 5 ; [0027] FIG. 7 is a view similar to FIG. 6 but shows the suction head secured to a skin surface with the drape and with a foam pad located between the head and the skin surface; [0028] FIG. 8 is a perspective view of the drape with a central strip portion of the protective sheet in the course of being removed; and [0029] FIGS. 9 a through 9 c illustrate the steps of affixing the dressing assembly to a wound area on a patient's leg and attachment to a negative pressure assembly. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0030] Although those of ordinary skill in the art will readily recognize many alternative embodiments, especially in light of the illustrations provided herein, this detailed description is exemplary of the preferred embodiment of the present invention, the scope of which is limited only by the claims appended hereto. [0031] Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2 of the accompanying drawings, a conventional laminate for use as a surgical drape comprises a thin, flexible, transparent film 1 which is adhesive-coated on one face 2 , normally with a high-tack pressure-sensitive adhesive, and is protected with a releasable layer 3 . The thin plastic film is conveniently of polyurethane because is transmits moisture. Layer 3 is normally considerably thicker than film 1 and is coated on the surface adjacent to the adhesive with a releasable material such as a silicone to facilitate stripping away from the adhesive-coated film. [0032] In order to facilitate removal of the adhesive-coated film prior to use of the device, handling bars 4 are bonded at each end to the adhesive-coated film 1 . Thus, by holding one of the bars 4 , the protective layer 3 can be stripped off and the adhesive face applied to the skin of the patient. To facilitate handling of the thin, flexible film 1 , a strengthening plastic film 5 is frequently applied to the free face of the plastic film 1 . This is generally also transparent or translucent. Film 5 is preferably not bonded with adhesive to film 1 , but may remain in contact by reason of electrostatic forces or because of close contact between the two conforming surfaces of film 1 and film 5 . [0033] Usually, the surgeon or nurse will wish to strip off the protective layer 5 after the film 1 has been correctly placed on the patient's skin, and this can be facilitated by making partial cuts 6 through the film 1 and 5 , so that as the handling bar 4 is drawn upwards from the patient's skin, the adhesive film 1 remains adhered to the patient, while the patient, while the partial cuts 6 cause separation of the flexible film from the strengthening film 5 . Strengthening bars 7 may be provided to hold the lateral edges of the strengthening film 5 and film 1 together with their main parts. [0034] An alternative arrangement is shown in FIG. 2 , in which the strengthening film 5 is provided with a separate overlapping handling bar 14 , to facilitate its removal from the flexible film 1 . [0035] Further details of the make-up and manufacture of surgical drapes are given in U.S. Pat. No. 5,437,622 and European patent application No. 0161865 and the prior art referred to therein, by this reference, the full disclosure of U.S. Pat. No. 5,437,622 and European patent application No. 0161865 are incorporated herein as though each now set forth in its respective entirety. [0036] Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4 , the surgical drape of the present invention comprises a protective outer film 20 , laminated to a thin, flexible film 21 . The flexible film includes an adhesive-coated layer which is protected with a release-coated sheet material 24 . Lateral edges of the flexible film 21 are provided with handling bars 23 . Thus far, the design is essentially the same as that shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 . [0037] The drape of the present invention differs from the drape shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 in that an aperture 25 is but through the strengthening layer 20 and through the flexible layer 21 . The other difference compared with the prior art drapes is that the protective releasable layer is formed in at least two sections. [0038] In the embodiments shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 , the central portion of the releasable layer comprises a strip 26 , having flaps 27 which overlap the remaining outboard portions of the releasable layer. The purpose of this is to enable the central strip 26 to be removed first, without disturbing the remaining portions of the releasable layer. The drape can then be fitted around the wound area and, if desired, a suction device or other treatment device passed through the aperture 25 and secured to the patient's skin with the peripheral areas of exposed adhesive coated film. [0039] An example of a device for applying suction to the wound area is illustrated in FIGS. 5, 6 , and 7 . [0040] Referring to these figures, the suction head comprises a flange portion 30 having a tapered edge 31 , and a profile which may be of any desired shape but is generally rounded at its edges. On the face of the flange 30 intended for contact with the patient's skin or a foam pad are formed a series of projections 32 which are distributed over the surface of the flange apart from the peripheral edge portion 31 . The purpose of these projections is to provide fluid channels 33 facilitating the flow of fluids from any point of the flange to a central point 34 , from which it is intended to apply suction. The suction head includes a connector 35 , located above the aperture 34 , having a tubular end 36 adapted for receiving and connecting a catheter. The tubular end may have an outwardly tapered portion to facilitate feeding a catheter into the connector. The upper surface 37 of the suction head has a substantially smooth surface. [0041] When used as a fluid instillation apparatus (e.g., when adapted to deliver fluid to a wound), and referring to these same figures, the suction head or head comprises a flange portion 30 having a tapered edge 31 , and a profile which may be of any desired shape but is generally rounded at its edges. On the face of the flange 30 intended for contact with the patient's skin, or a foam pad, are formed a series of projections 32 which are distributed over the surface of the flange apart from the peripheral edge portion 31 . The purpose of these projections in this embodiment is to provide fluid channels 33 facilitating the flow of fluids from a reservoir through a central point 34 , from which it is intended to be dispersed into or onto a wound. The head includes a connector 35 , located above the aperture 34 , having a tubular end 36 adapted for receiving and connecting a fluid reservoir tubing set. The tubular and may have an outwardly tapered portion to facilitate feeding a catheter into the connector. The upper surface 37 of the head has a substantially smooth surface. [0042] The suction head may be adapted to both deliver fluid into or onto a wound, and to remove fluid from the wound in certain embodiments. In addition, the fluid may be medicated or otherwise treated to enable a more efficient healing process. [0043] In use, the connector portion 35 is sized so that it extends through the aperture 25 in the surgical drape shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 , with the adhesive surface around the aperture bonded to the smooth surface 37 of the flange 30 . The suction head may be packaged in this condition with the surgical drape so that in use, the strip 26 is removed by pulling on the handles 27 thus exposing the adhesive surface in the vicinity of and surrounding the suction head. The suction head can then be fixed in the desired position on the patient's wound and then the remaining portion of the protective film removed to fix the drape to the patient. The flange 30 of the suction head may be somewhat oval as shown in FIG. 5 , and have dimensions as indicated in this Figure, i.e. a longer dimension of about 95 mm and short dimension of about 70 mm. Alternatively, the flange may be circular and be smaller in plan view. For example, the diameter of a circular suction head may be from about 30 to 50 mm in diameter, e.g. about 40 mm. It has been found that the suction head flange should not overlap the area of the wound. Thus, in the case of smaller wounds a smaller head is indicated. [0044] FIG. 7 shows the suction head attached to a wound area 71 of a patient 70 . The suction head is pressed into firm contact with a flexible, open-celled foam 73 , which is itself pressed into contact with a wound area 71 . The suction head and foam pad are pressed into contact with the wound area by a surgical drape 20 having an adhesive surface 74 . The adhesive surface is bonded to the patient's skin outside the periphery of the foam pad and suction head. It is also bonded to upper surface 37 of the suction head. An aperture is formed in the drape to permit the connector portion 35 to extend upwardly through the drape. In order to avert the danger of incorrect catheter tubes being fitted to the connector 35 , the latter may have a customized cross-section or internal projection such as a rib or key which cooperates with a corresponding slot, or key way in the catheter. Alternatively, the catheter may be molded with a projection or longitudinal rib which operates with a corresponding slot or key way in the aperture of the connector 35 . [0045] The foam pad may be packaged in a plastic pouch, sterilized by gamma irradiation and supplied in the same box or in other packing units as the suction head and drape. [0046] FIGS. 8, 9 a , and 9 b illustrate the way in which the drape-suction head combination is fitted to a wound on the patient's skin. In FIG. 8 , a backing sheet 101 having a release coated surface is removed in the first step from the adhesive face 102 of the drape to expose the face of connector 30 . A pad 103 of foam is positioned over the wound area and the drape placed over the foam pad, the drape being adhered to the skin above and below the pad ( FIG. 9 a ). The lateral protective strips 104 and 105 are removed in turn from the drape and the assembly adhered to the skin ( FIGS. 9 b and 9 c ). Finally, spout 36 is connected to a tube 106 which is then connected to a source of suction, e.g. a pump as described in our above PCT application, in order to apply negative pressure to the wound. The suction head and drape assembly as shown in FIG. 8 , with the smooth surface 37 adhered to the drape, is conveniently packaged in an easily openable plastic bag or pouch, and sterilized for immediate use. [0047] While the foregoing description is exemplary of the preferred embodiment of the present invention, those of ordinary skill in the relevant arts will recognize the many variations, alterations, modifications, substitutions and the like as are readily possible, especially in light of this description, the accompanying drawings and claims drawn thereto. In any case, because the scope of the present invention is much broader than any particular embodiment, the foregoing detailed description should not be construed as a limitation of the scope of the present invention, which limited only by the claims appended hereto.

A wound therapy device comprising a head and a surgical drape. The head comprises a planar flange portion and a tubular connector piece on a first face that communicates with an aperture extending to a second face. The second face is formed with projections that define flow channels for facilitating flow of liquids to and from the aperture. The device may provide medicated fluid to the wound evenly while withdrawing wound exudates

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application is a divisional of U.S. non-provisional application Ser. No. 09/820,137, filed Mar. 28, 2001, now allowed, which claims priority from U.S. provisional application No. 60/193,772, filed Mar. 31, 2000. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to a process for preparing substituted pyridines which are intermediates in the synthesis of β-adrenergic receptor agonists useful as hypoglycemic and antiobesity agents, increasing lean meat deposition and/or improving the lean meat to fat ratio in edible animals. The β-adrenergic receptor agonists further possess utility in the treatment of intestinal motility disease disorders, depression, prostate disease, dyslipidemia and airway inflammatory disorders such as asthma and obstructive lung disease. [0003] The disease diabetes mellitus is characterized by metabolic defects in production and/or utilization of carbohydrates which result in the failure to maintain appropriate blood sugar levels. The result of these defects is elevated blood glucose or hyperglycemia. Research in the treatment of diabetes has centered on attempts to normalize fasting and postprandial blood glucose levels. Current treatments include administration of exogenous insulin, oral administration of drugs and dietary therapies. [0004] Two major forms of diabetes mellitus are recognized. Type I diabetes, or insulin-dependent diabetes, is the result of an absolute deficiency of insulin, the hormone which regulates carbohydrate utilization. Type II diabetes, or non-insulin dependent diabetes, often occurs with normal, or even elevated levels of insulin and appears to be the result of the inability of tissues to respond appropriately to insulin. Most of the Type II diabetics are also obese. [0005] The β-adrenergic receptor agonists effectively lower blood glucose levels when administered orally to mammals with hyperglycemia or diabetes. [0006] The β-adrenergic receptor agonists also reduce body weight or decrease weight gain when administered to mammals. The ability of a-adrenergic receptor agonists to affect weight gain is due to activation of R-adrenergic receptors which stimulate the metabolism of adipose tissue. [0007] β-Adrenergic receptors have been categorized into β 1 -, β 2 - and β 3 -subtypes. Agonists of β-receptors promote the activation of adenyl cyclase. Activation of β 1 -receptors invokes increases in heart rate while activation of β 2 -receptors induces relaxation of skeletal muscle tissue which produces a drop in blood pressure and the onset of smooth muscle tremors. Activation of β 3 -receptors is known to stimulate lipolysis (the breakdown of adipose tissue triglycerides to glycerol and free fatty acids) and metabolic rate (energy expenditure), and thereby promote the loss of fat mass. Compounds that stimulate β-receptors are, therefore, useful as anti-obesity agents, and can also be used to increase the content of lean meat in edible animals. In addition, compounds which are β 3 -receptor agonists have hypoglycemic and/or anti-diabetic activity, but the mechanism of this effect is unknown. [0008] Until recently β 3 -adrenergic receptors were thought to be found predominantly in adipose tissue. β 3 -Receptors are now known to be located in such diverse tissues as the intestine ( J. Clin. Invest., 91, 344 (1993)) and the brain ( Eur. J. Pharm., 219,193 (1992)). Stimulation of β 3 -receptors have been demonstrated to cause relaxation of smooth muscle in colon, trachea and bronchi. Life Sciences, 44(19), 1411 (1989); Br. J. Pharm., 112, 55 (1994); Br J. Pharmacol, 110, 1311 (1993). For example, stimulation of β 3 -receptors has been found to induce relaxation of histamine-contracted guinea pig ileum, J. Pharm. Exp. Ther., 260, 1, 192 (1992). [0009] The β 3 -receptor is also expressed in human prostate. Because stimulation of β 3 -receptors cause relaxation of smooth muscles that have been shown to express the ⊖ 3 -receptor (e.g. intestine), one skilled in the art would predict relaxation of prostate smooth muscle. Therefore, β 3 -agonists will be useful for the treatment or prevention of prostate disease. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] The present invention relates to a process for preparing a compound of the formula [0011] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0012] R 1 is hydrogen or halo; [0013] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 or NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0014] R 3 is tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydropyranyl or a silyl protecting group; [0015] X is halo, methanesulfonyloxy, benzenesulfonyloxy, p-toluenesulfonyloxy, m-nitrobenzenesulfonyloxy or p-nitrobenzenexulfonyloxy; [0016] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0017] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above; [0018] comprising reacting a compound of the formula [0019] wherein n, R 1 , R 2 and X are as defined above, with a silyating agent in the presence of a base. [0020] The term “alkyl”, as used herein, as well as the alkyl moieties of other groups referred to herein (e.g., alkoxy), may be linear or branched, and they may also be cyclic (e.g., cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl or cycloheptyl) or be linear or branched and contain cyclic moieties. Unless otherwise indicated, halogen includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. [0021] The term “halo”, as used herein, unless otherwise indicated, includes fluoro, chloro, bromo or iodo. [0022] (C 2 -C 9 )Heterocycloalkyl when used herein includes, but is not limited to, pyrrolidinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydropyranyl, pyranyl, thiopyranyl, aziridinyl, oxiranyl, methylenedioxyl, chromenyl, barbituryl, isoxazolidinyl, 1,3-oxazolidin-3-yl, isothiazolidinyl, 1,3-thiazolidin-3-yl, 1,2-pyrazolidin-2-yl, 1,3-pyrazolidin-1-yl, piperidinyl, thiomorpholinyl, 1,2-tetrahydrothiazin-2-yl, 1,3-tetrahydrothiazin-3-yl, tetrahydrothiadiazinyl, morpholinyl, 1,2-tetrahydrodiazin-2-yl, 1,3-tetrahydrodiazin-1-yl, tetrahydroazepinyl, piperazinyl, chromanyl, etc. [0023] (C 2 -C 9 )Heteroaryl when used herein includes, but is not limited to, furyl, thienyl, thiazolyl, pyrazolyl, isothiazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, pyrrolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, imidazolyl, 1,3,5-oxadiazolyl, 1,2,4-oxadiazolyl, 1,2,3-oxadiazolyl, 1,3,5-thiadiazolyl, 1,2,3-thiadiazolyl, 1,2,4-thiadiazolyl, pyridyl, pyrimidyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl, 1,2,4-triazinyl, 1,2,3-triazinyl, 1,3,5-triazinyl, pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridinyl, cinnolinyl, pteridinyl, purinyl, 6,7-dihydro-5H-[1]pyrindinyl, benzo[b]thiophenyl, 5,6, 7,8-tetrahydro-quinolin-3-yl, benzoxazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzimidazolyl, thianaphthenyl, isothianaphthenyl, benzofuranyl, isobenzofuranyl, isoindolyl, indolyl, indolizinyl, indazolyl, isoquinolyl, quinolyl, phthalazinyl, quinoxalinyl, quinazolinyl, benzoxazinyl, etc. [0024] The term “silyl protecting group”, when used herein includes, but is not limited to, trimethylsilyl, triethylsilyl, triisopropylsilyl, dimethylisopropylsilyl, diethylisopropylsilyl, dimethylthexylsilyl, t-butyldimethylsilyl, t-butyldiphenylsilyl, tribenzylsilyl, tri-p-xylylsilyl, triphenylsilyl, diphenylmethylsilyl, and t-butylmethoxyphenylsilyl. [0025] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the silyating agent is tert-butyldimethylsilyl chloride, triethylchlorosilane, triisopropylchlorosilane or diphenylmethylchlorosilane. [0026] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the base is triethylamine, N,N-diisopropylethylamine, imidazole, pyridine, 2,6-lutidine or N-methylmorpholine. [0027] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the compound of the formula [0028] is formed by reacting a compound of the formula [0029] wherein n, R 1 and R 2 are as defined above, with a sulfonyl chloride in the presence of a base, and in the case wherein X is halo, by further treatment with a metal halide. [0030] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the sulfonyl chloride is p-toluenesulfonyl chloride, methanesulfonyl chloride, m-nitrobenzenesulfonyl chloride, p-nitrobenzenesulfonyl chloride or benezenesulfonyl chloride. [0031] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the base is triethylamine, diisopropylethylamine, pyridine, 2,4,6-collidine or 2,6-lutidine. [0032] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the metal halide is lithium chloride. [0033] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the compound of the formula [0034] is formed by reacting a compound of the formula [0035] wherein n, R 1 and R 2 are as defined above, with a dihydroxylating agent, with or without a co-oxidant and/or a coordinating ligand. [0036] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the dihydroxylating agent is osmium tetroxide or potassium permanganate. [0037] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the co-oxidant is potassium ferricyanide, hydrogen peroxide, tert-butyl hydroperoxide or N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide. [0038] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the coordinating ligand is hydroquinidine 1,4-phthalazinediyl diether or hydroquinine 1,4-phthalazinediyl diether. [0039] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the compound of the formula [0040] is formed by reacting a compound of formula V [0041] wherein n, R 1 and R 2 are as defined above, with a methylating reagent. [0042] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the methylating reagant is prepared from methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide and potassium tert-butoxide. [0043] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the compound of the formula [0044] is formed by reducing a compound of the formula [0045] wherein n, R 1 and R 2 are as defined above, with a reducing agent followed by hydrolysis with an acid or base. [0046] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the reducing agent is diisobutylaluminum hydride. [0047] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the acid is sulfuric acid. [0048] The present invention relates to a process for preparing a compound of the formula [0049] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0050] R 1 is hydrogen or halo; [0051] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 and NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0052] R 3 is tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydropyranyl or a silyl protetcting group; [0053] X is halo, methanesulfonyloxy, benzenesulfonyloxy, p-toluenesulfonyloxy, m-nitrobenzenesulfonyloxy or p-nitrobenzenexulfonyloxy; [0054] R 4 and R 5 are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy,(C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0055] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above; and [0056] comprising (a) reacting a compound of the formula [0057] wherein n, R 1 and R 2 as defined above, with a reducing agent followed by hydrolsis with an acid or base; [0058] (b) reacting the intermediate of formula XIII so formed [0059] wherein n, R 1 and R 2 are as defined above, with a methylating agent to form a vinylpyridine compound of the formula [0060] (c) reacting the vinylpyridine compound so formed in step (b) with a dihydroxylating agent, with or without a co-oxidant and/or a coordinating ligand to form a compound of the formula [0061] wherein n, R 1 and R 2 are as defined above; [0062] (d) reacting the compound of formula XI so formed with a sulfonyl chloride in the presence of a base to form a compound of the formula X [0063] wherein n, R 1 , R 2 and X are as defined above; and [0064] (e) reacting the compound of formula X so formed with silyating agent in the presence of a base. [0065] The present invention relates to a process for preparing a compound of the formula [0066] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0067] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 or NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0068] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 1 ,)alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0069] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above; [0070] R 6 is COR 7 or CO 2 R 7 wherein R 7 is (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl; and [0071] Y is [0072] wherein: [0073] Q 1 is oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur; [0074] Q 2 is carbon or nitrogen; [0075] Q 3 is hydrogen, —(CH 2 ) q -phenyl, —(C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 —(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 , or a heterocycle selected from the group consisting of —(CH 2 ) q -pyridyl, —(CH 2 ) q -pyrimidyl, —(CH 2 ) q -pyraziqyl, —(CH 2 ) q -isoxazolyl, (CH 2 ) q -oxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -thiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -(1,2,4-oxadiazolyl), —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl; [0076] wherein one of the ring nitrogen atoms of said —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl may optionally be substituted by (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0077] wherein each of said heterocycles may optionally be substituted on one or more of the ring carbon atoms by one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, nitro, cyano, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO—NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 —(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl and —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; [0078] wherein the phenyl moiety of said —(CH 2 ) q -phenyl may optionally be substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, hydroxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, (C 1 -C 6 )alkylthio, fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, cyano, nitro, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; —(CH 2 ) q —NG 3 _SO 2 -G 3 and —(CH 2 ) q —NG 3 —SO 2 —NG 1 G 2 ; Q 4 is —(CH 2 ) q —CN, —(CH 2 ) q CO 2 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 -(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q SO 2 NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q CH 2 OH, (CH 2 ) q CHO, (CH 2 ) q CO-G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —CONG 1 G 2 , or a heterocycle selected from —(CH 2 ) q -thiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -oxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -1,2,4-oxadiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -isoxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -pyrazolyl; [0079] wherein one of the ring nitrogen atoms of said —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl may optionally be substituted by (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0080] wherein each of said heterocycles may optionally be substituted on one or more of the ring carbon atoms by one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , halo, nitro, cyano, —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 3 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 —(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, or —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; [0081] Q 5 is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0082] Q 6 is a covalent bond, oxygen or sulfur; [0083] Q 7 is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0084] Q 8 and Q 9 are independently a covalent bond, oxygen, sulfur, NH or N-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0085] Q 10 is nitro, amino, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (CH 2 ) p OR 11 , (CH 2 ) q CO 2 H, (CH 2 ) q COR 13 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , (CH 2 ) q N R 11 SO 2 R 10 , (CH 2 ) q P(O)(OR 8 )(OR 9 ), (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p CO 2 H, (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p COR 13 , (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p P(O)(OR 8 )(OR 9 ), (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , or (CH 2 ) q O(CH 2 ) p —NR 11 SO 2 R 10 ; [0086] R 8 and R 9 are each independently hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and [0087] wherein G 1 and G 2 for each occurrence are each independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo, (C 1 -C 8 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl or (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or G 1 and G 2 together with the nitrogen to which they are attached form a saturated heterocyclic ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms wherein one of said carbon atoms may optionally be replaced by oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur; [0088] G 3 for each occurrence is independently hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0089] R 10 for each occurrence is independently (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0090] R 11 and R 12 are taken separately and, for each occurrence, are independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, or R 11 and R 12 are taken together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached and form a pyrrolidine, piperidine or morpholine ring wherein said pyrrolidine, piperidine or morpholine may optionally be substituted at any carbon atom by (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl or (C 1 -C 4 )alkoxy; [0091] R 13 for each occurrence is independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, NR 11 R 12 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl wherein R 11 and R 12 are as defined above; [0092] R 14 and R 15 are each independently hydrogen, halo, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, nitro, cyano, trifluoromethyl, SO 2 R 10 , SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , NR 11 R 12 , COR 13 , CO 2 R 11 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, NR 11 SO 2 R 10 , NR 11 COR 13 , NR 11 CO 2 R 11 or OR 11 ; [0093] p for each occurrence is independently an integer of 1 to 6; and [0094] q for each occurrence is independently 0 or an integer of 1 to 6; [0095] with the proviso that when Q 9 is O or S then n is not 0; [0096] with the proviso that when Q 1 is oxygen or sulfur then Q 3 is absent; and [0097] with the proviso that when Q 2 is nitrogen then Q 5 is absent; [0098] comprising reacting a compound of the formula [0099] wherein n, R 2 , R 6 and Y are as defined above; and R 3 is tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydropyranyl or a silyl protetcting group; with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride. [0100] The present invention further relates to a process wherein a compound of the formula [0101] wherein n, R 2 , R 3 , R 6 and Y are as defined above, is formed by treating a compound of the formula [0102] wherein R 1 is halo and wherein n, R 2 , R 3 , R 6 and Y are as defined above, with ammonium formate in the presence of palladium on carbon. [0103] The present invention further relates to a process wherein a compound of the formula [0104] is formed by reacting a compound of the formula [0105] wherein R 1 is hydrogen or halo and wherein n, R 2 , R 3 and Y are as defined above with an organic acid anhydride, a dicarbonate or an organic acid chloride. [0106] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the dicarbonate is di-tert-butyl dicarbonate [0107] The present invention further relates to a process wherein a compound of the formula [0108] is formed by reacting the compound [0109] wherein n, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and X are as defined above, with an amine of the formula H 2 NY, wherein Y is as defined above, in the presence of N,N-diisopropylethylamine. [0110] The present invention relates to a process for preparing a compound of the formula [0111] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0112] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 and NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0113] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0114] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above; [0115] R 6 is COR 7 or CO 2 R 7 wherein R 7 is (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl; and [0116] Y is [0117] wherein: [0118] Q 1 is oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur; [0119] Q 2 is carbon or nitrogen; [0120] Q 3 is hydrogen, —(CH 2 ) q -phenyl, —(C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q CO—NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 —(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 , or a heterocycle selected from the group consisting of —(CH 2 ) q -pyridyl, —(CH 2 ) q -pyrimidyl, —(CH 2 ) q -pyraziqyl, —(CH 2 ) q -isoxazolyl, (CH 2 ) q oxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -thiazolyl, (CH 2 ) q (1,2,4-oxadiazolyl), —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl; [0121] wherein one of the ring nitrogen atoms of said —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl may optionally be substituted by (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0122] wherein each of said heterocycles may optionally be substituted on one or more of the ring carbon atoms by one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, nitro, cyano, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q OG 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 -(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl and —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; [0123] wherein the phenyl moiety of said —(CH 2 ) q -phenyl may optionally be substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, hydroxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, (C 1 -C 6 )alkylthio, fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, cyano, nitro, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q CO 2 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q CO-NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 3 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; —(CH 2 ) q —NG 3 , —SO 2 -G 3 and —(CH 2 ) q —NG 3 _SO 2 —NG 1 G 2 ; Q 4 is —(CH 2 ) q —CN, —(CH 2 ) q CO 2 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 -(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q CH 2 OH, —(CH 2 ) q —(CHO, —(CH 2 ) q —CO-G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —CONG 1 G 2 , or a heterocycle selected from —(CH 2 ) q -thiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -oxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -1,2,4-oxadiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -isoxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -pyrazolyl; [0124] wherein one of the ring nitrogen atoms of said —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl may optionally be substituted by (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0125] wherein each of said heterocycles may optionally be substituted on one or more of the ring carbon atoms by one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , halo, nitro, cyano, —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 3 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, or —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; [0126] Q 5 is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0127] Q 6 is a covalent bond, oxygen or sulfur; [0128] Q 7 is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0129] Q 8 and Q 9 are independently a covalent bond, oxygen, sulfur, NH or N-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0130] Q 10 is nitro, amino, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (CH 2 ) p OR 11 , (CH 2 ) q CO 2 H, (CH 2 ) q COR 13 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , (CH 2 ) q NR 11 SO 2 R 10 , (CH 2 ) q P(O)(OR 8 )(OR 9 ), (CH 2 ) q O(CH 2 ) p CO 2 H, (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p COR 13 , (CH 2 ) q —(CH 2 ) p P(O)(OR 8 )(OR 9 ), (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , or (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p —NR 11 SO 2 R 10 ; [0131] R 8 and R 9 are each independently hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and [0132] wherein G 1 and G 2 for each occurrence are each independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo, (C 1 -C 8 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl or (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or G 1 and G 2 together with the nitrogen to which they are attached form a saturated heterocyclic ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms wherein one of said carbon atoms may optionally be replaced by oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur; [0133] G 3 for each occurrence is independently hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0134] R 10 for each occurrence is independently (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0135] R 11 and R 12 are taken separately and, for each occurrence, are independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, or R 11 and R 12 are taken together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached and form a pyrrolidine, piperidine or morpholine ring wherein said pyrrolidine, piperidine or morpholine may optionally be substituted at any carbon atom by (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl or (C 1 -C 4 )alkoxy; [0136] R 13 for each occurrence is independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, NR 1 R 12 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl wherein R 11 and R 12 are as defined above; [0137] R 14 and R 15 are each independently hydrogen, halo, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, nitro, cyano, trifluoromethyl, SO 2 R 10 , SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , NR 11 R 12 , COR 13 , CO 2 R 11 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, NR 11 SO 2 R 10 , NR 11 COR 13 , NR 11 CO 2 R 11 or OR 11 ; [0138] p for each occurrence is independently an integer of 1 to 6; and [0139] q for each occurrence is independently 0 or an integer of 1 to 6; [0140] with the proviso that when Q 9 is O or S then n is not 0; [0141] with the proviso that when Q 1 is oxygen or sulfur then Q 3 is absent; and [0142] with the proviso that when Q 2 is nitrogen then Q 5 is absent; [0143] comprising (a) reacting a compound of the formula [0144] wherein R 1 is hydrogen or halo, and n, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and X are as defined above, with an amine of the formula H 2 NY, wherein Y is as defined above in the presence of N,N-diisopropylethylamine; [0145] (b) reacting the compound of formula IV so formed [0146] wherein R 1 is hydrogen or halo and wherein n, R 2 , R 3 and Y are as defined above with an organic acid anhydride, a dicarbonate or an organic acid chloride, to form a compound of the formula [0147] (c) treating the compound of formula III, wherein R 1 is halo, so formed in step (b) with ammonium formate in the presence of palladium-on-carbon to form the compound of the formula [0148] wherein n, R 2 , R 3 , R 6 and Y are as defined above, and [0149] (d) treating the compound of formula II so formed with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride. [0150] The present invention relates to a process for preparing a compound of the formula [0151] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0152] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 and NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0153] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0154] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above; [0155] R 6 is COR 7 or CO 2 R 7 wherein R 7 is (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl; and [0156] Y is [0157] wherein: [0158] Q 1 is oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur; [0159] Q 2 is carbon or nitrogen; [0160] Q 3 is hydrogen, —(CH 2 ) q -phenyl, —(C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q CO—NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 -(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 , or a heterocycle selected from the group consisting of —(CH 2 ) q -pyridyl, —(CH 2 ) q -pyrimidyl, —(CH 2 ) q -pyraziqyl, —(CH 2 ) q -isoxazolyl, (CH 2 ) q oxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -thiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -(1,2,4-oxadiazolyl), —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl; [0161] wherein one of the ring nitrogen atoms of said —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl may optionally be substituted by (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0162] wherein each of said heterocycles may optionally be substituted on one or more of the ring carbon atoms by one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, nitro, cyano, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 —(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl and —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; [0163] wherein the phenyl moiety of said —(CH 2 ) q -phenyl may optionally be substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, hydroxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, (C 1 -C 6 )alkylthio, fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, cyano, nitro, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q SO 2 (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; —(CH 2 ) q —NG 3 _SO 2 —G 3 and —(CH 2 ) q —NG 3 _SO 2 —NG 1 G 2 ; Q 4 is (CH 2 ) q —CN, —(CH 2 ) q CO 2 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q —SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 —(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q SO 2 NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q CH 2 OH, (CH 2 ) q CHO, (CH 2 ) q CO-G 3 , (CH 2 ) q CONG 1 G 2 , or a heterocycle selected from —(CH 2 ) q -thiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -oxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -1,2,4-oxadiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -isoxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -pyrazolyl; [0164] wherein one of the ring nitrogen atoms of said —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl may optionally be substituted by (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0165] wherein each of said heterocycles may optionally be substituted on-one or more of the ring carbon atoms by one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , halo, nitro, cyano, —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 3 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, or —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; [0166] Q 5 is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0167] Q 6 is a covalent bond, oxygen or sulfur; [0168] Q 7 is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0169] Q 8 and Q 9 are independently a covalent bond, oxygen, sulfur, NH or N-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0170] Q 10 is nitro, amino, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (CH 2 ) p OR 11 , (CH 2 ) q CO 2 H, (CH 2 ) q COR 13 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , (CH 2 ) q NR 11 SO 2 R 10 , (CH 2 ) q P(O)(OR 8 )(OR 9 ), (CH 2 ) q O(CH 2 ) p CO 2 H, (CH 2 ) q O(CH 2 ) p COR 13 , (CH 2 ) q —(CH 2 ) p P(O)(OR 8 )(OR 9 ), (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , or (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p —NR 11 SO 2 R 10 ; [0171] R 8 and R 9 are each independently hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and [0172] wherein G 1 and G 2 for each occurrence are each independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo, (C 1 -C 8 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl or (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or G 1 and G 2 together with the nitrogen to which they are attached form a saturated heterocyclic ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms wherein one of said carbon atoms may optionally be replaced by oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur; [0173] G 3 for each occurrence is independently hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0174] R 10 for each occurrence is independently (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0175] R 11 and R 12 are taken separately and, for each occurrence, are independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, or [0176] R 11 and R 12 are taken together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached and form a pyrrolidine, piperidine or morpholine ring wherein said pyrrolidine, piperidine or morpholine may optionally be substituted at any carbon atom by (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl or (C 1 -C 4 )alkoxy; [0177] R 13 for each occurrence is independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, NR 1 R 12 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl wherein R 11 and R 12 are as defined above; [0178] R 14 and R 15 are each independently hydrogen, halo, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, nitro, cyano, trifluoromethyl, SO 2 R 10 , SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , NR 11 R 12 , COR 13 , CO 2 R 11 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, NR 11 SO 2 R 10 , NR 11 COR 13 , NR 11 CO 2 R 11 or OR 11 ; [0179] p for each occurrence is independently an integer of 1 to 6; and [0180] q for each occurrence is independently 0 or an integer of 1 to 6; [0181] with the proviso that when Q 9 is O or S then n is not 0; [0182] with the proviso that when Q 1 is oxygen or sulfur then Q 3 is absent; and [0183] with the proviso that when Q 2 is nitrogen then Q 5 is absent; [0184] comprising reacting a compound of the formula [0185] wherein R 1 is halo and wherein n, R 2 , R 3 and Y are as defined above, with ammonium formate in the presence of palladium-on-carbon. [0186] The present invention further relates to a process wherein a compound of the formula [0187] is formed by reacting a compound of the formula [0188] wherein R 1 is hydrogen or halo, and wherein n, R 2 and Y are as defined above, with an organic acid anhydride, a dicarbonate or an organic acid chloride. [0189] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the dicarbonate is di-tert-butyl dicarbonate [0190] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the compound of the formula [0191] is formed by reacting the compound [0192] wherein n, R 1 , R 2 and X are as defined above, with an amine of the formula H 2 NY, wherein Y is as defined above, in the presence of N,N-diisopropylethylamine. [0193] This invention relates to a process for preparing a compound of the formula [0194] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0195] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 0 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 and NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0196] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0197] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above; [0198] R 6 is COR 7 or CO 2 R 7 wherein R 7 is (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl; and [0199] Y is [0200] wherein: [0201] Q 1 is oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur; [0202] Q 2 is carbon or nitrogen; [0203] Q 3 is hydrogen, —(CH 2 ) q -phenyl, —(C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q CO—NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q OG 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 , or a heterocycle selected from the group consisting of —(CH 2 ) q -pyridyl, —(CH 2 ) q -pyrimidyl, —(CH 2 ) q -pyraziqyl, —(CH 2 ) q -isoxazolyl, (CH 2 ) q oxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -thiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -(1,2,4-oxadiazolyl), —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl; [0204] wherein one of the ring nitrogen atoms of said —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl may optionally be substituted by (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0205] wherein each of said heterocycles may optionally be substituted on one or more of the ring carbon atoms by one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 8 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, nitro, cyano, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 -(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl and —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; [0206] wherein the phenyl moiety of said —(CH 2 ) q -phenyl may optionally be substituted with one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, hydroxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, (C 1 -C 6 )alkylthio, fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo, cyano, nitro, —(CH 2 ) q —NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO 2 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , (CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; —(CH 2 ) q —NG 3 —SO 2 -G 3 and —(CH 2 ) q —NG 3 —SO 2 —NG 1 G 2 ; Q 4 is —(CH 2 ) q —CN, —(CH 2 ) q CO 2 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 —(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (CH 2 ) q SO 2 NG 1 G 2 , (CH 2 ) q CH 2 OH, (CH 2 ) q CHO, (CH 2 ) q CO-G 3 , (CH 2 ) q CONG 1 G 2 , or a heterocycle selected from —(CH 2 ) q -thiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -oxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -1,2,4-oxadiazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -isoxazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -pyrazolyl; [0207] wherein one of the ring nitrogen atoms of said —(CH 2 ) q -imidazolyl, —(CH 2 ) q -triazolyl and —(CH 2 ) q -tetrazolyl may optionally be substituted by (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0208] wherein each of said heterocycles may optionally be substituted on one or more of the ring carbon atoms by one or more substituents independently selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms, —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 (CH 2 ) q CO 2 G 3 , halo, nitro, cyano, —(CH 2 ) q —CO-NG 1 G 2 , —(CH 2 ) q —OG 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 3 G 3 , —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 —(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, or —(CH 2 ) q —SO 2 NG 1 G 2 ; [0209] Q 5 is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0210] Q 6 is a covalent bond, oxygen or sulfur; [0211] Q 7 is hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo atoms; [0212] Q 8 and Q 9 are independently a covalent bond, oxygen, sulfur, NH or N-(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0213] Q 10 is (CH 2 ) p OR 11 , (CH 2 ) q CO 2 H, (CH 2 ) q COR 13 , (CH 2 ) q SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , (CH 2 ) q —NR 11 SO 2 R 10 , (CH 2 ) q P(O)(OR 8 )(OR 9 ), (CH 2 ) q O(CH 2 ) p CO 2 H, (CH 2 ) q O(CH 2 ) p COR 13 , (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p P(O)(OR 8 )(OR 9 ), (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p SO 2 NR 11 R 12 , or (CH 2 ) q —O—(CH 2 ) p —NR 11 SO 2 R 10 ; [0214] R 8 and R 9 are each independently hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and [0215] wherein G 1 and G 2 for each occurrence are each independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl optionally independently substituted with one or more halo, (C 1 -C 8 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl or (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or G 1 and G 2 together with the nitrogen to which they are attached form a saturated heterocyclic ring having from 3 to 7 carbon atoms wherein one of said carbon atoms may optionally be replaced by oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur; [0216] G 3 for each occurrence is independently hydrogen or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0217] R 10 for each occurrence is independently (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; [0218] R 11 and R 12 are taken separately and, for each occurrence, are independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, or [0219] R 11 and R 12 are taken together with the nitrogen atom to which they are attached and form a pyrrolidine, piperidine or morpholine ring wherein said pyrrolidine, piperidine or morpholine may optionally be substituted at any carbon atom by (C 1 -C 4 )alkyl or (C 1 -C 4 )alkoxy; [0220] R 13 for each occurrence is independently hydrogen, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, NR 1 R 12 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy(C 1 -C 6 )alkyl wherein R 11 and R 12 are as defined above; [0221] R 14 and R 15 are each independently hydrogen, halo, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl, nitro, cyano, trifluoromethyl, SO 2 R 10 , SO 2 NR 11 R 2 , NR 11 R 12 , COR 13 , CO 2 R 11 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy, NR 11 SO 2 R 10 , NR 11 COR 13 , NR 11 CO 2 R 11 or OR 11 ; [0222] p for each occurrence is independently an integer of 1 to 6; and [0223] q for each occurrence is independently 0 or an integer of 1 to 6; [0224] with the proviso that when Q 9 is O or S then n is not 0; [0225] with the proviso that when Q 1 is oxygen or sulfur then Q 3 is absent; and [0226] with the proviso that when Q 2 is nitrogen then Q 5 is absent; [0227] comprising (a) reacting the compound of the formula [0228] wherein R 1 is hydrogen or halo, and n, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and X are as defined above, with an amine of the formula H 2 NY, wherein Y is as defined above, in the presence of N,N-diisopropylethylamine; [0229] (b) reacting the compound of the formula VII so formed [0230] wherein R 1 is hydrogen or halo and wherein n, R 2 and Y are as defined above with an organic acid anhydride, a dicarbonate or an organic acid chloride to form a compound of the formula [0231] wherein n, R 1 , R 2 , R 6 and Y are as defined above and [0232] (c) reacting the compound of formula VI, wherein R 1 is halo, so formed with ammonium formate in the presence of palladium-on-carbon. [0233] This invention relates to a process for preparing a compound of the formula [0234] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0235] R 1 is hydrogen or halo; [0236] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 and NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0237] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, and or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0238] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above; [0239] comprising reacting a compound of the formula [0240] wherein n, R 1 , R 2 and X are as defined above, with a non-nucleophilic base. [0241] The present invention further relates to a process wherein the non-nucleophilic base is sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydride, potassium tert-butoxide or 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene. [0242] This invention relates to a compound of the formula [0243] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0244] R 1 is hydrogen or halo; [0245] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 and NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0246] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0247] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above. [0248] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein the compound of formula XI is the R enantiomer [0249] wherein R 1 is chloro and R 2 is hydrogen. [0250] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein the compound of formula XI is the R enantiomer [0251] wherein R 1 and R 2 are hydrogen. [0252] This invention relates to a compound of the formula [0253] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0254] R 1 is hydrogen or halo; [0255] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 and NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0256] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above. [0257] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein the compound of formula XI is the R enantiomer [0258] wherein R 1 is chloro and R 2 is hydrogen. [0259] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein the compound of formula XI is the R enantiomer [0260] wherein R 1 and R 2 are hydrogen. [0261] This invention relates to a compound of the formula [0262] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0263] R 1 is hydrogen or halo; [0264] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 and NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0265] R 3 is tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydropyranyl or a silyl protetcting group; [0266] X is halo, methanesulfonyloxy, benzenesulfonyloxy, p-toluenesulfonyloxy, m-nitrobenzenesulfonyloxy or p-nitrobenzenexulfonyloxy; [0267] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy,(C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0268] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above. [0269] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein the compound of formula IX is the R enantiomer [0270] wherein R 1 is chloro; R 2 is hydrogen; R 3 is tert-butyldimethylsilyl; and X is p-toluenesulfonyloxy. [0271] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein the compound of formula IX is the R enantiomer [0272] wherein R 1 and R 2 are hydrogen. [0273] This invention relates to a compound of the formula [0274] wherein n is 0, 1, 2 or 3; [0275] m is 1 or 2; [0276] R 1 is hydrogen or halo; [0277] each R 2 is independently hydrogen, nitro, halo, trifluoromethyl, cyano, SR 4 , OR 4 , SO 2 R 4 , OCOR 5 , or (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by hydroxy, halo, cyano, N(R 4 ) 2 , SR 4 , trifluoromethyl, OR 4 , (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 6 -C 10 )aryl, NR 4 COR 5 , COR 5 , SO 2 R 5 , OCOR 5 , NR 4 SO 2 R 5 and NR 4 CO 2 R 4 ; [0278] R 4 and R 5 , for each occurrence, are each independently selected from hydrogen, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl,(C 6 -C 10 )aryl, (C 2 -C 9 )heterocycloalkyl, (C 2 -C 9 )heteroaryl or (C 1 -C 6 )aryl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by the group consisting of hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 10 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, or (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl; and wherein the aryl, heterocycloalkyl and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted by one to four groups consisting of halo, nitro, oxo, ((C 1 -C 6 )alkyl) 2 amino, pyrrolidine, piperidine, (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl, (C 1 -C 10 )alkoxy, (C 1 -C 10 )alkylthio and (C 1 -C 10 )alkyl wherein the alkyl group is optionally substituted by one to four groups selected from hydroxy, halo, carboxy, (C 1 -C 6 )alkyl-CO 2 , (C 1 -C 6 )alkylsulfonyl, (C 3 -C 8 )cycloalkyl and (C 1 -C 6 )alkoxy; [0279] or R 5 is N(R 4 ) 2 wherein R 4 is as defined above. [0280] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein m is 2, R 1 is chloro, and R 2 is hydrogen. [0281] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein m is 2 and R 2 and R 3 are hydrogen. [0282] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein the compound of formula XVII is the R enantiomer [0283] wherein m is 2 and R 1 and R 2 are hydrogen. [0284] The present invention further relates to a compound wherein the compound of formula XVII is the R enantiomer [0285] wherein m is 2, R 1 is chloro and R 2 are hydrogen. [0286] This invention relates to a compound of the formula [0287] wherein R 1 is hydrogen or chloro and BOC is tert-butoxycarbonyl. [0288] This invention relates to a compound of the formula [0289] wherein R 1 is hydrogen or chloro and BOC is tert-butoxycarbonyl. [0290] This invention relates to a compound of the formula [0291] wherein BOC is tert-butoxycarbonyl. [0292] This invention relates to a compound of the formula [0293] wherein R 1 is hydrogen or chloro. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0294] The following reaction Scheme illustrates the preparation of the compounds of the present invention. Unless otherwise indicated n, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 6 , X and Y in the reaction Schemes and the discussion that follow are defined as above. [0295] In reaction 1 of Preparation A, the 5-cyanopyridine compound of formula XIV is converted to the corresponding 5-formylpyridine compound of formula XIII by reacting XIV with a reducing agent, such as diisobutylaluminum hydride, in the presence of an aprotic solvent, such as toluene. The reaction is stirred at a temperature range between about 0° C. to about 10° C., preferably about 5° C., for a time period between about 15 minutes to about 45 minutes, preferably about 30 minutes. The resultant intermediate is then hydrolized with an acid or base, preferably methanol and sulfuric acid. The reaction mixture so formed is warmed to room temperature and stirred for an additional time period between about 30 minutes to about 90 minutes, preferably about 1 hour. [0296] In reaction 2 of Preparation A, the 5-formylpyridine compound of formula XIII is converted to the corresponding 5-vinylpyridine compound of formula XII by reacting XIII with a methylating reagent, preferably prepared from methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide and potassium tert-butoxide, in the presence of a polar aprotic solvent, such as tetrahydrofuran. The resulting reaction mixture is stirred for a time period between about 15 minutes to about 45 minutes, preferably about 30 minutes, at a temperature range between about −40° C. to about 50° C., preferably about 5° C. [0297] In reaction 3 of Preparation A, the 5-vinylpyridine compound of formula XII is converted to the corresponding diol compound of formula XI by reacting XII with a dihydroxylating agent, such as osmium tetroxide or potassium permanganate, preferably osmium tetroxide, with or without a co-oxidant, such as potassium ferricyanide, hydrogen peroxide, t-butyl hydroperoxide or N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide, preferably potassium ferricyanide, in the presence of tert-butanol and water. Such oxidations can be performed in the presence of a coordinating ligand, such as hydroquinidine 1,4-phthalazinediyl diether or hydroquinine 1,4-phthalazinediyl diether, which affords the enantiomerically enriched diol. The reaction mixture is stirred at a temperature range between about −30° C. to about 10° C., preferably about 5° C., for a time period between about 4 hours to about 18 hours, preferably about 6 hours. [0298] In reaction 4 of Preparation A, the diol compound of formula XI is converted to the corresponding compound of formula X by reacting XI with the appropriate sulfonylchloride, such as p-toluenesulfonyl chloride, methanesulfonyl chloride, m-nitrobenzenesulfonyl chloride, p-nitrobenzenesulfonyl chloride or benzenesulfonyl chloride, preferably p-toluenesulfonyl chloride, in the presence of a base. Suitable bases which may be used include lower trialkylamines, pyridine, and pyridine derivatives. Preferred bases include, but are not limited to, triethylamine, diisopropylethylamine, pyridine, 2,4,6-collidine and 2,6-lutidine. Pyridine is the most preferred base. It is preferred that the solvent is a polar solvent such as (a) an ether derivative, including but not limited to, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane and dimethoxyethane; (b) chlorinated hydrocarbons, including but not limited to, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform and methylene chloride; (c) aromatic hydrocarbons including but not limited to benzene, toluene and xylene; (d) dimethylformamide; (e) N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone; (f) dimethylacetamide; or (g) pyridine or any mixture of these solvents. Generally the most preferred solvent is pyridine. The reaction mixture is stirred at a temperature range between about 0° C. to about 10° C., preferably about 5° C., for a time period between about 6 hours to about 24 hours, preferably about 12 hours. To prepare compounds of formula X, wherein X is halo, the compound of formula XI, wherein X is tosylate, is reacted with a halogenating agent in a reaction inert solvent. The reaction is carried out at a temperature between 25° C. to the reflux temperature of the solvent utilized, preferably the reflux temperature of the solvent. Halogenating agents are compounds which are capable of transferring an organic substrate having a leaving group, i.e. sylate, which can be displaced by the halide ion. Preferred halogenating agents are lithium halides, such as lithium chlorides and the preferred solvent is a polar protic solvent, such as ethanol. [0299] In reaction 5 of Preparation A, the compound of formula X is converted to the corresponding compound of formula IX by reacting X with a silyating agent, which include but are not limited to trialkylchlorosilanes, such as tert-butyldimethylsilyl chloride, triethylchlorosilane and triisopropylchlorosilane or alkylarylchlorosilanes, such as diphenylmethylchlorosilane, in the presence of a base and a polar protic solvent. A preferred silyating agent is tert-butyldimethylsilyl chloride. Suitable bases include, but are not limited to, triethylamine, N,N-diisopropylethylamine, imidazole, pyridine, 2,6-lutidine and N-methylmorpholine, preferably imidazole. Suitable polar protic solvents include, but are not limited to, dimethylacetamide, tetrahydrofuran, dimethylformamide, methylene chloride and chloroform, preferably dimethylformamide. The reaction is carried out at a temperature between about 0° C. to about 10° C., preferably about 5° C., and then warmed to room temperature over a time period between 14 hours to about 22 hours, preferably about 18 hours. [0300] In reaction 1 of Scheme 1, the compound of formula V is converted to the corresponding compound of formula IV by reacting V with an amine of the formula, H 2 NY, in the presence of N,N-diisopropylethylamine and a polar aprotic solvent, such as dimethyl sulfoxide. The reaction is stirred a temperature between 70° C. to about 90° C., preferably about 80° C., for a time period between about 5 hours to about 9 hours, preferably about 7 hours. [0301] In reaction 2 of Scheme 1, the compound of formula IV is converted to the corresponding compound of formula III by reacting IV, wherein R 6 is an amine protecting group, with an organic acid anhydride, a dicarbonate, such as di-tert-butyl dicarbonate or an organic acid chloride. The term “amine protecting group” includes an organic radical which is readily attached to an amine nitrogen atom and which block said nitrogen atom from reacting with reagents and substrates used in and intermediates and transition state molecules formed in subsequent chemical transformations. The resulting reaction mixture is allowed to stir, at room temperature for a time period between about 2 hours to about 6 hours, preferably about 4 hours. [0302] In reaction 3 of Scheme 1, the compound of formula III, wherein R 1 is halo, is converted to the corresponding compound of formula II by treating III with ammonium formate in the presence of palladium-on-carbon and a polar protic solvent, such as methanol. The reaction is allowed to stir at room temperature for a time period between about 1 hour to about 3 hours, preferably about 2 hours. [0303] In reaction 4 of Scheme 1, the compound of formula II is converted to the corresponding compound of formula I by treating 11 with tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride in the presence of an aprotic solvent, such as tetrahydrofuran. The reaction is stirred at room temperature for a time period between about 3 hours to about 12 hours, preferably about 8 hours. [0304] In reaction 1 of Scheme 2, the compound of formula VII is converted to the corresponding compound of formula VII according to a procedure analogous to the procedure described above in reaction 1 of Scheme 1. [0305] In reaction 2 of Scheme 2, the compound of formula VII is converted to the corresponding compound of formula VI according to a procedure analogous to the procedure described above in reaction 2 of Scheme 1. [0306] In reaction 3 of Scheme 2, the compound of formula VI, wherein R 1 is halo, is converted to the corresponding compound of formula I according to a procedure analogous to the procedure described above in reaction 3 of Scheme 1. [0307] In reaction 1 of Scheme 3, the compound of formula X is converted to the corresponding compound of formula IX by reacting X with a non-nucleophilic base, such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydride, potassium tert-butoxide or 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene. The reaction is stirred, in a reaction inert solvent, at a temperature between about −20° C. to about 100° C. The preferred reaction inert solvent is a polar non-hydroxylic solvent such as an ether derivative including but not limited to tetrahydrofuran, dioxane and dimethoxyethane; chlorinated hydrocarbons including but not limited to carbon tetrachloride, chloroform and methylene chloride; aromatic hydrocarbons including but not limited to benzene, toluene and xylene; dimethylformamide; dimethylsulfoxide or any mixture of these solvents. Generally the most preferred solvent is tetrahydrofuran. EXAMPLE 1 2-Chloro-5-formylpyridine [0308] To a cooled 5° C., stirred solution of 2-chloro-5-cyanopyridine (25.0 grams) in anhydrous toluene (540 mL) was added a 1 M solution of diisobutylaluminum hydride (189 mL) over a 30 minute period. The resulting red-colored solution was treated with methanol (50 mL) and 2M sulfuric acid (150 mL), sequentially. The resulting biphasic solution was allowed to warm to ambient temperature and stirred for 1 hour. The reaction mixture was extracted with ethyl acetate, the combined organic layers were washed with saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate and saturated aqueous brine. The organic phase was stirred over activated charcoal for 20 minutes, dried over anhydrous sulfate and concentrated in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light-yellow colored solid, 23.5 grams 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ) δ=10.08 (s, 1H); 8.85 (s, 1H); 8.12(d, 1H); 7.50 (d, 1H). EXAMPLE 2 2-Chloro-5-vinylpyridine [0309] To a cooled 5° C., stirred slurry of methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide (75.7 grams) in tetrahydrofuran (530 mL) was added potassium t-butoxide (23.8 grams) portionwise over a 5 minute period to produce a yellow slurry. After 30 minutes, 2-chloro-5-formylpyridine (25.0 grams) was added in one portion to produce a purple colored slurry. After an additional 30 minutes, the reaction mixture was treated with saturated aqueous ammonium chloride (200 mL) and a majority of the tetrahydrofuran was removed in vacuo. The resulting mixture was washed with ethyl acetate, the combined organic layers washed with saturated aqueous brine, stirred over activated charcoal for 20 minutes, dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo. The resulting semi-solid was stirred for 30 minutes with a solution of 2:1 diethyl ether/petroleum ether (375 mL), filtered and the solids washed with an additional portion of 2:1 diethyl ether/petroleum ether (300 mL). The combined filtrates were concentrated in vacuo, pre-loaded on 60 grams of silica gel and chromatographed over 700 grams of silica gel eluting with a gradient of ethyl acetate(0-8%)/hexanes to afford the title compound as a colorless oil, 15.2 grams 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ): δ=8.35 (s, 1H); 7.69(d, 1H); 6.65 (dd, 1H); 5.79 (d, 1H); 5.40 (d, 1H). EXAMPLE 3 (R)-1-(6-Choro-pyridin-3-yl)-ethane-1,2-diol [0310] To a cooled 5° C., stirred slurry of AD_Mix-P® (150 g) in water (530 mL) and t-butanol (450 mL) was added a solution of 2-chloro-5-vinylpyridine (15.0 grams) in t-butanol (80 mL). After 6 hours, solid sodium sulfite (160 grams) was added and the resulting slurry was allowed to stir at ambient temperature for 30 minutes. This mixture was extracted with ethyl acetate (3 times), the combined organic layers were washed with saturated aqueous brine, dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo. The resulting oil was chromatographed on 500 grams of silica gel eluting with a gradient of ethyl acetate (70-80%)/hexanes to afford the title compound as a colorless oil, 17.8 grams 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ): δ=8.35 (s, 1H); 7.71(d, 1H); 7.30(d, 1H); 4.85 (dd, 1H); 3.63 (dd, 1H). EXAMPLE 4 (R)-Toluene-4-sulfonic Acid 2-(6-chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-2-hydroxy-ethyl Ester [0311] To a cooled 5° C., stirred solution of (R)-1-(6-chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-ethane-1,2-diol (17.8 grams) in anhydrous pyridine (100 mL) was added p-toluenesulfonyl chloride (19.5 grams) in one portion. After 20 minutes, the cooling bath was removed and stirring was continued an additional 12 hours. The reaction solution was concentrated in vacuo, azeotroped with toluene (2 times), diluted ethyl acetate, washed with half-saturated aqueous brine, saturated aqueous brine, dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo. The resulting solids were recrystallized from ethyl acetate/hexanes to afford the title compound as colorless crystals, 23.3 grams 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 )=8.29 (s, 1H); 7.72 (d, 2H); 7.64 (d, 1H); 7.32 (d, 2H); 7.28 (d, 1H); 5.00 (dd, 1H); 4.09 (AB pattern, 2H); 2.44 (s, 3H). EXAMPLE 5 (R)-Toluene-4-sulfonic Acid 2-(tert-butyl-dimethyl-silanyloxy)-2-(6-chloro-Pyridin-3-yl)-ethel Ester [0312] To a cooled 5° C., stirred solution of (R)-toluene-4-sulfonic acid 2-(6-chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-2-hydroxy-ethyl ester (4.9 grams) and imidazole (2.0 grams) in anhydrous dimethylormamide (14 mL) was added t-butyldimethylsilyl chloride (2.8 grams). The mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature and stirring was continued for 18 hours. Ethyl acetate was added, followed by washing with water (2 times), drying over sodium sulfate and concentrating in vacuo to afford an oil. Chromatography (Flash 40M®) utilizing 10% ethyl acetate/hexanes afforded the title compound as a colorless oil, 5.6 grams 1 H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ): δ=8.24 (s, 1H); 7.64 (d, 2H); 7.56 (d, 1H); 7.28 (d, 2H); 7.23 (d, 1H); 4.88 (dd, 1H); 3.95 (AB pattern, 2H); 2.44 (s, 3H); 0.83 (s, 6H); 0.06 (s, 3H); −0.07 (s, 3H). EXAMPLE 6 [2r-(tert-Butyl-dimethylsilanyloxy)-2-(6-chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-ethyl]-[2-(4-nitrophenyl-ethyl]-carbamic Acid Tert-Butyl Ester [0313] A solution of (R)-toulene-4-sulfonic acid 2-(tert-butyl-dimethyl-silanyloxy)-2-(6-chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-etyl ester (2.2 grams), 4-nitrophenethylamine (1.6 grams) and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (0.8 grams) in DMSO were heated at 80° C. for 7 hours. After cooling, di-t-butyl dicarbonate (2.1 grams) was added and the resulting solution was stirred at ambient temperature for 4 hours. Ethyl acetate was added, followed by washing with water (2 times), drying over sodium sulfate and concentrating in vacuo to afford oil. Chromatography (Flash 12S®) utilizing 5-10% ethyl acetate/hexanes afforded the title compound as a colorless oil, 1.2. EXAMPLE 7 [2R-(4-Aminophenyl)-ethyl]-[2-(tert-butyl-dimethylsilanyloxy)-2-pyridin-3-yl-ethyl]-carbamic Acid Tert-Butyl Ester [0314] To a stirred solution of [2-(tert-butyl-dimethylsilanyloxy)-2-(6-chloro-pyridin-3-yl)-ethyl]-[2-(4-nitrophenyl)-ethyl]-carbamic acid tert-butyl ester (0.6 grams) and ammonium formate (1.4 grams) in methanol (10 mL) was added 10% palladium-on-carbon (0.6 grams). After 2 hours, the mixture was filtered through Celite®, the filtrate concentrated in vacuo and the residue partitioned between ethyl acetate and water. The organic phase was washed with brine, dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated in vacuo to afford the title compound as a yellow oil, 0.5 grams.

A process for preparing a compound of the formula wherein n, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 and X are as defined above, used as an intermediate in the synthesis of β-adrenergic receptor agonists.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT [[0001]] This invention was made with government support under contract number DMI-0216324 awarded by the National Science Foundation and contract number F49620-02-C-0028 awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The Government has certain rights in this invention. FIELD OF INVENTION [0002] This invention relates to solid state lasers that use novel glass compositions, comprising rare earth oxides and aluminum oxide (the REAl™ glasses) doped with optically active species, as the gain medium. It further relates to lasers based on these glass compositions that emit infrared light in the wavelength range from approximately 1000 to 3000 nm through the application of pump radiation at a wavelength of 970 nm to 990 nm, and preferably about 980 nm. It further relates to the use of REAl™ glasses that can be cast in the form of “blanks” that form components of laser gain media and windows, filters, or lenses that transmit infrared light. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIOR ART [0003] The composition range of the REAl™ glasses is stated in U.S. Pat. No. 6,482,758, Nov. 19, 2002 incorporated herein by reference. [0004] Glass materials are generally manufactured by starting with a liquid, formed by melting solid crystalline starting materials. The liquid is cooled in a way that prevents crystallization. While there are other ways to make glass, forming it from the liquid provides a simple way to achieve large pieces of material that can readily be formed into products. Here we show that by virtue of their optical, mechanical and thermal properties and the ability to fabricate the glasses by casting from a liquid, the REAl™ glasses provide a novel material for the gain medium used to construct infrared laser devices and for optical elements such as windows and lenses. [0005] It should be noted that certain fabrication, coating, and other operations that are well-known in the art are typically employed to prepare components of devices from the glass optical materials and optical gain media of this invention. [0006] Lasers that produce infrared light (“infrared lasers”) are widely used in materials processing, optical communications, medical and dental diagnostics and surgical procedures, optical range finding and remote sensing, and numerous applications in analysis, marking, scribing, engraving and optical diagnostics. High power density lasers that provide a quality beam profile at infrared wavelengths are useful in materials processing operations including welding, metal cutting and metal forming operations, and medical procedures. Infrared lasers are also used in military applications for range finding, target designation, and missile guidance systems. Infrared lasers also have application in Homeland security, where sensors, laser-based detection, and laser-based defense systems that employ infrared lasers and laser technologies are being developed. [0007] Many solid state lasers, for example the “neodymium:YAG” laser, employ trivalent rare earth ions distributed in a medium such as a crystal or a glass material that can be “pumped” to excite the laser active ions. Neodymium, erbium and ytterbium are widely used to generate light at infrared wavelengths. The gain medium provides a host for the laser active ions and forms a critical component of the laser. The gain medium must be able to transmit light at the laser wavelength with minimal losses. It may also provide a means to extract heat generated by the optical processes, and in some instances it provides a structural element of the laser itself. The gain medium may also be formed as the laser cavity by placing reflective coatings on various surfaces. Solid state lasers that employ a REAl™ glass doped with optically active species are within the scope of this invention. [0008] The advent of high power density lasers based on Yb-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG) crystals containing several percent ytterbium has shown the utility of Yb lasers that can be pumped over a narrow wavelength range by using commercially available infrared laser diodes. Ytterbium ions are a desirable dopant for laser applications because, unlike other optically active rare earth ions, electronically excited Yb ions do not suffer from energy-sapping cross relaxation and excited-state absorption processes. Pumping the strongly absorbing 2 F 7/2 state in trivalent Yb ions with laser diodes overcomes the limitation of low pump absorption with the broadband lamp pumping schemes commonly used in Nd-based lasers. The close spacing of the absorption and emission bands in Yb 3+ results in small conversion losses. [0009] While the Yb lasers were first demonstrated as flashlamp-pumped devices in 1965, it is only recently that these lasers have acquired technological significance, through advances in pump sources, laser gain media, and laser output power that can be achieved. Small, diode-pumped Yb-doped rod lasers were first demonstrated at the Lincoln Laboratory around 1990. Subsequent laser development at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Raytheon and other laboratories in the US and abroad has increased the power output of small (˜5 mm diameter, 10 mm length) rod lasers towards 1 kW to provide an enormous specific power. The thin disk Yb:YAG laser was pioneered in Germany. Power output of ˜650 Watts has been demonstrated in 0.2 mm thickness disks pumped in a region a few millimeters in diameter. The disk laser is predicted to enable a power output of ca. 10 kW from a single small disk laser device. By providing a larger planar surface for heat extraction than is possible in a long cylinder, the disk laser has potential to achieve the maximum possible power density. The wide availability of inexpensive and electrically efficient InGaAs-based laser diodes which operate in the 940-980 nm pump wavelength range needed to realize Yb-based lasers has laid the foundation for new near IR power laser products. Optical efficiencies of around 50 % are achieved in disk laser configurations operating near room temperature; even higher efficiencies have been obtained using cryogenically cooled disks. [0010] The present invention provides novel glass host materials for the Yb ions, i.e., the “REAl™” glasses comprised of rare earth oxides and aluminum oxide, that are used to make Yb: REAl™ glass laser devices. Technical drawbacks of crystalline Yb:YAG lasers relative to the lasers of the present invention are: (i) the Yb 3+ absorption band typically necessitates pumping at around 940 nm, rather than 980 nm where inexpensive and powerful diode laser pump sources are available, (ii) pumping at 940 nm rather than 980 nm, in combination with laser emission at a wavelength of ˜1030 run, leads to increased heat generation which limits the total power density that can be achieved, (iii) the smaller magnitude of the ground state absorption in Yb:YAG, reduces the efficiency of pump power utilization, and (iv) strain-induced birefringence in melt grown crystals due to growth stresses and lattice strain can produce beam deflection and instability in the laser cavity. [0011] Lasers and devices that transmit infrared radiation that are based on REAl™ glasses also have potential cost advantages over the YAG- and other crystalline host-based devices because the glass forming operations are relatively inexpensive compared with crystal growing operations. [0012] The use of REAl™ glasses for windows, lenses, filters, and other optical applications that require infrared transmitting material benefits from (i) the large Abbe number, (ii) the range of Abbe numbers, and (iii) the IR transmission to wavelengths of ˜5000 nm, and (iv) the large refractive index of these materials. The REAl™ glasses provide superior values of these properties relative to the familiar silicate glasses. The REAl™ glasses also provide thermal, chemical, and environmental stability that is superior to other infrared transmitting materials such as fluoride and tellurite glasses. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0013] The invention is an optical gain medium comprising a bulk single phase glass. The bulk single phase glass comprises 27 to 50 molar % RE203 and 50 to 73 molar % Al 2 O 3 , where RE is one or more elements selected from the group consisting of Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu. The optical gain medium may be used in a manner such that gain is generated by application of light in the wavelength range from 970-990 nm. The optical gain medium may be doped with ytterbium ions or other dopant ions such as Er, Tm or Ho. Gain may be generated by electronic transitions of Yb or other dopant ions such as Er, Tm or Ho. [0014] In a second aspect of the invention, the invention is an optical gain medium consisting essentially of a bulk single phase glass comprising one or more rare earth oxides, aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide wherein the composition of the bulk single phase glass lies substantially within the heptagonal region of the ternary composition diagram of the rare earth oxide-alumina-silica system defined by points having the following molar percent compositions: 1% RE 2 O 3 , 59% Al 2 O 3 and 40% SiO 2 ; 1% RE 2 O 3 , 71% Al 2 O 3 and 28% SiO 2 ; 23% RE 2 O 3 and 77% Al 2 O 3 ; 50% RE 2 O 3 and 50% Al 2 O 3 ; 50% RE 2 O 3 and 50% SiO 2 ; 33.3% RE 2 O 3 , 33.33% Al 2 O 3 and 33.33% SiO 2 ; and 16.67% RE 2 O 3 , 50% Al 2 O 3 and 33.33% SiO 2 . The optical gain medium may be used in a manner such that gain is generated by application of light in the wavelength range from 970-990 nm. The optical gain medium may be doped with ytterbium ions or other ions such as Er, Tm or Ho. Gain may be generated by electronic transitions of Yb, Er, Tm of Ho. [0015] In a third aspect of the invention, the invention is an optical material consisting essentially of a bulk single phase glass comprising 27 to 50 molar % RE 2 O 3 and 50 to 73 molar % Al 2 O 3 , where RE is one or more elements selected from the group consisting of Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu and wherein the glass is formed by casting of a molten material. [0016] In a fourth aspect of the invention, the invention is an optical material consisting essentially of a bulk single phase glass comprising one or more rare earth oxides, aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide wherein the composition lies substantially within the heptagonal region of the ternary composition diagram of the rare earth oxide-alumina-silica system defined by points having the following molar percent compositions: 1% RE203, 59% Al 2 O 3 and 40% SiO 2 ; 1% RE 2 O 3 , 71% Al 2 O 3 and 28% SiO 2 ; 23% RE 2 O 3 and 77% Al 2 O 3 ; 50% RE 2 O 3 and 50% Al 2 O 3 ; 50% RE 2 O 3 and 50% SiO 2 ; 33.33% RE 2 O 3 , 33.33% Al 2 O 3 and 33.3% SiO 2 ; and 16.67% RE 2 O 3 , 50% Al 2 O 3 and 33.33% SiO 2 , where RE is one or more elements selected from the group consisting of Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Th, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb and Lu and wherein the glass is formed by casting of a molten material. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0017] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating the use of REAl™ glass as gain medium in a solid state laser. [0018] FIG. 2 illustrates the absorption cross section spectrum of a REAl™ glass containing Yb 3+ ions. [0019] FIG. 3 shows the emission spectrum of a REAl™ glass doped with Yb 3+ ions and excited by a 980 nm diode pump laser. [0020] FIG. 4 shows the fluorescence decay curve observed in a REAl™ glass doped with Yb 3+ ions, giving a fluorescence lifetime of Yb 3+ ions of approximately 800 microseconds. [0021] FIG. 5 illustrates change in fluorescence lifetime of Yb 3+ ions in REAl™ glass with changes in the Yb 3+ concentration and with the SiO 2 content of the glass. [0022] FIG. 6 shows the fluorescence decay curves observed in a REAl™ glass doped with Er 3+ ions and with another REAl™ glass that was co-doped with Er 3+ and Yb 3+ ions. [0023] FIG. 7 shows the emission spectrum of a REAl™ glass doped with Er 3+ and Tm 3+ ions and excited by a 980 nm diode pump laser. [0024] FIG. 8 shows the emission spectrum of a REAl™ glass doped with Er 3+ and Ho 3+ ions and excited by a 980 nm diode pump laser. [0025] FIG. 9 shows fluorescence decay curves for the emission of infrared radiation at wavelengths of approximately 1550 nm and approximately 3000 nm from Er-doped crystalline YAG and from Er-doped REAl™ glass. [0026] FIG. 10 shows the infrared transmission as a function of wavelength for 2 mm thick samples of REAl™ glasses containing zero to 20 mole % SiO 2 , pure silica, and single crystal sapphire. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION [0027] This invention relates to the use of the REAl™ glass materials doped with up to 20 mole % Yb 2 O 3 as the gain medium in solid state infrared lasers. The invention further relates to REAl™ glass gain media containing additional optically active rare earth ions that may be optically excited by energy transfer from excited ytterbium ions, e.g. Er 3+ , Tm 3+ , Ho 3+ , and combinations thereof. By combing ytterbium and the additional optically active ions, the high efficiency of pump absorption at 980 nm by Yb 3+ can be exploited to provide a reservoir of energy to excite the additional dopants by energy transfer from the excited ytterbium ions. [0028] The REAl™ glass materials are based on rare earth oxide and aluminum oxide, and may comprise up to 30 mole % of SiO 2 . In this disclosure, we show that these glasses have properties favorable to operation of novel laser devices and that they maintain these properties at the high dopant concentrations that are possible in the REAl™ glass family of materials. The glass materials have a wide homogeneity range so that the dopant concentrations are not restricted by stoichiometric considerations that may limit the concentrations of dopants in crystalline hosts. Further, unlike glass materials, high dopant concentrations tend to produce birefringence and strain in crystalline materials. The glasses can be cast into a variety of forms by melting starting materials in a platinum crucible. Some of the compositions have melting temperatures that exceed the approximately 1950K upper temperature limit for processing in platinum crucible. These higher-melting compositions may be cast into glass after melting in an iridium crucible. While casting is known in the art of glass making, its application in REAl™ glass synthesis is novel. Prior art syntheses of REAl™ glasses have employed high cooling rates to form the glasses. The prior art cooling rates exceed those achieved in the casting operations, and it has not been previously demonstrated that synthesis of bulk REAl™ glasses by casting operations used in the present invention is possible. Previously, the REAl™ glasses were synthesized using levitation melting techniques that avoided nucleation of crystals in the liquid. The new glasses can be cast to form rods, plates and a wide variety of shapes. These products may be finished if necessary, by polishing, machining, or other conventional operations, to form the laser gain block components, windows, and optical components such as lenses or filters that exploit absorption bands of optically active dopant ions. Tables I and II present compositions of REAl™ glasses that can be formed by casting from platinum or iridium crucibles. TABLE I Examples of glass compositions. Balance is Al 2 O 3 in all cases. Chemical Composition, Mole Percent Example Y 2 O 3 La 2 O 3 Other Oxides I-A 10 20   20 SiO 2 I-B 25   30 SiO 2 I-C 20   30 SiO 2 I-D 20   25 SiO 2 I-E 10 15   25 SiO 2 I-F 10 10   30 SiO 2 I-G 7.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   20 SiO 2 I-H 9 15   1 Gd 2 O 3   10 SiO 2 I-I 7.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   15 SiO 2 I-J 7.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   20 SiO 2 I-K 7.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   15 SiO 2 I-L 5 15   2 Gd 2 O 3   2 ZrO 2   10 SiO 2   2 Sc 2 O 3   2 HfO 2   2 Lu 2 O 3 I-M 7 13.5   2 Gd 2 O 3 22.5 SiO 2 I-N 7.5 12 0.5 Gd 2 O 3   15 SiO 2 I-O 7.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   18 SiO 2 I-P 5.8 6.5 14.8 ZrO 2 21.1 SiO 2 [0029] TABLE II Examples of glass compositions that contain optically active dopants. Balance is Al 2 O 3 in all cases. Chemical Composition, Mole Percent Example Y 2 O 3 La 2 O 3 Other Oxides II-A 14.6 0.4 Er 2 O 3 30 SiO 2 II-B 19   1 Er 2 O 3 25 SiO 2 II-C 5 15   5 Er 2 O 3 20 SiO 2 II-D 5 15   5 Nd 2 O 3 20 SiO 2 II-E 7.5 10 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   5 Nd 2 O 3 20 SiO 2 II-F 5 15   2 Gd 2 O 3   2 Er 2 O 3 10 SiO 2   2 ZrO 2   2 Ho 2 O 3   2 HfO 2 II-G 5.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   2 Yb 2 O 3 20 SiO 2 II-H 7 15   2 Gd 2 O 3   2 Yb 2 O 3 20 SiO 2   2 ZrO 2   2 HfO 2 II-I 4.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   3 Yb 2 O 3 20 SiO 2 II-J 3.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   4 Yb 2 O 3 20 SiO 2 II-K 9 18   3 Yb 2 O 3 15 SiO 2 II-L 7 15   3 Yb 2 O 3 20 SiO 2 II-M 7 15   2 Gd 2 O 3   5 Yb 2 O 3 15 SiO 2   1 Er 2 O 3 II-N 7 17   2 Gd 2 O 3   3 Yb 2 O 3 15 SiO 2   1 Er 2 O 3 II-O 7.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   3 Er 2 O 3 20 SiO 2   1 Tm 2 O 3 II-P 7.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   3 Er 2 O 3 20 SiO 2   1 Ho 2 O 3 II-Q 7.5 15 2.5 Gd 2 O 3   3 Er 2 O 3 20 SiO 2   1 Dy 2 O 3 [0030] When they are doped with ytterbium the glasses provide a high ground state absorption cross section for Yb 3+ ions that is approximately 2.5 times larger than for crystalline YAG. The Yb-dopant is added in this instance via ytterbium oxide Yb 2 O 3 . The Yb may be added by use of potentially any source or combination of sources of trivalent ytterbium such as a carbonate, oxalate, oxide, or other forms. [0031] The ground state absorption cross section of ytterbium ions is shown as a function of wavelength for a Yb-doped REAl™ glass in FIG. 2 . The peak absorption is closely matched to the 980 nm laser diode wavelength which enables the use of inexpensive diode lasers for pumping. The fluorescence emission spectrum of the ytterbium ions is shown in FIG. 3 . In this figure, the off-scale peak at ˜980 nm is due to diode laser pump light used to excite the fluorescence. The small separation in wavelength between the pump and the Yb laser emission, which typically occurs at ˜1030 nm, means that the Yb:REAl™ glass laser can be more efficient than the Yb:YAG crystal devices. In particular, use of the longer wavelength 980 nm pump radiation in Yb:REAl™ glass will reduce heat generation in the gain medium. Heat in the gain medium results in changes in density and optical properties, wavefront distortion and ultimately limits the power that can be extracted from a device. The use of the new glass materials of this invention provides the basis for more-efficient lasers that employ gain media formed by glass casting operations that are inexpensive compared with the crystal growth operations required to make Yb:YAG lasers. [0032] As shown in U.S. Pat. No. 6,438,152, glasses have been made with up to 20 mole % Yb 2 O 3 and with mixtures of Yb 2 O 3 and other optically active dopants such as Er 2 O 3 . As described in the prior art, these glasses provide a high solubility of all the rare earths. A wide range of rare earth dopant compositions can be used, thus energy transfer processes between different rare earth ions can be exploited as a means to obtain high pump utilization efficiency. In addition, codoping with Yb and other rare earth ions enables the use of 980 nm laser diodes to excite laser action from species that do not absorb the 980 nm pump radiation. [0033] A further property of ytterbium ions in the REAl™ glass that makes it useful in laser devices is the fluorescence lifetime of excited Yb 3+ ions. A measurement of the fluorescence lifetime of excited Yb 3+ ions in REAl™ glass is shown in FIG. 4 . A plot of the fluorescence lifetime of excited Yb 3+ ions in REAl™ glasses is shown as a function of Yb concentration in FIG. 5 . The lifetime is comparable to the Yb 3+ fluorescence lifetime in other hosts, i.e., 0.5 to 1 ms. [0034] In addition to the advantageous spectroscopic properties of Yb-doped REAl™ glass, the materials can be formed using relatively low cost processes compared to those required to fabricate single crystal materials. The glasses can be cast in various forms by pouring molten material into molds. The molds can be maintained at an elevated temperature and allowed to cool slowly after the glass is formed to relieve stress in the as-formed glass. The glass may also be cast into a mold that is initially at room temperature. The glasses can be annealed at temperatures up to ˜1100K to relieve stresses. The addition of rare earth ions does not result in lattice strains in the amorphous hosts. The glasses are homogeneous. The use of Yb-doped REAl™ glass thus enables lasers with the following properties: High optical conversion efficiency High laser power output Minimal operating temperature at given laser power output Wide range of compositions not restricted by crystal stoichiometry Easy fabrication of the gain medium Optically isotropic gain medium Efficient absorption of pump radiation Robust and compact devices [0043] Table III presents properties of the REAl™ glass materials that have been measured on samples of materials formed either by levitation melting and cooling or by casting liquids formed in platinum crucibles. TABLE III Properties of REAl ™ glass materials Property Range of values Major components Al 2 O 3 , RE 2 O 3 *, 0-35 mole % SiO 2 Solubility of rare earth oxides Up to 50 mole % RE 2 O 3 Spectral transmission range Near UV to ˜5500 nm Refractive index (n D , λ = 589 nm) 1.7 to >1.8 Abbe number (n D − 1)/(n F − n C ) 40-60 Hardness 800-1000 Vickers Devitrification temperature 950-1050° C. Thermal conductivity 0.01 W/cm · ° C. (at 20° C.) Thermal expansion coefficient ˜10 × 10 −6 /° C. Density 3.4-4.1 gram per cm 3 Young's modulus 110-130 GPa (16 MSI) Chemical stability (in water Dissolution rate <1 × 10 −8 g/cm 2 /min at 90° C.) *Oxides of elements: Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu. PREFERRED EMBODIMENT OF THE INVENTION [0044] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a solid state laser device that incorporates a doped REAl™ glass and illustrates the preferred embodiment of the invention. Optical radiation 1 that excites the laser medium is provided by a pump light source 2 and directed to the laser gain medium 3 . Mirrors 4 are located at opposite ends of the laser gain medium, one of which is partially transmitting to yield the laser output 5 . Cooling means 6 may be incorporated to achieve increased laser power output from the device. [0045] The pump light source 2 is preferably a 980 nm laser diode light source but it may be any light source capable of exciting the optically active ions in the gain medium 3 . The gain medium 3 is a REAl™ glass of composition within the phase field stated in U.S. Pat. No. 6,482,758, preferably a composition that contains approximately 10 mole % SiO 2 that can be melted in a platinum crucible and formed into a glass by conventional casting methods known in the art of glass making. The gain medium 3 is doped with optically active species, preferably rare earth ions such as Yb 3+ , Er 3+ , Tm 3+ , Ho 3+ , or combinations thereof. Any other dopant species capable of producing laser emission from a REAl™ glass, including other optically active rare earth ions may also be used. The partially reflecting output mirror is preferably constructed from REAl™ glass that is not doped with optically active species but it may be of any glass or crystalline material that exhibits high transmission at the wavelength of the laser radiation. Other components of the device are known in the prior art of lasers and optical devices. For example, the surfaces of the gain medium may be coated to reduce reflections. EXAMPLE 1 Cast REAl™ Glasses [0046] The cast REAl™ glasses were prepared from mixtures of fine powders of the constituent pure oxides. The oxides were first melted together in a laser hearth. The product of hearth melting was then pulverized, placed in a platinum crucible, and heated in a Deltech DT31FL high temperature furnace to a temperature of 1920 to 1950K to obtain a homogeneous molten oxide. The platinum crucible was then removed from the furnace and the liquid oxide was cast into a mold to produce the glass products. In some cases the mold was heated to allow in-situ stress relaxation of the as-cast glass by slowly cooling the mold. In other cases the glass was cast into a mold at room temperature and could later be annealed at temperatures up to approximately 1100K. Graphite molds were used for the casting operations. Other mold materials that are commonly used in the art of glass making are within the scope of this invention. [0047] The process of hearth melting and pulverization of the hearth-melted product are not essential steps in the glass synthesis. They were used for convenience in the laboratory synthesis work, to (i) homogenize the materials, (ii) minimized the time at temperature required in the platinum crucible melting step, and to (iii) increase the density of the material placed in small platinum crucibles, and (iv) facilitate reaction of the high melting components to ensure complete melting at the process temperature for crucible melting. [0048] Tables I and II list compositions that were cast into glasses and compositions for which the glass was obtained directly from the laser hearth melting operation. In all cases, a glass was obtained. Some crystalline material was often observed at the surface of the glass which, along with any glass whose composition is influenced by the crystallization, could be removed by grinding and polishing operations. Melting in a crucible, such as an iridium crucible, whose melting point exceeds that of pure platinum may be employed to cast glasses such as the REAl™ glasses containing less than approximately 5 mole % Sio 2 whose melting point exceeds the melting point of platinum. [0049] It is known in the art that various starting materials may be used to obtain the final compositions of the REAl™ glasses. For example, sol gels may be used to achieve an intimate mixture of the glass components which will yield pure oxide liquid when heated and melted in air or oxygen. Carbonates and/or hydroxides may be used as starting materials, which will decompose to oxides, by the evolution of carbon dioxide or water vapor, respectively, when heated. Also, mixed rare earth oxides may be substituted for the pure oxides used in the present glass syntheses. EXAMPLE 2 Glasses for Optical Property Investigations [0050] Several hours are required to complete the procedure of casting a REAl™ glass from a crucible. Small glass samples that are sufficient for optical property investigations can be prepared in a few minutes, by containerless melting techniques. Therefore, many of the compositions of glass that were used to investigate the optical properties of REAl™ glasses as a function of glass composition were prepared by the containerless melting methods. EXAMPLE 3 Yb Optical Properties in REAl™ Glass [0051] FIGS. 2-5 illustrate various optical properties of Yb 3+ ions in REAl™ glass. The ground state absorption spectrum of Yb 3+ is shown in FIG. 2 . The peak absorption cross section is approximately 2×10 −20 cm 2 , at a wavelength of 980 nm. The absorption peak is quite narrow in a crystalline host material, such as the yttrium aluminum garnet crystals that are used in prior art Yb:YAG lasers. The absorption peak is broadened in a glass material, which facilitates laser pumping by increasing the pump laser waveband that can be used. Thus, Yb:YAG lasers typically use a pump laser operating at approximately 940 nm where a relatively narrow absorption peak occurs, with a much smaller absorption cross section than at the 980 nm peak in REAl™ glasses. The broadened 980 nm absorption peak of Yb 3+ ions in a REAl™ glass host have the benefits, relative to prior art Yb:YAG lasers, including that (i) more efficient laser pumping is possible, (ii) inexpensive and powerful diode lasers are available for operation at the 980 nm pump wavelength, and (iii) the typical Yb 3+ laser wavelength is approximately 1030 nm, and use of the 980 nm pump wavelength in Yb:REAl™ glass reduces heating of the gain medium. [0052] The emission spectrum of Yb 3+ in REAl™ glass is shown in FIG. 3 . This spectrum was observed by exciting a sphere of the glass with the focused 980 nm diode laser beam and measuring the Yb 3+ fluorescence emission at an angle of 90° to the incident pump laser beam. Some of the pump radiation was internally reflected at the glass surface and scattered into the spectrometer, to give the off-scale peak at 980 nm in the emission spectrum. The emission spectrum shows strong emission in the approximately 1030 nm range that is typical of Yb 3+ lasers. [0053] FIG. 4 illustrates a measurement of the Yb 3+ fluorescence decay rate. In this experiment, a disk of Yb-doped REAl™ glass, approximately 2 mm thick, was excited by the 980 nm pump laser and the emission decay was measured with an InGaAs detector when the pump laser was turned off. The pump laser path was co-linear with the axis on which fluorescence was measured. A single crystal silicon disk was placed in this path, to absorb the 980 run pump laser radiation while passing the longer-wavelength tail of the Yb 3+ fluorescence emission. The silicon filter avoided saturation of the detector with-pump light so that recovery from saturation would not limit measurements immediately when pumping was terminated. Pumping was terminated precisely at the point where the constant intensity begins to decrease, at approximately 70 ms as read on the horizontal axis of the plot. This experiment was performed on a glass whose composition, in mole %, was 4 Yb 2 O 3 , 62.5 Al 2 O 3 , and 33.5 La 2 O 3 . It can be seen that decay of the fluorescence signal is precisely exponential, i.e., a plot of the logarithm of intensity versus time is linear, with a slope corresponding to a decay time constant of approximately 0.80 ms. [0054] FIG. 5 plots the fluorescence decay times for several Yb concentrations. The top part of this figure shows results for a glass free from SiO 2 and the bottom part of the figure shows results for a glasses containing 2 mole % Yb 2 O 3 and up to 20 mole % of SiO 2 . It can be seen that the fluorescence decay rates decrease with the SiO 2 content of REAl™ glass, and are typical of the 0.5 to 1.0 ms decay time constants observed in other Yb-doped host materials. [0055] Larger lifetimes for the excited state facilitate storage of excited state energy and are generally advantageous to laser design. The results shown in FIG. 5 show that it is advantageous to minimize the SiO 2 content of the glass host material, to achieve longer lifetimes for the excited Yb 3+ ions. The increased lifetime of Yb 3+ in low-SiO 2 REAl™ glasses, relative to high-SiO 2 glasses, is a novel and useful property achieved in this invention. The invention provides bulk REAl™ glasses with only ˜10 mole % SiO 2 that can be melted and cast into bulk glass from platinum crucibles by conventional glass-making methods. EXAMPLE 4 Co-Doped Materials [0056] Co-doped REAl™ glass allows novel laser devices to be constructed based on the strong pump laser absorption property of Yb 3+ ions and the energy transfer processes that occur between the Yb 3+ ions and co-doped optically active species. The ability of REAl™ glass to maintain favorable optical properties such as large emission lifetimes with large dopant concentrations enables these devices because relatively large dopant concentrations are required to achieve rapid energy transfer between the optically active species. The glasses that comprise this set of materials include all of the single phase glasses lying in the phase field defined in U.S. Pat. No. 6,482,758. The dopants include, but are not limited to, optically active rare earth elements, such as the trivalent ions of Yb, Er, Tm, Ho, Dy, Nd, and Pr. [0057] The fluorescence decay measurements described in the remainder of this example were, except as noted, performed in the same manner as the Yb 3+ fluorescence decay measurements described in example 3. [heading-0058] REAl™ Glass Doped with Er and Yb [0059] FIG. 6 illustrates the fluorescence decay curves of two REAl™ glass samples doped with Er 3+ ions and pumped with a 980 nm diode pump laser. Emission from the excited Er 3+ ions occurs in the well-known waveband of 1500 to 1600 nm that is used in Er-doped optical communications devices. Each of the REAl™ glasses for which data are given is doped with 1 mole % Er 2 O 3 . The figure at the top shows results for a glass that also contains 2 mole % Yb 2 O 3 . The results in FIG. 6 illustrate the following: First, the beginning of the decay curves shows a small and sudden decrease of intensity when the pump laser is turned off, at approximately 118 ms and approximately 52 ms on the horizontal axes of the top and bottom figures, respectively. This sudden decrease of intensity is due to the termination of the pump laser light, a small fraction of which is transmitted to the detector. This decrease is smaller for the Yb-doped sample because this sample transmits a smaller fraction of the incident pump light. Second, the Er 3+ emission intensity is greater for the Er/Yb co-doped glass than for glass doped only with Er. This result is also due to the increased absorption that occurs in Yb, which increases the level of excitation in the glass. It also demonstrates that transfer of excited state energy from the Yb 3+ ions to the Er 3+ ions is efficient; a substantial part of the pump energy absorbed by the Yb 3+ ions appears as emission from Er 3+ ions. Third, the large decay lifetimes observed in both sets of data, 5.9 ms for the Er-doped REAl™ glass and 6.6 ms for the co-doped glass shows that the observed emission must be from the Er ions, since emission from Yb ions has a much smaller lifetime of approximately 0.8 ms. The maximum possible Yb 3+ emission that could be detected from the co-doped sample is much smaller than the observed emission intensity because the silicon filter greatly reduces the Yb 3+ intensity and has only a small influence on the longer wavelength Er 3+ intensity. Thus, it is not known if the co-doped glass produced significant direct emission from the excited Yb 3+ ions. [heading-0060] REAl™ Glass Doped with Er and Tm [0061] FIG. 7 illustrates the emission spectrum from REAl™ glass containing 3 mole % Er 2 O 3 and 1 mole % Tm 2 O 3 , and pumped with a 980 nm diode laser. The spectrum shows relatively weak emission from Er 3+ , in the 1500-1600 nm waveband, and strong emission from Tm 3+ in the wavelength range from 1450-2000 nm. The spectrum was measured with an extended InGaAs detector with good sensitivity at wavelengths to more than 2050 nm. Since Tm 3+ does not absorb the pump radiation, the results given show efficient energy transfer from the excited Er ions that are produced by absorption of the pump light to the emitting Tm ions. This result shows that lasers and optical devices can exploit optical gain in REAl™ glass based on emission from Tm 3+ ions, while using absorption of pump laser radiation at 980 nm, which would not be possible in a glass doped only with Tm. Since excited Yb 3+ ions transfer energy to Er 3+ ions in REAl™ glass, it is also possible to build similar devices with REAl™ glass doped with Yb, Er, and Tm. Spectra similar to that shown in FIG. 7 were obtained for REAl™ glass compositions containing zero and 20 mole % of SiO 2 . [heading-0062] REAl™ Glass Doped with Er and Ho [0063] FIG. 8 illustrates the emission spectrum from REAl™ glass containing 3 mole % Er 2 O 3 and 1 mole % Ho 2 O 3 , and pumped with a 980 nm diode laser. The spectrum shows relatively weak emission from Er 3+ , in the 1500-1600 nm waveband, and stronger emission from Ho 3+ in the wavelength range from 1800-2050 nm. The spectrum extends only to approximately 2050 nm, which was the limit for the monochromator used in the experiments. Since Ho 3+ does not absorb the pump radiation, the results given show efficient energy transfer from the excited Er ions that are produced by absorption of pump light to the emitting Ho ions. This result shows the feasibility of lasers and optical devices that exploit optical gain based on emission from Ho ions, while using absorption of pump laser radiation at 980 nm, which would not be possible in a glass doped only with Ho. Since excited Yb 3+ ions transfer energy to Er 3+ ions in REAl™ glass, it is also possible to build similar devices with REAl™ glass doped with Yb, Er, and Ho. Spectra similar to that shown in FIG. 8 were obtained for REAl™ glass compositions containing zero and 20 mole % of SiO 2 . EXAMPLE 5 Er Emission at a Wavelength of ˜3000 nm [0064] Emission of infrared radiation from Er-doped REAl™ glass can be observed at a wavelength of approximately 3000 nm, in addition to the emission in the 1550 nm waveband. FIG. 9 illustrates the decay of fluorescence intensity for both of these emission wavelengths. The emission at ˜3000 nm was measured with a mercury cadmium telluride detector in combination with an interference filter that transmitted light in the wavelength range from 2690-3190 nm. An interference filter was also used to eliminate pump laser transmission to the detector for measurements in the 1550 nm waveband. The results in the top panel of the figure are for a YAG crystal doped with 2 mole % Er. The bottom panel shows results for a REAI™ glass doped with 3 mole % Er. In both cases, the emission at 1550 nm is plotted on the left-hand scale and shows a nearly linear decrease of log(intensity) with time. The emission at ˜3000 nm is plotted on the right hand scale. The time bases have been adjusted so that the fluorescence decay curves begin at the same point on the time axes, i.e., at zero ms. [0065] The results given in FIG. 9 show several qualities of the 3000 nm emission from Er-doped materials. First, there is an initial fast decay of the ˜3000 nm emission, which occurs from the 4 I 11/2 excited state of Er 3+ . This excited state is formed by two processes: direct absorption of the pump laser radiation and cooperative upconversion of the lower, 4 I 13/2 Er 3+ excited state. The initial decay is from radiative loss by emission of the ˜3000 nm radiation and by quenching of the 4 I 11/2 Er 3+ ions to form 4 I 13/2 Er 3+ ions. Second, after the initial fast decay, the 3000 nm emission exhibits slower decay. On the scales used in the plot, the curve showing the slower decay of this emission is approximately parallel to that for the emission of ˜1550 nm light. The parallel nature of these curves is a consequence of the upconversion process, in which two 4 I 13/2 Er 3+ ions (the ˜1550 mu emitter) combine to form one 4 I 11/2 Er 3+ ion (the ˜3000 nm emitter) and one ground state Er 3+ ion. The rate of the cooperative upconversion is approximately proportional to the square of the 4 I 11/2 Er 3+ concentration, i.e., to the square of the ˜1550 nm emission intensity. Third, the ˜3000 nm emission is 4 to 5 times more intense from the REAl™ glass than from the crystalline YAG material. Part of this difference is due to a 50% greater Er concentration in the REAl™ glass. The remaining difference in the intensities can be attributed to differences in (i) the Er ion absorption cross sections, (ii) the 4 I 13/2 upconversion rates, and (iii) the 4 I 13/2 radiant emission and quenching rates for the two materials. The results show that the REAl™ glass materials are effective sources of the ˜3000 nm radiation by comparison with the prior art Er-doped crystalline YAG material. EXAMPLE 6 Glass Properties [0066] Properties of the bulk glass materials were measured using standard techniques. Density was measured by displacement using a 2 ml pycnometer, a microbalance and deionized water as the immersion fluid. Hardness was measured using a microhardness indenter. Glass transition and crystallization temperature ranges were measured by differential scanning calorimetry and differential thermal analysis. The dissolution rate of the glass was investigated by immersing samples in agitated deionized water at 363K (90° C.) and measuring the specific mass change at intervals of 2 days over a period of 16 days. Index of refraction was measured at wavelengths of 486, 589 and 659 nm (F, D and C Fraunhofer lines) using the Becke line method with index-matched oils. Abbe numbers were calculated from the measured refractive indices. [0067] Table III presents properties of the REAl™ glass materials that have been measured on glasses formed either by levitation melting and cooling or by casting liquids melted in platinum crucibles. [0068] The infrared transmission curves of 2 mm thick samples of two REAl™ glasses containing no optically active dopants are shown in FIG. 10 . The figure includes data from the literature for crystalline sapphire and pure silica glass of 2 mm thickness, for comparison purposes. The transmission curves for each material are: 11 silica, 12 REAl™ glass containing 20 mole % SiO 2 , 13 REAl™ glass containing 5 mole % SiO 2 , and 14 sapphire. The figure illustrates that good transmission is obtained at wavelengths beyond the infrared cut-off wavelength of silica glass. It is essential to minimize the silica content of glasses to obtain good infrared transmission in windows, lenses, and other optical elements beyond a wavelength of approximately 3 micrometers. This is possible in the family of REAl™ glasses, which contain from zero to 30 mole % of SiO 2 . [0069] Refractive index values measured for the REAl™ glasses are in the range from 1.80 to 1.90, at the sodium D-line, 589 nm. Measurements at 486 and 656 nm were also obtained to determine the Abbe numbers of the glasses. The Abbe numbers determined for REAl™ glasses are in the range from approximately 32 to approximately 66, depending on the glass composition. These properties are important in optical lenses, since spherical aberration of the lenses is smaller for glasses with larger values of the refractive index, and chromatic aberration of the lenses is smaller for glasses with larger values of the Abbe number. Thus, novel lenses can be fabricated from the REAl™ glasses with reduced chromatic and/or spherical aberration relative to lenses of similar design that are fabricated from prior art materials. [0070] Other modifications and alternative embodiments of the invention are contemplated which do not depart from the scope of the invention as defined by the foregoing teachings and appended claims. For example, the bulk single phase glass material used as the optical gain medium may be synthesized by any suitable method, including but not limited to the methods described herein and in commonly owned U.S. Pat. No. 6,482,758. Also, the gain medium may comprise well known optically active dopants other than the ones described herein. The gain medium may also be pumped by the application of light at wavelengths other than the ones described herein and where at least one of the optically active dopant species absorbs the light. It is intended that the claims cover all such modifications and alternative embodiments that fall within their scope.

This invention relates to the use of novel glass materials comprising rare earth aluminate glasses (REAl™ glasses) in the gain medium of solid state laser devices that produce light at infrared wavelengths, typically in the range 1000 to 3000 nm and for infrared optics with transmission to approximately 5000 nm in thin sections. The novel glass materials provide stable hosts for trivalent ytterbium (Yb 3+ ) ions and other optically active species or combinations of optically active species that exhibit fluorescence and that can be optically excited by the application of light. The glass gain medium can be configured as a waveguide or placed in an external laser cavity, or otherwise arranged to achieve gain in the laser waveband and so produce laser action.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This is a continuation of copending application Ser. No. 07/578.699 filed on Sep. 4, 1991, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to memory expandable systems and more particularly, to a serial network architecture for controlling and configuring add-on memory modules. It is well-known in the prior art to provide modular systems, such as computer peripherals, mini-computers and desktop personal computers, having expandable and flexible memory systems comprised of a plurality of memory modules. Typically, such modules are of the plug-in type in the form of printed circuit boards which have various electronic components mounted upon them, including integrated circuit chips which are also of the plug-in type. The typical design of a modern computer or microprocessor driven device includes a main printed circuit board with one or more female connectors, known as a mother board, to which one or more accessory or option boards including memory modules can be inter-connected. Generally the design features the mother board in a horizontal orientation at the bottom of a computer case with the plug-in memory modules or other accessory printed circuit boards or cards held in vertical slots in the computer case perpendicular to the mother board, and inter-connected to it by means of a mating pair of male and female parallel edge connectors, one of which is attached to the surface of the mother board and the other to the edge of the memory or accessory card. Typically, a memory module consists of a plug-in printed circuit board which carries an addressable memory unit, memory address and control logic units and local interface units which provides interfacing between the module and the host device. The addressable memory unit will be comprised of one or more blocks or banks of memory cells having a standardized size such as 256 k-bytes. A standardized memory module printed circuit board may have a number of plug in sockets to accept blocks of memory in the form of integrated circuit chips. Thus a standardized plug in printed circuit board may provide memory modules with several different capacities. In practice, the memory units of the various memory modules are so interconnected as to provide in effect a single addressable memory. The memory unit on each memory module has a starting address and an ending address. The memory modules are interconnected sequentially so that their address ranges are contiguous in order, or sequence, of connection. The starting address of each memory module forming a boundary between that module and any preceding module. Each memory module responds to a range of addresses that includes its starting address and its ending address. Typically, the ending address is determined by adding the memory module capacity to its starting address. In prior art memory modules, the address range that a particular module will respond to is manually set utilizing toggle or slide switches. If a memory module was replaced with a memory module having a different memory capacity then the switches of all the higher order memory modules must be reset. The requirement for manual setting of address ranges introduces the possibility of human error and is, to say the least, inconvenient. U.S. Pat. No. RE. 31,318 granted to Kaufman et al on Jul. 19, 1983 discloses a system for automatically setting the address ranges of respective memory modules of a continuous bank of memory modules. A modular minicomputer includes a central processing unit, a number of replaceable memory modules and input and output peripheral devices. Each of the memory modules includes an address range calculator, an address range detector, a local memory unit and memory cell selection logic. The address range calculator of each memory module includes a local memory capacity signal source which provides a signal representative of the capacity of the memory unit of the memory module on which it is mounted. A memory module of one local capacity may be replaced by a memory module of a different local capacity and memory modules of different capacities may be interchanged so long as the total memory capacity remains below the maximum allowable value. Whenever one or more memory modules are installed the ranges of addresses are assigned automatically to the individual modules. A processor module generates a starting address signal for the first installed memory module. The address range for an individual memory module is calculated by adding the local memory unit capacity to the module's starting address to arrive at the module's ending address. The last memory module generates an address signal which represents the upper boundary of the memory system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides an expandable memory system for use in a computing system which comprises a plurality of plug-in memory modules coupled to a memory system controller in a serial network. The memory system network consists of a central memory system controller and at least one individually addressable memory module controller coupled serially to the memory system controller. Various command signals generated by the memory system controller and information or data signals generated either by the memory system controller or individual memory module controllers in response to commands transmitted from the system controller, are transmitted and received serially between the system controller and the memory module controllers. In the preferred embodiment, up to 7 module controllers and their associated memory modules may be configured in the serial network. The expandable memory system of the present invention utilizes a plurality of plug-in, add-on memory modules or memory cards wherein each individual memory module comprises a module controller, a module memory address control logic block and at least one memory block having a number of individually addressable memory cells. Each memory module also includes a bi-directional 16-bit data bus, an address bus and an address control bus and primary and secondary module connectors respectively attached to opposite sides of the memory module card. Additional memory may be then added to the expandable memory system by merely plugging in additional memory modules. Upon power up, the memory system controller automatically configures the memory system assigning an address to each of the memory module controllers in the network and a base address for the memory on each of the memory modules in the system. The serial network architecture utilized provides a memory control link (MCL) system for communications between the memory system controller and each plug-in memory module. The MCL communication is initiated and controlled by the memory system controller and is utilized to interrogate and configure each memory module via its module controller in turn. The memory system controller proceeds through the configuration process each time the system is powered up by first initializing the module controllers and then providing each module controller with its individual address. The interrogation process provides the system controller with the memory capacity of each memory module card installed as well as the type of memory module. During the memory configuration process, the memory system controller assigns a base or starting address to each memory module card in turn and defines the location of a logical address block associated with each memory module installed within the memory system map for the host system. In addition, the memory system controller allows testing of the individual memory module cards, removing or disabling a memory module which tests bad while maintaining the integrity of the remaining memory modules on the MCL system. The present invention provides an expandable memory system wherein the total capacity of the memory system may be increased or changed by plugging in or removing memory module cards. The memory system controller via the MCL system serial architecture automatically assigns the base address for each memory. card and defines the memory block position in the total memory space without user intervention or the requirement to physically reposition toggle or slide switches. The system also includes the capability to bypass or disable bad memory modules and reassign memory addresses without leaving useable memory unallocated. One preferred embodiment of the present invention provides parallel pin connectors attached on both sides of a memory module board to allow the individual memory boards to be installed in piggy back fashion eliminating the need for a mother board having a plurality of connectors, one for each plug-in memory board. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING A fuller understanding of the present invention, will become apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing which forms a part of the specification and in which: FIG. 1 shows a memory control link system arranged in the serial network architecture in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a plug-in memory module implemented in the memory control link system shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 illustrates a 16-bit data frame format utilized with the memory control link system shown in FIG. 1; FIGS. 4a, 4b, and 4c illustrate the configuration of the memory control link system shown in FIG. 1 at various stages following power up; FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating the configuration process following power up for the memory control link system shown in FIG. 1; and FIG. 6 is a plan view of a plurality of plug-in memory modules mounted on a mother board. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to FIGS. 1 and 2, FIG. 1 shows a block diagram of a memory control link (MCL) system arranged in a serial network architecture according to the principles of the present invention. The MCL system comprises a host or system controller 11 and one or more memory module MCL controllers 13, 15, and 17 connected together in serial fashion, the system controller 11 utilizing a three wire serial data bus for communication to and from the link controllers 13, 15 and 17. The present invention utilizes a basic method for communication in a serial network detailed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,794,592 entitled "Serial Network Architecture for User Oriented Devices" issued to Craine et al on Dec. 27, 1988, and is incorporated herein by reference as if set forth in its entirety. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an expandable memory system utilizing plug-in add-on memory modules wherein each individual memory module 20 comprises a module MCL controller 22, memory address control logic 21 (programmable array logic blocks) and one or more blocks of memory 23, 25, 27 and 29, each memory block comprising, for example, a 256 k-byte dynamic random access memory (DRAM) array. The memory module 20 also includes a bi-directional 16 bit data bus 32, an address control bus 28, and 2 module connectors (not shown). While the preferred embodiment is limited to 7 plug-in modules 20 by the particular hardware utilized, any number of plug-in memory modules 20 having their MCL controllers 22 serially linked as shown in FIG. 1 may be utilized to configure an expandable memory system. The MCL system 10 provides a serial architecture for communicating with each plug-in memory module 20. The MCL controller serial communication is initiated and controlled by the system controller 11 and is utilized to interrogate and configure each memory module 20 via its MCL controller 22 in turn. System microprocessor 11a is an integral part of the system controller 11. The system controller 11 proceeds through the configuration process each time the system is powered up by first initializing the MCL controllers 1 through N, 13, 15, 17, identifying each module 20 and checking the preprogrammed coding. The interrogation process provides the system controller 11 with the number of memory modules 20 installed as well as the type of memory module (features and speed) and memory size (memory capacity). During the memory configuration process, the system controller 11 sets the address range of each memory module 20, in turn, and defines the location of a soft address or logical address block within the memory system map for the host system. The host system 11 provides testing of the memory modules 20 during the configuration process. If a particular memory module 20 tests bad or is malfunctioning, the system controller 11 can logically remove the bad module while maintaining the integrity of the remaining memory modules on the MCL system. The MCL system 10 is used only to interrogate and configure the memory modules 20, and is not used during real time memory accesses by the host system. The system DRAM controller 33 provides the appropriate signals for controlling the individual memory blocks 23, 25, 27, 29 during real time memory accesses by the host system. The DRAM address, data and control signals are independent of the MCL system 10. Each memory module 20 has 2 MCL interfaces which provide interconnection of multiple memory modules 20 in a daisy chain or serial fashion. The first or primary MCL interface is used for communication with the system controller 11 or the preceding memory module. The secondary MCL interface provides communication with the next succeeding memory module 20 in the memory control link (if present). The system controller 11 can communicate directly only with the first memory module 20 in the chain. System controller messages for memory modules further down the chain are relayed by the intermediate MCL controllers on each memory module 20. The memory configuration process defines where the memory space provided by a particular memory module 20 will reside within the host system memory space. Once the system controller 11 has interrogated the memory module 20 for memory size and type information, the system controller 11 will then specify the starting address for the memory module. Typically, the starting address of a memory module is the starting address of the immediately preceding already defined memory module, plus the size of that memory module thereby providing a contiguous memory space. While the system controller 11 attempts to provide contiguous memory, it is not required that the memory space may be defined with all address blocks assigned. Additional blocks of memory may be defined anywhere within the memory space if desired or necessary. Similarly, undefined blocks or space may be left in the memory space if necessary, for example, to bypass a failed memory block. As discussed above, the starting address of a newly added memory module 20 is calculated by adding the memory size of the preceding memory module to the starting address of that preceding memory module. The process is repeated for each memory module 20 in turn until the entire memory space is defined. The starting addresses that are assigned to each of the individual memory modules 20 are referred to as base addresses. A specific memory module 20 will respond to addresses defined from [BASE] to [BASE+SIZE]. When a memory module 20 has been configured and designated a base address, the 4-bit base address for that memory module is coupled on line 35 to the memory address control logic block 21. Combinational logic is utilized to control memory device selection based on the result of a logical address calculation involving the current physical address on lines 37a and b and the memory module base address. If the physical address falls within the range of [BASE] to [BASE+SIZE] then the memory module is enabled and memory accesses are allowed via the system DRAM controller 33. The logical addresses are the result of a real time substraction of the memory module base address from the current physical address on lines 37a and b provided by the system DRAM controller 33. The calculation of the logical addresses is a signed calculation since a negative result indicates that the current physical address is below the memory module base address and the particular memory module is not being accessed. The size of the accessible DRAM memory provided by the memory module determines the range of logical addresses that will be responded to for that memory module. Each memory module 20 includes subtraction logic and generates the local logical addresses for its on board DRAM. For example, a 1 megabyte memory module 20 is configured with a base address D00000 (in the preferred embodiment, all addresses are represented by hexadecimal numbers). If the current physical address on lines 37a and b is less than D00000, than the local logical address calculation result is negative and the memory module is not addressed. Current physical address D00000 corresponds to a local logical address of 0 which addresses the first accessible memory location on the memory module. Increasing current physical addresses then will have a one-to-one correspondence to local logical addresses until the memory size of the memory module 20 is reached. When the current physical address exceeds DFFFFF, no memory will be addressed unless a second subsequent memory module is connected and configured at a base address of E00000. In the preferred embodiment, the most significant address bus bits of the current physical address are coupled via bus 37b to the memory address control logic 21 to be compared to the base address bus 35. The real time logical combination between the physical address on bus 37b and the base address on bus 35 coupled with the DRAM column address strobe on bus 37a via the memory address control logic 21 provides the selection of the appropriate memory block 23, 25, 27 and 29. The least significant address bits of the current physical address are multiples and appear on the row/column address bus 28. The row address strobe (RAS) on line 26 latches the Row address and the column address strobe (CAS) on line 37a latches the column address. While the preferred embodiment is implemented with 4 blocks of 256 k-bit DRAM to provide 1 megabyte of memory on each memory module 20, the number blocks may be increased and the memory address control logic 21 may be extended to provide memory modules having larger total accessible total memory size. With continuing reference to FIGS. 1 and 2, the MCL controller 22 comprising a microprocessor or microcontroller having 1 KByte-bit of internal ROM, which holds program code in resident firmware which provides the MCL communication capability on 2 groups of I/O pins (a 4-bit microprocessor designated COP421 manufactured by National Semiconductor, Inc. is suitable for this purpose). Additional I/O pins provided on the MCL controller are defined as strappable options that are readable by the system controller 11 to provide memory module memory size and type information. Additional MCL controller 22 I/O lines are utilized to communicate either serially between other serial linked memory modules and to set and return base address and other information concerning the memory module 20. The primary control signals from the system controller 11 are memory controller out (MCOUT) on line 18a, memory controller clock (MCCLK) on line 18b, memory controller N (MCIN) on line 18c and memory controller reset (nMCRST) on line 16. The MCOUT signal provides serial data to the first MCL controller 13 on the MCL system 10 from the system controller 11. The MCCLK signal provides the clock to synchronize outgoing (MCOUT) and incoming (MCIN) serial data between the system controller 11 and the first MCL controller 13. The reset signal is a common signal that will hardware reset all of the MCL controllers 13, 15, 17 on the MCL system 10 when the reset signal is set to logical 0. The system controller 11 signal descriptions are listed in TABLE VI. The system controller 11 output lines 18a, 18b and 16 are latched at block 31 and input line 18c is read through block 31. The MCL system controller 11 control signal lines will be assigned to the memory module 20 MCL controller control lines in the following manner: nMCRST=nMCRST; MCOUT=TCIN; MCCLK=TCCLK; and MCIN=TCOUT. The MCL controller 22 control signal descriptions are listed in TABLE VI. Referring now also to FIG. 3, a diagram illustrating the memory control link information frame format is shown. The MCL information frame 40 comprises 15 bits of information being with a signal bit start bit 41, 3 address bits 43, a command bit 45, 8 data bits 47, a parity bit 49 and a stop bit 48. The frame start bit is always a logic 0 while the frame stop bit is a logic 1. The parity bit is computed so that the total number of logic one bits in the 15-bit frame (including the start, address, command, data, parity stop bits) is odd. The most significant bit of the frame is the start bit 41, followed by the address bit A2-A0, followed by the command bit 45 followed by data bits D7-D0, followed by the parity bit and then the stop bit. The system controller 11 initiates all command transfers and waits for the individual MCL controllers response. Each MCL controller on the control link is responsible for passing through a command and echoing back the returning command or data to the system controller 11. Each MCL controller 22 passing commands will provide the clock to send the command and receive the response to the command. The system controller 11 can freely clock the information frame 40. To prevent the possibility of the system controller 11 being interrupted during an information frame transfer, a minimum time for transmitting a subsequent information frame after receiving a previous information frame response is imposed on the system controller 11. Since the information frame clocking from MCL controller to MCL controller is independent of the system controller 11 transfer rate, the delay time imposed upon the system controller 11 prior to transmitting a subsequent information frame must be long enough to insure that the previously sent information frame has been received by the addressed memory module device 20 and all responses have been received back by the system controller 11. The data bits D7-D0, 47, may contain a command or operation code (Opcode) or other data such as a response by a memory module 20 to a command sent by the system controller 11. Communication originates with the system controller 11 by transmitting an information frame containing 1 command at a time. The address bits 43 indicate which of the memory modules 20 on the memory command link that the information frame is being sent to. Each MCL controller 22 on the memory command link is responsible for passing the frame down the link to the appropriate memory module and returning the command or response to the system controller 11. When a command is being sent in the information frame 40, the command bit 45 must be set. Address 0 is the universal address and every memory module 20 on the memory command link will respond to this address. Table 1 is a summary of each command and includes the command Opcode (in the preferred embodiment, all Opcodes are in hexadecimal numbers). The data return column in Table 1 indicates whether or not extra data bytes will be returned in response to the transmitted command. A yes indicates one or more data bytes will be returned prior to the initiating command returning. A no indicates only the command will be returning. The number next to the yes indicates the number of bytes being returned. The system controller 11 examines each returned frame 40 checking the command bit 45. If the command bit is set during an expected non-command data transfer, then the system controller 11 will assume a transmission error and reissue the initiating command or terminate MCL controller activity. The individual MCL controllers 22 on the memory link will not check for transmission errors on the return path from other MCL controllers. TABLE 1______________________________________Command Device Data CommandOpcode Address Returned Description______________________________________00 Universal No Interface Clear01 Universal No Device Soft Reset02-07 Universal -- Reserved08-0F Universal No Address Configure10 Specific No Enter Pass-Thru Mode11-1F Specific -- Reserved20 Specific No Enter Loop-Back Mode21-2F Specific -- Reserved30 Specific No Memory Type31-3F Specific -- Reserved40-4F Specific No Write Memory Address Task50-5F Specific No Write Disable/Shadow Size60 Specific Yes 256 Read Program Code61-6F Specific -- Reserved70 Specific Yes 1 Memory Configuration Status71 Specific Yes 1 Read L-Part Status72-9F Specific -- ReservedA0 Specific No Controller StatusA1-AF Specific -- ReservedBO-EF Specific -- ReservedF0 Universal No Configuration ErrorF1 Specific No Transmission ErrorF2-FF -- -- Reserved______________________________________ Interface Clear (Opcode 00) is used to clear the power-up mode or to clear an error-condition resulting from a configuration or a transmission error or a prohibited Opcode detected by an individual MCL controller 22. The primary function of the Interface Clear command is to clear the power up mode in the MCL controllers and to verify the integrity of the control link as configured. Interface Clear is transmitted with a universal address. No configuration information is effected by Interface Clear. Upon receiving the Interface Clear command, each MCL controller 22 will clear the power up mode and then retransmit the command as received. Interface Clear command, each MCL controller 22 will clear the power up mode and then retransmit the command as received. The Soft Reset (Opcode 01) instructs an MCL controller 22 to reset to the pass through mode and retransmit the command down the link, then place itself back into the loop back mode and enter the power up mode. The result is that all MCL controllers 22 on the control link will receive this command, but the command will not be returned to the system controller 11 since the last MCL controller 22 on the control link will enter the pass through mode and transmit the command frame "off the end" of the serial control link. After the system controller 11 has transmitted the Soft Reset command, it must delay for an adequate time to ensure propagation of the command through the control link. Once the Soft Reset command is propagated through the control link, the control link configuration will be in its power up state with all MCL controllers in the loop back mode and all range addresses cleared and disabled. The Address Configure command (Opcode 08-0F) is utilized to assign unique match addresses to each MCL controller 20 on the control link and is always sent with the universal address. Although the Address Configure command is specified as a range of commands, the first Address Configure command transmitted is the Opcode 09. The MCL controllers interpret the lower 3 bits of the Opcode as the match address of the receiving MCL controller. The MCL controller will increment these 3 bits by 1 then retransmit the modified command. Thus, the first MCL controller receiving Opcode 09 assumes match address 1, then retransmits the command with Opcode 0A. The second MCL controller will receive Opcode 0A, match address 2 and retransmit Opcode 0B, and so on. In the preferred embodiment, since the number of MCL controllers on a control link is limited to 7, when a device receives Opcode OF it accepts match address 7 as expected but retransmits Opcode 08, consistent with the definition of only incrementing the lower 3 bits of the Opcode. An MCL controller receiving Opcode 08 leaves its match address unchanged then transmits the Configuration Error Opcode. The Address Configure command may also be used to determine the number of memory modules configured on the control link. The system controller 11 transmits the Opcode 09 and waits for the returning command from the last MCL controller on the control link. Each MCL controller configured on the control link will increment the Opcode 09 by 1. By subtracting the Opcode 09 from the returned Opcode, the system controller can determine the number of memory modules on the control link, except when the number of memory modules on the control link is 7. In this case the returned Opcode for the 7th memory module is Opcode 08. The Pass-Thru Mode command (Opcode 10) instructs the addressed MCL controller to set itself to the pass-through mode which examines and passes all transmitted flames onto the next MCL controller on the control link. When used during the configuration process, the Pass-thru Mode command allows the system controller 11 to sequentially open up the control link to additional MCL controllers until the last MCL controller on the control link is determined. The Pass-Thru Mode command is always sent with a MCL controller specific address. The Loop Back Mode command (Opcode 20) instructs the addressed MCL controller to set itself to the loop back mode, which effectively terminates the control link and then retransmits the command back to the system controller 11. When used during the configuration process, the Loop Back Mode command must be assigned to the last MCL controller on the control link while all others are in the pass through mode. The Loop Back Mode command is always transmitted with an MCL controller specific address. The Read Memory Type command (Opcode 30) is transmitted with an MCL controller specific address and returns memory type information for the addressed memory module to the system controller 11. The Opcode 30 command will be returned to the system controller 11 with an increased value corresponding to the memory type of the addressed memory module. For example, a returned command of 31 would be a type 1 board. The Memory Address Mask command (Opcode 40-4F) is utilized to assign the base address for the first memory module on the control link. The mask value corresponds to the upper 4 bits of actual addresses in a 16 megabyte memory system where a 1-megabyte block of memory equals 1 mask value. The mask command values range from 40 to 4F. The 0 to F hexadecimal values define the absolute starting block address in increments of 1 megabyte per block. If more than 1 megabyte of memory exists on a given memory module, the MCL controller 22 will sequentially build additional addressing for each additional block of 1 megabyte of memory. For example, if the system controller 11 defines a block of memory at address C00000, then the mask value will be C, and the memory address mask command will be Opcode 4C. To assign a mask value for the next memory module on the control link, the system controller 11 determines the memory size or capacity of the present memory module and then adds the number of memory blocks to the present memory module's memory address mask and assigns the resulting mask value to the next successive memory module memory address mask. If the present memory module's memory size is 2 megabytes, i.e., 2 memory blocks, the next successive memory module's Memory Address Mask Opcode will be 4E. Each MCL controller 22 is capable of controlling 1 to 8 memory blocks in a memory module 20. The system controller 11 properly assigns the MCL controller with the appropriate memory address mask values without assigning the same mask value to more than 1 memory module unless the proper memory disable control has been utilized. The memory address mask value consists of 4 bits which appear on line 35 and corresponds to the 4 bits representing the most significant bits of the physical address generated by the DRAM controller 33 (as shown in FIG. 2) on bus 37b. The Write Disable/Shadow Size command (Opcode 50-5F) comprises a two part command. The variant part of the Opcode is the 4-bit nibble 0 to F. This nibble is composed of a memory module disable bit and 3 memory size bits. When the most significant bit of the nibble is set to one, the entire memory for the specified memory module is disabled. When the most significant bit is set to 0 (low) the entire memory of the memory module is enabled. The memory module disable bit is coupled on line 39 to the memory address control logic 21. The memory device disable bit is a dedicated output bit having no other uses; however, the lower 3 bits of the nibble provide input memory size information in response to another command (Opcode 71). Therefore, the memory size data must be read first then written back in the same form it was read with the disable bit set or cleared as required. For example, if the memory size value was 0 and the memory was to be enabled, then the Opcode would be 50. If the same memory was to be disabled, then the Opcode would be 58. The memory size value will be explained in greater detail in connection with Opcode 71 hereinbelow. The Read Program Code command (Opcode 60) instructs the addressed MCL controller to return a portion of the MCL controller program code, 256 bytes for the preferred embodiment, to the system controller 11 to be compared to the program code stored by the system controller 11. The program code test comprises a process of reading a portion of the MCL controller processor code to determine if the correct and current code is present. If the correct code is not present, the addressed MCL controller and memory module may be disabled. The program code test is performed separately for each MCL controller on the memory command link and is independent of the memory address configuration process. The program code test may be performed at any time, either prior to or after the memory space has been configured. The Memory Configuration Status command (Opcode 70) returns the status of a previously written Memory Address Mask command and Write Disable/Shadow Size command. The Memory Configuration Status command functions by transmitting an 8 bit status frame which instructs the addressed MCL controller to return the original command frame. The memory configuration status is stored and registered internal to the MCL controller that is updated after the Read L-Port command, or the Write Memory Address Mask command or the Write Disable/Shadow Size command. The Read L-Port command (Opcode 71) disables the output drivers at the L-Port and writes the data to the memory configuration status register described above. When this port is read, only the 3 memory size data bits (described above) can be regarded as valid input data. Prior to receiving Opcode 71, the specifically addressed MCL controller 22 must be in the loop back mode. As in the case of a Memory Configuration Status command, the system controller 11 expects to receive two frames in response to the Read L-Port Status command, the memory configuration status and the Opcode 7 frames. The logic levels on the memory size bits provide memory size identification. The memory size bit values range from 0 to 7 as defined in Table 2 below. TABLE I______________________________________ Size Bits Memory Size 210 Definition______________________________________ 000 1 MByte 001 2 MByte 010 3 MByte 011 4 MByte 100 5 MByte 101 6 MByte 110 7 MByte 111 8 MByte______________________________________ The Controller Status command (Opcode A0) is transmitted by the system controller 11 to determine the status of the specifically addressed MCL controller. To indicate the status of the addressed MCL controller, the lower 4-bit nibble of the Controller Status command will be modified by the addressed MCL controller as shown in Table III. These 4-bits represent the current mode or state of the addressed MCL controller. TABLE III______________________________________Opcode A0Data Bit Definition______________________________________0 LoopBack/Pass Thru Mode 11 Read Flag2 Power Up Mode--Clear3 L-Port Read______________________________________ Bit 0 indicates Loop Back or Pass Thru Mode. When this bit is a logical 1, the MCL controller is in the Pass Thru Mode. This bit is a logical 0 at Power Up or when in the LoopBack Mode. Bit-1 is the Read Program Code flag. This bit is a logical 1 when the proper program code has been read. Bit-2 indicates the state of the Power Up Mode. When bit-2 is logical 1, the MCL controller has received an interface clear command. Bit-2 is logical 0 at Power Up. Bit-3 is logical 0 at Power Up. When the L-Port has been read, Bit-3 is set to logical 1. The Configuration Error command (Opcode F0) is returned to the system controller 11 when too many memory modules are attached in the control link at any one time (in the preferred embodiment, more than 7) and it is impossible to assign a unique address to all of the memory modules. The command is returned with the address of the attempted memory module. The Transmission Error command (Opcode F1) will be returned to the system controller 11 with the address of an MCL controller detecting a parity error or an improper command. Proper response by the system controller 11 to the Transmission Error command is to issue an interface clear with a universal address, check the retransmitted command response to insure the integrity of the control link and then continue. The system controller 11 is responsible for checking the occurrence of transmission errors. The individual MCL controller will not check commands or data returning back to the system controller 11 on the control link. Referring now also to FIGS. 4a-4c and FIG. 5, the MCL controller configuration is shown. As shown in FIG. 4a, following Power Up, hardware reset or a Device Soft Reset command, all MCL controllers 13, 15, 17 on the control link 10 are in the same basic configuration, with the match or range address reset to 0, Power Up Mode set, and each MCL controller set to LoopBack Mode. The goal of the control link configuration process is to assign a unique match address to each MCL controller on the control link 10. When completely configured, all but the last MCL controller 17 will be configured in the Pass Thru Mode. The first command transmitted by the system controller 11 is Interface Clear, transmitted with a universal address. The first MCL controller 13 receiving the command clears Power Up Mode, then retransmits the command back to the system controller 11. Next the system controller 11 transmits the Address Configuration command, again with a universal address. The Address Configuration command assigns a match address of 1 to the first MCL controller 13 which then returns the Address Configuration command incremented by 1 (Opcode 0A). The system controller 11 may optionally at this time establish the complete configuration of the first MCL controller 13 and memory module 20 by also assigning and configuring the memory addresses (as shown in FIG. 5). Next the system controller 11 transmits the Pass Thru command address to the first MCL controller 13. The first MCL controller 13 then switches to pass through mode and passes on the Pass-Thru command to the next successive MCL controller 15 which returns the command via the first MCL controller 13 to the system controller 11. Since the Pass-Thru command was returned to the system controller, it indicates to the system controller 11 that additional MCL controllers exist on the control link beyond the first MCL controller 13. The configuration of the control link is now shown in FIG. 4b. The above process is then repeated. The system controller 11 transmits a interface clear command with the universal address to the first MCL controller 13. The Interface Clear command has no effect on the first MCL controller 13 which passes the command to the second MCL controller 15. The second MCL controller executes the interface clear by clearing the Power UP Mode and returning the command to the system controller 11. The system controller 11 follows with the Address Configure command (Opcode 0A). The nonconfigured second MCL controller 15 receives the Address Configure command and establishes match address 2, then increments the Opcode by 1, and returns Opcode 0B to the system controller 11. Next the system controller 11 transmits the Pass Thru command addressed to the second MCL controller 15. The second MCL controller 15 then switches to the pass through mode and retransmits the command to the next successive MCL controller. The process is repeated a sufficient number of times to achieve the control link configuration 10 as shown in FIG. 4c. The process continues, configuring n devices on the control link 10 until the Pass Thru command to a specific MCL controller is not returned, indicating that no additional MCL controllers are attached to the control link 10. Next the system controller 11 transmits the LoopBack command to the last addressed MCL controller 17, the MCL controller 17 switches to the loopback mode and returns the command to the system controller 11. The control link 10 is now terminated as shown in FIG. 4c and each MCL controller is assigned a unique match address. In the above-described configuration process, each MCL controller on the control link 10 was assigned an MCL or match address. The MCL controller addresses are utilized to distinguish between individual MCL controllers. To complete the configuration of the memory system, the memory addresses must be defined for the memory space. FIG. 5 is a flow chart illustrating the memory address configuration whereby the beginning address for the first block of memory on each memory module 20 is defined. The first MCL controller 13 on the control link 10 does not have to be associated with the first available memory address for the memory system. The memory addresses can be defined at the same time that the control link is being configured or, once all of the MCL controllers on the control link 10 have been initialized, the memory addresses can be assigned at a later time in any order desired. The first steps 51, 69, 73, 75 assigned the individual MCL controller addresses and configure the control link 10 as described above. The system controller 11 then transmits Opcode 30 addressed to a specific MCL controller to check the memory module type 52, 53. If the address memory module is not of a memory type which is consistent with the memory system, then the system controller transmits Opcode 5X setting the disabled bit-67 to remove the inconsistent memory module from the memory system. If the addressed memory module is of a consistent type, then the system controller 11 transmits Opcode 71 to interrogate the memory module for the memory size 55. As described above, the L-Port is a bi-directional shared I/O port where the memory size data is input data and the memory address mask bits and the memory module disabled bits are output data bits. Thus, to properly configure the memory, the Write Disabled/Shadow Size command, Opcode 5X, must have the memory size data as read by Opcode 71 in step 55 and memory module disable bit must be set (memory disabled) at this time. The Opcode 5X is transmitted to disable, 57, the memory module prior to transmitting the Write Memory Address Mask command Opcode 4X to configure the memory module base address 59. Once the memory module base address is set, Opcode 5X is again transmitted to enable, 61, the module memory. A test program may now be run, 63, to test the memory module for proper operation. The addressed memory module is now completely configured and the system controller 11 will repeat the process for the next successive memory module 20. Referring now to FIG. 6, the components for each of the memory modules 20, as shown in FIG. 2, are mounted on separate circuit boards or cards forming removable or plug-in memory expansion boards 81, each board having a predetermined amount of memory on it; e.g., 1 MByte. Each of the plug-in memory boards includes a primary connector 85 on one surface for connecting the plug-in board to a system or formatter board 83 or to another memory expansion board 81. On its opposite surface, each plug-in memory expansion board 81 has a secondary connector to allow additional memory expansion boards to be connected. The apparatus envisions the use of a formatter or system mother board 83 to which is attached on one surface a male parallel pin connector assembly 87 having a plurality of male pins held in parallel orientation one to the other within the connector housing 87 and all parallel to the surface of the mother board 83. The male pins are organized into at least two and typically three separate buses, the first to provide electrical power to a plurality of plug-in memory expansion board assemblies 81 and address bus and a data bus. Each of the memory expansion boards 81 includes an attached female connector assembly 85 on one surface and a male connector assembly 87 on the opposite surface. The connector assemblies 85, 87 are disposed so as to allow interconnection of a plurality of memory expansion cards 81 as shown in FIG. 6, mechanically one to the other with the first of said plurality of memory expansion cards attached to the mother board 83. Ejector levers 89 are attached to the ends of the female connector housing 85 by means of cantilevered bridge assemblies formed on each side of the female connector. Ejector levers 89 facilitate removal or disconnection of an expansion card 81 without placing undue stress on the connector pins and the attached memory card. The pin designation for the primary female connector 85 are shown in TABLE IV. The secondary male connector pin designations are shown in TABLE V. Descriptions of the major system signals for both the primary and secondary connectors for the memory expansion cards are listed in TABLE VI. TABLE IV______________________________________Memory Card Primary Connector PinoutConnectorPin # Signal Name______________________________________ 1 +5V 2 +5V 3 GND 4 GND 5 nMCRST 6 TCIN 7 nRRD 8 nBUWE 9 nBRAS10 GND(nA22L)11 nA20L12 MA813 MA614 MA415 MA216 MA017 D1418 D1219 D1020 D821 D622 D423 D224 D025 VCC26 VCC27 GND28 GND29 TCOUT30 TCCLK31 nBLWE32 nCAS33 nCOLEN34 GND(nA23L)35 nA21L36 nA19L37 MA738 MA539 MA340 MA141 D1542 D1343 D1144 D945 D746 D547 D348 D1______________________________________ TABLE V______________________________________Memory Card Secondary PinoutConnectorPin # Signal Name______________________________________ 1 +5V 2 +5V 3 GND 4 GND 5 nMCRST 6 NCIN 7 nRRD 8 nBUWE 9 nBRAS10 GND(nA22L)11 nA20L12 MA813 MA614 MA415 MA216 MA017 D1418 D1219 D1020 D821 D622 D423 D224 D025 VCC26 VCC27 GND28 GND29 NCOUT30 NCCLK31 nBLWE32 nCAS33 nCOLEN34 GND(nA23L)35 nA21L36 nA19L37 MA738 MA539 MA340 MA141 D1542 D1343 D1144 D945 D746 D547 D348 D1______________________________________ TABLE VI______________________________________Memory Connector Signal Description______________________________________MA[8:0] Multiplexed processor address lines of A[18:1]D[15:0] Bidirectional memory data bus.nA[23:19]L Upper non-multiplexed block address lines.nRRD Read signal which is used to control the output enable signal on the DRAMs. This signal is essential for controlling the data bus direction direction read-modify-write cycles.nBRAS This signal provides the DRAM row address strobe.nCAS This signal provides the DRAM Column address strobe.nCOLEN Column enable signal which is used to multiplex individual address lines for use by the DRAMs. nCOLEN is high when the row address is selected and low when the column address is selected.nBLWE,nBUWE Byte-oriented write enable signals.nMCLRST This signal is driven by the formatter and will reset all memory devices in the MCL chain.TCIN This is the primary MCL input for a memory device. It is driven by the MCL output of the previous memory device (NCOUT) or formatter (MCOUT).TCOUT This is the primary MCL output for a memory device. It drives the MCL input of the previous memory device (NCIN) or formatter (MCIN).TCCLK This is the primary MCL clock input for a memory device. It is driven by the previous memory device (NCCLK) or formatter (MCCLK).NCOUT This is the secondary MCL output for a memory device. It drives the MCL input of the next memory device (TCIN).NCIN This is the secondary MCL input for a memory device. It is driven by the MCL output of the next memory device (TCOUT).NCCLK This is the MCL clock driven of a memory device. It drives the MCL clock input (TCCLK) of the next memory device.______________________________________MK3-0--MasK 3-0: these signals provide an address mappingoverlay, unique to each memory module, so that each memorymodule enables memory when the system block address equals theaddress mask overlay.MS2-0--Memory Size 2-0: these signals provide memory sizestatus to the MCL Controller. The three signals provide eightpossible memory block sizes, to be interrogated by the MCLController. Each value defines a block of memory and a block ofmemory is defined as 1 megabyte of memory.MT1-0: Memory Type 1-0: these two signals indicate a typedesignation of a particular memory Device. These are fourpossible types that can be interrogated by the MCL Controller.MDD--Memory Device Disable: this signal is used to disable orenable the DRAM memory on the expansion memory board.Memory is disabled when this signal is at a logic 1 level./RESET--/RESET is a low true hardware reset signal to theMCL processor. The MCL system must wait at least 1 millisecondafter removing /RESET before initiating any MCL communi-cation activity./TRACE--/TRACE is pulsed true after /RESET to indicate theMCL controller is functioning.VCC +5V power supply for DRAMs. These lines provide 5V ± 5% to the memory devices.GND Power supply return and logic reference.______________________________________ While the present invention has been particularly shown and described with respect to certain preferred embodiments thereof, it should be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that various changes and modifications in form and details may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims.

An expandable memory system including a central memory controller and one or more plug-in memory modules, each memory module having an on-board memory module controller coupled in a serial network architecture which forms a memory command link Each memory module controller is serially linked to the central memory controller. The memory system is automatically configured by the central controller, each memory module in the system is assigned a base address, in turn, to define a contiguous memory space without user intervention or the requirement to physically reset switches. The memory system includes the capability to disable and bypass bad memory modules and reassign memory addresses without leaving useable memory unallocated.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] This invention pertains to a sensor and method for detecting or quantifying analytes. More particularly the present invention is directed to the detection of analytes analyte-responsive gas bubble generation during analyte interaction with a immobilized binding agents on a sensor strip. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] Chemical and biological sensors are devices that can detect or quantify analytes by virtue of interactions between targeted analytes and macromolecular binding agents such as enzymes, receptors, DNA strands, heavy metal chelators, or antibodies. Such sensors have practical applications in many areas of human endeavor. For example, biological and chemical sensors have potential utility in fields as diverse as blood glucose monitoring for diabetics, detection of pathogens commonly associated with spoiled or contaminated food, genetic screening, and environmental testing. [0005] Chemical and biological sensors are commonly categorized according to two features, namely, the type of material utilized as binding agent and the means for detecting an interaction between binding agent and targeted analyte or analytes. Major classes of biosensors include enzyme (or catalytic) biosensors, immunosensors and DNA biosensors. Chemical sensors make use of synthetic macromolecules for detection of target analytes. Some common methods of detection are based on electron transfer, generation of chromophores, or fluorophores, changes in optical or acoustical properties, or alterations in electric properties when an electrical signal is applied to the sensing system. [0006] Enzyme (or catalytic) biosensors utilize one or more enzyme types as the macromolecular binding agents and take advantage of the complementary shape of the selected enzyme and the targeted analyte. Enzymes are proteins that perform most of the catalytic work in biological systems and are known for highly specific catalysis. The shape and reactivity of a given enzyme limit its catalytic activity to a very small number of possible substrates. Enzymes are also known for speed, working at rates as high as 10,000 conversions per second per enzyme molecule. Enzyme biosensors rely on the specific chemical changes related to the enzyme/analyte interaction as the means for determining the presence of the targeted analyte. For example, upon interaction with an analyte, an enzyme may generate electrons, a colored chromophore or a change in pH (due to release of protons) as the result of the relevant catalytic enzymatic reaction. Alternatively, upon interaction with an analyte, an enzyme may cause a change in a fluorescent or chemiluminescent signal that can be recorded by an appropriate detection system. [0007] Immunosensors utilize antibodies as binding agents. Antibodies are protein molecules that bind with specific foreign entities, called antigens, which can be associated with disease states. Antibodies attach to antigens and either remove the antigens from a host and/or trigger an immune response. Antibodies are quite specific in their interactions and, unlike enzymes, they are capable of recognizing and selectively binding to very large bodies such as single cells. Thus, antibody-based biosensors allow for the identification of certain pathogens such as dangerous bacterial strains. As antibodies generally do not perform catalytic reactions, there is a need for special methods to record the moment of interaction between target analyte and recognition agent antibody. Changes in mass (surface plasmon resonance, acoustic sensing) are often recorded; other systems rely on fluorescent probes that give signals responsive to interaction between antibody and antigen. Alternatively, an enzyme bound to an antibody can be used to deliver the signal through the generation of color or electrons; the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is based on such a methodology. [0008] DNA biosensors utilize the complementary nature of the nucleic acid double-strands and are designed for the detection of DNA or RNA sequences usually associated with certain bacteria, viruses or given medical conditions. A sensor generally uses single-strands from a DNA double helix as the binding agent. The nucleic acid material in a given test sample is then denatured and exposed to the binding agent. If the strands in the test sample are complementary to the strands used as binding agent, the two interact. The interaction can be monitored by various means such as a change in mass at the sensor surface or the presence of a fluorescent or radioactive signal. Alternative arrangements provide binding of the sample of interest to the sensor and subsequent treatment with labeled nucleic acid probes to allow for identification of the sequences of interest. [0009] Chemical sensors make use of non-biological macromolecules as binding agents. The binding agents show specificity to targeted analytes by virtue of the appropriate chemical functionalities in the macromolecules themselves. Typical applications include gas monitoring or heavy metal detection; the binding of analyte may change the conductivity of the sensor surface or lead to changes in charge that can be recorded by an appropriate field-effect transistor (FET). Several synthetic macromolecules have been used successfully for the selective chelation of heavy metals such as lead. [0010] The present invention has applicability to all of the above noted binding agent classes. [0011] Known methods of detecting interaction of analyte and binding agent can be grouped into several general categories: chemical, optical, acoustical, electrical, and electrochemical. In the last, a voltage or current is applied to the sensor surface or an associated medium. As binding events occur on the sensor surface, there are changes in electrical properties of the system. The leaving signal is altered as function of analyte presence. [0012] While hundreds of sensors have been described in patents and in the scientific literature, actual commercial use of such sensors remains limited. In particular, virtually all sensor designs set forth in the prior art contain one or more inherent weaknesses. Some lack the sensitivity and/or speed of detection necessary to accomplish certain tasks. Other sensors lack long-term stability. Still others cannot be sufficiently miniaturized to be commercially viable or are prohibitively expensive to produce. Some sensors must be pre-treated with salts and/or enzyme cofactors, a practice that is inefficient and bothersome. To date, virtually all sensors are limited by the known methods of determining that contact has occurred between an immobilized binding agent and targeted analytes. Use of fluorescent or other external detection probes adds to sensor production requirements and reduces lifetimes of such sensor systems. Additionally, the inventor believes that there is no sensor method disclosed in the prior art that is generally applicable to the vast majority of macromolecular binding agents, including non-redox enzymes, antibodies, antigens, nucleic acids, receptors, and synthetic binding agents. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0013] It is therefore a primary object of some aspects of the present invention to provide an improved analyte detection system, in which a sensor strip composed of a base member and a binding agent layer is used in the detection of analyte through the generation of analyte-responsive gas bubbles. [0014] It is a further object of some aspects of the invention to describe an optical detection system for gas bubbles generated by interaction of analyte with said sensor strip. [0015] It is a still further object of some aspects of the invention to describe a detection system for gas bubbles that are physically located on a container in which sample and sensor strip reside. [0016] It is an additional object of some aspects of the invention to improve the consistency and ease of use in detection of an analyte in a sensor system by performing biosensing in an optically clear disposable container such as a plastic cuvette or test tube. [0017] It is yet an additional object of some aspects of the invention to improve the consistency and ease of use in detection of an analyte in a sensor system by performing biosensing in the presence of hydrogen peroxide for non-enzymatic generation of analyte-responsive gas bubbles. [0018] The practice of the present invention does not require application of an external electrical signal, enzyme-based oxidation-reduction detection schemes, or the presence of an active electrode in an aqueous solution. Furthermore, the present invention does not rely on arrays or changes of applied electrical fields or signals as a function of analyte presence. In some embodiments, the present invention may be practiced in the absence of hydrogen peroxide. [0019] The methodology of analyte detection described herewith is very sensitive. Using the method of the present invention, it is possible to detect specific pathogenic bacteria consistently in a complex matrix within three minutes at 20 cells per milliliter of sample. [0020] In general, measurement of analyte-responsive gas bubbles according to the present invention allows for simple, rapid, specific, inexpensive and sensitive determination of analyte presence. Methods for detecting analyte-related gas bubbles in solution include but are not limited to optical and imaging methodologies. In some embodiments, a detection unit may be employed to detect optical or other signals associated with analyte-responsive gas bubble generation. In other embodiments, appearance of gas bubbles can be determined visually in the absence of any detection unit. These latter embodiments are particularly useful in low-technology settings as in the detection of malaria or meningitis in third-world countries. In embodiments in which hydrogen peroxide is present, peroxide presence additionally allows for sterilization of sample prior to the latter's disposal. [0021] A sensor strip according to some aspects of the invention may contain a plurality of identical or unique sensor strips so as to increase system detection redundancy and/or multiple analyte detection capabilities. Component binding agent layers of a composite sensor strip may be individually monitored, each component strip forming a part of a single sensor strip. [0022] In embodiments of the invention sensor strips are prepared from a portion of a container in which a biosensing experiment is performed. In such a case, binding agents specific for analyte are immobilized in proximity to a portion of the container in which sample of interest is added. Peroxide, generally hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ), may optionally be added to sample prior to exposing sample to sensor strip in the container. Final H 2 O 2 concentrations should be less than 1% (volume to volume, v:v), but concentrations higher than 10% v:v have been successfully tested on different analytes. Optimal H 2 O 2 concentration is 0.3% v:v final concentration in sample. The present invention may be practiced in the absence of hydrogen peroxide, with analyte binding causing gas bubble formation through analyte-responsive precipitation of dissolved gas. [0023] As analyte presence leads to presence of gas bubbles in solution, several methods are available for detecting the generated gas bubbles, the number of which is roughly related to the quantity of analyte in sample. In some cases, gas bubbles may be visualized directly on the container in which biosensing occurs. Alternatively, gas bubbles may be visualized directly on the sensor strip, when a sensor strip is separate from the container used in biosensing. Gas bubble detection may also be effected by the bubbles' scattering effect on light shown either on said container or on the sensor strip (when a separate element) itself. Alternatively, images of samples may be processed to identify the presence of analyte-responsive gas bubbles in sample container. Secondary phenomena related to gas formation such as solution convection or dissolved gas concentration/partial pressure may alternatively be monitored. [0024] The invention provides a sensor for detecting an analyte, which minimally includes a base member, a binding agent layer associated with the base member and a gas bubble detector. The base member and the binding agent layer minimally define a sensor strip, while additional layers such as a protective packaging layer over the binding agents may be included in the term “sensor strip” if they are physically associated with the base member. Analyte presence is correlated to gas bubbles present in solution after interaction of a sample of interest with sensor strip. [0025] One aspect of the sensor has sensor strip exposed to hydrogen peroxide during or after sensor strip exposure to sample. [0026] Another aspect of the sensor has sample heated prior to sample exposure to sensor strip. [0027] Still an additional aspect of the sensor has sample transiently exposed to high pressure gas prior to sample exposure to sensor strip. [0028] An aspect of the sensor includes a chemical entity bound to the base member and disposed proximate the binding agent layer. [0029] Yet another aspect of the sensor includes a container in which sensor strip and sensor strip are present during biosensing. [0030] One aspect of the sensor includes a packaging layer disposed above the binding agent layer. The packaging layer is soluble in a medium that contains the analyte. [0031] According to another aspect of the sensor, analyte presence is correlated to gas bubbles in said container. Said gas bubbles may be visually detected or may be identified by their perturbation or scattering of light directed at said container. [0032] According to a further aspect of the sensor, analyte presence is correlated to changes in optical images of sample prior to and after sample addition. [0033] According to a further aspect of the sensor, analyte presence is correlated to the affect of analyte-responsive gas bubbles on a Doppler ultrasound signal. [0034] According to another aspect of the sensor, the analyte is a plurality of unique analytes for detection. [0035] In another aspect of the sensor, said base member may actually be a portion of said container, with binding agents bound either directly or through the agency of a chemical layer to said portion of said container. [0036] In still another aspect of the sensor, an inhibitor to the enzyme catalase is added to the sample prior to sample exposure to hydrogen peroxide, when employed. [0037] The invention provides a method for detecting a predetermined analyte, including the steps of providing a base member, and forming a binding agent layer of macromolecules in proximity to the base member surface, wherein the macromolecules are capable of interacting at a level of specificity with the predetermined analyte. The method further includes steps of exposing said sample to said sensor strip, and detecting gas bubbles in said container. [0038] One aspect of the method has the further step of binding a chemical entity to the base member and forming the binding agent layer proximate the chemical entity. [0039] Another aspect of the method as the further step of exposing said sensor strip to hydrogen peroxide at a final concentration of 0.3% volume to volume, during or after sensor strip has been exposed to sample. [0040] An aspect of the method includes detecting said gas bubble through visual observation or perturbation of light directed at said container. [0041] An aspect of the method includes monitoring perturbations in light directed at said container holding sample as a function of gas bubble formation in said container. [0042] In another aspect of the method, detecting analyte involves analyzing changes in optical images of sample to detect gas bubble presence. [0043] In still another aspect of the method, multiple analytes are detected through the agency of a single or multiple sensor strips. [0044] In a further aspect of the method, a portion of the container serves as the base member for binding agent layer formation. [0045] One aspect of the method includes disposing a packaging layer above the binding agent layer. The packaging layer is soluble in a medium that contains the predetermined analyte. [0046] According to another aspect of the method, the sensor strip includes a plurality of sensor strips. [0047] According to yet another aspect of the method, sample is activated immediately prior to sensor strip exposure to said sample. [0048] The invention further provides a sensor for detecting an analyte, which minimally includes a base member, a binding agent layer associated with the base member, hydrogen peroxide at concentration of 0.3%. The base member and the binding agent layer minimally define a sensor strip, while additional layers such as a packaging layer over the binding agents may be included in the term “sensor strip” if they are physically associated with the base member. Analyte presence is corrected to gas bubbles present after interaction of a sample containing hydrogen peroxide with sensor strip. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0049] For a better understanding of these and other objectives of the present invention, reference is made to the following detailed description of the invention, by way of example, which is to be read in conjunction with the following drawings, in which like elements differ by multiples of 100, and wherein: [0050] FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a sensor detection system 100 , which is constructed and operative in accordance with an embodiment of the invention, wherein a sensor strip 122 comprised of base member 120 , chemical entity 130 , binding agent layer 140 and packaging layer 150 rests in sample 180 in clear plastic container 185 ; [0051] FIG. 2 is a schematic of a sensor detection system 200 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the invention, wherein a portion of a clear plastic container 285 serves as the base member 220 on which binding agent layer 240 is constructed; [0052] FIG. 3 is a schematic of a sensor detection system 300 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the invention, wherein a disposable plastic container 385 is analyzed for gas bubbles 399 on its surface by an external light source 395 ; [0053] FIG. 4 is a schematic of a sensor detection system 400 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the invention, wherein an optical imaging apparatus 496 is used to image bubbles 499 generated through analyte 457 binding; [0054] FIG. 5 is a schematic of a sensor detection system 500 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the invention. The sensor detection system 500 is similar to the sensor detection system 100 ( FIG. 1 ), and like elements have like reference numerals, advanced by 400 . In this sensor detection system 500 , an ultrasound device 592 is used to detect analyte-responsive gas bubbles 599 in sample 580 . [0055] FIG. 6 is a schematic of a sensor detection system 600 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the invention. The sensor detection system 600 is similar to the sensor detection system 100 ( FIG. 1 ), and like elements have like reference numerals, advanced by 500 . In this sensor detection system 500 , a light source 697 and light detector 698 are used for the detection of bubbles 699 in solution. [0056] FIG. 7 is a schematic of a sensor detection system 700 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the invention. The sensor detection system 700 is similar to the sensor detection system 600 ( FIG. 6 ), and like elements have like reference numerals, advanced by 100. In this sensor detection system 700 , a light source 797 and light detector 798 are used for the detection of bubbles 799 on sensor strip 522 base member 520 . [0057] FIG. 8 is a photograph of an experiment performed with sensor strips corresponding to sensor detection system 100 ( FIG. 1 ) in which sensor strips were used for the unique detection of a specific bacterial target in accordance with a disclosed embodiment of the invention. [0058] FIG. 9 is a photograph of an experiment performed with sensor strips corresponding to sensor detection system 400 ( FIG. 4 ) in which sensor strips were used for the unique detection of a specific bacterial target in accordance with a disclosed embodiment of the invention. [0059] FIG. 10 is a photograph of results for detection of a pathogenic bacteria in a meat sample in accordance with a disclosed embodiment of the invention. [0060] FIG. 11 is a photograph of overnight colony growths for the experiment whose results are shown in FIG. 10 , in accordance with a disclosed embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0061] In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances well-known circuits and control logic have not been shown in detail in order not to unnecessarily obscure the present invention. Definitions [0062] Certain terms are now defined in order to facilitate better understanding of the present invention. [0063] An “analyte” is a material that is the subject of detection or quantification. [0064] A “base member” is a solid element on which binding agents are immobilized. The term “base member” refers to a solid material on which binding agents are physically immobilized. Base members may be conductive or insulating in their electrical properties. “Macromolecules”, “macromolecular binding agents”, “binding agents” or “macromolecular entities” can be any natural, mutated, synthetic, or semi-synthetic molecules that are capable of interacting with a predetermined analyte or group of analytes at a level of specificity. [0065] A “binding agent layer” is a layer composed of one or a plurality of binding agents. The binding agent layer may be composed of more than one type of binding agent. A binding agent layer may additionally include molecules other than binding agents. Crosslinking agents may be applied to bind separate components of a binding agent layer together. [0066] A “chemical entity” is a chemical layer that is disposed proximate a base member either one or both sides of the base member. The chemical entity rests between the base member and the binding agent layer. The chemical entity serves to immobilize binding agents proximate base member. Chemical entities may be differentially deposited on opposite sides of a base member surface by any means or multiple layers on a given side of the base member may be considered a single chemical entity. [0067] A “packaging layer” is defined as a chemical layer disposed above the binding agent layer. The packaging layer may aid in long term stability of the macromolecules, and in the presence of a sample that may contain analyte of interest, the packaging layer may dissolve to allow for rapid interaction of analyte and binding agents. [0068] A “sensor strip” is defined as a minimum of a single base member and its associated binding agent layer. The base member surface and any macromolecular entities, chemical entities, packaging layers or other elements physically associated with the base member are included in the term “sensor strip”. [0069] A “peroxide” refers to any material of structure R—O—O—R′. In hydrogen peroxide, R═R′=hydrogen. The expression “peroxide” refers to hydrogen peroxide and other members of this class of chemicals. “Degradation” with respect to hydrogen peroxide refers specifically to the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen gas. “Dissolved oxygen” has its normal meaning in the art and refers to oxygen dissolved in a solution and is generally reported in ppm. “Activation”, “activating” and “activated” with regard to the present invention refers to the optional process of imparting energy to sample immediately prior to sensor strip interaction with sample. Activation may be performed my mixing, stirring, heating, centrifugation, shaking, or the like. [0070] A “gas bubble” has its normal meaning, referring to a thin, usually spherical or hemispherical film of liquid filled with air or gas A “gas bubble detector” refers to a device that can identify or quantify bubbles in a container with a liquid sample. “Catalase inhibitor” refers to a chemical that inhibits the enzyme catalase and thus prevents its catalytic degradation of hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water. [0071] Without being bound by any particular theory, the following discussion is offered to facilitate understanding of the invention. The sensor design disclosed herein is based on analyte-responsive generation of gas bubbles in an aqueous solution. The sensor utilizes a novel method of detecting an analyte wherein macromolecular binding agents are first immobilized as a binding agent layer proximate a solid base member. Base member may be any solid material to which binding agents may be directly or indirectly tethered. Binding of analyte causes thermodynamic changes, whose net impact is to cause dissolved gas to leave solution in the form of gas bubbles. To date, oxygen released from hydrogen peroxide has been the gas of choice for saturating sample solution, though other gases such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide could also be used. Increasing dissolved gas prior to biosensing can be performed through changes in sample temperature or through treatment of sample with pressurized gas. In some aspects of the present invention, the advantages of particular forms of sensor strip embodiments are disclosed. Specifically, a sensor strip may be a separate element of base member and binding agents or alternatively may be formed directly as part of a container in which a biosensing experiment according to aspects of the present invention is performed. First Embodiment [0072] Reference is now made to FIG. 1 , which is a schematic of a sensor detection system 100 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Container 185 holds sample 180 that contains un-bound analyte (TOP, 155 ) and hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 (not shown) at a concentration of greater than 0.1% (volume:volume) but not in excess of 10% (volume:volume). A sensor strip 122 composed of solid base member 120 , chemical entity 130 , binding agent layer 140 and packaging layer 150 is present in the container 185 when sample 180 is added. The packaging layer 150 dissolves (BOTTOM, FIG. 1 ) to allow for binding of analyte ( 157 , bound analyte). Bound analyte 157 leads to precipitation of dissolved gas. Gas bubbles may be detected by several known means such as Total Internal Reflection or through optical image analysis software. [0073] The packaging layer 150 , shown on the TOP of FIG. 1 , is a layer of water-soluble chemicals deposited above the immobilized macromolecules of the binding agent layer 140 . The packaging layer 150 may be deposited by soaking or spraying methods. The packaging layer 150 serves to stabilize the binding agent layer 140 during prolonged dry storage. In the absence of a packaging layer, oil and dirt may build up on the hydrophilic binding agent layer 140 and may interfere with the rapid action of the sensor system. A commercial solution, StabilGuard (Surmodics, Inc., 9924 West 74 th Street, Eden Prairie, Minn., 55344, USA) is typically used for the packaging layer 150 so as to guarantee packaging layer dissolution in aqueous samples, and thus facilitate direct interaction between macromolecular binding agents of binding agent layer 140 and analytes 157 . Other chemicals may be chosen for use in the packaging layer. Water-soluble polymers, sugars, salts, organic, and inorganic compounds are all appropriate for use in preparation of the packaging layer 150 . [0074] As shown on the TOP of FIG. 1 , free analyte 155 is disposed proximate the packaging layer 150 prior to the latter's dissolution. When the packaging layer 150 dissolves, the macromolecules incorporated in the binding agent layer 140 are free to immediately interact with analyte 157 , as shown on the BOTTOM of FIG. 1 . After dissolution of the packaging layer 150 , analyte 157 is shown interacting with the binding agent layer 140 on the BOTTOM of FIG. 1 . The analyte 155 , 157 can be a member of any of the following categories, listed herein without limitation: cells, organic compounds, antibodies, antigens, virus particles, pathogenic bacteria, toxins, metals, metal complexes, ions, spores, yeasts, molds, cellular metabolites, enzyme inhibitors, receptor ligands, nerve agents, peptides, proteins, fatty acids, steroids, hormones, narcotic agents, synthetic molecules, medications, enzymes, nucleic acid single-stranded or double-stranded nucleic acid polymers. The analyte 155 can be present in a solid, liquid, gas or aerosol. The analyte 155 could even be a group of different analytes, that is, a collection of distinct molecules, macromolecules, ions, organic compounds, viruses, toxins, spores, cells or the like that are the subject of detection or quantification. Some of the analyte 157 physically interacts with the sensor strip 122 after dissolution of the packaging layer 150 and causes an increase in gas bubbles present in solution. There is no requirement for application of a voltage or other electrical signal to the sensor strip 122 prior to or during biosensing. [0075] Examples of macromolecular binding agents suitable for use as the binding agent layer 140 include, but are not limited to non-redox enzymes that recognize substrates and inhibitors, antibodies that bind antigens, antigens that recognize target antibodies, receptors that bind ligands, ligands that bind receptors, nucleic acid single-strand polymers that can bind to form DNA-DNA, RNA-RNA, or DNA-RNA double strands, and synthetic molecules that interact with targeted analytes. The present invention can be practiced with non-redox enzymes, peptides, proteins, antibodies, antigens, catalytic antibodies, fatty acids, receptors, receptor ligands, nucleic acid strands, as well as synthetic macromolecules as the binding agents in the binding agent layer 140 . Natural, synthetic, semi-synthetic, over-expressed and genetically-altered macromolecules may be employed as binding agents. The binding agent layer 140 may form monolayers, multilayers or mixed layers of several distinct binding agents or binding agents with other chemical components (not shown). A monolayer of mixed binding agents may also be employed (not shown). The binding agents in the binding agent layer 140 may be cross-linked together with glutaraldehyde or other chemical cross-linking agents. [0076] The macromolecule component of the binding agent layer 140 is neither limited in type nor number. Non-redox enzymes, peptides, receptors, receptor ligands, antibodies, catalytic antibodies, antigens, cells, fatty acids, synthetic molecules, and nucleic acids are possible macromolecular binding agents in the present invention. The sensor detection system 100 may be applied to detection of many classes of analyte because it relies on the following properties shared by substantially all applications and embodiments of the sensor detection system according to the present invention: [0077] (1) that the macromolecules chosen as binding agents are highly specific entities designed to bind only with a selected analyte or group of analytes; [0078] (2) that analytes may interact at a level of specificity with the macromolecules; [0079] (3) that binding of analyte with binding agent causes ion release; and [0080] (4) that the ion release can lead to the precipitation of gas dissolved in solution. This gas release event can most readily be detected by the presence of gas bubbles in solution. These gas bubbles generally stick to the surface of the sensor strip used for biosensing or on the walls sample container. The gas bubbles may be detected on the strip, in sample or attached to the container in which biosensing occurs. [0081] In order to increase the energy of sample components prior to biosensing, the sample may be activated. Activation is generally performed by rapidly mixing sample with a “vortex” mixer or the like. Alternatively, the sample may be shaken, heated, centrifuged or otherwise treated so as to increase the kinetic energy of the sample components immediately prior to sensor strip exposure to sample. After activation, sensor strip is placed in sample and gas bubble detection begins. [0082] The broad and generally applicable function of the sensor detection system 100 is preserved during formation of the binding agent layer 140 in proximity to the base member 120 because the binding agent layer 140 formation can be effected by either specific covalent attachment or general physical absorption. A chemical entity 130 , such as a self-assembled monolayer, may be used in the physical absorption of the binding agent layer 140 proximate the base member 120 . It is to be emphasized that the catalytic degradation of hydrogen peroxide that is associated with analyte presence does not depend on any specific enzyme chemistries, optical effects, fluorescence, chemiluminescence or applied electrical signals. These features are important advantages of the present invention. Additionally, hydrogen peroxide kills pathogenic samples during biosensing. Second Embodiment [0083] Reference is now made to FIG. 2 , which is a schematic of a an alternative embodiment of a sensor detection system 200 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Container 285 holds sample 280 that contains un-bound analyte (TOP, 255 ) and hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 (not shown) at a concentration of greater than 0.1% (volume:volume) but not in excess of 10% (volume:volume). A sensor strip 222 composed a base member 220 made from a portion of the container 285 , optional chemical entity 230 , binding agent layer 240 and packaging layer 250 is present in the container 285 when sample 280 is added. The packaging layer 250 dissolves (BOTTOM, FIG. 2 ) to allow for binding of analyte ( 257 , bound analyte). [0084] Binding of analyte 257 leads to ion release that causes dissolved gas to coalesce in the form of gas bubbles. The gas bubbles may be detected by several means, as discussed previously. Third Embodiment [0085] Reference is now made to FIG. 3 , which is a schematic of an alternative embodiment of a sensor detection system 300 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Container 385 holds sample 380 that contains un-bound analyte (TOP, 355 ) in solution. A sensor strip 322 composed of solid base member 320 , chemical entity 330 , binding agent layer 340 and packaging layer 350 is present in the container 385 when sample 380 is added. The packaging layer 350 dissolves (BOTTOM, FIG. 3 ) to allow for binding of analyte ( 357 , bound analyte). Bound analyte 357 evolves gas that appear in the form of gas bubbles 399 . The gas bubbles are detected as gas bubbles 399 on the walls of container 385 containing sample 380 . Fourth Embodiment [0086] Reference is now made to FIG. 4 , which is a schematic of an alternative embodiment of a sensor detection system 400 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Container 485 holds sample 480 that contains un-bound analyte (TOP, 455 ) and prior to biosensing, sample 480 was cooled to increase dissolved gas and then returned to room temperature (process not shown). A sensor strip 422 composed of solid base member 420 , chemical entity 430 , binding agent layer 440 and packaging layer is present in the container 485 when sample 480 is added. The packaging layer 450 dissolves (BOTTOM, FIG. 4 ) to allow for binding of analyte ( 457 , bound analyte). Binding of analyte 457 leads to increased precipitation of dissolved gas. Gas bubbles 499 are detected by an imaging gas bubble detector 496 . The imaging device may be a digital camera modified with image analysis software for gas bubble 499 detection. Gas bubbles 499 leave a unique imprint on images of the sample 480 taken by gas bubble detector 496 . Fifth Embodiment [0087] Reference is now made to FIG. 5 , which is a schematic of an alternative embodiment of a sensor detection system 500 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Container 585 holds sample 580 that contains un-bound analyte (TOP, 555 ) and hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 (not shown) at a concentration of greater than 0.001% (volume:volume) but not in excess of 10% (volume:volume). A sensor strip 522 composed of plastic base member 520 , optional chemical entity 530 , binding agent layer 540 and packaging layer 550 is present in the container 585 when sample 580 is added. The packaging layer 550 dissolves (BOTTOM, FIG. 5 ) to allow for binding of analyte 557 , bound analyte. Bound analyte 557 leads to increased gas bubble 599 presence in container. An ultrasound device gas bubble detector 592 is used to detect the gas bubbles 599 in solution. Sixth Embodiment [0088] Reference is now made to FIG. 6 , which is a schematic of an alternative embodiment of a sensor detection system 600 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Optically clear container 685 holds sample 680 that contains un-bound analyte (TOP, 655 ) and buffered hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 (not shown) at a concentration of greater than 0.1% (volume:volume) but not in excess of 10% (volume:volume). A sensor strip 622 composed of solid base member 620 , chemical entity 630 , binding agent layer 640 and packaging layer is present in the container 685 when sample 680 is added. The packaging layer 650 dissolves (BOTTOM, FIG. 6 ) to allow for binding of analyte ( 657 , bound analyte). Bound analyte 657 leads to evolution of gas in the form of gas bubbles. Gas bubbles 699 are detected by the interference of gas bubbles 699 with light propagated from a gas bubble detector light source 697 to a light detector 698 . Seventh Embodiment [0089] Reference is now made to FIG. 7 , which is a schematic of an alternative embodiment of a sensor detection system 700 that is constructed and operative in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Optically clear container 785 holds sample 780 that contains un-bound analyte (TOP, 755 ) and hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 (not shown) at a concentration of greater than 0.1% (volume:volume) but not in excess of 10% (volume:volume). A sensor strip 722 composed of solid base member 720 , chemical entity 730 , binding agent layer 740 and packaging layer is present in the container 785 when sample 780 is added. The packaging layer 750 dissolves (BOTTOM, FIG. 7 ) to allow for binding of analyte ( 757 , bound analyte). Bound analyte 757 extrudes electric double layer ions and thus causes precipitation of dissolved gas. Gas bubbles 799 are detected by their effect on the optical properties of light propagated from a light source 797 , reflected off the sensor strip 722 base member 720 and measured in a gas bubble detector 798 as shown in FIG. 7 . Example 1 [0090] The analysis in this example was performed using the embodiment of FIG. 1 . Testing for Pseudomonas aeruginosa was performed in phosphate buffer solution, pH 7.15. Aluminum foil having a matte surface and a shiny surface (Extra Heavy-Duty Diamond Foil, Reynolds Metals Co., 555 Guthridge Court, Norcross, Ga. 30092) was cut into 6 centimeter by 8 centimeter pieces and soaked in an ethanolic (Carmel Mizrahi, Rishon Letzion, Israel, 95%) solution of docosanoic acid (21,694-1, Aldrich Chemical Company, Milwaukee, Wis.) for 20 minutes and then rinsed with distilled water. The soakings were performed in 100 milliliter piranha-treated (70% sulfuric acid; 30% hydrogen peroxide) beakers, with the self-assembled monolayer (SAM) surfactant solution standing at 20 milliliters in the beaker. Hydrophobic SAM-coated foil pieces were rinsed in deionized water and next transferred to 20 milliliters of aqueous phosphate-buffered solutions (pH 7.2) of polyclonal antibodies specific for P. aeruginosa antigen (Product B47578P, Biodesign International, 60 Industrial Park Road, Saco, Me. 04072 USA) at an approximate concentration of 18 microgram per milliliter. The solution was kept in contact with the SAM-coated aluminum foil for approximately 20 minutes and then the coated aluminum foil was rinsed with phosphate buffer lacking antibody. The hydrophilic coated aluminum foil was next soaked for 3 minutes in 20 milliliters of StabilGuard (SG01-0125, Surmodics, 9924 West 74 th Street, Eden Prairie, Minn. 55344). After coating, the coated foil was dried at 37 degrees Celsius for approximately one hour, after which it was transferred to a sealed bag that contained calcium sulfate drying agent (238988-454G, “Drierite”, Aldrich Chemical Company). Prior to use, the coated foil was removed from its storage bag. 1 cm×10 cm rectangles of coated sensor strip 122 were cut and placed in plastic test tubes. Samples were prepared from phosphate buffer (8 mM) that contained hydrogen peroxide at 0.1% (v:v). One sample contained Pseudomonas aeruginosa cells at an approximate concentration of 10 4 cells per milliliter, while the other sample contained E. coli at a similar concentration. Each sample 180 was added to the appropriate container 185 containing the coated sensor strip 122 composed of aluminum base member 120 , SAM chemical entity 130 , a binding agent layer 140 composed of polyclonal antibodies and StabilGuard packaging layer 150 . As shown in FIG. 8 , the sample with Pseudomonas aeruginosa (right tube) showed significant gas bubble presence, while the sample that contained the non-target E. coli (left tube) showed no noticeable bubbling. Example 2 [0091] The analysis in this example was performed using the embodiment of FIG. 5 . N-type silicon (Silicon Sense, N.H., USA) was cut into 1×1 cm 2 pieces and rinsed in 95% ethanol (Carmel Mizrahi, Israel). The chips were then rinsed in deionized water and placed in piranha solution. After piranha cleaning for 30 minutes at 80 degrees Celsius, the chips were rinsed in copious amounts of DI water, and then transferred to a 20 milliliter solution of ammonium fluoride (Aldrich product number 338869; 40% weight:volume in DI water). When the chips appeared hydrophobic due to the generation of silicon hydride on the chip surfaces, the chips were transferred to a phosphate-buffered solution of Pseudomonas -specific polyclonal antibodies (Biodesign, Product B47578P) mixed in a 1:100 ratio with bovine serum albumin (BSA, Sigma Chemical Co.). The chips readily became hydrophilic as phosphate and then protein bound to the surface. The chips were next transferred to StabilGuard for packaging layer formation and then allowed to dry at 37 degrees Celsius. In this example, silicon acts as base member 520 , phosphate serves as chemical entity 530 , polyclonal antibodies with BSA form the binding agent layer 540 , while StabilGuard is the packaging layer 550 . Dried chips were transferred to samples 580 in Eppendorf tube containers 585 that contained either sample 580 with either Pseudomonas aeruginosa cells ( FIG. 9 , left side) or E. coli ( FIG. 9 , right side) in addition to dilute amounts of hydrogen peroxide. A digital camera was used as an imaging device 592 to produce the photographic image shown in FIG. 9 . As is clear from the samples shown in FIG. 9 , the sample with Pseudomonas analyte 555 , 557 shows much greater gas bubble formation than does the sample that lacks analyte recognized by the binding agent layer 540 . No catalase was added to the samples described in this example. Example 3 [0092] P-type silicon (Silicon Sense, N.H., U.S.A.), was scored with a diamond pen and cut into 0.5 cm by 0.5 cm square chips. The chips were placed in a 100-milliliter glass beaker. Two hundred such squares were rinsed in situ sequentially in chloroform, then ethanol and finally in deionized water. Excess water was removed and 60 milliliters piranha solution (70% sulfuric acid; 30% hydrogen peroxide) was added. The chips were left in piranha solution at 80 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes. Solution was decanted, the chips were washed in situ with copious amounts of deionized water, and then treated with 20 milliliters of 40% weight to volume ammonium fluoride (Aldrich, product number 338869, Milwaukee, Wis. U.S.A.). The chips were left in the ammonium fluoride etching solution for twenty minutes. Removal of silicon oxide left the chips hydrophobic and many of them began to float. The solution was carefully decanted and the chips were rinsed with copious amounts of deionized water. The now hydrophobic chips, in the chemical form of Si—H (silicon hydride) were soaked in 20 milliliter potassium phosphate buffer (25 mM, pH 7.5) of bovine serum albumin (BSA, Sigma, 100 micrograms) and antibody ((0.2 micrograms of catalogue sample C65160M, Biodesign, Saco, Me., U.S.A.) for E. coli 0157:H7. The chips became hydrophilic and dropped to the bottom of the beaker. The chips were allowed to soak in protein solution for thirty minutes. Solution was discarded, the chips were rinsed with 25 mM potassium phosphate solution once and then treated with 20 milliliters of Stabilguard (SG01-0125, Surmodics, 9924 West 74 th Street, Eden Prairie, Minn. 55344). After ten minutes, Stabilguard was decanted, the chips were poured out onto paper and put into an incubator for fifteen minutes at 37 degrees Celsius to dry. Individual chips were used for experiments as described below. [0093] E. coli 0157:H7 (ATCC strain 433894) grown overnight in tryptic-soy growth media (BS-376, Novamed, Jerusalem, Israel) was serially diluted in 10 mM potassium phosphate buffer. A 10 8 dilution of target bacteria was used. The bacteria were added to a 25 mM potassium phosphate solution (1.5 milliliters) that was 20 microgram per milliliter in catalase (Catalogue number C-40, Sigma). The bacteria were allowed to sit in buffer for two minutes and then hydrogen peroxide (Per-O-Flex, diluted in deionized water tenfold to 0.3% stock) was added to a final concentration of 0.001%. The solution was divided between two Eppendorf tubes. A coated chip was inserted into one of the tubes, while into the second was placed an uncoated silicon chip for the purposes of a control experiment. Thirty seconds after chip insertion bubbles were visible to the eye exclusively in the tube that had the chip coated with antibodies for E. coli 0157:H7. Two minutes later, a photographic image of the experiment was recorded, as shown in FIG. 10 . [0094] In this example, based on the sensor detection system 400 embodiment shown in FIG. 4 , silicon serves as base member 420 for binding agents 440 , with phosphate moieties acting as chemical entity 430 between them. Sensor strip 422 includes silicon chip base member 420 , phosphate chemical entity 430 , antibody and bovine serum albumin binding agent layer 440 and Stabilguard packaging layer 450 . Eppendorf tube serves as container 485 for bacterial sample 480 , containing analyte 455 , 457 E. coli 0157 :H7. A Sony 2.1 megapixel digital camera serves as the optical imaging apparatus 496 . [0095] FIG. 10 shows the results for the E. coli 0157:H7 detection experiment described above. The tube on the right side contains coated sensor chip and there are hundreds of bubbles visible in this image of the experiment. Tilting the tube 45 degrees helps in bringing the bubbles to the surface of the Eppendorf tube. Bubbles in positive experiments tend to be small and closely-spaced. Bubble size, bubble position or pattern in container, number of bubbles and/or speed of bubble appearance on container wall may all be considered in discriminating positive from negative samples. The negative control (left tube) showed no bubbling, though it was exposed to the identical solution as was present in the positive sample. Plating of a parallel sample not treated with hydrogen peroxide showed that only a few dozen cells were present in the experiment. Results of plating of the 10 8 dilution used in this example are shown in FIG. 11 . [0096] The present invention may be performed either in a single or in multiple steps. If target is located in a sample that contains significant amounts of catalase, catalase inhibitor may be added to sample or alternatively, sensor strip may first be soaked in sample, then rinsed in deionized water and then soaked in a solution that contains hydrogen peroxide at 0.3% v:v. In the final soak with hydrogen peroxide, gas bubbles are identified as a function of analyte presence in the original sample. The strip may be manually moved between sample, rinse and hydrogen peroxide solutions or may be appropriately handled in a detection unit that automatically changes solution around the sensor strip. SUMMARY [0097] The implications of the invention described herein are that nearly any material that can be recognized at a level of specificity by a peptide, protein, antibody, non-redox enzyme, receptor, nucleic acid polymer, synthetic binding agent, or the like can be detected and quantified safely in food, body fluids, air or other samples quickly, cheaply, and with high sensitivity. Response is very rapid, generally less than 10 minutes. Cost of manufacture is low, and sensitivity has been shown to be very good. [0098] The present invention has been described with a certain degree of particularity, however those versed in the art will readily appreciate that various modifications and alterations may be carried out without departing from the spirit and scope of the following claims. Therefore, the embodiments and examples described here are in no means intended to limit the scope or spirit of the methodology and associated devices related to the present invention. Sample may be presented to the sensor strip by static or flow means, including but not limited to microfluidic delivery of sample to sensor strip.

The present invention describes a biosening device and method. Specifically, binding of target analyte perturbs the surface of a sensor strip so that gas bubbles are generated in solution. Said gas bubbles may be detected for determination of analyte presence in sample.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to a cycloidal propeller. 2. Description of the Related Art Cycloidal propellers serve mostly as marine major drives, but may be used also as auxiliary drives, namely whenever especially high maneuverability is required. One type of cycloidal propeller is described in Voith document reprint 9.94 2000. The wing mechanism disclosed therein serves to move the wings on the wing circle of the rotor in the necessary positions to generate propelling forces, and also to control forces. Feathering is effected by way of a central joystick, which is actuated by two servomotors arranged at right angles to one another. The rotor is generally powered via a diesel engine with a gear drive comprising a bevel ring gear and a bevel pinion. DE-B 19 41 652 describes a cycloidal propeller serving only as a marine auxiliary drive and which at cruising speed of the ship, is operated exclusively as a rudder. Feathering of the individual wings is effected by suitable accessory apparatuses to a degree such that in the so-called nonbuoyant, i.e., nonpropelling sailing position, they are parallel to one another and can in this position be adjusted to the necessary angular position by rotation of the rotor element according to the required rotor position. DE 36 06 549 A1 describes a system to generate motion, or also drive, which in the broadest sense could be described also as a cycloidal propeller with multiple-part wings, i.e., composite wing profile. Gear wheels are primarily used as an actuating drive for the wing components, and for one the rear wing part, in the last part of the drive train formed of a chain of gear/wheels, consists of a gear segment and a gear wheel mounted on the shaft end of the rear wing part. DE-AS 11 92 945 is geared to safety against wing damage by foreign objects and provides safety valves for relieving the pressure spaces of the drive servomotors in case external forces exerted on the wings by foreign objects would cause an unallowable pressure increase in the pressure spaces. In the case of the cycloidal propeller described in the not prepublished older document DE 196 02 043 C1, a large actuation option of the wing is achieved by a gear drive fitted between the linkages of the wing mechanism and the respective wing shaft consisting predominantly of a gear segment and a gear wheel. But the design of the cycloidal propeller, notably concerning the configuration of the propeller mechanism and attachment to the wing shaft, results in relatively short feathering paths of the wings. Therefore, it is not possible to bring the rounded head end of the wings in a forward direction of travel. Therefore, wing profiles are used that deviate from the usual shape and have an essentially oval shape. At certain states of travel this is unfavorable, for example when the ship travels within narrow channels, in harbors or in the skerries. In such states of travel, it is advantageous to drive the ship using the cycloidal propeller, and not the main drive, which is configured for a considerably higher speed. The high maneuverability of the cycloidal propeller is utilized here. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention comprises a cycloidal propeller including a stator and a rotor mounted rotatably to the stator. The rotor has an axis of rotation and a plurality of wings having shafts pivotally mounted to the rotor with a swivel axis. The rotor axis of rotation and the swivel axes of the wings are substantially parallel to each other. A propeller mechanism is included for actuation of the wings using a joystick connected to the wings by a linkage. A means is also included for causing actuation of the wings to a sailing position where the wings are parallel to each other. The means is also able to actuate the wings from a sailing position to a rudder position, with the means coupled to a respective wing shaft by a releasable clutch. An additional clutch is provided with each wing for separating the each wing from the propeller mechanism. An objective underlying the invention is to design a cycloidal propeller such that a separation is brought about between the regular propeller mechanism and the accessory apparatuses. This objective is intentionally satisfied by the features of offering the advantage that the usual propeller mechanism can be used and that the accessory apparatuses can be selectively configured. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention is explained hereafter with the aid of the drawing figures, which show the following: FIG. 1 is a schematic plan view of the rotor with the wings in normal position; FIG. 2 is a similar plan view of FIG. 1, with wings feathered to sailing position, each wing in a basic view; FIG. 3 is a cross section through the outer area of the rotor element; FIG. 4 is a plan view of the rotor in another embodiment with the wings in normal position; FIG. 5 is a similar plan view of FIG. 4, with the wings feathered to sailing position, each in a basic view; FIG. 6 is a cross section view through the outer area of the rotor; FIG. 7 is a schematic of the controller for the rudder operation (i.e., for propellers with a dual mechanism) and, FIG. 8 is an elevational view of a prior art cycloidal propeller with a stator 100. Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding parts throughout the several views. The exemplification set out herein illustrates one preferred embodiment of the invention, in one form, and such exemplification is not to be construed as limiting the scope of the invention in any manner. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION According to FIG. 1, five wings 1 are contained on the wing circle a of the rotor, or rotor element 50 (refer to FIG. 3). The arrangement is shown in the zero position, in which the individual wings, i.e., more exactly, the profile rails of the wings, extend tangentially to the wing circle a. The joystick with its center 8 is exactly in the center of the wing mechanism 2. Sketched here is the so-called slider-crank mechanism with the oscillating crank 51, connecting rod 52 and coupling rod 20 attaching by way of the wing drive lever 24 to the relevant wing 1. FIG. 3 shows this structure still more accurately. The coupling rod 20 is hinged with its bearing eye 35, by means of bearing pin 33 secured by axle disk 34, by way of bearing 36 to the drive lever 24 of the wing. This connection is releasable in operation by the hydraulically actuated clutch 6. The configuration of said clutch may be, e.g., according to the German patent documents DE-C 40 19 746 or DE-C 40 19 747 or the U.S. Pat. No. 4,859,106. A number of releasable clutches are illustrated in Dubbel Taschenbuch des Maschinenbaus (Mechanical Engineering Handbook) on pages 746 through 750. But they are for the most designed only for axially aligned shafts or, except for the Airflex clutch illustrated in FIG. 82, not very well suited for other reasons for the purpose on hand here. However, the handbook refers in a note to other suitable hydrostatic clutches. With the clutch released, the propeller mechanism, i.e., presently the drive lever 24, is detached from the propeller shaft, making the proper shaft, and thus the wing, freely movable by the accessory apparatuses, with the radially inner clutch part resting via the bearings 65 and 66 on the wing shaft. The wing drive according to the accessory apparatuses consists of the relevant hydraulic cylinder 5, which by means of bearing 41 and bearing pin 42 attaches to the fork of a gear segment 4. Said gear segment is mounted in the rotor element 50 by means of bearing pins 37 secured by screw 38, and by means of bearing 39. Its teeth mesh with those of a gear 3, which, in turn, can be locked to the wing shaft 22 by way of the clutch 6', which is configured the same as clutch 6. With the clutch disengaged, the radially inner part of the clutch and the gear 3 rest via bearing 68, or 69, on the wing shaft. Illustrated is yet another bearing 72 with bearing bushing 71, said bearing serving to mount the wing shaft on the rotor element. The bottom bearing of the wing shaft is referenced 73 here, the pertaining bearing bushing is reference 74. The radially outer boundary of the rotor element is the vertical wall 31. The gear drive has a large gear ratio, such that relatively small actuating motions of the hydraulic jack 5 produce a large swivel angle of gear 3, respectively the wing shaft 22 along with it, and thus of the wing 1, as can be seen from FIG. 2. The illustrated measures make it possible to adjust each wing with normal profile to the desired rudder position without any impediment, and at that, with the thick rounded head end in the ship's direction of travel. The hydraulic fluid supply to the clutches 6 and 6' is effected here by way of clamping rings 61 and 62, to which the fluid supply is connected. The clutches are now either closed while the clutches 6' are released, allowing actuation of the wing shafts either by the regular propeller mechanism or by the accessory apparatuses. The procedure is practically such that the normal propeller mechanism sets the wings tangential to the wing circle, before the clutches pertaining to this mechanism are released. Next, the clutches 6' of the accessory apparatuses are closed, the propellers adjust first to the parallel sailing position and continue then adjusting to the required rudder position. Another embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4 through 6, has the same components as the propeller mechanism 2 in FIG. 3 and 4 and the wings 1. Indicated additionally is a swivel motor 7 coordinated with the individual wing shafts, as can be seen in more detail in FIG. 6. Such motor have a very large swivel angle, for instance up to 270°, such as described, e.g., in the book "Hydraulik-Fluidtechnik" (Hydraulic Fluidics) by Thomas Krist, under 8.1 Thrust Piston Hydrocylinders, FIG. 8.1.2 d. Such swivel motor is basically illustrated also in the initially mentioned German disclosure, but is equipped there only for a limited swivel angle, of about 90°. The coupling to the wing shaft 22' is established here via an adapter sleeve 41. Contained between said sleeve and the wing shaft is the clutch 16'; a further clutch 16 is contained between the drive lever 24 of the wing shaft pertaining to the propeller mechanism 2 and is hinged to the coupling rod 20. This equals practically the structure relative to FIG. 3. Illustrated additionally, on swivel motor 7, is the connecting plate 40 for the hydraulic fluid lines. The hydraulic fluid supply and release is controlled with the aid of valves known from hydraulic engineering. Provided for the hydraulic fluid supply to the clutch 16 is the clamping ring 75. Applicable in the case of the present variant, analogous to the first variant, is that either the clutches 16 are closed and the clutches 16' released or vice versa. The following addresses FIG. 7. Schematically illustrated, the cycloidal propeller comprises the following essential components: ______________________________________1 Wing2 Propeller mechanism3 Gear wheel4 Gear segment5 Hydraulic cylinder100 Switching system for clutches101 PLC controller102 Rudder wheel103 Control signal generator104 Input from compass105 Limit switch to lock the rotor106 Cam for locking the rotor107 Hydraulic fluid supply with hydraulic valves108 Electric terminal on stator109 Electric terminal on rotor110 Hydraulic connection on stator111 Hydraulic connection on rotor112 Pitch feedback113 Hydraulic fluid for hydraulic cylinder114 Hydraulic fluid for clutches______________________________________ Both the clutches and hydraulic cylinders are connected via hoses and piping with quick-action couplings attached to the outside of the rotor. The mating components to the quick-action couplings, the valves and the pertaining fluid supplies for the clutches and hydraulic cylinders are contained on the stator of the propeller. With the propeller operating in normal operation, i.e., the wing driven by the mechanism, no hydraulic fluid supply is required. Hence, no rotary hydraulic fluid couplings are required. The quick-action couplings are closed not until the propeller is at standstill, thereby establishing a connection of the clutches and hydraulic cylinders to their respective fluid supplies. In the simplest case, the quick-action couplings are closed manually. The procedure can be automated easily, for example, by way of a hydraulically or pneumatically actuated apparatus. The same is true for the electrical connection to the displacement transducers contained in the hydraulic cylinder. Here, too, the electrical connection is not required until the rotor is at standstill. Description of Wheel Element Blocking Stopping and blocking the rotor may be envisaged as follows: The rotor features a cam for activation of a limit switch on the stator. As the propeller is shut down, the rotor stops at any point, but continues to be rotated then until the cam actuates the limit switch. Next, the propeller is locked against further rotation on the propeller input shaft, for example, by means of a disk brake or a plain mechanical lockout. Description of Control The propeller is in normal operation controlled via a known standard controller. In the rudder operation, with the rotor at standstill, control is effected by means of a handwheel, which by means of a rotary potentiometer feeds control pulses to an PLC controller. The output signals control solenoid valves, which, in turn, effect the control of the hydraulic cylinders, and thus the required wing actuation. The control procedure can also be automated, using a signal from the ship's compass. The description of the control and hydraulic fluid supply applies analogously also to the use of a swivel motor, instead of a hydraulic cylinder. Accomplished with the proposed invention is a genuine sailing position, and additional rudder angles can be adjusted. The propeller is thus a substitute for an additional rudder, since all of the wings are rotated by a common angle, thus generating a thrust in a desired direction. Major elements are the gear wheel 3, gear segment 4 or, alternatively, the swivel motor. These elements make it possible to swivel the wing to any desired position. The wing actuation for rudder operation is carried out with the rotor at standstill. Hydraulic and electrical connections are required only with the rotor at standstill. Therefore, plain commercially available connectors (e.g., quick-action couplings) can be used. While this invention has been described as having a preferred design, the present invention can be further modified within the spirit and scope of this disclosure. This application is therefore intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention using its general principles. Further, this application is intended to cover such departures from the present disclosure as come within known or customary practice in the art to which this invention pertains and which fall within the limits of the appended claims.

A cycloidal propeller to achieve strictly a rudder operation includes accessory apparatuses containing accessory drives. Clutches are used to couple the accessory drives to the propeller shafts, and additional clutches are provided to disengage the fixed connection of the normal propeller mechanism to the wing shafts in cruising operation.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to peptides and peptide mimetics that are cytotoxic to, and/or inhibiting to the growth of, a cancer cell and/or stimulating to the growth of a non-cancerous cell and/or a control cell. The present invention also relates to medical uses of such peptides and peptide mimetics. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION Although chemotherapy has been responsible for curing many people of cancer, there still remain a large number of patients whose tumours either show little response to treatment, or respond initially only to recur later. For these patients the current treatments are clearly inadequate. It is thought that certain tumours are unresponsive to conventional chemotherapy because the cells of these tumours have a pattern of gene expression that renders them insensitive to chemotherapeutic agents. Similarly, it is thought that tumours often respond initially to chemotherapy, but subsequently become resistant because the cells of the tumour exhibit tumour heterogeneity and genetic instability. Tumour heterogeneity describes the situation where different cells in the tumour have different patterns of gene expression with some cells being resistant to a chemotherapeutic agent, whilst other cells are sensitive to this agent. Treating such a tumour with this chemotherapeutic agent therefore kills the sensitive cells, resulting in tumour shrinkage, but fails to kill the resistant cells, which continue dividing to produce a cancer that is wholly drug resistant. In addition most conventional chemotherapeutic agents developed up to the present time generally inhibit the growth of important normal cells, for example: a) chemotherapeutic inhibition of the progenitor cells of the haemopoietic system resulting in a fall of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets causing anaemia, susceptibility to infection and spontaneous bleeding b) inhibition of replacement of normal cells in the bowel causing diarrhea or c) inhibition of replacement of squamous cells lining the mouth, nose and throat etc. Genetic instability is found in the majority of cancers. It results in the tumour cells acquiring new mutations. Certain of these mutations may confer drug resistance to the cells in which they occur. These drug resistant cells survive chemotherapy and divide to produce a cancer that is drug resistant. There is thus a need for anticancer agents which are effective against all cancer cells, which are not affected by tumour heterogeneity and genetic instability and which do not inhibit growth of normal (non-cancerous) cells or which may even promote normal non-cancerous cell growth. WO 03/081239, which is hereby incorporated in its entirety by reference, identifies gene products, termed critical normal gene products, which are required for cancer cell survival and proliferation. Because critical normal gene products are required for cancer cell survival and proliferation, they must be present and functioning in every tumour cell and therefore provide a consistent anti-cancer drug target that is unaffected by tumour heterogeneity and genetic instability. WO 03/081239 teaches that agents that disrupt critical normal gene products provide effective anti-cancer agents. Although generic methods for disrupting critical normal gene products were disclosed, WO 03/081239 did not disclose any agent that could successfully treat cancer. Critical normal gene products should also, by definition, not disrupt the function of normal cells. Thus, conventional chemotherapy in the clinic is non-selective and thus consistently damages normal non-cancerous cells and is only effective against non-resistant cancer cells. An ideal anticancer agent would inhibit the growth of most, if not all, types of cancer cell growth but have no effect on, or even stimulate, normal non-cancerous cell growth. WO 03/081239 identified CDK4 protein as a critical normal gene product that is present in most (if not all) cancers. CDK4 protein is known to regulate entry into S phase of the cell cycle by initiating the events needed for the cell to enter S phase. More particularly, activated CDK4 phosphorylates pRb and related proteins p107 and p130. In their hypophosphorylated state these proteins bind E2F transcription factors. However, upon phosphorylation, the E2F transcription factors are released as heterodimers with the proteins DP-1/DP-2. The E2F/DP heterodimers then bind to DNA and activate factors required for DNA synthesis (an activity that takes place during S phase). In addition, free E2F protein upregulates genes controlling cell division such as cyclin E, cyclin A, CDK1 and E2Fs, thereby progressing the cell cycle. CDK4 protein is only activated when conditions for entry into S phase are suitable and positive signal transduction pathways relaying signals from cell surface receptors such as the Ras/Raf/Erk pathway have been demonstrated to affect CDK4 activation. CDK4 protein is activated by phosphorylation of threonine 164 but inhibited by phosphorylation of tyrosine 17. To enable it to perform its role, CDK4 protein is known to have many functions including binding cyclin D1, phosphorylating pRb, binding to CDK inhibitors such as p21, p27, p16, binding to cyclin activating kinase and interacting with the enzymes responsible for phosphorylating and dephosphorylating tyrosine 17. Because of its role in promoting cell division, several studies have investigated the role of CDK4 protein in cancer. Knockout mice lacking CDK4 protein do not develop cancer following induction with a classical system of initiator (DMBA) followed by promoter (TBA i.e. phorbol ester) (Robles et al. (1998) Genes Dev. 12: 2469; Rodriguez-Puebla et al. (2002) Am. J. Path. 161: 405). No other knockout (including a cyclin D1 knockout) has such a marked effect on cancer development. However, the CDK4 protein is typically over-expressed in cancer cells. In addition, transgenic mice overexpressing CDK4 protein are more readily induced to develop cancer using the carcinogenesis induction system mentioned above (Robles et al. (1998) Genes Dev. 12: 2469; Rodriguez-Puebla et al. (2002) Am. J. Path. 161: 405). Moreover, transfection of normal CDK4 has been shown to cause extension of proliferative lifespan in normal human fibroblasts (Morris et al. (2002) Oncogene 21, 4277) In view of the apparent importance of CDK4 protein in cancer, it has been proposed to be an anticancer target. However, drugs that inhibit CDK4 kinase activity (such as flavopiridol) have very little clinical effect in phase II studies. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention improves on the prior art by providing effective anti cancer agents that target the CDK4 protein. More particularly, the invention provides a peptide comprising an amino acid sequence that is part of the amino acid sequence of a CDK4 protein, or homologous to part of the amino acid sequence of CDK4 protein, which peptide is cytotoxic to, and/or inhibiting to the growth of, a cancer cell and/or stimulating to the growth of non-cancerous cells and/or control cells. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention the peptide is non-inhibitory to the growth of non-cancerous cells and/or control cells. Preferably, the CDK4 protein is human CDK4 protein. The term peptide is well known in the art and refers to a molecule comprising a linear sequence of amino acid residues. Proteins, such as the CDK4 protein, also comprise linear sequences of amino acid residues. The peptide of the present invention may therefore comprise a part of the amino acid sequence of CDK4 protein. That is to say, the peptide comprises a fragment of the CDK4 protein. In one embodiment, the peptide comprises shorter linear sequences within the unique partially hydrophobic region located externally in the c-terminal portion of the CDK4 molecule (vide infra) and cyclic peptides derived from these same sequences which inhibit the growth of human cancer cells. Preferably, this peptide is non-inhibitory to the growth of non-cancerous cells and/or control cells. Optionally, this peptide stimulates the growth of non-cancerous cells and/or control cells. In a preferred embodiment, the peptide comprises the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the peptide consists of the amino acid set out in SEQ ID NO:1. Alternatively, the peptide may comprise an amino acid sequence that is homologous to a part of the amino acid sequence of CDK4 protein. In a preferred embodiment, the peptide comprises the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:2. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the peptide consists of the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:2. In one embodiment, the peptide comprises an amino acid sequence having the general formula ZRGXRZ (SEQ ID NO:32), wherein R is arginine, G is glycine, Z may be present or absent and at least one Z is present, X and Z are proline or threonine and at least one of X and/or Z is proline. In a preferred embodiment X and Z are proline. It is preferred that the peptide comprises an amino acid sequence selected from PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 5), PRGPR (SEQ ID NO: 6), RGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 7), RGPR (SEQ ID NO: 8), TRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 9), TRGTRP (SEQ ID NO: 10), TRGTRT (SEQ ID NO: 11), PRGTRP (SEQ ID NO: 12), PRGPRT (SEQ ID NO: 13), PRGTRT (SEQ ID NO: 14), TPPRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 15) and PPRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 16). The peptide may also consist of these amino acid sequences. These peptides are particularly preferred because they are cytotoxic to cancer cells tested and some were also selectively cytotoxic to cancer cells and non-inhibitory to the growth of non-cancerous cells tested. In one embodiment, the peptide comprises an amino acid sequence having the general formula PRXXRP (SEQ ID NO:33), wherein P is proline, R is arginine and X is any amino acid or an amino acid mimetic. An amino acid mimetic is an organic molecule exhibiting similar properties to a natural amino acid. It is particularly preferred that the peptide comprises an amino acid sequence selected from PPRGPRP (SEQ ID NO:16), PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 5), PPRXPRP (SEQ ID NO:34), PRXPRP (SEQ ID NO:35), PPRGXRP (SEQ ID NO:36), PRGXPRP (SEQ ID NO:37), PPRXXRP (SEQ ID NO:38) and PRXXRP (SEQ ID NO:39). The peptide may also consist of these amino acid sequences. These peptides having high proline and arginine density exhibit improved potency, possibly because of improved cell uptake and closer target specificity. In one embodiment, the peptide is linear or cyclic and comprises: n amino acid sequences having the general formula [(ZRGXRZ)V] (SEQ ID NO:40), wherein R is arginine, G is glycine, Z may be present or absent and at least one Z is present, X and Z are proline or threonine and at least one of X and/or Z is proline, V is valine and may be present or absent and n is an integer from 1-10; and m further amino acid sequences, each further sequence independently having z amino acids, wherein m is an integer from 0-10 and z is an integer from 1-20. When m is 1 or more, the further sequence(s) may be arranged randomly with the n amino acid sequences having the general formula [(ZRGXRY) Z] (SEQ ID NO:40). Alternatively, the further sequence(s) may be arranged alternately with each amino acid sequence having the general formula [(ZRGXRZ)V] (SEQ ID NO:40). In another alternative, the further sequence(s) may be arranged so that the n amino acid sequences having the general formula [(ZRGXRZ)V] (SEQ ID NO:40) are directly adjacent in sequence to one another and the m further amino acid sequences of z amino acids are directly adjacent in sequence to one another. In a preferred embodiment X and Z are proline. In the further amino acid sequence(s) each of the z amino acids in the sequence may be any amino acid. However, preferably the amino acids of these further sequence(s) are selected from glycine, alanine, valine, phenylalanine, proline and glutamine. Preferably, the further amino acid sequences comprise hydrophobic amino acids. In preferred embodiments n is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5. In a more preferred embodiment n is 3. It is also preferred that m is 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5. Most preferably, m is 1 or 2. In preferred embodiments z is from 2-14, more preferably 2-11 and most preferably 2, 3, 4, 6 or 12. Particularly preferred further sequence(s) include GG, GGG, GGGG (SEQ ID NO:41), GGGGG (SEQ ID NO:42), GGGGGG (SEQ ID NO:43), AA, AAA, AAAA (SEQ ID NO:44), AAAAA (SEQ ID NO:45), AAAAAA (SEQ ID NO:46), VV, VVV, VVVV (SEQ ID NO:47), VVVVV (SEQ ID NO:48), VVVVVV (SEQ ID NO:49) or combination of these. It is preferred that the peptide is cyclic. In a preferred embodiment when the peptide comprises n amino acid sequences having the general formula [(ZRGXRZ)V] (SEQ ID NO:40) and m further amino acid sequences of z amino acids, the peptide comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the following: SEQ ID NO: 18 [GGGGPRGPRPGGGGAAA] SEQ ID NO: 19 [GGGGPRGPRPGGGGPRGPRPVPRGPRPV] SEQ ID NO: 20 [FPPRGPRPVQFPPRGPRPVQFPPRGPRPVQ] SEQ ID NO: 21 [AAAGGPRGPRPGGAAA] SEQ ID NO: 22 [AAGGGPRGPRPGGGAA] SEQ ID NO: 23 [AAAGGGPRGPRPGGGAAA] SEQ ID NO: 24 [AVAGGGPRGPRPGGGAVA] SEQ ID NO: 25 [GGGGGGPRGPRPGGGGGG] SEQ ID NO: 26 [AAAAAAPRGPRPAAAAAA] SEQ ID NO: 27 [AAAAPRGPRPAAAAVVVV] SEQ ID NO: 28 [AAGPGPGPRGPRPGPGAA] SEQ ID NO: 29 [AAGPGGPRGPRPGGPGAA] SEQ ID NO: 30 [AAVPGGPRGPRPGGPGVAAV] SEQ ID NO: 31 [GGPRGPRPGGPRGPRPGGPRGPRP] It is particularly preferred that the amino acids sequences SEQ ID NOs:18-31 are cyclic amino acid sequences. These peptides are particularly preferred because they comprise the sequence PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO:5), which has been shown to be cytotoxic to cancer cells tested and also selectively cytotoxic to cancer cells and non-inhibitory to the growth of non-cancerous cells tested. Further, these peptides are particular preferred because they are designed to penetrate cells more successfully by including hydrophobic (—CH3) groups. Still further, when these peptides are cyclic they are likely to penetrate cells more successfully. These peptides also provide the most effective balance between flexibility and conformational restraint of the PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO:5) sequence. When m is 0 (ie no further amino acid sequence(s) are present) it is preferred that the peptide comprises the amino acid sequence PRGPRPVPRGPRPVPRGPRPV (SEQ ID NO: 17). The peptide may also consist of the amino acid sequence PRGPRPVPRGPRPVPRGPRPV (SEQ ID NO:17). In a more preferred embodiment, the peptide is a cyclic peptide comprising the amino acid sequence PRGPRPVPRGPRPVPRGPRPV (SEQ ID NO: 17). The cyclic peptide may also consist of the amino acid sequence PRGPRPVPRGPRPVPRGPRPV (SEQ ID NO:17). In the context of this invention, the term homology means percentage sequence identity. In other words, it refers to the percentage of amino acid residues that are identical in the CDK4 protein and peptide, on alignment of their amino acid sequences. Preferably, the percentage sequence identity is at least 50%. More preferably, the percentage sequence identity is at least 60%, 70%, 80% or 90%. The term “part” indicates that the peptide does not contain the entire amino acid sequence of CDK4. Typically, the peptide comprises at least 5 amino acids that are identical or homologous to an amino acid sequence present in the CDK4 protein. Preferably, the peptide comprises at least 10 amino acids that are identical or homologous to an amino acid sequence present in the CDK4 protein. The peptide of the present invention is cytotoxic to, or inhibiting to the growth of, a cancer cell and/or stimulating to the growth of a non-cancerous and/or control cell. In this context, a cancer cell is a cell taken from a primary tumour, a metastasis or other suspected site of cancer in a subject, or a cell line derived from a cancer. It is preferred that the peptide is more cytotoxic to, or more inhibiting to the growth of a cancer cell than a non-cancerous cell and/or a control cell. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention the peptide is non-inhibitory to the growth of non-cancerous cells and/or control cells. In the context of this invention, non-cancerous cells are any normal (healthy) cells i.e. cells not affected by cancer and may be cells of any tissue of a patient. A control cell includes a normal non-cancerous cell used to measure cytotoxicity against and may be derived from the corresponding normal tissue of a patient, from any other normal tissue of a patient or from a primary cell culture. Thus, in many cases a non-cancerous cell and a control cell may be the same, both being a normal healthy cell. Typically, human fibroblasts or keratinocytes in short term primary culture are non-cancerous cells and used as control cells. Cancer cells can be identified by measuring the expression levels of the CDK1 and CDK4 gene products, as disclosed in WO99/42821. A cell sample is cancerous if the ratio of the expression levels of the CDK1 and CDK4 proteins is in the range 0.6 to 1.6. Optionally the peptide may comprise an amino acid sequence facilitating cellular uptake of the peptide. Such amino acid sequences are well known in the art. These include Penetratin™ (RQIKIWFQNRJRMKWKK (SEQ ID NO:50); Derossi et al. Trends Cell Biol. (1998) 8: 84-87). Certain variants of the Penetratin™ amino acid sequence are also known to be effective at facilitating cellular internalization as described in Christiaens et al. (European J. Biochemistry (2004) 271:1187). Other cellular internalization amino acid sequences include KKWKMRRNQFWVKVQRG (SEQ ID NO:51) (Kanovsky et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA (2001) 98: 12438-43), polyarginine (11 residues; Wu et al. (2003) Neurosci. Res. 47: 131-135) and LTVSPWY (SEQ ID NO:52) (Shadidi M. and Sioud M. Identification of novel carrier peptides for the specific delivery of therapeutics into cancer cells FASEB J 17 (2003) 256-258). In one embodiment, the peptide consists of an amino acid sequence that is part of the amino acid sequence of CDK4 protein, or an amino acid sequence that is homologous to a part of the amino acid sequence of CDK4 protein, and optionally an amino acid sequence facilitating cellular uptake of the peptide. The invention also provides peptide mimetics capable of functionally mimicking peptides according to the invention, which peptide mimetics are cytotoxic to, or inhibiting to the growth of a cancer cell. It is preferred that the peptide mimetic is more cytotoxic to, or more inhibiting to the growth of a cancer cell than a non-cancerous cell and/or a control cell. In a preferred embodiment the peptide mimetic is non-inhibitory to the growth of normal non-cancerous cells and/or control cells. Optionally, the peptide mimetic stimulates the growth of normal non-cancerous cells and/or control cells. In a further aspect of the invention, medical uses of the peptides and peptide mimetics are provided. For example, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a peptide or peptide mimetic as described above and a carrier, diluent or excipient known in the art. In a preferred embodiment, this pharmaceutical composition also comprises a p53 inhibitor. In an alternative preferred embodiment this pharmaceutical composition also comprises stem cells. In the context of this invention, a p53 inhibitor is a factor capable of inhibiting production of p53 protein or inhibiting the activity of p53 protein. p53 inhibitors are well known in the art and include MDM2 protein, fragments of the MDM2 protein and pifithrin-α. A method of manufacturing a pharmaceutical composition is also provided. The method comprises providing a peptide or peptide mimetic and manufacturing a pharmaceutical composition comprising this peptide/peptide mimetic. Where the pharmaceutical composition contains a p53 inhibitor, this is incorporated into the pharmaceutical composition during manufacture. Where the pharmaceutical composition contains stem cells, this is incorporated into the pharmaceutical composition during manufacture. The invention also provides a method of treating a patient having a cancer, which method comprises treating the patient with this pharmaceutical composition. Where the cancer contains cells expressing wild type p53, it is preferred that the patient is treated with a pharmaceutical composition comprising a p53 inhibitor. The pharmaceutical composition of the present invention is effective in treating cancers of various origins, including breast cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, bladder cancer, ovarian cancer, endometrial cancer, cervical cancer, head and neck cancer, stomach cancer, pancreatic cancer, oesophagus cancer, small cell lung cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, malignant melanomas, neuroblastomas, leukaemias, lymphomas, sarcomas and gliomas. As discussed above, cancer cells can be identified by the method of WO 99/42821. Cancer cells are for example cells in which the ratio of the expression levels of the CDK1 and CDK4 proteins is in the range 0.6 to 1.6. The present invention also provides a peptide or peptide mimetic for use in medicine. In addition, it provides a combined preparation comprising the peptide or peptide mimetic and a p53 inhibitor for simultaneous separate or sequential use in medicine. The invention also provides the use of a peptide/peptide mimetic in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of cancers, and the use of a peptide/peptide mimetic and p53 inhibitor in the manufacture of a combined preparation for simultaneous, separate or sequential use in the treatment of cancers, including those mentioned above. Again, if the cancer contains cells that express wild type p53, it is preferred that this is treated with a combined preparation comprising a p53 inhibitor. Cancer cells expressing wild type p53 (i.e. p53 containing no mutations) can be identified by methods known in the art. For example, wild type p53 may be identified by DNA sequencing, or by immunochemistry using antibodies specifically distinguishing between mutant p53 protein and wild type p53 protein. In degenerative disorders the cells comprising the particular tissue cells undergo cell death at an earlier time than similar cells in a normal healthy individual. It is known from Morris et al (Morris et al. (2002) Oncogene 21, 4277) that normal CDK4 may be capable of extending the survival of non-cancerous cells. It has been shown by the inventors of the present invention that the peptides of the present invention, particularly peptides having the amino acids sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:17, cause proliferation of normal non-cancerous cells. Therefore, peptides of the present invention are of benefit in the treatment of many degenerative disorders in which cells of particular tissues die earlier than they should in the affected individual. Therefore, the present invention also provides a method of treating a patient having a degenerative disorder, which method comprises treating the patient with the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention. It is preferred that the patient is treated with the pharmaceutical composition further comprising stem cells. This method of treatment of a degenerative disorder may be in combination with stem cell therapy or as an adjunct to improve the efficacy of stem cell therapy. At the present time stem cell therapy is widely believed to be able to cause improvement in disorders due to inappropriately early cell death. Stem cells are normal cells which have not fully differentiated or senesced and when implanted into tissues in which cell damage has occurred are capable of proliferating to replace the dead cells. Peptides of the present invention, particularly peptides having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO: 17, and/or similar molecules stimulate the growth of stem cells and extend their mortality making them even more effective in replacing the damaged cells of degenerative disorders. The pharmaceutical composition of the present invention is effective in treating degenerative disorders when the pharmaceutical composition comprises the peptide or peptide mimetics of the present invention which are capable of stimulating the growth of non-cancerous and/or control cells. This pharmaceutical composition is effective in treating degenerative disorders including alzheimer's disease, muscular dystrophy, macular degeneration, early onset diabetes due to loss of beta cells in the pancreas, traumatic spinal cord damage, motor neurone disease and cystic fibrosis. In a preferred embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention effective in treating degenerative disorders comprises the peptide of the present invention comprising n amino acid sequence(s) having the general formula [(ZRGXRZ)V] (SEQ ID NO:40), wherein R is arginine, G is glycine, Z may be present or absent and at least one Z is present, X and Z are proline or threonine and at least one of X and/or Z is proline, V is valine and may be absent or present and n is an integer from 1-10, more preferably the peptide is a cyclic peptide comprising the amino acid sequence PRGPRPVPRGPRPVPRGPRPV (SEQ ID NO: 17), still more preferably the peptide is a cyclic peptide consisting of the amino acid sequence PRGPRPVPRGPRPVPRGPRPV (SEQ ID NO: 17). The present invention provides a combined preparation comprising the peptide or peptide mimetic of the present invention which is capable of stimulating the growth of non-cancerous and/or control cells and stem cells for simultaneous separate or sequential use in medicine. The invention also provides the use of the peptide or peptide mimetic of the present invention which is capable of stimulating the growth of non-cancerous and/or control cells in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a degenerative disorder, The invention also provides the use of the peptide or peptide mimetic of the present invention which is capable of stimulating the growth of non-cancerous and/or control cells and stem cells in the manufacture of a combined preparation for simultaneous, separate or sequential use in the treatment of a degenerative disorder. Those skilled in the art could determine suitable administration regimens for the peptide or peptide mimetic of the present invention. The precise administration regimen will depend upon the physicochemical properties of the peptide or peptide mimetic. For example, a prolonged administration of peptides having the amino acid sequences SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO:2 is required since experimental evidence indicates that cancer cells may need to be incubated in the presence of the peptide from one week up to three weeks for an effect on viability to be observed. Peptides or peptide mimetics of the present invention may be identified by a screening method which comprises providing a peptide comprising an amino acid sequence that is part of the amino acid sequence of CDK4, or homologous to part of the amino acid sequence of CDK4, or a peptide mimetic capable of functionally mimicking such a peptide, followed by treating a cancer cell sample with the peptide or peptide mimetic and determining the cytotoxic effect of, and/or the growth inhibiting effect of this peptide or peptide mimetic on this sample. The method also involves a step of identifying a peptide or peptide mimetic that is effective in the treatment of cancer as a peptide or peptide mimetic that is cytotoxic to, or inhibiting to the growth of, the cancer cell sample. Optionally, a step of producing the identified peptide or peptide mimetic may follow. In a preferred embodiment, the method further comprises treating a control cell sample with the peptide or peptide mimetic and determining the cytotoxic effect of, and/or the growth inhibiting effect of this peptide or peptide mimetic on this sample. A peptide or peptide mimetic that is effective in the treatment of cancer is a peptide or peptide mimetic that more cytotoxic to, or more inhibiting to the growth of, a cancer cell sample than a control cell sample. In a preferred embodiment, the method also involves a step of treating a control cell sample with the peptide or peptide mimetic and determining whether the identified peptide or peptide mimetic is non-inhibitory to the growth of a control cell sample and optionally determining whether the identified peptide or peptide mimetic is stimulating to the growth of a control cell sample. A peptide or peptide mimetic that is advantageous in the treatment of cancer is a peptide or peptide mimetic that is non-inhibitory to the growth of a control cell sample and may also be stimulating to the growth of a control cell sample. A peptide or peptide mimetic that is advantageous in the treatment of degenerative disorders is a peptide or peptide mimetic that is stimulating to the growth of a control cell. Cancer cells, control cells and non-cancerous cells have been defined above. Appropriate culture conditions for such cells are known in the art. Typically then, the step of treating a cancer cell sample and a control cell sample with the peptide or peptide mimetic and determining the cytotoxic effect of, and/or the growth inhibiting effect of these, simply comprises adding the test peptide or test peptide mimetic to the culture medium. Controls are preferably included. These may include adding no test peptide/peptide mimetic to samples of cells or adding a peptide/peptide mimetic known to have no affect on viability. Methods of determining whether a peptide or peptide mimetic is cytotoxic or growth inhibiting to a cell sample are well known to those skilled in the art. These include inspection of treated and untreated cell samples using phase contrast microscopy, the MTT cytotoxicity assay (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianopolis, Ill., USA), the propidium iodide staining assay (Do et al. Oncogene (2003) 22:1431-1444), cell death detection ELISA (Roche Molecular Biochemical, Indianopolis, Ill., USA), the caspase activity assay (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif., USA) and the CytoTox96 non-radioactive cytotoxicity assay (Promega, Madison, Wis., USA). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES The invention will be further described by way of example only with reference to the following figures: FIG. 1 shows the correlation in expression levels of 17 proteins whose normal role is the control of cell division, differentiation senescence and programmed cell death in normal human keratinocytes. FIG. 2 shows the correlation in expression levels of 17 proteins whose normal role is the control of cell division, differentiation senescence and programmed cell death in 20 human cancer cell lines. FIG. 3 is an overlay of FIGS. 1 and 2 , showing that the pattern of gene expression in human cancer cells differs from the pattern of gene expression in normal human keratinocytes. FIG. 4 shows the correlation in expression levels of 17 proteins whose normal role is the control of cell division, differentiation senescence and programmed cell death in 20 human cancer cell lines containing wild type p53 protein. FIG. 5 shows the correlation in expression levels of 17 proteins whose normal role is the control of cell division, differentiation senescence and programmed cell death in 20 human cancer cell lines containing mutant p53 protein. FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram representing the pattern of gene expression in p53 mutant human cancer cells. FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram representing the pattern of gene expression in p53 wild type human cancer cells. FIG. 8 shows a global multiple sequence alignment of the amino acid sequences of human CDK2 (SEQ ID NO:54), CDK4 (SEQ ID NO:55) and CDK6 (SEQ ID NO:56). FIG. 9 shows a global multiple sequence alignment of the amino acid sequences of CDK4 proteins from various species (SEQ ID NO:55 and 57-64). FIG. 10 shows the Cα trace (backbone) of human CDK6 and human CDK2. The modeled Cα trace of human CDK4 (model 1) is also shown. FIG. 11 shows electrostatic potential plots of human CDK4 (model 1), human CDK6 and human CDK2. I shows the view from the front. Domain I is to the right of the structures, domain II is to the left. II shows the view from the back. Domain I is to the left of the structures, domain II is to the right. III shows a view looking directly at the 12 mer fragment. The thick black arrow indicates the position of the fragment or the correspondingly aligned fragment in CDK6 and CDK2. FIG. 12 shows the effect on the viability of the four human cancer cell lines of treatment with peptides having the amino acid sequences set out in SEQ ID NO:1 and SEQ ID NO:3 at concentrations of 0.5 mM, 1.0 mM and 5.0 mM. FIG. 13A shows RT112 cells that have been treated with a peptide having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1, and RT112 cells that have been treated with a peptide having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:4. FIG. 13B shows HT29 cells that have been treated with a peptide having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1, and HT29 cells that have been treated with a peptide having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:4. FIG. 14 shows normal human fibroblasts and MGHU-1 cells following treatment with peptides having the amino acid sequences set out in SEQ ID NO: 1 and SEQ ID NO:4. FIG. 15 a shows the effect on the viability of RT112 bladder cancer MGHU-1 cell line and normal non-cancerous fibroblasts by treatment with peptide A having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:5, peptide B having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:6, peptide C having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:7 and peptide D having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:8, wherein peptides B to D have varying peptide chain lengths of SEQ ID NO:5. FIGS. 15 b and 15 c show the effect on the viability or RT112 bladder cancer MGHU-1 cell line and normal non-cancerous fibroblasts by treatment with peptide E having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:9, peptide F having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:10, peptide G having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:11, peptide H having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:12, peptide I having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:13, peptide J having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:14, peptide K having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:15 and peptide L having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:16, wherein peptides E to L have varying substitutions of proline to threonine with respect to SEQ ID NO:5. FIG. 15 d shows the effect on the viability of Bowel Cancer HT29 cell line (Bowel Cancer A), Bowel Cancer COLO 320 (Bowel Cancer B) and normal non-cancerous fibroblasts by treatment with peptide A having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:5, peptide B having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:6, peptide C having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:7 and peptide D having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:8, wherein peptides B to D have varying peptide chain lengths of SEQ ID NO:5. FIGS. 15 e and f show the effect on the viability of Bowel Cancer HT29 cell line (Bowel Cancer A), Bowel Cancer COLO 320 (Bowel Cancer B) and normal non-cancerous fibroblasts by treatment with peptide E having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:9, peptide F having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:10, peptide G having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:11, peptide H having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:12, peptide I having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:13, peptide J having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:14, peptide K having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:15 and peptide L having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:16, wherein peptides E to L have varying substitutions of proline to threonine with respect to SEQ ID NO:5. FIG. 16 shows the effect on the surviving fraction of RT112 bladder cancer cells exposed to 1.0 to 5.0 mM of the Hexamer PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 5) scored at 15, 20 and 25 days after treatment. FIG. 17 shows the structure of a cyclic heptamer of SEQ ID NO:17. FIG. 18 shows fibroblast cells that have been treated with a control (no peptide) after 10 days exposure and fibroblast cells that have been treated with a peptide having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO: 17 after 10 days exposure. FIG. 19 shows fibroblast cells that have been treated with a control (no peptide) after 20 days exposure and fibroblast cells that have been treated with a peptide having the amino acids sequence set out in SEQ ID NO 17 after 20 days exposure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Peptides can be synthesized according to standard methods. Alternatively, they may be produced by recombinant DNA technology and gene expression technology. When the peptide comprises the Penetratin™ sequence, the peptide may be produced by cloning DNA encoding the peptide into a Transvector™ vector (Qbiogene Inc., Carlsbad, Calif., USA), transforming an E. coli strain having the T7 polymerase gene with the vector and expressing the peptide by induction with IPTG (Isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactoside; Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianopolis, Ill., USA). Transvector™ vectors may be used to produce fusion proteins comprising the Penetratin™ sequence. Peptide mimetics of the peptides of the present invention may be designed and synthesized according to standard methods. Methods of modifying peptides to produce peptide mimetics are discussed in Kieber-Emmons et al. (Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. (1997) δ: 435-441) and Beeley (Trends Biotechnol. (1994) 12: 213-216). Peptide mimetics include analogues of the peptides of the invention where the various amide bonds (CONH) have been replaced with alternative bonding patterns such as C—C (carbon to carbon single bonds), C═C (carbon to carbon double bonds), C≡C (carbon to carbon triple bonds), SO 2 NH (sulphonamides), NH.CO.NH (ureas), CO.O (esters), C(R′R″)O or OC(R′R″) (ethers), CH(R)CONH or CONHCH(R) (β-amino acids), NHCO (reverse peptides), wherein R is any stable substituent. Peptide mimetics also include “peptoids” in which one or more amino acids are replaced by the ‘peptoid’ fragment N(R*)CH 2 CO, wherein R* is the side chain of the amino acid. In addition, peptide mimetics include peptides where the ends of the peptide sequence are linked through a spacer molecule to give a less flexible structure. Peptide mimetics may also be molecules consisting of a rigid scaffold composed, for example, of aromatics, polyaromatics, heteroaromatics, cycloalkyl rings or cyclic amides, and substituents mimicking the side chain functionality found in the native peptide (ie guanidine, amide, alkyl) such that the relative arrangement of the side chain functionality in the bioactive conformation of the peptide is effectively mimicked by the relative arrangement of the side chain functionality in the small drug molecule. The observations and theory that led to the inventor arriving at the present invention will now be briefly explained. The theory is not intended to be limiting. Each normal (non-cancerous) cell type has a complex pattern of interactive gene expression that permits appropriate cell survival and proliferation. Cancer cells have a different pattern of gene expression to normal (non-cancerous) cells. The inventor believes that each cancer cell comprises a unique emergent system derived from damage to the complex interactive system of normal (non-cancerous) cells. Cancer cell emergent systems are inherently unstable. Thus, in order to survive, cancer cells require readjustment of critical normal gene products to maintain stability. This stabilization is termed neostasis. This can be seen from FIGS. 1 and 2 . FIG. 1 shows the correlation in expression levels of 17 proteins whose normal role is the control of cell division, differentiation, senescence and programmed cell death in normal human keratinocytes. Those pairs of proteins whose expression levels have a correlation coefficient of greater than 0.5 are highlighted. FIG. 2 shows the correlation of the expression levels of the same proteins in 20 human cancer cell lines. Again, those pairs of proteins whose expression levels have a correlation coefficient of greater than 0.5 are highlighted. FIG. 3 is overlay of FIGS. 1 and 2 . It shows that the expression levels of different pairs of proteins are correlated in normal human keratinocytes and human cancer cells, confirming that normal human keratinocytes have a different pattern of gene expression to human cancer cells. FIG. 4 shows the correlation of expression levels of the same proteins in 20 human cancer cell lines containing wild type p53 protein, and FIG. 5 shows the correlation of the expression levels of these proteins in 20 human cancer cell lines containing mutant p53 protein. Again, by comparison of those pairs of proteins whose levels are correlated in p53 mutant and wild type cancers, it can be seen that the patterns of gene expression are different. Thus, the patterns of gene expression are different dependent upon whether cells are normal, wild type p53 cancer cells, or mutant p53 cancer cells. The correlations observed between protein levels in cells can be represented graphically. FIG. 6 represents the pattern of gene expression in p53 mutant cancer cells. It shows that the level of CDK4 protein is correlated with the level of the CDK1, p27, Bcl2, CDK2 and cyclin D proteins. FIG. 7 shows the pattern of gene expression in p53 wild type cancer cells. This shows that the level of CDK4 protein is correlated with the level of CDK1 protein. In addition, the level of the p27 protein is correlated with the levels of the Ras, p21 and Bcl2 proteins. As discussed above, different cancers exhibit different patterns of gene expression. The inventor believes that each cancer has a unique pattern of gene expression that permits cell survival and proliferation. The inventor also considers that the CDK4 protein plays a pivotal role in cancer cells by maintaining a pattern of gene expression that permits cell survival and proliferation. Accordingly, without being bound by theory, the inventor believes that the CDK4 peptides and peptide mimetics of the present invention interfere with this process, leading to a pattern of gene expression that does not permit cell survival and proliferation, and ultimately leading to cancer cell death. Experiment 1 identifies a region on the human CDK4 protein that is absent in CDK2, CDK1 and CDK6. The region is distinct from the kinase region and the Rb and p16 binding sites in the N-terminal two thirds of CDK4. It is also partially hydrophobic despite being on the outside of CDK4. These properties suggest that it may form a protein binding site. A protein binding to this region may be directly or indirectly responsible for regulating the levels of other gene products. Accordingly, it is thought that the peptides and peptide mimetics of the invention act by binding this factor. This may lead to the factor being activated or inactivated, resulting in inappropriate regulation of the other gene products. Alternatively, this may prevent the factor from binding to CDK4, again leading to inappropriate regulation of the other gene products. In either event, the pattern of gene expression is disrupted, resulting in cancer cell death. The region of the CDK4 protein identified in Experiment 1 also has homology with a region of the p27 protein. The peptides of the present invention may therefore act upon the p27 protein. FIG. 7 shows that this is an important protein in p53 wild type human cancer cells. This may help to disrupt the pattern of gene expression in p53 wild type human cancer cells. FIGS. 4 and 5 show that the correlation between the levels of CDK1 and CDK4 is strongest in p53 mutant cells. This suggests that the role of CDK4 in regulating other gene products may be more important in p53 mutant cells. Accordingly, in p53 mutant cancer cells, the peptides of the present invention are advantageously administered together with a p53 inhibitor such as pifithrin-α. The experiments which led the inventor to identify the anti-cancer activity of the peptides and peptide mimetics of the present invention are described below. Details of the experimental protocols used are not intended to be limiting. EXPERIMENT 1 It is known that CDK4 protein plays an important role in cancer. However, drugs that inhibit the kinase activity of human CDK4 are ineffective at treating cancer. The inventor hypothesizes that this is because the CDK4 protein plays a role in cancer cells that is independent of its kinase activity. To verify this hypothesis, the inventor attempted to identify the region of CDK4 protein that mediates a role in cancer cells by looking for differences between the amino acid sequence of the CDK4 protein, and the amino acid sequences of the CDK6 and CDK2 proteins, which are highly homologous to the CDK4 protein but which do not mediate an important role in cancer cells. The sequences of human CDK4, CDK6 and CDK2 were obtained from the Swiss-Prot and TrEMBL databases, maintained by the Expasy molecular biology server (ca.expasy.org/). These sequences were aligned using the ClustalX 1.83 algorithm using the PAM 250 matrix, a gap opening penalty of 10, and a gap extending penalty of 0.2. FIG. 8 shows the results of the alignment. The N-terminal half of the human CDK4 sequence shows considerable homology to the human CDK6 and CDK2 sequences. Because of this, it was considered unlikely that this region mediates the function of the human CDK4 protein in cancer cells. The C-terminal two thirds of the CDK4 protein is not homologous to the human CDK2 and CDK6 proteins. This region could therefore potentially mediate a role in cancer cells. To identify whether elements of this region are important, the inventor searched for sequences in the C-terminal two thirds of the CDK4 protein that are conserved between species. The amino acid sequences of CDK4 proteins from various species were obtained from the Swiss-Prot and TrEMBL databases, maintained by the Expasy molecular biology server (ca.expasy.org/). These are listed in table 1. Table 1 also provides the database accession number of each sequence, and the percentage homology of each sequence with the human CDK4 amino acid sequence. TABLE 1 List of CDK4 sequences. Sequence identity and similarity is measured to the Homo sapiens sequence. Swiss-Prot/ % % Trembl Sequence Sequence Identifier Organism Identity Similarity P11802 Homo Sapiens 100 100 P79432 Sus Scrofa (Pig) 98 98 P35426 Rattus norvegicus (Rat) 95 97 P30285 Mus musculus (Mouse) 94 97 Q9CYR7 Mus musculus (Mouse) 90 93 Q91727 Xenopus laevis (African clawed 77 85 frog) Q8WQU5 Lytechinus variegatus (Sea urchin) 59 74 Q8WQU6 Strongylocentrotus purpuratus 59 74 (Purple sea urchin) Q94877 Drosophila melanogaster 47 66 (Fruit fly) A global multiple sequence alignment was performed, using the program ClustalX (Jeanmougin et al. (1998) Trends Biochem. Sci. 23: 403-5). This is shown in FIG. 9 . This shows that the N-terminal region of the protein is highly conserved. In addition, the C-terminal region of mammalian CDK4 sequences is also conserved. For example, FPPRGPRPVQ (SEQ ID NO:1), present in human CDK4 is highly conserved in other mammalian CDK4 proteins. A three dimensional model of human CDK4 was prepared to determine the location of SEQ ID NO:1. Potential templates for the model of CDK4 were obtained by performing a Blast search with default parameters on the protein database (PDB) for structures with similar sequences to human CDK4. The search retrieved several structures for human CDK6 and human CDK2, which proteins have 71% and 45% sequence identity with the human CDK4 protein respectively. Although CDK2 possesses a lower sequence identity with CDK4, the sequence similarity between CDK2 and CDK4 is 64% indicating that the structure of CDK2 may be a good model for the structure of human CDK4. The retrieved structures, together with their PDB identifier and crystallographic resolution, are listed in table 2. TABLE 2 List of chosen template structures. CDK6 has 71% seq. id. and 81% seq. sim., CDK2 has 45% seq. id. and 64% seq. sim. Rmsd is measured from the C α s Rmsd. Resolution Additional From 1BLX PDB Identifier (in Å) molecules/comments (in Å) CDK6 Structures 1BLX 1.9 P19-INK4d 0.00 1G3N 2.9 P18-INK4c, K-Cyclin 0.82 1BI8 2.8 P19-INK4d 0.86 1BI7 3.4 P16-INK4a 1.11 1JOW 3.1 V-Cyclin 1.01 CDK2 Structures 1HCL 1.8 — 1.17 1GII 2.0 ATP-binding region 1.15 mutated to that of CDK4; small molecule inhibitor bound The structures were checked for errors and problems that might affect the structure building process. The structures were all processed by the WHAT-CHECK program (Hooft et al. (1996) Nature 381: 272). The overall quality is shown in table 3. TABLE 3 Evaluation of the stereochemistry, amino acid distribution, and packing in the template structures using WHAT-CHECK. The modeller's quality scores indicate how reliable the structure is for modelling purposes. The crystallographer's quality scores indicate how the structure compares to other structures of a similar resolution. Structure Z-scores below −2.0 are poor, and below −4.0 are bad. MODEL 1BLX 1G3N 1BI8 1BI7 Resolution  1.9  2.9  2.8  3.4 MODELLER'S QUALITY Structure Z-scores, positive is better than average 2 nd generation packing quality a −0.704 −0.108 −0.216  0.044 Ramachandran plot appearance −5.658 (bad) −4.729 (bad) −1.589 −3.195 (poor) χ-1/χ-2 rotamer quality −4.32 (bad) −3.896 (poor) −1.489 −2.09 Backbone conformation −7.733 (bad) −5.705 −4.496 (bad) −4.093 (bad) RMS Z-scores, should be close to 1 Bond lengths  0.559 (tight)  0.717  0.829  0.553 (tight) Bond angles  0.909  0.984  1.627 (loose)  0.845 Omega angle restraints  0.266 (tight)  0.316 (tight)  1.251  0.281 (tight) Side chain planarity  0.559 (tight)  0.607 (tight)  1.003  0.423 (tight) Improper dihedral distribution  0.884  1.011  1.524 (loose)  0.505 Inside/Outside distribution  1.027  1.021  1.054  1.039 CRYSTALLOGRAPHER'S QUALITY Structure Z-scores, positive is better than average 2 nd generation packing quality a  1.2  1.5 −0.4  1.5 Ramachandran plot appearance −2.5 −2.2 −1.4 −0.8 χ-1/χ-2 rotamer quality −1.8 −1.6 −0.8 −0.2 Backbone conformation −5.8 (bad) −5.4 (bad) −5.3 (bad) −3.0 (poor) RMS Z-scores, should be close to 1 Bond lengths  0.559 (tight)  0.717  0.829  0.553 Bond angles  0.909  0.984  1.627  0.845 Omega angle restraints  0.266 (tight)  0.316 (tight)  1.251  0.281 (tight) Side chain planarity  0.559 (tight)  0.607 (tight)  1.003  0.423 (tight) Improper dihedral distribution  0.884  1.011  1.524 (loose)  0.505 Inside/Outside distribution  1.027  1.021  1.054  1.039 a 2 nd generation packing score indicates how comfortable the sequence is in the structure. A positive score is good. A score below −2.0 is poor indicating a problem in the structure, and scores below −4.0 are bad indicating serious errors in the structure. MODEL 1JOW 1HCL 1GII Resolution  3.1  1.8  2.0 MODELLERS QUALITY Structure Z-scores, positive is better than average 2 nd generartion packing quality a −2.046 −1.170 −1.363 Ramachandran plot appearance −5.911 (bad) −0.681 −0.816 χ-1/χ-2 rotamer quality −3.372 (poor) −2.019 −1.935 Backbone conformation −6.752 (bad) −2.630 −4.937 (bad) RMS Z-scores, should be close to 1 Bond lengths  0.396 (tight)  0.511 (tight)  0.680 Bond angles  0.68  0.778  0.901 Omega angle restraints  0.217 (tight)  0.301 (tight)  0.386 (tight) Side chain planarity  0.228 (tight)  0.588 (tight)  0.940 Improper dihedral distribution  0.429  0.753  1.105 Inside/Outside distribution  1.055  1.007  1.010 CRYSTALLOGRAPHERS QUALITY Structure Z-scores, positive is better than average 2 nd generartion packing quality a  0 −1.1 −0.9 Ramachandran plot appearance −3.1 −0.6 −0.2 χ-1/χ-2 rotamer quality −1.0 −1.6 −1.0 Backbone conformation −4.8 (bad) −3.0 −5.0 (bad) RMS Z-scores, should be close to 1 Bond lengths  0.396  0.511 (tight)  0.680 Bond angles  0.68  0.778  0.901 Omega angle restraints  0.217 (tight)  0.301 (tight)  0.386 (tight) Side chain planarity  0.228 (tight)  0.588 (tight)  0.940 Improper dihedral distribution  0.429  0.753  1.105 Inside/Outside distribution  1.055  1.007  1.010 a 2 nd generation packing score indicates how comfortable the sequence is in the structure. A positive score is good. A score below −2.0 are poor indicating a problem in the structure, scores below −4.0 are bad indicating serious errors in the structures. The quality scores of the initial structures are poor. This probably reflects the fact that most of the structures were deduced in the presence of bound proteins which gives rise to distortion of the structure. In view of these quality scores and the low resolution of the initial structures, models based on these structures may be expected to provide reliable information only on tertiary structure, the position of the amino-acid residues within the structure, and whether those residues are buried or solvent accessible. More detailed information such as the direction of internal hydrogen bonds, interactions of side chains, or the measurement of the solvent accessibility of the residues may not, however, be accurate. Five models of the structure of human CDK4 were constructed using the program JACKAL 1.5 (Xiang, J. Z. University of Columbia (2002), described in Xiang et al. (2001) J. Mol. Biol. 311: 421-430 and Xiang et al. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 99: 7432-7437). The known structures used as the starting point for these models are given in table 4. TABLE 4 Templates used in the building of each model. Model No. Templates 1 1BLX (CDK6) 2 1G3N (CDK6) 3 Base template = 1BLX, Variable regions differing by more than 2.0 Å rmsd modelled from 1G3N, 1BI8, 1BI7 and 1JOW (all CDK6) 4 Base template = 1BLX, Variable regions differing by more than 2.0 Å rmsd. modelled from 1HCL (CDK2) 5 Base template = 1BLX, Variable regions differing by more than 2.0 Å rmsd. modelled from 1GII (CDK2) The modeling process is outlined below: 1. Residues that were not conserved between the initial structure and human CDK4 were replaced in the model with the corresponding residue present in human CDK4. This step was carried out using Profix, a utility program distributed with JACKAL. Essentially, Profix changes those residues in the starting structure that differ from those present in human CDK4, whilst retaining the original backbone conformation. The structure was then subjected to energy minimization to remove atom clashes. This is performed using the fast torsion angle minimiser function of JACKAL. This function employs the CHARMM22 all atom force field (MacKerell et al. (1998) J. Phys. Chem. B. 102: 3586-3616). Insertions and deletions were then made to complete the change in the starting sequence to that of human CDK4. The bonds were then closed using a random tweak method and the structure was again subjected to energy minimization to remove atom clashes, as described above. 2. The secondary structure was assigned using a DSSP-like routine as described in Kabsch and Sander (Biopolymers 22: 2577-2637 (1983)). 3. The loop regions were then predicted as follows. The original backbone segment was deleted and replaced by a new segment made by generating a large number of random backbone conformations, which were then closed using a random tweak method. The new backbones were then subjected to energy minimization to remove atom clashes as described above. The side chains were modeled using a large rotamer library of 3222 rotamers in 10° bins according to methods known in the art and the structure was again subjected to energy minimization. The structure having the lowest energy is retained and a further round of conformation sampling is performed using the new conformation. The resulting structure is subjected once again to energy minimization. 4. The secondary structure elements were refined again by sampling through a backbone rotamer library, but with the original rotamer retained in the sampling. In order to retain the hydrogen bonding network of the existing secondary structure, a large energy penalty is incurred in any conformation that breaks an existing hydrogen bond. The lowest energy conformation is retained. The side chains are then built in a similar way. 5. The final structure is then subjected to energy minimization using the torsion angle minimiser. 6. After construction of the model, the model is subjected to 500 steps of steepest descent full energy minimization using AMBER, with the parm96 force field (Case et al. (1995) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117: 5179-5197). The polar hydrogens were added by WHATIF after optimizing the hydrogen bond network (Vriend (1990) J. Mol. Graph. 8:52-56; Hooft et al. (1996) Proteins 26: 363-376). 7. Steps 1-6 were repeated until no further improvement in the model was obtained. At points it was also necessary to manually tweak the structures. This was performed through the Swiss-PDB viewer. The quality of the produced models was assessed by the program WHAT-CHECK. Additionally, the threading score and molecular mechanics energy were calculated by Swiss PDB-viewer to assess how well the sequence fits the structure. The threading energy is based on the potential of mean force developed by Sippl et al. (J. Mol. Biol. (1990) 213: 859-883) and the molecular mechanics energy is calculated using the GROMOS96 force field (van Gunsteren et al. (1996) The GROMOS96 manual and user guide, Vdf Hochschulverlag ETHZ). The results are shown in table 5. This shows that the most reliable is model 1, although the best backbone conformation is given in model 2. TABLE 5 Quality and accuracy scores for the built models. A high threading score indicates a better fit of the sequence in the structure. A low molecular mechanics energy indicates a more relaxed structure. Structural Z-scores less than −2.0 indicate problems in the model, scores less then −4.0 indicates serious errors. RMS Z-scores should be close to 1.0. ± 0.5 either side indicates either wide or tight distributions respectively. MODEL Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model4 Model 5 Threading score 165.6 158.2 151.0 128.8 99.7 Molecular mechanics energy (kJ mol −1 ) −12203.3 −12526.1 −12182.5 −11900.3 −11795.5 RMS deviation from 1BLX (in Å) 0.48 0.88 0.62 0.67 0.65 Structure Z-scores, positive is better than average 2 nd generation packing quality −1.093 −0.868 −0.964 −1.090 −1.228 Ramachandran plot appearance −2.573 −3.374 −2.837 −2.965 −3.104 χ-1/χ-2 rotamer quality −1.148 −1.470 −1.340 −0.955 −0.968 Backbone conformation −6.485 −5.201 −5.637 −7.016 −7.564 RMS Z-scores, should be close to 1 Bond lengths 0.655 0.645 0.652 0.657 0.668 Bond angles 1.187 1.176 1.183 1.168 1.181 Omega angle restraints 1.354 1.159 1.413 1.478 1.396 Side chain planarity 1.608 1.667 1.494 1.277 1.292 Improper dihedral distribution 0.883 0.882 0.907 0.879 0.865 Inside/Outside distribution 1.019 1.038 1.025 1.043 1.051 FIG. 10 shows the Cα traces for model 1, CDK6 and CDK2. This shows that the structure of model 1 closely resembles the CDK6 structure, although CDK6 has longer C- and N-termini. FIG. 10 also shows that the structure of human CDK4 is split into two domains. The first domain (domain 1) contains a mixture of α-helix and β-strand structural elements. By analogy with CDK6 and CDK2, this domain mediates kinase activity. The second domain (domain 2) is primarily α-helical in nature. FIG. 11 shows electrostatic potential plots of model 1, CDK6 and CDK2. This shows that domain 1 of model 1 is less charged than either CDK6 or CDK2. In addition, domain 2 of model 1 contains a solvent accessible sequence from 248-259 that is not present in CDK6 or CDK2. This contains SEQ ID NO:1, the sequence identified in the alignment as being conserved in mammalian CDK4 proteins. This has a substantial hydrophobic component and also has a preponderance of small residues resulting in a flatter surface. A flatter surface results in a better contact for a protein partner. In view of these characteristics, the inventor hypothesizes that this sequence may form a protein binding site. A search of the ProDom database showed that this sequence did not correspond to any recognized domain. However, a multiple alignment tool TCoffee did reveal that this sequence is homologous to a region of the p27 protein (FYYRPPRPPKGA) (SEQ ID NO:53). EXPERIMENT 2 As discussed in Experiment 1, the inventor hypothesized that a region of the CDK4 protein that does not mediate the kinase activity of CDK4 could be responsible for maintaining neostasis in cancer cells. The model of human CDK4 produced in Experiment 1 reveals that the amino acid sequence 248-259 may form a binding site for an unknown protein. To determine whether this binding site is required for the maintenance of cancer cell survival and proliferation, experiments were conducted to determine the effect of interfering with protein binding to this site. A peptide encoding amino acids 249-258 was synthesized (in the form of a chloride salt) by standard methods. The sequence of this peptide is given below as SEQ ID NO:1. SEQ ID NO: 1: FPPRGPRPVQ A peptide having 80% sequence identity to the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 was also synthesized as a chloride salt. The sequence of this peptide is given below as SEQ ID NO:2. SEQ ID NO: 2: FTPRGTRPVQ These peptides mimic the putative binding site on the human CDK4 protein and could inhibit the binding of human CDK4 to its protein partner. If the binding site on the human CDK4 protein is involved in the maintenance of a gene expression pattern that allows cell survival and proliferation, it would be expected that these peptides would interfere with this process, possibly leading to cancer cell death. Two control peptides were synthesized as chloride salts. The sequences of these peptides are given below as SEQ ID NO:3 and SEQ ID NO:4. SEQ ID NO:3 has 30% sequence identity with the sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1. SEQ ID NO:4 contains the same amino acids as SEQ ID NO:1. However, the sequence of these amino acids differs and the peptide sequence has 0% homology with the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. The control peptides do not resemble the putative binding site. SEQ ID NO: 3: ATTEGTETVQ SEQ ID NO: 4: PGPFRVPQPR In a first experiment, MGHU-1 cells (a human bladder cancer cell line), were plated in 48 well tissue culture dishes in 0.2 ml complete Hams F12 tissue culture medium supplemented with 10% foetal calf serum. SKMEL-2 cells (a human malignant melanoma cell line), HX34 cells (a human malignant melanoma cell line) and H441 cells (a human lung cancer cell line) were plated under identical conditions. The cells were incubated at 37° C. in an atmosphere of 5% CO 2 . After 24 h, the culture medium was then removed from each well and replaced by Hams F12 complete tissue culture medium (without foetal calf serum). The culture medium added to each well was supplemented with a peptide having the sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:3 at a concentration of either 0.5, 1.0 or 5.0 mM in such a way that each cell line was exposed to each peptide at each concentration. The cells were then cultured for two days. Foetal calf serum was then added to a final concentration of 10%, and the cells were left for a further 5 days. The % viability of the cells in each well was calculated by visual observation under phase contrast microscopy. The effect of the peptides having the amino acid sequences set out in SEQ ID NO:1 and SEQ ID NO:3 on the viability of the SK MeI-2, MGHU-1, HX34 and H441 cell lines is shown in FIG. 12 . FIG. 12 shows that each cell line cultured in the presence of 5.0 mM SEQ ID NO:1 was completely killed by day 7 of the experiment. Where the concentration of SEQ ID NO:1 was 1.0 mM, 100% of MGHU-1 cells were killed. The viability of the other cell lines was not affected. At a concentration of 0.5 mM SEQ ID NO:1, none of the cell lines appeared to be affected. By contrast, treatment of the cells lines with SEQ ID NO:3 at any concentration did not affect viability of any cell line. Subsequent experiments testing cancerous and non-cancerous (fibroblasts) cell lines have shown that with the decapeptide SEQ ID NO:1 there is non specific killing between cancerous and non-cancerous cell lines within the first seven days of the experiment. Both cancerous cell lines and non cancerous cell lines (fibroblasts) then recovered and finally the specific killing of cancerous cells and not non-cancerous fibroblasts was seen between days 20 and 25. The peptide having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:2 were also cytotoxic to the cancer cell lines. However, they were less cytotoxic than the peptide having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1, as evidenced by visual observation of cell density and viability under phase contrast microscopy. This observation, coupled with an comparison of the sequences of SEQ ID NO:1 and SEQ ID NO:2, suggests that the prolines at positions 3 and 8 of SEQ ID NO:1 that were not substituted by threonines in SEQ ID NO:2 contribute to cytotoxicity. Cytotoxicity may also be dependent on the relationship of the prolines at positions 3 and 8 to arginine. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 F-P- P -R-G-P-R- P -V-Q (SEQ ID NO: 1) In a further experiment, using a different batch of synthesized peptide, RT112 cells (a human bladder cancer cell line), HT29 cells (a human colon cancer cell line) and MGHU cells (a human bladder cancer cell line) were plated as described above. In parallel, a short term primary culture of human fibroblasts was plated in 48 well plates. After 24 h, the tissue culture medium was removed from each well and replaced with Hams F12 complete tissue culture medium (without foetal calf serum) supplemented with either 2.5 mM SEQ ID NO:1 or 2.5 mM SEQ ID NO:4. After culturing for 2 days, foetal calf serum was added to a concentration of 10%. The cells were then cultured for a further 7 days and viewed under phase contrast microscopy. FIG. 13 shows RT112 and HT29 cells following treatment with the peptide having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1. Cells from each cell line that have been exposed to the SEQ ID NO:4 peptide are shown for comparison. In both cases, the differences between the control and treated cells are dramatic. The control cells are normal in appearance, whereas the treated cells are shriveled and appear to be senescent. This shows that cells treated with the peptide having the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1 are killed, as shown in FIG. 13 a. FIG. 14 shows MGHU-1 cells treated with peptides having the amino acid sequences set out in SEQ ID NOS: 1 and 4. The cells treated with SEQ ID NO:4 appear to be healthy, whilst all cells treated with SEQ ID NO:1 appear to be dead. FIG. 14 also shows primary human fibroblast short term cultures treated with peptides having the amino acid sequences set out in SEQ ID NOS: 1 and 4. The cells treated with both peptides appear to be healthy. These experiments show that peptides having the sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:1 or 2 are cytotoxic to cultured human cancer cells. These peptides are not cytotoxic to cultured primary cultures of normal human cells. EXPERIMENT 3 Testing Further Analogues of SEQ ID NO: 1 Normal non-cancerous fibroblasts and cancer cells were exposed to the linear hexamer PRGPRP SEQ ID NO: 5 in 96 micro well plates using the same protocol as for SEQ. ID NO: 1 as previously described. The percent viability of the cells in each well was calculated by visual observation under phase contrast microscopy as previously described. In the case of the hexamer, at 7 days there appeared to be stimulation of fibroblast growth. No changes were observed in tumour cells until 21 days and beyond then there was almost total death of cells in the hexamer treated wells whereas the normal non-cancerous fibroblasts remained healthy. EXPERIMENT 4 In order to define structure/function relationships different peptides were constructed SEQ ID NOS 5-16. Normal non-cancerous fibroblasts and cancer cells were exposed to 5 mM of these peptides in 96 well plates as previously described. The sequence of these peptides is listed below. Results were scored at 21 days. SEQ ID NO: 5: PRGPRP (Peptide A) SEQ ID NO: 6: PRGPR (Peptide B) SEQ ID NO: 7: RGPRP (Peptide C) SEQ ID NO: 8: RGPR (Peptide D) Proline to threonine substitutions were also tested in these shorter peptides viz: SEQ ID NO: 9: TRGPRP (Peptide E) SEQ ID NO: 10: TRGTRP (Peptide F) SEQ ID NO: 11: TRGTRT (Peptide G) SEQ ID NO: 12: PRGTRP (Peptide H) SEQ ID NO: 13: PRGPRT (Peptide I) SEQ ID NO: 14: PRGTRT (Peptide J) SEQ ID NO: 15: TPPRGPRP (Peptide K) SEQ ID NO: 16: PPRGPRP (Peptide L) The results of these experiments are shown in FIG. 15 FIGS. 15 a, b, c, d, e and f show the selective effect on normal non-cancerous fibroblasts and cancer cells of shorter peptide sequences including shorter sequences in which prolines have been substituted for threonines. These figures show clear relationships between the sequence of the peptide analogous of novel CDK4 C′-terminal partially hydrophobic region and the effect on the cell lines tested. Without being bound by theory it is believed that the presence of proline at amino acid positions 1 and/or 4 (PRGPRP) (SEQ ID NO:5) resulted in improved selectivity of the peptide for the cancer cell lines and higher viability of normal fibroblasts. The presence of proline at amino acid position 6 (PRGPRP) (SEQ ID NO:5) resulted in improved toxicity of the peptide on the cancer cell lines. It is clear that the linear hexamer PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 5) shows the greatest selectivity between cancer cell killing and normal cell sparing at 21 days after exposure to 5.0 mM. In addition, normal non-cancerous fibroblasts exposed to PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO:5) grew better than control fibroblasts which were not exposed to any peptide. EXPERIMENT 5 Clonogenic assay to obtain quantitative data on cancer cell killing by the linear hexamer PRGPRP SEQ ID NO: 5. Clonogenic cell survival assay have already been reported (Warenius H M, Jones M, Gorman T, McLeish R, Seabra L, Barraclough R and Rudland P. Br J Cancer (2000) 83(8), 1084-1095). A single cell suspension of 100 cells of RT112 bladder cancer cells was plated in 2 mls of Hams F12 medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum. The Hams F12 medium contained no peptide (control) or the linear hexamer PRGPRP SEQ ID NO: 5 concentration of 1.0 mM to 5.0 mM. It is conventional to examine clonogenic assays at 10 to 14 days during which time cells have gone through a minimum of 5-7 doublings producing a colony in the site where each single cell has adhered to the tissue culture dish. Because cancer cell death in 96 micro well plate experiments with this peptide was not apparent until 21 days, dishes were incubated for 15, 20 and 25 days. At the end of the incubation period, the medium was removed, colonies fixed in 70% ethanol and stained with giemsa. Colonies of greater than 100 cells were scored as positive. The results shown in FIG. 16 indicate that no cancer cell death is obvious at 15 days but becomes more obvious between 20 and 25 days. In addition the dose response curve is very steep showing a threshold effect as was also observed in 96 well dishes. FIG. 16 shows clonogenic assays for RT112 bladder cancer cells exposed to 1.0 to 5.0 mM of the hexamer PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 5). Clonogenic assays were scored at 15, 20 and 25 days after treatment. It is shown that with treatment with the hexamer PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 5) there was no early killing of the cancerous cells only specific cancer cell killing between days 20 and 25. It is shown in FIG. 16 that early exposure of RT112 bladder cancer cells over 15 days had virtually no effect on cancer cell killing. Visual observation during these 15 days showed that non-cancerous fibroblasts grew well and possibly even better than controls which received no PRGPRP (SEQ ID NO: 5). EXPERIMENT 6 Cancer cells and non-cancerous fibroblasts were separately seeded at 10 2 to 10 4 cells in 200 μl of Hams F12 tissue culture medium plus 10% fetal calf serum in 96 well plates and exposed to varying concentrations of a peptide having an amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NO: 17 ranging from 5.0 μM to 100 μM. Cell growth was studied by daily phase-contrast microscopy over 25 days. Marked stimulation of normal non cancerous fibroblasts was noted between 5 and 10 days after exposure to SEQ ID NO: 17 (see FIG. 18 photographed after 10 days exposure to SEQ ID NO: 17 at a concentration of 10 μM). This shows that the peptide having the amino acids sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:17 stimulates the growth of normal non-cancerous fibroblasts. Although it does not show complete detachment of dead cells from the plastic surface of the tissue culture vessel, it does cause loss of clear cell morphology which indicates that the cancerous cells are no longer capable of dividing as cancer cells. Taken in conjunction with the observation by Morris et al (2002 Oncogene 21: 4277) that normal CDK4 has been shown to prolong the proliferative life span of normal non-cancerous human fibroblasts by a mechanism that did not involve the known normal kinase activity of CDK4, without being bound by theory it is believed that peptide analogues of the novel region of CDK4 of the present invention can stimulate the growth of normal cells and therefore have a role in promoting normal cell growth such as in wound healing or in the use of stem cells to repopulate pathologically damaged cells in human degenerative disorders. Such compounds may also directly extend the proliferative life span of diseased cells in human degenerative disorders thus alleviating symptoms and prolonging life. FIG. 17 shows the structure of a cyclic heptamer SEQ ID NO: 17: cyclo-[PRGPRPVPRGPRPVPRGPRPV] FIG. 18 shows that following 10 days exposure to SEQ ID NO: 17 at a concentration of 10 μM there is marked non-cancerous fibroblast stimulation. FIG. 19 shows, after 20 days exposure of MGHU-1 bladder cancer cells to SEQ ID NO 17, marked loss of normal cell morphology with very indistinct cell edges and no obvious nuclei. These changes may reflect a senescence. It can be seen from FIG. 19 that the control MGHU-1 bladder cancer cells have clear cell surface and nuclear membranes whereas the treated MGHU-1 bladder cancer cells have the appearance of ‘ghost’ cells with no clear nuclear demarcation and very indistinct cell borders. The experiments performed on cultured cells reflect the situation in vivo. This is because in the majority of human cancers, cells are nutrient deprived and non-dividing/quiescent. The experiments described above reflect this situation, since cells in these in vitro experiments are confluent and the majority of cells are non-dividing due to nutrient depletion occurring over the long time of exposure of cells to the peptides during the experiment. Also, the experiments were performed in 96 well plates which results in over-crowded plateau phase cultures occurring over the 25 days of observation. Such experimental conditions are helpful because they reflect the situation of human cancer in vivo.

The present invention provides a peptide comprising an amino acid sequence that is part of the amino acid sequence of CDK4 protein, or homologous to part of the amino acid sequence of CDK4 protein, which peptide is cytotoxic to, and/or inhibiting to the growth of, a cancer cell and/or stimulating to the growth of a non-cancerous cell and/or a control cell. Methods of identifying such peptides and medical uses of such peptides are also disclosed.

TECHNICAL FIELD The invention relates to diamine compounds, represented by the general formulae (Ia) and (Ib), and also relates to oligomers and polymers from the class of polyamic acids, polyamic acid esters or polyimides (and any mixtures thereof) obtained by the reaction of a diamine compound represented by the general formulae (Ia) and (Ib) and optionally of one or more additional other diamines, with one or more tetracarboxylic acid anhydrides, and to the use of these diamine compounds, oligomers and polymers for the preparation of orientation layers for liquid crystals and in the construction of unstructured and structured optical elements and multi-layer systems. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) are becoming increasingly dominant in advanced visualization devices. LCDs offer favourable characteristics with respect to image quality (high luminance, high resolution, colour and grey scale capability), power consumption as well as dimensions and weight (flat panel displays). The use of commercial LCDs has become widespread, e.g. in automotive and telecommunication instruments, as well as in monitors of notebooks, desktop computers, television sets, etc. Today the need for LCDs in television applications is rapidly growing. Recently developed LCD modes possess high potentials in achieving fast response times, wide viewing angles and high luminance. Amongst other newly developed LCD modes, the MVA (multi-domain vertical alignment) mode appears to be the most promising for the use in modern television applications. In the MVA mode the liquid crystal molecules are usually nearly vertically aligned with respect to the surface of the substrates. By using protrusions (or other alignment subdivisions) on the surface of the substrate, the liquid crystal molecules become locally pre-tilted within a single cell in more than one direction, leading to domains switchable in different directions. This multi-domain configuration exhibits very good display performance, with wide viewing angles of up to 160° in any direction, short response times (below 20 ms), high contrast ratios (up to 700:1) and high brightness. However, by means of using protrusions only, it is difficult to clearly define the domain space within a single pixel. Therefore the MVA mode demands additional manufacturing steps to ensure shape effects as well as electrical field effects on both the upper and lower substrate; hence all in all leading to complex manufacturing procedures. In order to by-pass this technical challenge, the availability of an alignment layer would be desirable, which directly leads to pre-defined alignment directions within each pixel domain and having well controllable off-axis angles with respect to the normal axis of the substrate. Methods for the preparation of orientation layers for liquid crystal materials are well known to the skilled person. Customarily used uniaxially rubbed polymer orientation layers, such as for example polyimides, however, do have a series of disadvantages, like the formation and deposition of dust during the rubbing process and concomitant partial destruction of the thin film transistors. Scratches due to brushing is another issue associated with this technique, which is particularly evident when the pixels are of the order of 10 microns or even lower, like e.g. in micro-display applications. Because of the strong optical magnification, which is required to visualize the displayed information, scratches easily become visible and are also the cause for the reduction of the contrast level. Furthermore, the rubbing process does not allow the production of structured layers. The production procedure for obtaining orientation layers in which the direction of orientation is induced by irradiation with polarized light is not faced with the problems inherent to the rubbing process. With the irradiation technique it is furthermore also possible to create areas having different orientation and thus to structure the orientation layer as described for example in Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 31 (1992), 215-564 (Schadt et al). Using the linearly photo-polymerizable alignment (LPP) technique, the possibility of realizing a four-domain vertical aligned nematic (VAN) LCD was demonstrated some years ago (K. Schmitt, M. Schadt; Proceedings of EuroDisplay 99, 6-9 Sep., 1999). The four-domain VAN-LCD exhibits an excellent off-state angular brightness performance. Apart from the current display performance requirements to be fulfilled in modern TV applications, the use of appropriate LPP materials is furthermore also guided by the necessity to achieve specific optical and electro-optical properties, e.g. with respect to the compatibility with the TFT (thin film transistors). Other important characteristics of the materials must also be taken into consideration, i.e. those crucial parameters directly related to and dependent on the molecular properties of the material. Primarily such characteristics are: High voltage holding ratio (VHR), i.e. VHR of >90% (measured at 80° C.) High stability of the induced pre-tilt angle against light and heat Low alignment energy profile (short irradiation time and/or low irradiation energy) In the case of LCDs of thin-film transistor type a certain amount of charge is applied over the course of a very short period of time to the electrodes of a pixel and must not subsequently drain away by means of the resistance of the liquid crystal. The ability to hold that charge and thus to hold the voltage drop over the liquid crystal is quantified by what is known as the “voltage holding ratio” (VHR). It is the ratio of the RMS-voltage (root mean square voltage) at a pixel within one frame period and the initial value of the voltage applied. Photo-reactive materials for orientation layers with improved voltage holding ratios (VHR) are described in WO-A-99/49360, JP-A-10-195296 corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 6,066,696, JP-A-10-232400 corresponding to U.S. Pat. No. 6,027,772, WO-A-99/15576 and WO-A-99/51662. In WO-A-99/49360, JP-A-10-195296 and JP-A-10-232400 blends of polymeric compounds are described, containing photo-reactive polymers and polyimides. In WO-A-99/15576 and WO-A-99/51662 polyimides having photo-reactive cinnamate groups incorporated in their side chains are described. WO-A-99/15576 for instance discloses photo-active polymers which contain as side-chain specific photo-cross-linkable groups and of which a typical monomer unit is 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-methoxy-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5-diaminobenzoate. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In the above cited references it was generally demonstrated that in order to achieve the aforementioned important parameters, molecular structures combining firstly a polyamic/polyimide backbone (i.e. delivering molecular polarity) and secondly side chains with an incorporated photo-reactive group, such as a cinnamic acid residue, are suitable for the general concept of planar orientation [requiring only slight pretilt angles, like e.g. being used in TN (twisted nematic) devices]. However, these types of molecular structures, primarily developed for TN applications, cannot directly be utilized in MVA applications. From the comparative examples provided below, it can be seen that when molecular structures, providing high voltage holding ratios in the TN mode, are slightly modified in order to induce vertical alignment, for example simply by increasing the length of a peripheral alkyl chain, a strong drop of the VHR value is observed. This indicates that in case of the MVA mode not only the molecular polarity (being sufficient in case of the TN mode) has to be taken into consideration, but also other molecular parameters. It has surprisingly been found, that in addition to the molecular polarity, also the molecular architecture of the LPP material as such plays a predominant role in obtaining MVA materials having optimised properties, such as the required high voltage holding ratios, the adjustable pre-tilt angles required for the MVA mode and their stability to light and heat. Thus, a first preferred embodiment of the present invention relates to diamine compounds represented by one of the general formulae (Ia) and (Ib) and to alignment layers/materials comprising these diamine compounds: wherein: A, B each independently represents a carbocyclic or heterocyclic aromatic group selected from a monocyclic ring of five or six atoms, two adjacent monocyclic rings of five or six atoms, a bicyclic ring system of eight, nine or ten atoms, or a tricyclic ring system of thirteen or fourteen atoms. Examples of such carbocyclic or heterocyclic aromatic groups include but are not limited to: pyrimidine-diyl, pyridine-diyl, thiophenylene, furanylene, phenanthrylene, naphthylene, biphenylene or phenylene. The carbocyclic or heterocyclic aromatic groups can be unsubstituted or mono- or poly-substituted by a halogen atom, by a hydroxy group and/or by a polar group like a nitro, cyano or a carboxy group, and/or by a cyclic, straight-chain or branched alkyl residue having from 1 to 30 carbon atoms, which is unsubstituted, mono- or poly-substituted by methyl, fluorine and/or chlorine, wherein one or more, preferably non-adjacent, —CH 2 — group may independently be replaced by a group selected from —O—, —CO—, —CO—O—, —O—CO—, —NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—, —CO—NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—O—, —O—CO—NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—NR 1 —, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—, —O—CO—O—, and —Si(CH 3 ) 2 —O—Si(CH 3 ) 2 —, an aromatic or an alicyclic group, and wherein: R 1 represents a hydrogen atom or lower alkyl; with the proviso that oxygen atoms are not directly linked to each other. The carbocyclic or heterocyclic aromatic groups can also be independently substituted by an acryloyloxy, alkoxy, alkylcarbonyloxy, alkyloxycarbonyloxy, alkyloxocarbonyloxy methacryloyloxy, vinyl, vinyloxy and/or allyloxy group, having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, preferably having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms. B in particular is preferably chosen from 1,4-phenylene, 4,4′-biphenylene, 2,7-phenanthrylene or 2,7- or 2,6-naphthalene, which may be substituted as outlined above. It is preferred that the unit B, e.g. by means of the linking points to adjacent groups S 1 and D/F, provides an extended, quasi-linear form, and a long molecular axis. D represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, a polar group like nitro, cyano or carboxy, —CF 3 , a silane group, a siloxane group, or a cyclic, straight-chain or branched alkyl residue having from 1 to 40 carbon atoms, which is unsubstituted, mono-substituted by cyano, fluorine or chlorine, or poly-substituted by fluorine and/or chlorine, or substituted by a polymerizable group such as CH 2 ═CH—, CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—, CH 2 ═CH—(CO)O—, CH 2 ═CH—O—, CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—(CO)O—, CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—O—, and wherein one or more preferably non-adjacent —CH 2 — groups may independently be replaced by a group preferably selected from —O—, —CO—, —CO—O—, —O—CO—, —NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—, —CO—NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—O—, —O—CO—NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—NR 1 —, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—, —O—CO—O—, or —Si(CH 3 ) 2 —O—Si(CH 3 ) 2 —, wherein R 1 represents a hydrogen atom or lower alkyl. E represents an oxygen atom, a sulphur atom, —C(R 2 )R 3 — or —NR 4 —, wherein: R 2 or R 3 is hydrogen or a cyclic, straight-chain or branched alkyl residue which is unsubstituted, mono-substituted by cyano, fluorine or chlorine, or poly-substituted by fluorine and/or chlorine, having from 1 to 24 carbon atoms, wherein one or more non-adjacent —CH 2 — groups may independently be replaced by a group preferably selected from —O—, —CO—, —CO—O—, —O—CO—, —NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—, —CO—NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—O—, —O—CO—NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—NR 1 —, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—, —O—CO—O—, —Si(CH 3 ) 2 — and —Si(CH 3 ) 2 —O—Si(CH 3 ) 2 —, wherein: R 1 represents a hydrogen atom or lower alkyl; with the proviso that at least one of R 2 and R 3 is not hydrogen; and R 4 represents a hydrogen atom or lower alkyl. S 1 , S 2 each independently represents a single bond or a spacer unit such as a straight-chain or branched alkylene group which is unsubstituted, mono or poly-substituted by a cyano group and/or by halogen atoms, having from 1 to 24 carbon atoms, wherein one or more —CH 2 — groups may independently be replaced by a group represented by the general formula (II): -(Z 1 -C 1 ) a1 -(Z 2 -C 2 ) a2 —  (II) wherein: C 1 , C 2 each independently represents a non-aromatic, aromatic, optionally substituted carbocyclic or heterocyclic group, preferably connected to each other at the opposite positions via the bridging groups Z 1 and Z 2 , so that groups S 1 and/or S 2 have a long molecular axis, and Z 1 , Z 2 each independently represents a bridging group preferably selected from —CH(OH)—, —O—, —CO—, —CH 2 (CO)—, —SO—, —CH 2 (SO)—, —SO 2 —, —CH 2 (SO 2 )—, —COO—, —OCO—, —COCF 2 —, —CF 2 CO—, —S—CO—, —CO—S—, —SOO—, —OSO—, —SOS—, —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —OCH 2 —, —CH 2 O—, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—, —CH═CH—COO—, —OCO—CH═CH—, —CH═N—, —C(CH 3 )═N—, —O—CO—O—N═N— or a single bond; and a 1 , a 2 each independently represents an integer from 0 to 3, such that a 1 +a 2≦ 4. F represents an optionally substituted aliphatic, aromatic or alicyclic diamino group having from 1 to 40 carbon atoms, preferably selected from formula (III): HN(R 5 )-(Sp 1 ) k1 -(X 1 ) t1 -(Z 3 -C 3 ) a3 -(Z 4 -C 4 ) a4 —(X 2 ) t2 -(Sp 2 ) k2 -N(R 6 )H wherein: Sp 1 , Sp 2 each independently represents an optionally substituted straight-chain or branched alkylene group having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, in which one or more, preferably non-adjacent, C-atoms may be replaced by a heteroatom, and wherein it is optionally possible that one or more carbon-carbon single bonds are replaced by a carbon-carbon double or by a carbon-carbon triple bond; and R 5 , R 6 each independently represents a hydrogen atom or lower alkyl; and k 1 , k 2 each independently is an integer having a value of 0 or 1; and X 1 , X 2 each independently represents a linking group, preferably selected from —O—, —S—, —NH—, —N(CH 3 )—, —CH(OH)—, —CO—, —CH 2 (CO)—, —SO—, —CH 2 (SO)—, —SO 2 —, —CH 2 (SO 2 )—, —COO—, —OCO—, —OCO—O—, —S—CO—, —CO—S—, —SOO—, —OSO—, —SOS—, —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —OCH 2 —, —CH 2 O—, —CH═CH—, or —C≡C— or a single bond; and t 1 , t 2 each independently is an integer having a value of 0 or 1; and C 3 , C 4 each independently represents a non-aromatic, aromatic, optionally substituted carbocyclic or heterocyclic group, preferably connected to each other at opposite positions via the bridging groups Z 3 and Z 4 ; so that they contribute to the shape of a long molecular axis, and Z 3 represents a bridging group preferably selected from —CH(OH)—, —CH(CH 3 )—, —C(CH 3 ) 2 —, —CO—, —CH 2 (CO)—, —SO—, —CH 2 (SO)—, —SO 2 —, —CH 2 (SO 2 )—, —COO—, —OCO—, —COCF 2 —, —CF 2 CO—, —S—CO—, —CO—S—, —SOO—, —OSO—, —SOS—, —O—CO—O—, —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —OCH 2 —, —CH 2 O—, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—, —CH═CH—COO—, —OCO—CH═CH—, —CH═N—, —C(CH 3 )═N—, —N═N— or a single bond; and Z 4 has one of the meanings of Z 3 or represents an optionally substituted straight-chain or branched alkylene group having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, in which one or more, preferably non-adjacent, —CH 2 — groups may be replaced by a heteroatom and/or by a group Z 3 as defined above and/or it is optionally possible that one or more carbon-carbon single bonds are replaced by a carbon-carbon double or a carbon-carbon triple bond; and a 3 , a 4 are independently integers from 0 to 3, such that a 3 +a 4 ≦4. F is linked to group S 2 in formula (Ia) or to group B in formula (Ib) via group Sp 1 and/or group C 3 and/or group Z 4 and/or group C 4 and/or group Sp 2 ; and with the proviso that at least one of k 1 , k 2 , a 3 and a 4 is not equal to zero. X, Y each independently represent hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, cyano, alkyl, optionally substituted by fluorine, having from 1 to 12 carbon atoms, in which optionally one or more non-adjacent —CH 2 — groups are replaced by a group Z 1 , and n is 1, 2, 3 or 4. The term “lower alkyl”, as used in the context of the present invention, taken on its own or in a combination such us “lower alkoxy”, etc., preferably denotes straight-chain and branched saturated hydrocarbon groups having from 1 to 6, preferably from 1 to 3, carbon atoms. Methyl, ethyl, propyl and isopropyl groups are especially preferred. In case of “lower alkoxy”, methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy and isopropoxy groups are especially preferred. The term “alicylic”, as used in the context of the present invention, preferably denotes optionally substituted non-aromatic carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring systems, with 3 to 30 carbon atoms, e.g. cyclopropane, cyclobutane, cyclopentane, cyclopentene, cyclohexane, cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene, decaline, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane, pyrrolidine, piperidine or a steroidal skeleton such as cholesterol. The term “aromatic”, as used in the context of the present invention, preferably denotes optionally substituted carbocyclic and heterocyclic aromatic groups, incorporating five, six, ten or 14 ring atoms, e.g. furan, benzene, pyridine, pyrimidine, naphthalene, phenanthrene, biphenylene or tetraline units. The term “phenylene”, as used in the context of the present invention, preferably denotes a 1,2-, 1,3- or 1,4-phenylene group, which is optionally substituted. It is preferred that the phenylene group is either a 1,3- or a 1,4-phenylene group. 1,4-phenylene groups are especially preferred. The term “halogen” denotes a chloro, fluoro, bromo or iodo substituent, preferably a chloro or fluoro substituent. The term “polar group”, as used in the context of the present invention primarily denotes a group like a nitro, cyano, or a carboxy group. The term “hetero atom”, as used in the context of the present invention primarily denotes oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen, preferably oxygen and nitrogen, in the latter case preferably in the form of —NH—. The term “optionally substituted” as used in the context of the present invention primarily means substituted by lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, hydroxy, halogen or by a polar group as defined above. The term “diamine” or “diamine compound” is to be understood as designating a chemical structure which has at least two amino groups, i.e. which may also have 3 or more amino groups. The at least two amino groups are preferably able to react with e.g. anhydrides as outlined in more detail below. With respect to straight chain or branched alkyl, alkylene, alkoxy, alkoxycarbonyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkylcarbonyloxy groups it is repeatedly pointed out that some or several of the —CH 2 — groups may be replaced e.g. by heteroatoms, but also by other groups. In such cases it is generally preferred that such replacement groups are not directly linked to each other. It is alternatively preferred that heteroatoms, and in particular oxygen atoms are not directly linked to each other. With respect to the possibility of having several side-chains (i.e. n>1) connected to residue F, it has to be mentioned that the side chains [i.e. structures (Ia) and (Ib) without the group F] can either be linked to the group F at one atomic position within group F, e.g. two or three side chains connected to one single carbon atom within group F, or they can be linked to group F at different atomic positions within group F, e.g. at adjacent atomic positions within group F but also spaced further apart. Another preferred embodiment of the present invention relates to diamine compounds represented by one of the general formulae (Ia) or (Ib), referring to any of the preceding definitions, and to alignment materials comprising these diamine compounds, wherein: A, B each independently represents phenanthrylene, biphenylene, naphthylene, or phenylene, which is unsubstituted or mono- or poly-substituted by a halogen atom, hydroxy group and/or by a polar group like nitro, cyano, carboxy, and/or by acryloyloxy, methacryloyloxy, vinyl, vinyloxy, allyl, allyloxy, and/or by a cyclic, straight-chain or branched alkyl residue, which is unsubstituted, mono- or poly-substituted by fluorine and/or chlorine, having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, wherein one or more, preferably non-adjacent —CH 2 — groups may independently be replaced by a group, preferably selected from —O—, —CO—, —CO—O—, —O—CO—. D represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, a cyano group, —CF 3 , —Si(CH 3 ) 3 , —Si(CH 3 ) 2 —O—Si(CH 3 ) 3 , or a straight-chain or branched alkyl residue having from 1 to 30 carbon atoms, which is unsubstituted, mono-substituted by fluorine or chlorine, or acryloxy, methacryloxy or poly-substituted by fluorine, chlorine, and in which one or more preferably non-adjacent —CH 2 — groups may independently be replaced by a group selected from —O—, —CO—, —CO—O—, —O—CO—, —NR 1 —CO—, —CO—NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—O—, —O—CO—NR 1 —, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—, and —Si(CH 3 ) 2 —O—Si(CH 3 ) 2 —, wherein R 1 represents a hydrogen atom or lower alkyl; and E represents an oxygen atom or a —N(H)— group. S 1 , S 2 each independently represents a single bond or a spacer unit such as a straight-chain or branched alkylene group, having from 1 to 24 carbon atoms, wherein one or more —CH 2 — groups may independently be replaced by a group represented by the formula (II), wherein: C 1 , C 2 are selected from: wherein: “—” denotes the connecting bonds of C 1 and C 2 to the adjacent groups; and L is —CH 3 , —COCH 3 , nitro, cyano, halogen, CH 2 ═CH—, CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—, CH 2 ═CH—(CO)O—, CH 2 ═CH—O—, CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—(CO)O—, or CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—O—, u1 is an integer from 0 to 4; and u2 is an integer from 0 to 3; and u3 is an integer from 0 to 2; and Z 1 , Z 2 each independently represents —O—, —CO—, —COO—, —OCO—, —COCF 2 —, —CF 2 CO—, —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —OCH 2 —, —CH 2 O—, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—, —CH═CH—COO—, —OCO—CH═CH— or a single bond; with the proviso that heteroatoms are not directly linked to each other, and a 1 , a 2 each independently represents an integer from 0 to 3, such that a 1 +a 2 ≦4. F represents an optionally substituted aliphatic, aromatic or alicyclic diamino group having from 1 to 40 carbon atoms, preferably selected from formula (III), wherein: k 1 , k 2 are 0 or 1, and t 1 , t 2 are 0, and R 5 , R 6 are identical and represent a hydrogen atom, a methyl, an ethyl or an isopropyl group; and C 3 , C 4 independently from each other are selected from: wherein: “—” denotes the connecting bonds of C 3 and C 4 to the adjacent groups; and L is —CH 3 , —COCH 3 , nitro, cyano, halogen, CH 2 ═CH—, CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—, CH 2 ═CH—(CO)O—, CH 2 ═CH—O—, CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—(CO)O— or CH 2 ═C(CH 3 O—, u1 is an integer from 0 to 4; and u2 is an integer from 0 to 3; and u3 is an integer from 0 to 2; and Z 3 represents a group selected from —CH(OH)—, —CH(CH 3 )—, —C(CH 3 ) 2 —, —CO—, —COO—, —COCF 2 —, —CF 2 CO— or a single bond; and Z 4 has one of the meanings of Z 3 or represents an optionally substituted straight chain or branched alkylene group having from 1 to 16 carbon atoms, in which one or more, preferably non-adjacent, —CH 2 — groups may be replaced by an oxygen atom and/or it is optionally possible that one or more carbon-carbon single bonds are replaced by a carbon-carbon double or a carbon-carbon triple bond; and a 3 , a 4 each independently represents an integer from 0 to 2, such that a 3 +a 4 ≦3. F is linked to S 2 in formula (Ia) or to B in formula (Ib) via group Sp 1 and/or group C 3 and/or group Z 4 and/or group C 4 and/or group Sp 2 ; and with the proviso that at least one of k 1 , k 2 , a 3 and a 4 is not equal to zero. X, Y are hydrogen atoms, and n is 1, 2 or 3. Another preferred embodiment of the present invention relates to diamine compounds represented by one of the general formulae (Ia) or (Ib), referring to any of the preceding definitions, and to alignment materials comprising these diamine compounds, wherein: A, B each independently represents a biphenylene, naphthylene or phenylene group, which is unsubstituted or mono- or poly-substituted by a halogen atom, a hydroxy group, and/or by acryloyloxy, and/or methacryloyloxy groups, and/or by straight-chain or branched alkyl, alkoxy, alkylcarbonyloxy, and/or alkyloxycarbonyl groups having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms. D represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, —CF 3 , —Si(CH 3 ) 3 , —Si(CH 3 ) 2 —O—Si(CH 3 ) 3 , or a straight-chain or branched alkyl residue having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms, preferably selected from formula (IV): P 1 -Sp 3 -X 3 —  (IV) wherein: P 1 represents hydrogen, halogen, a silane group or a polymerizable group, such as: CH 2 ═CH—, CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—, CH 2 ═CH—(CO)O—, CH 2 ═CH—O—, CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—(CO)O— or CH 2 ═C(CH 3 )—O—; Sp 3 represents a straight chain or branched alkyl group having from 1 to 30 carbon atoms which is mono- or poly-substituted by fluorine and/or chlorine and wherein optionally one or more, preferably non-adjacent —CH 2 — groups present in the hydrocarbon chain may independently be replaced by one or more groups selected from —O—, —CO—, —CO—O—, —O—CO—, —NR 1 —CO—, —CO—NR 1 —, —NR 1 —CO—O—, —O—CO—NR 1 —, —CH═CH—, —C≡C— and —Si(CH 3 ) 2 —O—Si(CH 3 ) 2 —, wherein: R 1 represents a hydrogen atom or lower alkyl; with the proviso that oxygen atoms are not directly linked to each other; and wherein: especially preferred Sp 3 groups are C 1 -C 20 -alkyl, C 1 -C 20 -alkoxy, C 1 -C 20 -alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 20 -alkylcarbonyl or C 1 -C 20 -alkylcarbonyloxy groups, for example methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, dodecyl, methoxy, ethoxy, n-propoxy, isopropoxy, butoxy, pentyloxy, hexyloxy, heptyloxy, octyloxy, nonyloxy, decyloxy, undecyloxy, dodecyloxy, methoxycarbonyl, ethoxycarbonyl, propoxycarbonyl, butoxycarbonyl, pentyloxycarbonyl, hexyloxycarbonyl, octyloxycarbonyl, nonyloxycarbonyl, decyloxycarbonyl, undecyloxy carbonyl, dodecyloxycarbonyl, acetyl, propionyl, butyryl, valeryl, hexanoyl, heptanoyl, octanoyl, nonanoyl, decanoyl, undecanoyl, dodecanoyl, terdecanoyl, acetoxy, propionyloxy, butyryloxy, valeryloxy, hexanoyloxy, heptanoyloxy, octanoyloxy, nonanoyloxy, decanoyloxy, undecanoyloxy, dodecanoyloxy, terdecanoyloxy and the like, which may be mono- or poly-substituted by fluorine; and X 3 has one of the meanings of X 1 . E represents an oxygen atom or a —N(H)— group. S 1 , S 2 each independently represents a single bond or a spacer unit such a straight-chain or branched alkylene groups, having from 1 to 14 carbon atoms, wherein one or more —CH 2 — groups may independently be replaced by a group represented by formula (II), wherein: C 1 , C 2 each independently represents a 1,4-phenylene, 1,4-cyclohexylene or a 4,4′-biphenylene group; and Z 1 , Z 2 each independently represents —COO—, —OCO—, —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —OCH 2 —, —CH 2 O—, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—, —CH═CH—COO—, —OCO—CH═CH— or a single bond; and a 1 , a 2 are independently 0 or 1. F represents an optionally substituted aliphatic, aromatic or alicyclic diamino group having from 1 to 40 carbon atoms, represented by formula (III) and preferably made from or selected from the following group of structures: aniline, p-phenylenediamine, m-phenylenediamine, benzidine, diaminofluorene, or their derivatives, with the proviso that compounds listed which do not carry two amino groups are taken as derivatives with at least one additional amino group, and more preferably made from or selected from the following commercially available amino compounds: 4-amino-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzoic acid, 4-amino-3,5-diiodobenzoic acid, 3,4-diaminobenzoic acid, 4-amino-3-methylbenzoic acid, 4-amino-2-chlorobenzoic acid, 4-aminosalicylic acid, 4-aminobenzoic acid, 4-aminophthalic acid, 1-(4-aminophenyl)ethanol, 4-aminobenzyl alcohol, 4-amino-3-methoxybenzoic acid, 4-aminophenyl ethyl carbinol, 4-amino-3-nitrobenzoic acid, 4-amino-3,5-dinitrobenzoic acid, 4-amino-3,5-dichlorobenzoic acid, 4-amino-3-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4-aminobenzyl alcohol hydrochloride, 4-aminobenzoic acid hydrochloride, pararosaniline base, 4-amino-5-chloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid, 4-(hexafluoro-2-hydroxyisopropyl)aniline, piperazine-p-amino benzoate, 4-amino-3,5-dibromobenzoic acid, isonicotinic acid hydrazide p-aminosalicylate salt, 4-amino-3,5-diiodosalicylic acid, 4-amino-2-methoxybenzoic acid, 2-[2-(4-aminophenyl)-2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]isoindoline-1,3-dione, 4-amino-2-nitrobenzoic acid, 2,4-diaminobenzoic acid, p-aminobenzoic acid, [3,5-3h]-4-amino-2-methoxybenzoic acid, L-(+)-threo-2-amino-1-(4-aminophenyl)-1,3-propanediol, L-(+)-threo-2-(N,N-dimethylamino)-1-(4-aminophenyl)-1,3-propanediol, ethyl 2-(4-aminophenyl)-3,3,3-trifluoro-2-hydroxypropanoate, ethyl 2-(4-amino-3-methylphenyl)-3,3,3-trifluoro-2-hydroxypropanoate, ethyl 2-(4-amino-3-methoxyphenyl)-3,3,3-trifluoro-2-hydroxypropanoate, 3,4-diaminobenzyl alcohol dihydrochloride, 4-aminonaphthalene-1,8-dicarboxylic acid, 4-amino-3-chloro-5-methylbenzoic acid, 4-amino-2,6-dimethylbenzoic acid, 4-amino-3-fluorobenzoic acid, 4-amino-5-bromo-2-methoxybenzenecarboxylic acid, 2,7-diaminofluorene, 4,4′-diaminooctafluorobiphenyl, 3,3′-diaminobenzidine, 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine, 3,3′-dimethoxybenzidine, o-tolidine, 3,3′-dinitrobenzidine, 2-nitrobenzidine, 3,3′-dihydroxybenzidine, o-tolidine sulfone, benzidine, 3,3′-dichlorobenzidine, 2,2′,5,5′-tetrachlorobenzidine, benzidine-3,3′-dicarboxylic acid, 4,4′-diamino-1,1′-binaphthyl, 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl-3,3′-diglycolic acid, dihydroethidium, o-dianisidine, 2,2′-dichloro-5,5′-dimethoxybenzidine, 3-methoxybenzidine, 3,3′-dichlorobenzidine (diphenyl-d6), 2,7-diamino-9-fluorenone, 3,5,3′,5′-tetrabromo-biphenyl-4,4′-diamine, 2,2′-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzidine, 2,2′-dichloro[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diamine, 3,9-diamino-1,11-dimethyl-5,7-dihydro-dibenzo(a,c)cyclohepten-6-one, 3,3′-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzidine, dibenzo(1,2)dithiine-3,8-diamine, 3,3′-tolidine-5-sulfonic acid, 3,3′-dichlorobenzidine-d6, tetramethylbenzidine, 3,3′-diaminobenzophenone, 3,3′-diaminodiphenylmethane, 4,4-bis-(3-amino-4-hydroxyphenyl)-valeric acid, 2,2-bis(3-amino-4-hydroxyphenyl)hexafluoropropane, 2,2-bis(3-amino-4-methylphenyl)hexafluoropropane, tetrabromo methylenedianiline, 2,7-diamino-9-fluorenone, 2,2-bis(3-aminophenyl)hexafluoropropane, bis-(3-amino-4-chloro-phenyl)-methanone, bis-(3-amino-4-dimethylamino-phenyl)-methanone, 3-[3-amino-5-(trifluoromethyl)benzyl]-5-(trifluoromethyl)aniline, 1,5-diaminonaphthalene or their derivatives, again with the proviso that compounds listed which do not carry two amino groups are taken as derivatives with at least one additional amino group, and n 1 or 2. Most preferred diamine compounds in the context of the present invention are represented by one of the general formulae (Ia) or (Ib), referring to any of the preceding definitions, and to alignment materials comprising these diamine compounds, wherein: A, B each independently represents 1,4-phenylene, which is unsubstituted or mono- or poly-substituted by a halogen atom, and/or by acryloyloxy or methacryloyloxy, and/or by an alkoxy, alkylcarbonyloxy or an alkyloxycarbonyl group, having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms. D represents fluorine, —Si(CH 3 ) 3 , —Si(CH 3 ) 2 —O—Si(CH 3 ) 3 , or a straight-chain or branched alkyl residue having from 1 to 16 carbon atoms, preferably selected from formula (IV), wherein: P 1 represents hydrogen or fluorine; and Sp 3 represents a C 1 -C 12 -alkyl, C 1 -C 12 -alkoxy, C 1 -C 12 -alkoxycarbonyl, C 1 -C 12 -alkylcarbonyl or C 1 -C 12 -alkylcarbonyloxy group, which may be mono- or poly-substituted by fluorine. E represents an oxygen atom. S 1 , S 2 each independently represents a single bond or a spacer unit such a straight-chain alkylene group, having from 1 to 12 carbon atoms, wherein one or more —CH 2 — groups may independently be replaced by a group of formula (II), wherein: C 1 , C 2 each independently represents 1,4-phenylene; and Z 1 , Z 2 each independently represents-COO—, —OCO—, —CH 2 —CH 2 —, —OCH 2 —, —CH 2 O—, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—, —CH═CH—COO—, —OCO—CH═CH—, or a single bond; and a 1 , a 2 each independently represents 0 or 1, and n is 1. Another preferred embodiment of the present invention relates to diamine compounds represented by the general formulae (Ia) and (Ib), which may be used in the subsequent manufacturing processes as such or in combination with one or more additional other diamines. Preferred examples of additional other diamines are: ethylenediamine, 1,3-propylenediamine, 1,4-butylenediamine, 1,5-pentylenediamine, 1,6-hexylenediamine, 1,7-heptylenediamine, 1,8-octylenediamine, 1,9-nonylenediamine, 1,10-decylenediamine, 1,11-undecylenediamine, 1,12-dodecylenediamine, α,α′-diamino-m-xylene, α,α′-diamino-p-xylene, (5-amino-2,2,4-trimethylcyclopentyl)methylamine, 1,2-diaminocyclohexane, 4,4′-diaminodicyclohexylmethane, 1,3-bis(methylamino)cyclohexane, 4,9-dioxadodecane-1,12-diamine, 3,5-diaminobenzoic acid methyl ester, 3,5-diaminobenzoic acid hexyl ester, 3,5-diaminobenzoic acid dodecyl ester, 3,5-diaminobenzoic acid isopropyl ester, 4,4′-methylenedianiline, 4,4′-ethylenedianiline, 4,4′-diamino-3,3′-dimethyldiphenylmethane, 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine, 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl sulfone, 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl ether, 1,5-diaminonaphthalene, 3,3′-dimethyl-4,4′-diaminobiphenyl, 3,4′-diaminodiphenyl ether, 3,3′-diaminobenzophenone, 4,4′-diaminobenzophenone, 4,4′-diamino-2,2′-dimethylbibenzyl, bis[4-(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl]sulfone, 1,4-bis(4-aminophenoxy)benzene, 1,3-bis(4-aminophenoxy)benzene, 1,3-bis(3-aminophenoxy)benzene, 2,7-diaminofluorene, 9,9-bis(4-aminophenyl)fluorene, 4,4′-methylene-bis(2-chloroaniline), 4,4′-bis(4-aminophenoxy)biphenyl, 2,2′,5,5′-tetrachloro-4,4′-diaminobiphenyl, 2,2′-dichloro-4,4′-diamino-5,5′-dimethoxybiphenyl, 3,3′-dimethoxy-4,4′-diaminobiphenyl, 4,4′-(1,4-phenyleneisopropylidene)bisaniline, 4,4′-(1,3-phenyleneisopropylidene)bisaniline, 2,2-bis[4-(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl]pro pane, 2,2-bis[3-(4-aminophenoxy)phenyl]hexafluoropropane, 2,2-bis[3-amino-4-methylphenyl]hexafluoropropane, 2,2-bis(4-aminophenyl)hexafluoropropane, 2,2′-bis[4-(4-amino-2-trifluoromethylphenoxy)phenyl]hexafluoropropane, 4,4′-diamino-2,2′-bis(trifluoromethyl)biphenyl, and 4,4′-bis[(4-amino-2-trifluoromethyl)phenoxy]-2,3,5,6,2′,3′,5′,6′-octafluorobiphenyl, as well as diamines disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,340,506, WO 00/59966 and WO 01/53384, all of which are explicitly incorporated herein by reference. A further preferred embodiment of the present invention relates to a polymer material or oligomer material from the class of polyamic acids, polyamic acid esters or polyimides, (and any mixtures thereof) obtained by or obtainable by the reaction of at least one diamine compound represented by the general formulae (Ia) and (Ib) and optionally of one or more additional other diamines (as e.g. given above), with one or more tetracarboxylic acid anhydrides of the general formula (V) wherein: T represents a tetravalent organic radical. The tetravalent organic radical T is preferably derived from an aliphatic, alicyclic or aromatic tetracarboxylic acid dianhydride. Preferred examples of aliphatic or alicyclic tetracarboxylic acid dianhydrides are: 1,1,4,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, ethylenemaleic acid dianhydride, 1,2,3,4-cyclobutanetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 1,2,3,4-cyclopentanetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 2,3,5-tricarboxycyclopentylacetic acid dianhydride, 3,5,6-tricarboxynorbornylacetic acid dianhydride, 2,3,4,5-tetrahydrofurantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, rel-[1S,5R,6R]-3-oxabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2,4-dione-6-spiro-3′-(tetrahydrofuran2′,5′-dione), 4-(2,5-dioxotetrahydrofuran-3-yl)tetrahydronaphthalene-1,2-dicarboxylicacid dianhydride, 5-(2,5-dioxotetrahydrofuran-3-yl)-3-methyl-3-cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboxylic-acid dianhydride, bicyclo[2.2.2]oct-7-ene-2,3,5,6-tetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, bicyclo[2.2.2]octane-2,3,5,6-tetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 1,8-dimethylbicyclo[2.2.2]oct-7-ene-2,3,5,6-tetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, and the like. Preferred examples of aromatic tetracarboxylic acid dianhydrides are: pyromellitic acid dianhydride, 3,3′,4,4′-benzophenonetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 4,4′-oxydiphthalic acid dianhydride, 3,3′,4,4′-diphenylsulfonetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 2,3,6,7-naphthalenetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 3,3′,4,4′-dimethyldiphenylsilanetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 3,3′,4,4′-tetraphenylsilanetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 1,2,3,4-furantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 4,4′-bis(3,4-dicarboxyphenoxy)diphenyl sulfide dianhydride, 4,4′-bis(3,4-dicarboxyphenoxy)diphenyl sulfone dianhydride, 4,4′-bis(3,4-dicarboxyphenoxy)diphenylpropane dianhydride, 3,3′,4,4′-biphenyltetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, ethylene glycol bis(trimellitic acid) dianhydride, 4,4′-(1,4-phenylene)bis(phthalic acid) dianhydride, 4,4′-(1,3-phenylene)bis(phthalic acid) dianhydride, 4,4′-(hexafluoroisopropylidene)diphthalic acid dianhydride, 4,4′-oxydi(1,4-phenylene)bis(phthalic acid) dianhydride, 4,4′-methylenedi(1,4-phenylene)bis(phthalic acid) dianhydride, and the like. More preferably the tetracarboxylic acid dianhydrides used to form the tetravalent organic radical T are selected from: 1,2,3,4-cyclobutanetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 1,2,3,4-cyclopentanetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride, 2,3,5-tricarboxycyclopentylacetic acid dianhydride, 5-(2,5-dioxotetrahydrofuran-3-yl)-3-methyl-3-cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid dianhydride, 4-(2,5-dioxotetrahydrofuran-3-yl)tetrahydronaphthalene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid dianhydride, 4,4′-(hexafluoroisopropylidene)diphthalic acid dianhydride and bicyclo[2.2.2]oct-7-ene-2,3,5,6-tetracarboxylic acid dianhydride. Preferred polyamic acids, polyamic acid esters or polyimides (and any mixtures thereof) of the present invention relate to those which comprise as side-chains a photo-reactive group that can be photo-isomerized and/or photo-dimerized on exposure to visible light, UV light or laser light. It is preferred that at least 30% of the repeating units include a side chain with a photo-reactive group. Preferably, the photo-reactive groups are able to undergo photo-cyclization, in particular [2+2]-photo-cyclisation. Preferably, the photo-reactive groups are sensitive to visible and/or UV light, in particular to linearly polarized UV light. The side-chain polymers or oligomers according the invention can be present in the form of homopolymers as well as in the form of copolymers. The term “copolymers” is to be understood as meaning especially statistical copolymers. The diamine compounds according to the present invention may be prepared using methods that are known to a person skilled in the art. The polyamic acids, polyamic acid esters and polyimides according to the present invention may be prepared in line with known methods, such as those described in Plast. Eng. 36 (1996), (Polyimides, fundamentals and applications), Marcel Dekker, Inc. For example, the poly-condensation reaction for the preparation of the polyamic acids is carried out in solution in a polar aprotic organic solvent, such as γ-butyrolactone, N,N-dimethylacetamide, N-methylpyrrolidone or N,N-dimethylformamide. In most cases equimolar amounts of the dianhydride and the diamine are used, i.e. one amino group per anhydride group. If it is desired to stabilize the molecular weight of the polymer or oligomer, it is possible for that purpose to either add an excess or a less-than-stoichiometric amount of one of the two components or to add a mono-functional compound in the form of a dicarboxylic acid monoanhydride or in the form of a mono-amine. Examples of such mono-functional compounds are maleic acid anhydride, phthalic acid anhydride, aniline and the like. Preferably the reaction is carried out at temperatures of less than 100° C. The cyclisation of the polyamic acids to form the polyimides can be carried out by heating, i.e. by condensation with removal of water or by other imidisation reactions using appropriate reagents. When carried out purely thermally, the imidisation of the polyamic acids may not always be complete, i.e. the resulting polyimides may still contain proportions of polyamic acid. In general the imidisation reactions are carried out at temperatures between 60 and 250° C., preferably at temperatures of less than 200° C. In order to achieve imidisation at lower temperatures additional reagents that facilitate the removal of water are added to the reaction mixture. Such reagents are, for example, mixtures consisting of acid anhydrides, such as acetic acid anhydride, propionic acid anhydride, phthalic acid anhydride, trifluoroacetic acid anhydride or tertiary amines, such as triethylamine, trimethylamine, tributylamine, pyridine, N,N-dimethylaniline, lutidine, collidine etc. The amount of aforementioned additional reagents that facilitate the removal of water is preferably at least four equivalents of acid anhydride and two equivalents of amine per equivalent of polyamic acid to be condensed. The imidisation reaction can be carried out prior or after the application to a support. The polyamic acids and the polyimides of the present invention have an intrinsic viscosity preferably in the range of 0.05 to 10 dL/g, more preferably in the range of 0.05 to 5 dL/g. Herein, the intrinsic viscosity (η inh =In η rel /C) is determined by measuring a solution containing a polymer or an oligomer in a concentration of 0.5 g/100 ml solution for the evaluation of its viscosity at 30° C. using N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone as solvent. The polyamic acid chains or polyimide chains of the present invention preferably contain from 2 to 2000 repeating units, especially from 3 to 200 repeating units. Additives such as silane-containing compounds and epoxy-containing cross-linking agents may be added to the polymers or the oligomers of the invention in order to improve the adhesion of the polymer or the oligomer to the substrates. Suitable silane-containing compounds are described in Plast. Eng. 36 (1996), (Polyimides, fundamentals and applications), Marcel Dekker, Inc. Suitable epoxy-containing cross-linking agents include 4,4′-methylene-bis-(N,N-diglycidylaniline), trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether, benzene-1,2,4,5-tetracarboxylic acid 1,2,4,5-N,N′-diglycidyidiimide, polyethylene glycol diglycidyl ether, N,N-diglycidylcyclohexylamine and the like. Additional additives such one or more photo-sensitizers and/or one or more photo-radical generators and/or one or more cationic photo-initiators may also be added to the polymers or oligomers of the invention. Suitable photo-active additives include 2,2-dimethoxyphenylethanone, a mixture of diphenylmethanone and N,N-dimethylbenzenamine or ethyl 4-(dimethylamino)benzoate, xanthone, thioxanthone, Irgacure® 184, 369, 500, 651 and 907 (Ciba), Michler's ketone, triaryl sulfonium salt and the like. The polymers or oligomers according to the invention may be used in form of polymer layers or oligomer layers alone or in combination with other polymers, oligomers, monomers, photo-active polymers, photo-active oligomers and/or photo-active monomers, depending upon the application to which the polymer or oligomer layer is to be added. Therefore it is understood that by varying the composition of the polymer or oligomer layer it is possible to control specific and desired properties, such as an induced pre-tilt angle, good surface wetting, a high voltage holding ratio, a specific anchoring energy, etc. Polymer or oligomer layers may readily be prepared from the polymers or oligomers of the present invention and a further embodiment of the invention relates to a polymer or oligomer layer comprising a polymer or oligomer according to the present invention in a cross-linked form. The polymer or oligomer layer is preferably prepared by applying one or more polymers or oligomers according to the invention to a support and, after any imidisation step which may be necessary, cross-linking the polymer or oligomer or polymer mixture or oligomer mixture by irradiation with linearly polarized light. It is possible to vary the direction of orientation and the tilt angle within the polymer or oligomer layer by controlling the direction of the irradiation of the linearly polarized light. It is understood that by selectively irradiating specific regions of the polymer or oligomer layer it is possible to align very specific regions of the layer and to provide layers with a defined tilt angle. The induced orientation and tilt angle are retained in the polymer or oligomer layer by the process of cross-linking. It is understood that the polymer or oligomer layers of the present invention (in form of a polymer gel, a polymer network, a polymer film, etc.) can also be used as orientation layers for liquid crystals and a further preferred embodiment of the invention relates to an orientation layer comprising one or more polymers or oligomers according to the invention in a cross-linked form. Such orientation layers can be used in the manufacture of unstructured or structured optical- or electro-optical elements, preferably in the production of hybrid layer elements. The orientation layers are suitably prepared from a solution of the polymer or oligomer material. The polymer or oligomer solution is applied to a support optionally coated with an electrode [for example a glass plate coated with indium-tin oxide (ITO)] so that homogeneous layers of 0.05 to 50 μm thickness are produced. In this process different coating techniques like spin-coating, meniscus-coating, wire-coating, slot-coating, offset-printing, flexo-printing, gravur-printing may be used. Then, or optionally after a prior imidisation step, the regions to be oriented are irradiated, for example, with a high-pressure mercury vapour lamp, a xenon lamp or a pulsed UV laser, using a polarizer and optionally a mask for creating images of structures. The irradiation time is dependent upon the output of the individual lamps and can vary from a few seconds to several hours. The photo-reaction (dimerisation, polymerization, cross-linking) can also be carried out, however, by irradiation of the homogeneous layer using filters that, for example, allow only the radiation suitable for the cross-linking reaction to pass through. It is understood that the polymer or oligomer layers of the invention may be used in the production of optical or electro-optical devices having at least one orientation layer as well as unstructured and structured optical elements and multi-layer systems. A further embodiment of the invention relates to an optical or electro-optical device comprising one or more polymers or oligomers according to the present invention in cross-linked form. The electro-optical devices may comprise more than one layer. The layer, or each of the layers may contain one or more regions of different spatial orientation. The diamine compounds and polymers or oligomers in accordance with the present invention are illustrated further by the following detailed Examples, which shall not be construed to limit the scope of the invention as outlined in the claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The chemical structure of the compounds related to the present invention and listed below has been verified using IR-, 1 H NMR- and/or Mass-Spectroscopy. EXAMPLE 1 Synthesis Preparation of 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate in accordance with the following procedure 1.1 (2E)-3-{4-[(ethoxycarbonyl)oxy]phenyl}acrylic acid 67 g (0.41 mol) p-cumaric acid were added to a mixture of 50.4 g (0.90 mol) potassium hydroxide and 600 ml water. 53.1 g (0.50 mol) ethyl chloroformate were added dropwise at 0° C. The reaction temperature rose to 10° C. The reaction mixture was subsequently allowed to react for 2 h at 25° C. and acidified to pH=1 with 200 ml hydrochloric acid 7 N. The product was filtered off, washed with water and dried under vacuum to give 95.3 g of (2E)-3-{4-[(ethoxycarbonyl)oxy]phenyl}acrylic acid as white powder. 1.2 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-[(ethoxycarbonyl)oxy]phenyl}acrylate 23.00 g (97 mmol) 4-pentoxyphenol, 17.6 g (97 mmol) (2E)-3-{4-[(ethoxycarbonyl)oxy]phenyl}acrylic acid and 1.18 g (9.7 mmol) 4-dimethylaminopyridine were dissolved in 300 ml of dichloromethane. A suspension of 18.6 g (97 mmol) N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbo-diimide hydrochloride and 200 ml dichloromethane were added dropwise in the course of 40 minutes. After 22 h at room temperature, the reaction mixture was partitioned between dichloromethane and water; the organic phase was washed repeatedly with water, dried over sodium sulphate, filtered and concentrated by rotary evaporation. Chromatography of the residue on 200 g silica gel using cyclohexane:ethyl acetate (7:3) then (1:1) as eluent yielded 36.4 g (94%) 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-[(ethoxycarbonyl)oxy]phenyl}acrylate as colourless crystals. 1.3. 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-hydroxyphenyl}acrylate 7.65 g (23.45 mmol) 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-[(ethoxycarbonyl)oxy]phenyl}acrylate, 70 ml pyridine and 40 ml acetone were mixed. A solution of 12.5 ml ammonium hydroxide 25% in water and 30 ml acetone were added dropwise. The reaction mixture was subsequently allowed to react for 18 h at 25° C. and acidified to pH=1 with hydrochloric acid 7 N. The product was filtered off, washed with water and dried under vacuum to give 7.35 g 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-hydroxyphenyl}acrylate as colourless powder. 1.4 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-(6-chlorohexyloxy)phenyl}acrylate 7.35 g (22.5 mmol) 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-hydroxyphenyl}acrylate, 3.36 g (24.6 mmol) 6-chloro-1-hexanol and 6.45 g (24.6 mmol) of triphenylphosphine were dissolved in 100 ml of tetrahydrofurane. The colourless solution was subsequently cooled to 0° C. and 4.28 g (24.6 mmol) of a 40% solution of azodicarboxylic acid diethyl ester in toluene were added dropwise thereto over a period of 25 minutes. The mixture was subsequently allowed to react for 4 h at 0° C. The reaction mixture was reduced in volume by evaporation. The resulting residue was added to a mixture of methanol and water (3:2) and was then extracted with a mixture of tert.-butyl-methylether:hexane 1:1. The tert.-butyl-methylether:hexane phase was washed repeatedly with water, dried over magnesium sulphate, filtered and concentrated by rotary evaporation to yield 7.5 g 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-(6-chlorohexyloxy)phenyl}acrylate as yellowish crystals. 1.5 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 7.50 g (16.85 mmol) 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-(6-chlorohexyloxy)phenyl}acrylate, 2.82 g (18.54 mmol) 3,5-diaminobenzoic acid and 0.62 g (1.69 mmol) tetrabutylammonium iodide were dissolved in 80 ml dimethylformamide. 3.00 ml (20.22 mmol) 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene(1,5-5) (DBU) were added dropwise in the course of 10 minutes. The reaction temperature rose to 30° C. The mixture was then heated at 80° C. for 22 h. The reaction mixture was cooled and then partitioned between ethyl acetate and a saturated sodium bicarbonate solution; the organic phase was washed repeatedly with water, dried over sodium sulphate, filtered and concentrated by rotary evaporation. Chromatography of the residue on 1 kg silica gel using cyclohexane:ethyl acetate 1:1 as eluent yielded 6.6 g of 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diamino-benzoate. The Following Diamines were Synthesized in an Analogous Manner: 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-(4,4,4-trifluorobutyloxy)phenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-(4,4,4-trifluorobutyloxy)phenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-(4,4,4-trifluorobutyloxy)phenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-(4,4,4-trifluorobutyloxy)phenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-(4,4,4-trifluorobutyloxy)phenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-cyclopentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-(3-methylpentyloxy)phenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-[3-methoxy-1-pentyloxy]phenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-[3-methoxy-1-pentyloxy]phenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(3-methoxy-4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(2,3-difluoro-4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-(4-propylcyclohexyl)carbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{2-ethoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 1-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexylcarbonyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxycarbonyl}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 6-{4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-pentyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-pentyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-pentyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-pentyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-pentyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-pentyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-pentyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-propyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-propyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-propyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-propyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-propyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-propyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4′-propyl-1,1′-biphenyl-4-yl)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(6-pentyloxy-2-naphtyloxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(6-pentyloxy-2-naphtyloxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(6-pentyloxy-2-naphtyloxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(6-pentyloxy-2-naphtyloxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(6-pentyloxy-2-naphtyloxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(6-pentyloxy-2-naphtyloxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(6-pentyloxy-2-naphtyloxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 2-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}ethyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 3-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}propyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate 7-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}heptyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. 11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate. EXAMPLE 2 Polymerisation Step A (Formation of the Polyamic Acid) 630 mg (3.210 mmol) of 1,2,3,4-cyclobutanetetracarboxylic acid dianhydride were added to a solution of 2.000 g (3.570 mmol) of 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate (EXAMPLE 1) in 14.0 ml of tetrahydrofuran (THF). Stirring was then carried out at 0° C. for 2 h. Then another 0.070 mg (0.357 mmol) of 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride were added. The mixture was subsequently allowed to react for 21 h at room temperature. The polymer mixture was diluted with 14 ml THF, precipitated into 800 ml diethyl ether and collected by filtration. The polymer was reprecipitated form THF (40 ml) into 1400 ml water to yield, after drying at room temperature under vacuum, 2.35 g of Polyamic Acid No. 1 in the form of a white powder; [η]=0.71 dL/g. EXAMPLE 3 Polymerisation Step B (Formation of the Polyimide) 0.50 g of Polyamic Acid No. 1 obtained in above EXAMPLE 2 were dissolved in 3 ml of 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidon (NMP). Thereto were added 0.28 g (3.57 mmol) of pyridine and 364 mg (3.57 mmol) acetic acid anhydride, and the dehydration and ring closure was carried out at 80° C. for 2 h. The polymer mixture was diluted with 1.5 ml NMP, precipitated into 100 ml diethyl ether and collected by filtration. The polymer was reprecipitated from THF (10 ml) into 200 ml water to yield, after drying at room temperature under vacuum, 0.55 g Polyimide No 1; [η]=0.30 dL/g. EXAMPLE 4 Synthesis Preparation of bis[6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl]2,2-bis(aminobenzyl)malonate 4.1 Dimethyl bis(4-nitrobenzyl)malonate 16.25 g (0.123 mol) of dimethyl malonate were dissolved in 500 ml tetrahydrofurane. A suspension of 10.74 g (0.246 mol) sodium hydride 55% dispersion in mineral oil and 20 ml tetrahydrofurane were added at 0° C. in 1 h. After 0.5 h, a mixture of 53.2 g (0.246 mol) 4-nitrobenzyl bromide and 200 ml tetrahydrofurane was added dropwise. After 18.5 h at room temperature, the reaction mixture was added to water. The product was collected by filtration and washed with a lot of water to yield 52.8 g of dimethyl bis(4-nitrobenzyl)malonate as yellowish powder. The product was used without further purification. 4.2 Bis[6-chlorohexyl]2,2 bis(4-nitrobenzyl)malonate 26.1 g (0.065 mol) dimethyl bis(4-nitrobenzyl)malonate, 84 g (0.61 mol) 6-chlorohexanol, 23.0 g (0.10 mol) tetraethyl orthotitanate were suspended in 50 ml toluene. The reaction mixture was subsequently allowed to react for 72 h at refluxing temperature. The reaction mixture was partitioned between water and ethyl acetate; the organic phase was washed repeatedly with water, dried over magnesium sulphate, filtered and concentrated by rotary evaporation. The product was precipitated with 200 ml cyclohexane, collected by filtration and washed with hexane to yield 27.6 g of bis[6-chlorohexyl]2,2 bis(4-nitrobenzyl)malonate as beige powder. 4.3 Bis[6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl]2,2 bis(4-nitrobenzyl)malonate 2.80 g (4.6 mmol) bis[6-chlorohexyl]2,2 bis(4-nitrobenzyl)malonate, 3.0 g (9.2 mmol) 4-pentoxyphenyl (2E)-3-{4-hydroxyphenyl}acrylate and 0.17 g (0.46 mmol) tetrabutylammonium iodide were dissolved in 30 ml 2-butanone. 2.53 g (18.3 mmol) potassium carbonate were added. The resulting suspension was heated at refluxing temperature and allowed to react for 48 h. After cooling to room temperature, the reaction mixture was partitioned between ethyl acetate and water. The organic phase was washed repeatedly with water, dried over sodium sulfate, filtered and concentrated by rotary evaporation to yield 3.6 g bis[6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl]2,2 bis(4-nitrobenzyl)malonate. 4.4. Bis[6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate 1.54 g (1.36 mmol) bis[6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl]2,2 bis(4-nitrobenzyl)malonate. were dissolved in a mixture of 25 ml N,N-dimethylformamide and 2.8 ml water. 2.21 g (8.18 mmol) ferric chloride hexahydrate and 0.716 g (10.95 mmol) zinc powder were added. The mixture was allowed to react for 1 h. The reaction mixture was then partitioned between ethyl acetate and water and filtered. The organic phase was washed repeatedly with water, dried over sodium sulfate, filtered and concentrated by rotary evaporation to yield 1.1 g bis[6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. The Following Diamines were Synthesized in an Analogous Manner: bis[4-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}butyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. bis[11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. bis[4-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}butyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. bis[6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-hexyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. bis[4-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}butyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. bis[6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. bis[4-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}butyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. bis[8-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}octyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. bis[11-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}undecyl]2,2 bis(4-aminobenzyl)malonate. EXAMPLE 5 5.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 5.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 1.500 g (2.601 mmol) 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, and 510.11 mg (2.601 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.56 g Polyamic Acid No. 2; [η]=0.72 dL/g. EXAMPLE 6 6.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 6.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 1.722 mg (3.000 mmol) 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, and 88.3 mg (3.000 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.56 g Polyamic Acid No. 3; [η]=2.05 dL/g. EXAMPLE 7 7.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 7.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 1.328 g (2.429 mmol) 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, and 0.477 g (2.429 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 1.65 g Polyamic Acid No. 4; [η]=0.81 dL/g. EXAMPLE 8 8.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 8.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 700.0 mg (1.2181 mmol) 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 238.9 mg (1.2181 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.90 g Polyamic Acid No. 5 [η]=0.73 dL/g. EXAMPLE 9 9.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 9.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 744.7 mg (1.333 mmol) 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 261.4 mg (1.333 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.93 g Polyamic Acid No. 6; [η]=0.74 dL/g. EXAMPLE 10 10.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 10.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 1.000 g (1.836 mmol) 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 168.3 mg (1.836 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 1.27 g Polyamic Acid No. 7; [η]=0.47 dL/g. EXAMPLE 11 11.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 6-{4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 11.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 0.500 g (0.7952 mmol) 6-{4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 144.9 mg (0.7952 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.62 g Polyamic Acid No. 8; [η]=1.18 dL/g. 11.3 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Copolyamic Acid was carried out using 0.450 mg (0.7156 mmol) of 6-{4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxyhexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 73.80 mg (0.1789 mmol) of 6-{4-[(1E)-3-methoxy-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate and 175.4 mg (0.8945 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.65 g Copolyamic Acid No. 1; [η]=0.81 dL/g. 11.4 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Copolyamic Acid was carried out using 0.500 mg (0.7952 mmol) of 6-{4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxyhexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 21.50 mg (0.1988 mmol) 1,3-phenylendiamine and 194.5 mg (0.9938 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.57 g Copolyamic Acid No. 2; [η]=0.28 dL/g. EXAMPLE 12 12.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 12.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 0.5138 mg (0.7799 mmol) 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 152.9 mg (0.7799 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.65 g Polyamic Acid No. 9; [η]=1.09 dL/g. EXAMPLE 13 13.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 6-{4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 13.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Copolyamic Acid was carried out using 0.500 g (0.7952 mmol) 6-{4-[(1E)-3-[4-(4-cyclohexylphenoxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 21.5 mg (0.1988 mmol) 1,3-phenylendiamine and 194.9 mg (0.9938 mmol), 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.62 g Copolyamic Acid No. 3; [η]=0.28 dL/g. EXAMPLE 14 14.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 14.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 433.5 mg (0.754 mmol) of 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate and 335.1 mg (0.754 mmol) of 4,4′-(hexafluoroisopropylidene)diphthalic acid dianhydride to yield, after drying at room temperature under vacuum, 0.499 g of Polyamic Acid No. 10 in the from of a white powder; [η]=0.37 dL/g. EXAMPLE 15 15.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenyloxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 15.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 1.000 g (1.740 mmol) of 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenyloxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 512.0 mg (1.705 mmol) 4-(2,5-dioxotetrahydrofuran-3-yl)tetrahydronaphthalene-1,2-dicarboxylicacid dianhydride to yield 0.81 g Polyamic Acid No. 11; [η]=0.17 dL/g. EXAMPLE 16 16.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenyloxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 16.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 1.000 g (1.790 mmol) of 5-{4-[(1E)-3-(4-pentylphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenyloxycarbonyl}pentyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 393.2 mg (1.754 mmol) 2,3,5-tricarboxycyclopentylacetic acid dianhydride to yield 0.71 g Polyamic Acid No. 12; [η]=0.38 dL/g. EXAMPLE 17 17.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(1,1′-biphenyl-4-yloxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl}phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate was synthesized. 17.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 0.500 mg (0.8029 mmol) of 6-{4-[(1E)-3-(1,1′-biphenyl-4-yloxy)butoxy]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl}phenoxy}hexyl 3,5 diaminobenzoate, 157.5 mg (0.8029 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.62 g Polyamic Acid No. 13; [η]=0.66 dL/g. EXAMPLE 18 18.1 Analogously to EXAMPLE 1, {4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}methyl 3,5 diaminobenzyl was synthesized. 18.2 Analogously to EXAMPLE 2, the preparation of the Polyamic Acid was carried out using 0.660 mg (1.401 mmol) of {4-[(1E)-3-(4-butyloxyphenoxy)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenylcarbonyloxy}methyl 3,5 diaminobenzyl, 274.78 mg (1.401 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.81 g Polyamic Acid No. 14; [η]=0.48 dL/g. For Comparative Evaluations Polyamic Acids were Produced Using Diamines Covered by the Above Cited Prior Art and Described Hereinafter: COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 1 Vertical Alignment Polymerisation Step A (Formation of the Polyamic Acid) The preparation was carried out analogously to EXAMPLE 2 using 500.0 mg (0.858 mmol) 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-undecyloxy-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5-diaminobenzoate, 168.3 mg (0.858 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.56 g Comparative Polyamic Acid No 1; [η]=0.73 dL/g. COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 2 Planar Alignment Polymerisation Step A (Formation of the Polyamic Acid) The preparation was carried out analogously to EXAMPLE 2 using 501.3 mg (1.1328 mmol) 6-{2-methoxy-4-[(1E)-3-methoxy-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]phenoxy}hexyl 3,5-diaminobenzoate, 222.2 mg (1.1328 mmol) 1,2,3,4 cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.61 g Comparative Polyamic Acid No. 2; [η]=0.84 dL/g. COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 3 Vertical Alignment Polymerisation Step A (Formation of the Polyamic Acid) The preparation was carried out analogously to EXAMPLE 2 using 500.0 mg (0.849 mmol) 6-[((2E)-3-{4-[(4-pentyloxybenzoyl)oxy]phenyl}prop-2-enoyl)oxy]hexyl 3,5-diaminobenzoate, 166.6 mg (0.849 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 0.52 g Comparative Polyamic Acid No 3; [η]=0.31 dL/g. COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 4 Planar Alignment Polymerisation Step A (Formation of the Polyamic Acid) The preparation was carried out analogously to EXAMPLE 2 using 2.000 g (3.653 mmol) 6-[((2E)-3-{4-[(4-methoxybenzoyl)oxy]phenyl}prop-2-enoyl)oxy]hexyl 3,5-diaminobenzoate, 716.5 mg (3.653 mmol) 1,2,3,4-cyclobutantetracarboxylic acid dianhydride to yield 2.55 g Comparative Polyamic Acid No. 4; [η]=0.33 dL/g. EXAMPLE 19 Example for the Production of an Orientation Layer having a Defined Tilt Angle A 2% solution of Polyamic Acid No. 1 (EXAMPLE 2) in cyclopentanone was filtered over a 0.2 μm Teflon filter and applied to a glass plate, which had been coated with indium-tin oxide (ITO), in a spin-coating apparatus at 3000 rev/min in the course of 60 seconds. The resulting film was then predried for 15 minutes at 130° C. and then imidized for 1 h at 200° C. to form a polyimide film. The so obtained LPP film was irradiated with linearly polarised UV light (30 mJ/cm 2 ), the direction of incidence of the light being inclined by 20° to 40° relative to the plate normal. The direction of polarisation of the light was kept in the plane defined by the direction of incidence of the light and the plate normal. From both plates a cell of 20 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. The cell was then filled with liquid crystal mixture MLC6609 from Merck in the isotropic phase at 100° C. The cell was then gradually cooled to room temperature at a rate ranging from 0.1° C./min to 2° C./min. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. The tilt angle of this parallel cell, by crystal rotation method, was 88.5°. EXAMPLE 20 Determination of the Tilt Angle's Photo-Stability An orientation layer having a defined angle of tilt of 88.5°, as provided in aforementioned EXAMPLE 19, has been subjected to photo-stability experiments using a HANAU SUNTESTER apparatus. The light impact on the sample had a cut-off at 400 nm and an irradiance of 60 mW/cm 2 . The angle of tilt remained stable over a time period of 800 h. EXAMPLE 21 Determination of the Voltage Holding Ratio (VHR) Two glass plates coated in accordance with above Example 19 were irradiated perpendicularly during 4 minutes with linearly polarised UV light. From both plates a cell of 10 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. This cell was then maintained at 120° C. under high vacuum for 14 h and thereafter filled with TFT liquid crystal mixture MLC6610 from Merck in vacuum at room temperature. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. Prior to testing the voltage holding ratio (VHR) the cell was first subjected to ageing for 50 h at 120° C. The voltage decay V (at T=20 ms) of a voltage surge of 64 μs with V 0 (V at t=0)=0.2V was then measured over a period of T=20 ms. The voltage holding ratio then determined, given by VHR=V rms (t=T)/V 0 , was 96% at room temperature and 92% at 80° C. EXAMPLE 22 Comparative Example A for the Production of an Orientation Layer Having a Defined Tilt Angle Two glass plates coated with Comparative Polyamic Acid No. 1 (same procedure as used in EXAMPLE 19) were irradiated with linearly polarised UV light (90 mJ/cm 2 ), the direction of incidence of the light being inclined by 40° relative to the plate normal. The direction of polarisation of the light was kept in the plane defined by the direction of incidence of the light and the plate normal. From both plates a cell of 20 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. The cell was then filled with liquid crystal mixture MLC6609 from Merck in the isotropic phase at 100° C. The cell was then gradually cooled to room temperature at a rate ranging from 0.1° C./min to 2° C./min. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. The tilt angle of this parallel cell, by crystal rotation method, was 89°. EXAMPLE 23 Comparative Example A for the Determination of the Voltage Holding Ratio (VHR) Two glass plates coated with Comparative Polyamic Acid No 1 (same procedure as used in EXAMPLE 19) were irradiated perpendicularly during 4 minutes with linearly polarised UV light. From both plates a cell of 10 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. This cell was then maintained at 120° C. under high vacuum for 14 h and thereafter filled with TFT liquid crystal mixture MLC6610 from Merck in vacuum at room temperature. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. Prior to testing the voltage holding ratio (VHR) the cell was first subjected to ageing for 50 h at 120° C. The voltage decay V (at T=20 ms) of a voltage surge of 64 μs with V 0 (V at t=0)=0.2V was then measured over a period of T=20 ms. The voltage holding ratio then determined, given by VHR=V rms (t=T)/V 0 , was 96% at room temperature and 77% at 80° C. EXAMPLE 24 Comparative Example A for the Determination of the Tilt Angle's Photo-Stability An orientation layer having a defined angle of tilt in accordance with EXAMPLE 22 has been subjected to photo-stability experiments using a HANAU SUNTESTER apparatus. The light impact on the sample had a cut-off at 400 nm and an irradiance of 60 mW/cm 2 . The above angle of tilt was not stable over a time period of 800 h. EXAMPLE 25 Comparative Example B for the Production of an Orientation Layer Having a Defined Tilt Angle Two glass plates coated with Comparative Polyamic Acid No. 2 (same procedure as used in EXAMPLE 19) irradiated with linearly polarised UV light (90 mJ/cm 2 ), the direction of incidence of the light being inclined by 40° relative to the plate normal. The direction of polarisation of the light was kept in the plane defined by the direction of incidence of the light and the plate normal. From both plates a cell of 20 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. The cell was then filled with liquid crystal mixture MLC6609 from Merck in the isotropic phase at 100° C. The cell was then gradually cooled to room temperature at a rate ranging from 0.1° C./min to 2° C./min. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. The tilt angle of this parallel cell, by crystal rotation method, was 0°. EXAMPLE 26 Comparative Example B for the Determination of the Voltage Holding Ratio (VHR) Two glass plates coated with Comparative Polyamic Acid No. 2 (same procedure as used in EXAMPLE 19) were irradiated perpendicularly during 4 minutes with linearly polarised UV light. From both plates a cell of 10 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. This cell was then maintained at 120° C. under high vacuum for 14 h and thereafter filled with TFT liquid crystal mixture MLC6610 from Merck in vacuum at room temperature. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. Prior to testing the voltage holding ratio (VHR) the cell was first subjected to ageing for 50 h at 120° C. The voltage decay V (at T=20 ms) of a voltage surge of 64 μs with V 0 (V at t=0)=0.2V was then measured over a period of T=20 ms. The voltage holding ratio then determined, given by VHR=V rms (t=T)/V 0 , was 99% at room temperature and 94% at 80° C. EXAMPLE 27 Comparative Example C for the Production of an Orientation Layer having a Defined Tilt Angle Two glass plates coated with Comparative Polyamic Acid 3 (same procedure as used in EXAMPLE 19) were irradiated with linearly polarised UV light (50 mJ/cm 2 ), the direction of incidence of the light being inclined by 20° to 40° relative to the plate normal. The direction of polarisation of the light was kept in the plane defined by the direction of incidence of the light and the plate normal. From both plates a cell of 20 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. The cell was then filled with liquid crystal mixture MLC6609 from Merck in the isotropic phase at 100° C. The cell was then gradually cooled to room temperature at a rate ranging from 0.1° C./min to 2° C./min. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. The tilt angle of this parallel cell, by crystal rotation method, was 88.5°. EXAMPLE 28 Comparative Example C for the Determination of the Voltage Holding Ratio (VHR) Two glass plates coated with Comparative Polyamic Acid 3 (same procedure as used in EXAMPLE 19) were irradiated perpendicularly during 4 minutes with linearly polarised UV light. From both plates a cell of 10 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. This cell was then maintained at 120° C. under high vacuum for 14 h and thereafter filled with TFT liquid crystal mixture MLC6610 from Merck in vacuum at room temperature. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. Prior to testing the voltage holding ratio (VHR) the cell was first subjected to ageing for 50 h at 120° C. The voltage decay V (at T=20 ms) of a voltage surge of 64 μs with V 0 (V at t=0)=0.2V was then measured over a period of T=20 ms. The voltage holding ratio then determined, given by VHR=V rms (t=T)/V 0 , was 82% at room temperature and 56% at 80° C. EXAMPLE 29 Comparative Example C for the Determination of the Tilt Angle's Photo-Stability An orientation layer having a defined angle of tilt in accordance with Example 27 has been subjected to photo-stability experiments using a HANAU SUNTESTER apparatus. The light impact on the sample had a cut-off at 400 nm and an irradiance of 60 mW/cm 2 . The above angle of tilt was stable over a time period of 800 h. EXAMPLE 30 Comparative Example D for the Production of an Orientation Layer having a Defined Tilt Angle Two glass plates coated with Comparative Polyamic Acid No. 4 (same procedure as used in EXAMPLE 19) were irradiated with linearly polarised UV light (30 mJ/cm 2 ), the direction of incidence of the light being inclined by 20° to 40° relative to the plate normal. The direction of polarisation of the light was kept in the plane defined by the direction of incidence of the light and the plate normal. From both plates a cell of 20 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. The cell was then filled with liquid crystal mixture MLC6609 from Merck in the isotropic phase at 100° C. The cell was then gradually cooled to room temperature at a rate ranging from 0.1° C./min to 2° C./min. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. The tilt angle of this parallel cell, by crystal rotation method, was 0° C. EXAMPLE 31 Comparative Example D for the Determination of the Voltage Holding Ratio (VHR) Two glass plates coated in accordance with Example 30 were irradiated perpendicularly during 4 minutes with linearly polarised UV light. From both plates a cell of 10 μm spacing was built such that the illuminated surfaces were facing each other and the previous polarisation directions of illumination were parallel. This cell was then maintained at 120° C. under high vacuum for 14 h and thereafter filled with TFT liquid crystal mixture MLC6610 from Merck in vacuum at room temperature. Between crossed polarisers a uniformly oriented liquid crystal layer was observed. Prior to testing the voltage holding ratio (VHR) the cell was first subjected to ageing for 50 h at 120° C. The voltage decay V (at T=20 ms) of a voltage surge of 64 μs with V 0 (V at t=0)=0.2V was then measured over a period of T=20 ms. The voltage holding ratio then determined, given by VHR=V rms (t=T)/V 0 , was 99.5% at room temperature and 93.9% at 80° C.

A diamine compound is proposed as well as polymers, copolymers, polyamic acids, polyamic acid esters, or polyimides based on such compound. The compound is represented by one of the general formulae (Ia) and (Ib). It could be shown that such structures, in particular for a specific choice of the residue B, provide, if e.g. used as orientation layers, a photostable, vertically aligning material with an improved VHR.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application is a continuation of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/162,090, filed Sep. 28, 1998, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/939,315, filed on Sep. 29, 1997 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,078,831 issued Jun. 20, 2000), which are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to an intravascular imaging guidewire system and to methods for use and manufacture thereof, and more specifically to an imaging guidewire which can be used to receive a therapeutic catheter having a guide lumen to direct the catheter to a desired position within a vessel of a body. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Intraluminal, intracavity, intravascular, and intracardiac treatment and diagnosis of medical conditions utilizing minimally invasive procedures is an effective tool in many areas of medical practice. These procedures are typically performed using imaging and treatment catheters that are inserted percutaneously into the body and into an accessible vessel of the vascular system at a site remote from the vessel or organ to be diagnosed and/or treated, such as the femoral artery. The catheter is then advanced through the vessels of the vascular system to the region of the body to be treated. The catheter may be equipped with an imaging device, typically an ultrasound imaging device, which is used to locate and diagnose a diseased portion of the body, such as a stenosed region of an artery. The catheter may also be provided with a therapeutic device, such as those used for performing interventional techniques including balloon angioplasty, laser ablation, atherectomy and the like. Catheters also are commonly used for the placement of grafts, stents, stent-grafts, etc., for opening up and/or preventing closure of diseased or damaged vessels. [0004] Catheters having ultrasound imaging and/or therapeutic capabilities are generally known. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,313,949, issued to Yock, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference, describes an intravascular ultrasound imaging catheter having an atherectomy cutting device. Generally speaking, there are two predominant techniques used to position the therapeutic catheter at the region of interest within the body. The first technique simply involves directly inserting the catheter into a vessel and advancing the catheter through the branches of the vascular system by pushing and steering the catheter to enter a desired branch as the catheter is moved forward. The use of this technique typically requires that the catheter be equipped with an extremely flexible guidewire at its distal tip that can be aimed in different directions by rotating the catheter or by actuating a steering mechanism. [0005] The second technique utilizes a separate guidewire that is first positioned within the vascular system such that a distal end of the guidewire extends beyond the region of interest. The guidewire is routed into position by inserting it into a vessel and advancing it through the vascular system by pushing and steering the guidewire similar to the method previously described for a catheter. The catheter being inserted includes a guidewire lumen that is sized to receive the guidewire. The guidewire lumen may extend the entire length of the catheter, or alternatively, the guidewire lumen may be a short length lumen disposed at the distal end of the catheter. Once the guidewire is in place, the therapeutic and/or imaging catheter is routed over the guidewire to the region of interest while holding the guidewire fixed in place. [0006] The use of a guidewire provides several advantages. Routing a catheter or guidewire through a circuitous path of the complex network of blood vessels to a region of interest can be a tedious and time consuming task. Placement of the guidewire is made even more difficult with increasing vessel occlusion that may occur in the later stages of vascular disease. In addition, many catheter procedures require the use of several different catheters. For instance, an imaging catheter may be initially inserted to precisely locate and diagnose a diseased region. Then, the imaging catheter may be removed and a therapeutic catheter, such as an balloon angioplasty catheter, may be inserted. Additional therapeutic or imaging catheters may be employed as necessary. Accordingly the successive insertion and removal of each of these catheters, called catheter “exchanges,” is required because there is only enough space within the vessels to rout a single catheter at a time. Hence, with the use of a guidewire, the tedious and time-consuming task of routing a device to the region of interest need only be done once. Then, the much easier procedure of routing catheters over the guidewire to the region of interest may be performed as many times as the desired therapy dictates. [0007] In order to locate the site of interest and facilitate proper placement of the guidewire, and further to observe the site during and after treatment, a guidewire may include an imaging device, commonly a rotating ultrasonic imaging transducer or a phased-array ultrasound transducer. Providing the guidewire with imaging capability may eliminate the need for insertion of an imaging catheter or imaging capabilities in the therapeutic catheters. Hence, an imaging guidewire can reduce the number of catheter exchanges that a physician must do during a surgical procedure. [0008] Imaging guidewires have been disclosed generally as, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,095,911, issued to Pomeranz, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. The imaging guidewire disclosed in Pomeranz includes an elongate, flexible body. A housing enclosing a rotating transducer is secured to the distal end of the body. A drive shaft extends through a lumen of the body and is coupled to the transducer. In order to image a different region of interest, the entire guidewire is moved back and forth to position the housing and transducer adjacent the region. [0009] However, once the physician has carefully placed the imaging guidewire, it is preferable to maintain the guidewire in a fixed position so as not to lose the correct placement of the guidewire. At the same time, it is often desirable to obtain images along an axial length of diseased area. This currently requires axial translation of the imaging device by axially translating the entire guidewire. The problem with advancing and pulling back the imaging guidewire is that the correct placement of the guidewire may be lost and the physician must then spend more time repositioning the guidewire. [0010] Furthermore, there are significant technical obstacles in producing an imaging guidewire having a sufficiently small diameter to fit within a guidewire lumen of a catheter while at the same time exhibiting the necessary mechanical and electrical characteristics required for placement in the vascular system and generation of high quality images. For instance, on typical catheters sized to be inserted in the smaller coronary vessels, the guidewire lumen preferably is sized to receive a guidewire having a maximum diameter of 0.014″. However, where larger vessels, such as peripheral vessels, are to be imaged, the guidewire lumen may be sized to receive a guidewire having, for example, a maximum diameter of 0.035″. In addition, the guidewire preferably has sufficient flexibility to traverse a tortous path through the vascular system, and also has sufficient column strength, or pushability, to transmit a pushing force from a remote proximal end of the guidewire, along a winding path, to the distal end thereof. [0011] Moreover, if a rotating transducer is utilized, the drive shaft extending to the transducer should have stable torsional transmittance in order to achieve high quality images. Hence, the drive shaft should not only be flexible, but also should be torsionally stiff to limit angular deflection and nonuniform angular velocity that can cause image distortion. The drive shaft also should be mechanically and electrically connectable to a drive unit and to transducer signal processing electronics. The connection preferably is easily disconnectable so that a guidewire lumen of a catheter may be threaded over the proximal end of the guidewire. This requirement also limits the size of the connector on the drive shaft because the connector must also fit through the guidewire lumen. The drive shaft and connector also should provide a high quality transmission of imaging signals between the imaging device and the signal processing equipment. [0012] Therefore, a need exists for an improved imaging guidewire that overcomes the aforementioned obstacles and deficiencies of currently available guidewires. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0013] The present invention provides an intravascular imaging guidewire, and methods of use and manufacture, which can accomplish longitudinal translation of an imaging plane allowing imaging of an axial length of a region of interest without moving the guidewire thereby maintaining proper positioning of the guidewire to effectively facilitate the introduction of catheters over the guidewire to the proper position. The imaging guidewire disconnectably mates to a drive unit. The drive unit acts as an interface and connects to signal processing equipment which comprises electronics to transmit, receive and process imaging signals to and from the imaging guidewire. [0014] Accordingly, the imaging guidewire of the present invention comprises a body in the form of a flexible, elongate tubular member. An elongate, flexible imaging core is preferably slidably and rotatably received within the body. Rotation and longitudinal translation of the imaging core is preferred in order to provide a 360° scan, but it is contemplated in the present invention that the imaging core may also be non-rotating, for example an imaging core having a phased-array ultrasound transducer. [0015] The imaging core includes a rotatable drive shaft having an imaging device mounted on its distal end. The imaging device produces an imaging signal that can be processed by the signal processing equipment to create an image of the feature at which the imaging device is directed. An electrical cable runs through the center of the drive shaft extending from the imaging device at the distal end to a connector attached to the proximal end of the drive shaft. The connector detachably connects the driveshaft to a drive unit and electrically connects the electrical cable to the drive unit and in turn to the signal processing equipment. At least a distal portion of the body through which the imaging device images preferably is substantially transparent to imaging signals received by the imaging device. The transparent portion of the body preferably extends for at least an axial length over which imaging typically will be desirable. [0016] The body and the imaging core are cooperatively constructed to enable axial translation of the imaging core and imaging device relative to the body. This allows imaging along an axial length of a diseased region in the patient's body without moving the guidewire body. [0017] As described above, the imaging guidewire connects to a drive unit. The principle function of the drive unit is to provide an interface between the imaging guidewire and the signal processing equipment. The drive unit, therefore, transmits the imaging signal between the imaging guidewire and the signal processing equipment. In a further aspect of the present invention, in the preferred embodiment comprising a rotating transducer, the drive unit has a motor to rotate the imaging core for providing a 360° scan. In an alternative embodiment, the motor for rotating the imaging core may be part of the signal processing equipment. In this case, the drive unit simply has a drive shaft that is detachably coupled to the motor of the signal processing equipment. [0018] In a further aspect, a coupling device, such as a slip ring assembly or an innovative inductive or capacitive coupling in accordance with one aspect of the present invention, may be provided in the drive unit or within an associated adapter to transmit the imaging signals from the rotating electrical cable within the guidewire drive shaft to the non-rotating electronics within the drive unit. In an alternative embodiment having the motor in the signal processing equipment, the coupling device may be contained in the signal processing equipment. [0019] In a particularly innovative alternative embodiment, the connector on the proximal end of the drive shaft is adapted to provide only a mechanical connection to the mating connector on the drive unit or adapter. For a rotating imaging core, the mechanical connection transmits torque from the drive unit or adapter to the imaging core. In this embodiment, the imaging signal is transmitted from the imaging guidewire connector to the drive unit or adapter via a capacitive coupling or inductive coupling. One element of the coupling is disposed on the draft shaft and rotates with the drive shaft. The other element of the coupling is mounted in the drive unit or adapter and may be rotating or non-rotating. [0020] As is suggested above, in an additional aspect of the present invention, an adapter may be utilized which performs the function of providing an interface between the imaging guidewire and the drive unit. The adapter comprises a connector which mates to the imaging guidewire connector. The imaging guidewire connector plugs into the adapter which in turn mounts into the drive unit. In the preferred embodiment, the adapter makes both the mechanical and the electrical connections to the imaging guidewire. Furthermore, the coupling device of the drive unit may be contained in the adapter instead. In this way, the coupling device transmits the imaging signals from the rotating electrical cable within the guidewire drive shaft to non-rotating electronics within the adapter. Mounting the adapter into the drive unit electrically connects the adapter to the drive unit, for example via mating electrical connectors. [0021] In the preferred method of using the imaging guidewire of present invention, the imaging guidewire is first inserted percutaneously into a vessel of the vascular system, usually at a site remote from the site of interest within the body. The imaging guidewire is routed to the region of interest by advancing it through the branches of the vascular system by pushing and steering the guidewire as the guidewire is fed into the vessel. The imaging device may be activated during this process to aid in routing the guidewire and locating a diseased region of the body. The imaging guidewire is positioned such that the distal end extends beyond the diseased region with the transparent portion of the body approximately centered at the region of interest. [0022] Alternatively, a standard guidewire may first be inserted and routed to the region of interest. Then, a catheter having a full-length guidewire lumen is fully inserted over the standard guidewire. The standard guidewire is then removed and the imaging guidewire is inserted through the guidewire lumen to the desired position. [0023] At this point, in order to image the length of the diseased region, the imaging device may be axially translated forward and back relative to the body which is preferably fixed in place. [0024] Once the medical condition has been diagnosed and a treatment is chosen, a therapeutic catheter having a guidewire lumen, or a series of therapeutic catheters, may be routed over the guidewire to the diseased region to perform the desired treatment. To facilitate the catheter exchanges over the guidewire, the imaging guidewire is disconnected from the drive unit by simply disconnecting the guidewire connector from the drive unit. Once the exchange is complete, the imaging guidewire is reconnected to the drive unit. The imaging device on the guidewire may further be used to monitor the treatment while it is being performed and/or to observe the treated area after the treatment is completed. Alternatively, if the imaging device cannot image through the therapeutic catheter, the catheter may be pulled back to expose the imaging device. [0025] Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide an improved imaging guidewire and method of using the same. [0026] A further object of the present invention is to provide an improved imaging guidewire that can image along an axial length of a region of interest while maintaining a fixed guidewire position. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0027] [0027]FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an intravascular imaging guidewire system in accordance with the present invention. [0028] [0028]FIG. 1(A) is a partial cross-sectional view of an imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0029] [0029]FIG. 1(B) is a partial cross-sectional view of an imaging core in accordance with the present invention. [0030] [0030]FIG. 1(C) is a cross-sectional view of an imaging device that may be coupled to an imaging core in accordance with the present invention. [0031] [0031]FIG. 2 is an expanded cross-sectional view of the proximal region of the imaging guidewire as designated in FIG. 1(A). [0032] [0032]FIG. 2(A) is a cross-sectional view of a mating connector that may be used with the imaging guidewire connector shown in FIG. 2. [0033] [0033]FIG. 2(B) is a partial view of an imaging core having another imaging guidewire connector. [0034] [0034]FIG. 2(C) is a partial view of an imaging core having still another imaging guidewire connector. [0035] [0035]FIG. 2(D) is a schematic view of a connector that may mate with the connectors shown in FIGS. 2 (B) and 2 (C). [0036] [0036]FIG. 2(E) is a schematic view of another connector that may mate with the connectors shown in FIGS. 2 (B) and 2 (C). [0037] [0037]FIG. 2(F) is a circuit schematic illustrating a capacitive coupling in accordance with the present invention. [0038] [0038]FIG. 2(G) is a cross-sectional view of a portion of a capacitive coupling in accordance with the present invention. [0039] [0039]FIG. 2(H) is an enlarged cross-sectional view of a female portion of the capacitive coupling shown in FIG. 2(G). [0040] [0040]FIG. 2(I) is an enlarged cross-sectional view of a male portion of the capacitive coupling shown in FIG. 2(G). [0041] [0041]FIG. 2(J) is an illustration of a preferred type of electrode contact that may be used within a capacitive coupling in accordance with the present invention. [0042] [0042]FIG. 2(K) is an illustration of another preferred type of electrode contact that may be used within a capacitive coupling in accordance with the present invention. [0043] [0043]FIG. 2(L) is an electrical schematic of an inductive coupling that may be used in accordance with the present invention. [0044] [0044]FIG. 2(M) is an illustration of the inductive coupling shown in FIG. 2(L). [0045] [0045]FIG. 2(N) is an illustration of a female portion of the inductive coupling shown in FIG. 2(M). [0046] [0046]FIG. 2(O) is an illustration of a male portion of the inductive coupling shown in FIG. 2(M). [0047] [0047]FIG. 3 is an expanded cross-sectional view of the region as designated in FIG. 1. [0048] [0048]FIG. 4 is a partial cross-sectional view of an alternative imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0049] [0049]FIG. 5 is an expanded cross-sectional view of the region as designated in FIG. 4. [0050] [0050]FIG. 6 is a partial cross-sectional view of another alternative imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0051] [0051]FIG. 7 is an expanded cross-sectional view of the region as designated in FIG. 6. [0052] [0052]FIG. 8 is a partial cross-sectional view of another alternative imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0053] [0053]FIG. 9 is an expanded cross-sectional view of the region as designated in FIG. 8. [0054] [0054]FIG. 10 is a partial cross-sectional view of yet another alternative imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0055] [0055]FIG. 11 is an expanded cross-sectional view of the region as designated in FIG. 10. [0056] [0056]FIG. 12 is a partial cross-sectional view of still another alternative imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0057] [0057]FIG. 13 is an expanded cross-sectional view of the region as designated in FIG. 12. [0058] [0058]FIG. 14 is a partial cross-sectional view of another alternative imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0059] [0059]FIG. 15 is an expanded cross-sectional view of the region as designated in FIG. 14. [0060] [0060]FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional view of still another embodiment of the imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0061] [0061]FIG. 17 is an illustration of a motor drive unit (MDU) that may be used with an imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0062] [0062]FIG. 18 is a perspective view of a telescoping adapter in accordance with the present invention. [0063] [0063]FIG. 19 is a perspective view of the telescoping adapter shown in FIG. 18 in an extended position. [0064] [0064]FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional view of the adapter of FIG. 18. [0065] [0065]FIG. 21 is a cut-away view of a collet assembly that may be used in an adapter in accordance with the present invention. [0066] [0066]FIG. 22 is a perspective view of a contact housing and stationary pawl of the collet assembly shown in FIG. 21. [0067] [0067]FIG. 23 is a perspective view of a rotary pawl and connector assembly of the collet assembly shown in FIG. 21. [0068] [0068]FIG. 24 is an illustration of an imaging core engaging mechanism used within the collet assembly shown in FIG. 21. [0069] [0069]FIG. 25 is a cut-away view of a portion of the collet assembly shown in FIG. 21. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0070] Turning now to the drawings, FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an intravascular imaging guidewire system 5 in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. The system 5 comprises a imaging guidewire 10 which is adapted to be inserted into a lumen of the body and preferably within the vascular system of the body. The imaging guidewire 10 detachably connects to an adapter 150 . The adapter 150 plugs into a motor drive unit 152 . The drive unit 152 is connected to signal processing equipment 154 . Below, various exemplary embodiments of each of these subsystems of the imaging guidewire system 5 will be described with reference to the drawings. While the exemplary embodiments of the imaging guidewire system 5 that are described herein include both an adapter 150 and a separate motor drive unit 152 , it is to be understood that the functionality and essential structure of the adapter 150 may be integrated into the motor drive unit 152 , thereby eliminating the adapter 150 from the guidewire system 5 . In that case, the imaging guidewire 10 would detachably connect directly to the motor drive unit 152 . [0071] Referring to FIGS. 1 (A)- 3 , an imaging guidewire 10 is depicted according to one embodiment of the present invention. In general, the guidewire 10 preferably is flexible enough to traverse a circuitous path through the vascular system, and yet has sufficient pushability to transmit a pushing force from a remote proximal end 12 of the guidewire 10 , along a winding path, to a distal end 14 of the guidewire 10 . The imaging guidewire 10 also preferably has sufficient torsional stiffness to reliably transmit rotational force applied at the proximal end 12 to the distal end 14 so that the guidewire 10 can be steered through the branches of vessels of the vascular system. However, those skilled in the art will recognize that the required functional characteristics of the guidewire 10 will vary from application to application. Thus, while the above-described functional characteristics are presently preferred, such characteristics need not be inherent in all embodiments of a guidewire in accordance with the present invention. [0072] The imaging guidewire 10 comprises a guidewire body 16 in the form of a flexible, elongate tubular member that slidably and rotatably houses an elongate, flexible, rotating imaging core 18 . The imaging guidewire 10 has a substantially uniform diameter and no component along the entire length of the guidewire 10 exceeds a predetermined diameter. This maximum diameter is preferably 0.035″ because guidewire lumens of typical catheters sized to be inserted into peripheral vessels are sized to receive a guidewire having a maximum diameter of 0.035″. The overall length of the guidewire 10 varies depending on the intended application but may preferably range between 40 cm and 300 cm. [0073] The guidewire body 16 includes a main body 20 having a proximal end 22 and a distal end 24 . The main body 20 extends from a connector 40 of the imaging core 18 at its proximal end 22 to a predetermined distance, preferably approximately 15 to 20 cm, from the distal end 14 of the guidewire 10 at its distal end 24 . The main body 20 is preferably formed of nitinol hypotube because it exhibits strength and flexibility properties desired in a guidewire body. Nitinol is also preferred because it minimizes kinking, has a convenient transition temperature below which it transitions to a “soft” state, and is a memory metal such that it returns to its original shape after being bent under specific temperature conditions. Those skilled in the art would appreciate that other materials including other superelastic materials, other metal alloys, and plastics may also be used. It is to be understood that where nitinol is specified as the preferred material, other materials, including alternative superelastic materials, metal alloy, composite materials and plastics may also be utilized. For example, it is contemplated that the main body 20 may be formed of braided polyimide, polyethylene, peek braids, or stainless steel. The nitinol main body 20 preferably has an outer diameter of approximately 0.035″. [0074] An imaging portion 26 of the guidewire body 16 is connected to the distal end 24 of the main body 20 and extends to the distal end 14 of the guidewire body 16 . The imaging portion 26 is substantially transparent to imaging signals transmitted and/or received by an imaging device 42 of the imaging core 18 . In a preferred form, the imaging portion 26 is formed of a polyethylene plastic tube that is interference fit onto the distal end 24 of the main body 20 . Alternatively, any other suitable attachment method may be employed such as adhesives, mechanical connectors, etc. In further alternative embodiments, the imaging portion 26 may be coextruded, multi-layer, or composite. As examples, the imaging portion 26 may be polyester, nylon, polymeric strands, or metal braid with a long pitch. [0075] A floppy tip 28 preferably is placed inside, and at the distal end, of the imaging portion 26 . The floppy tip 28 is designed to prevent trauma to the aorta and to assist in maneuvering the imaging guidewire 10 through a patient's vessels. In some embodiments, the floppy tip 28 can be aimed in different directions by rotating the catheter or by actuating a steering mechanism (not shown). The floppy tip 28 is preferably formed from a flexible coil spring that is radiopaque so as to be visible under fluoroscopy. The floppy tip 28 is held in place by thermally forming the imaging portion 26 over the floppy tip 28 or alternatively using any other suitable attachment technique such as adhesives, press fit, connectors, fasteners, etc. Alternatively, the floppy tip 28 may be a coil in a polymer, a tungsten core with a polyethylene cover, or a standard guidewire tip such as those produce by Lake Region, Inc. [0076] In an alternative form, the guidewire 10 is constructed without the floppy tip 28 leaving the distal extremity greater flexibility. In this case, a radiopaque maker band is placed at the distal end of the imaging portion 26 . [0077] The imaging core 18 principally comprises a tubular drive shaft 44 having an imaging device 46 attached to a distal end of the drive shaft 44 and the connector 40 attached to a proximal end of the drive shaft 44 . The drive shaft 44 may be composed of a single tubular member (not shown), or preferably, it may be several elements attached together as shown in FIGS. 1 (A)- 2 . The drive shaft 44 is preferably formed of a nitinol tube having an outer diameter of approximately 0.022″, and in some currently preferred embodiments, such as that illustrated in FIG. 2, may include a telescoping section 48 . [0078] The telescope portion 48 acts as a telescoping extension of the drive shaft 44 and preferably is of a length approximately the same as the desired length of axial translation of the imaging device 42 , preferably around 15 cm. The telescope portion 48 is connected to the connector 40 at its proximal end (shown in FIG. 2) and extends distally to a distal end that is attached to a proximal end of a drive cable 50 (shown in FIG. 3). The drive cable 50 is preferably of a counter-wound, multi-filar coil construction as best shown in FIG. 3 and described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,951,677, to Crowley et al., the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. The telescope portion 48 is attached to the drive cable 50 using a coupler 52 (shown in FIG. 3). One end of the coupler 52 is attached to the telescope portion 48 using an interference fit. The interference fit may be accomplished by cooling the nitinol telescope portion 48 below its transition temperature such that it becomes soft. The coupler 52 is then slid onto the telescope portion 48 and when warmed above the transition temperature, a secure interference fit results. The other end of the coupler 52 is attached to the drive cable 50 , preferably using an adhesive, although any suitable attachment means is contemplated. The coupler 52 also functions as a stop which interferes with a stop collar 46 (shown in FIG. 2) attached to the inside of the proximal end 22 of the main body 20 which limits the proximal axial translation of the imaging core 18 relative to the guidewire body 16 . The stop collar 46 may also be interference fit into the nitinol main body 20 using the same method just described for attaching the coupler 52 to the telescope portion 48 . [0079] The imaging device 42 is attached to the distal end of the drive cable 50 , as is shown in FIGS. 1 (A)- 1 (C). The imaging device 42 may be any type device that creates a high quality imaging signal of the body tissue to be imaged, but is preferably an ultrasound imaging device. The imaging device 42 includes a housing 54 into which an ultrasound transducer 56 is mounted. The design, construction and use of ultrasound imaging devices is generally known in the art and therefore a detailed description is not included herein. The ultrasound transducer 56 is oriented to image in a radially outward direction and when rotated with the drive shaft 44 creates a 360° radial scan of the surrounding tissue. Alternatively, the ultrasound transducer 56 may be oriented such that it images in a forward looking or backward looking direction or any angle in between. [0080] To transmit the imaging signal from the imaging device 56 to the connector 40 , a coaxial cable 58 is attached to the imaging device 42 which runs down the center of the drive shaft 44 where the other end of the coaxial cable 58 is attached to the connector 40 . The connector 40 detachably connects to the adapter 150 . [0081] Turning again to FIG. 2, an innovative connector 40 will be described in detail. Overall, the connector 40 is cylindrically shaped and has a maximum diameter not exceeding the diameter of the remainder of the guidewire 10 , which is preferably 0.035″ in diameter. The distal end of the connector 40 is composed of a conductive ring 60 which is attached to the proximal end of the telescope portion 48 by an interference fit as shown, or by any other suitable attachment method. The conductive ring 60 is filled with conductive epoxy 62 through a fill hole 80 to cover the outer lead 64 of the coaxial cable 58 thereby electrically connecting the conductive ring 60 to the outer lead 64 and completing one pole of the imaging device 42 circuit. The conductive ring 60 may have a second hole 82 to observe the amount of epoxy being inserted to ensure that it does not overfill and electrically connect to a second conductor 66 . The second conductor 66 has a stepped tubular section 70 and a ball-shaped end 72 . The stepped tubular section 70 is covered with an insulator 74 such as a piece of shrink tubing. The stepped tubular section 70 covered with the insulator 74 inserts into the conductive ring 60 and is bonded in place using an adhesive such as cyanoacrylate. The insulator 74 electrically insulates the conductive ring 60 from the second conductor 66 . The inner lead 68 and insulation 76 of the coaxial cable 58 extend through the first conductive epoxy 62 and through the stepped tubular section 70 . The inner lead 68 further extends into a cavity in the ball-shaped end 72 . The cavity in the ball-shaped end 72 is filled with a second conductive epoxy 78 to conductively connect the second conductor 66 to the inner lead 68 completing the other pole of the imaging device 42 circuit. [0082] Hence, connector 40 provides a detachable electrical and mechanical attachment to the adapter 150 and in turn to the drive unit 152 and the signal processing equipment 154 . The detachability feature allows the guidewire 10 to be quickly and easily disconnected so that catheters may be inserted over the guidewire 10 and, then just as easily, the guidewire 10 can be reconnected. [0083] [0083]FIG. 2(A) depicts an exemplary mating connector 176 with the connector 40 inserted into it. The mating connector 176 is installed in the adapter 150 as will be described in detail below. The mating connector 176 includes a first contact 178 which is preferably a cylindrical multi-contact socket connector. The first contact 178 comprises a cylindrical body 180 which houses at least one, but preferable a plurality of, spring-loaded bands 182 . The spring-loaded bands 182 and body 180 are formed of an electrically conductive material such as copper alloy. The first contact 178 receives the conductive ring 60 of the guidewire connector 10 and preferably provides sufficient contact friction to drive the rotation of the imaging core 18 . If needed a locking mechanism, such as a key and slot, may be provided on the connector 40 and the mating connector 176 to prevent slippage when the connectors 40 and 176 are being rotated. A second contact 184 forms the proximal portion of the connector 176 and is preferably a small bellows type connector. When the guidewire connector 40 is connected to the mating connector 176 , the conductive ring 60 contacts the first contact 178 , and the ball shaped end 72 contacts the second contact 184 , thereby electrically connecting the imaging guidewire 10 to the adapter 150 and drive unit 152 . [0084] [0084]FIG. 2(B) shows a partial view of an imaging core 18 having another exemplary imaging guidewire connector 156 . The guidewire body 16 is not shown in FIG. 2(A). It should be appreciated that the structure shown in FIG. 2(A), as well as any of the other connectors describe herein, are contemplated to be used on any of the disclosed guidewires with at most minor modifications. The connector 156 is attached to the proximal end of the drive shaft 44 of the imaging core 18 . Generally, the connector 156 is similar to a typical shield connector. The connector 156 is cyclindrically shaped and has a maximum diameter not exceeding the diameter of the guidewire, which is preferably 0.035″. The connector 156 comprises a cylindrical conductive shell 158 which is attached to the proximal end of the drive shaft 44 . A portion of the shell 158 is filled with conductive epoxy 160 thereby electrically connecting the shell 158 to the outer lead 64 of the coaxial cable 58 . A flex circuit 162 printed on polyimide, for example, is rolled into a tube and inserted into the proximal end of the shell 158 . The flex circuit 162 has a conductive trace printed on the interior surface of the tubular flex circuit 162 and the polyimide exterior serves as an insulator between the conductive trace and the shell 158 . The flex circuit 162 may be bonded in place using any known suitable means such as epoxy adhesive. [0085] Still another exemplary connector 170 is shown in FIG. 2(C) and is identical to the mating connector 156 except that the flex circuit 162 is replaced by a braided contact 172 . The braided contact 172 may be formed using a piece of polyimide tubing with stainless steel or copper braiding embedded in the tubing, with the braid slightly exposed in the inner diameter. [0086] An exemplary mating connector 164 which connects to the connectors 156 and 170 is shown in FIG. 2(D). The mating connector 164 is installed in the adapter 150 as described below. The mating connector 164 includes a cone tipped spring contact 166 which is adapted to be inserted into the opening of the connectors 156 and 170 described above and contacts the flex circuit 162 or braided contact 172 , respectively. A flat wire slip contact 168 is disposed radially outward from the spring contact 166 so that it contacts the outside of the shell 158 of the connectors 156 and 170 when the connectors are mated. The slip contact 168 may alternatively be replaced by a cylindrical multi-contact socket connector (not shown). [0087] [0087]FIG. 2(E) provides an alternative mating connector 174 which is identical to the mating 164 except that the cone tipped spring contact 166 is replaced with a rolled split pin contact 176 . The split pin contact 176 has the advantage that it can compress inward as it contacts the inner diameter of the connectors 156 and 170 when the connectors are mated. Again, the slip contact 168 may be substituted with a multi-contact socket connector (not shown). [0088] Turning now to FIGS. 2 (F)- 2 (P), it will be noted that it is not necessary for a physical connection to be made between the leads of the imaging core 18 and those, for example, of the adapter 150 . Rather, in accordance with one aspect of the present invention a capacitive coupling or an inductive coupling may be provided between the leads of the imaging core 18 and the circuitry of the adapter 150 . [0089] For example, as is shown in FIGS. 2 (F)- 2 (K), in one embodiment a mating connector 300 may take the form of a capacitive coupling. In such an embodiment, a pair of capacitors 304 and 306 are formed by respective electrode plates 308 - 311 formed within the proximal end of the imaging core 18 and a female receptor 301 . As shown in FIG. 2(I), which illustrates the male, guidewire portion of the connector 300 , a positive lead 312 and a negative lead 314 , which extend from the imaging transducer 56 , may be coupled, via soldering or bonding, to the cylindrical electrode plates 310 and 311 formed within the proximal end of the imaging core 18 . The cylindrical electrode plates 310 and 311 preferably are encased within a ceramic, dielectric material 315 . Further, as shown in FIG. 2(H), the female portion 301 of the connector 300 preferably comprises a pair of cylindrical electrode plates 308 and 309 , a pair of positive and negative leads 316 and 318 coupled respectively to the electrode plates 308 and 309 , a drive sleeve 320 , and a pair of conductive elastomeric sleeves 322 and 324 that are bonded to an inner surface of the electrode plates 308 and 309 . It will be noted that the conductive elastomeric sleeves 322 and 324 are provided to ensure intimate contact between the male and female portions of the connector 300 , and to ensure that very little, if any, air is allowed to reside in the gaps between the electrode plates 308 - 311 that form the capacitors 304 and 306 . Finally, as is shown in FIGS. 2 (J) and 2 (K), the electrode plates 308 and 309 provided within the female portion 301 of the connector 300 may take the form of spring members that allow the female portion 301 of the connector 300 to more securely engage the male portion. [0090] Turning now to FIGS. 2 (L)- 2 (O), in still a further alternative embodiment, the connector 300 may take the form of an inductive or transformer type coupling. In such an embodiment, a first coil 330 may be provided within proximal end of the imaging core 18 of the guidewire 10 , i.e., within the male portion of the connector 300 , and a second coil 332 may be provided within the female portion 301 of the connector 300 . Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the locations of the coils 330 and 332 may vary from those illustrated in FIGS. 2 (M)- 2 (O) without altering to any significant degree the basic structure and operation of the connector 300 . For example, the coil 332 of the female portion of the connector 300 may be configured to engage an exterior surface of the male portion of the connector, or the coil 332 may be located, for example, within or around an exterior surface of the female portion 301 of the connector 300 . It also will be appreciated that, with respect to the embodiment of the connector shown in FIGS. 2 (L)- 2 (O), it is possible, if desired, for the male and female portions of the connector 300 to rotate as a single unit, possible for the male and female portions of the connector 300 to rotate independently of one another, and possible for only the male portion of the connector to be rotatable within the adapter 150 . [0091] In view of the foregoing, those skilled in the art will appreciate that any of the above described connectors may be used with an imaging guidewire in accordance with the present invention and, moreover, that portions of the above-described connectors might be combined to provide still additional coupling methodologies. For example, a connector might comprise a physical connection or contact, as described with reference to FIGS. 2 (A)- 2 (E) above, and a capacitive contact or coupling, as described with reference to FIGS. 2 (F)- 2 (K) above. [0092] Turning again to FIGS. 1 , 1 (A)- 1 (C), 2 and 3 , the imaging core 18 is slidably and rotatably received within the guidewire body 16 such that the imaging core 18 may be axially translated relative to the guidewire. In this way, the imaging device 42 can be axially translated along the imaging portion 26 of the guidewire body 16 thereby enabling imaging along an axial length of a region of tissue without moving the guidewire body 16 . Hence, the proper positioning of the guidewire 10 within the patient's body is maintained so that it may effectively serve as a guidewire for the insertion of catheters. [0093] Prior to inserting the imaging guidewire 10 into a vessel in a body, the imaging guidewire 10 may be filled or flushed with fluid, for example water, to expel air. Residual air in the imaging guidewire 10 can impair imaging especially if using an ultrasound imaging system. The flush may be accomplished by any suitable method such as the Tuohy Borst (aspiration through two valves), providing an open distal (body pressure maintains flush), or simply filling through the proximal end of the imaging guidewire 10 . [0094] An alternative embodiment of an imaging guidewire 90 is shown in FIGS. 4 - 5 . The imaging guidewire 90 is similar to, and includes many of the features and elements as, the imaging guidewire 10 described above. Throughout the description and figures, like reference numerals refer to like elements and therefore, some elements are not explicitly described for all figures. [0095] The main differences of the imaging guidewire 90 are the use of a single polymer sheath 94 for the guidewire body 92 , and a modified imaging core 96 . The guidewire body 92 is formed of a single piece polymer sheath 94 having a proximal end 98 and a distal end 100 . Preferred polymer sheath materials include polyimide and PEEK. The sheath 94 extends from the connector 40 to the imaging portion 26 of the guidewire 90 . A nonrotating union collar 104 may be inserted between the rotatable connector 40 and the nonrotating sheath 94 to provide rotation on the internal core and allow non-rotation of the stiffening sleeve (telescope) 106 . [0096] The imaging core 96 comprises a drive cable 102 having the imaging device 42 attached to its distal end and the connector 40 attached to its proximal end. The drive cable 102 is preferably a counter-wound, multi-filar coil as described above. A stiffening sleeve 106 preferably formed of a flexible tube such as a nitinol tube, is disposed between the drive cable 102 and the sheath 94 . The polymer sheath 94 may not provide sufficient rigidity and pushability to the guidewire and therefore, the stiffening sleeve 106 gives the guidewire these properties. The stiffening sleeve 106 is received into the union collar 104 and extends distally to the imaging device 42 . In an alternative form, the stiffening sleeve 106 could extend distally to a predetermined distance short of the imaging device 42 , preferably about 15 cm short. The stiffening sleeve 106 preferably does not rotate with the drive cable 102 . [0097] The method of using the imaging guidewire 90 is virtually identical to that described above for imaging guidewire 10 . However, use of the imaging guidewire 90 may allow for extended telescopic action of the guidewire. In some embodiments, as much as, for example, 150 cm of telescopic extension may be provided. [0098] FIGS. 6 - 7 show an imaging guidewire 10 having an improvement in the transition from the stiffer main body 20 of the guidewire body 16 to the softer, more pliable imaging portion 26 according to the present invention. A relatively large difference in the stiffness of the main body 20 and the imaging portion 26 can create a stress riser at the connection point which tends to cause the more flexible imaging portion 26 to bend sharply and/or kink when the guidewire is routed through small radius paths. To relieve this condition, instead of bonding the imaging portion 26 directly to the main body 20 as described above, a graduated transition 120 comprising a short transition tube 108 is attached to the distal end 24 of the main body 20 and the imaging portion 26 is attached to the other end of the transition tube 108 . The transition tube is made of a material, and is configured, such that it has a stiffness between that of the main body 20 and the imaging portion 26 . [0099] FIGS. 8 - 9 show an alternative configuration for the graduated transition 120 between the main body 20 and the imaging portion 26 similar to that described with respect to FIGS. 6 - 7 , except that the distal end of the transition tube 110 is left free. The outer diameter of the main body 20 is reduced from that described above to accommodate a full length jacket 112 comprising a thin layer of plastic, preferably polyethylene, to be formed over the entire length of the main body 20 . The preferred reduced thickness of the main body 20 is preferably about 0.032″ corresponding to a jacket 110 thickness of about 0.0015″. The imaging portion 26 and the jacket 112 may be formed from a single varying thickness piece of material. In this configuration, the transition tube 110 is similar in construction and materials to the transition tube 108 described above. [0100] Another variation of a graduated transition 120 between the main body 20 and the imaging portion 26 is shown in FIGS. 10 - 11 . The imaging guidewire 10 of FIGS. 10 - 11 is identical to that shown in FIGS. 1 - 3 except that the distal end 24 of the main body 20 is constructed in a spiral form 114 with increasing pitch as it extends distally. Then, the imaging portion 26 extends over the spiral form 114 . The spiral form 114 creates a more flexible portion of the main body 20 that performs the graduated transition function similar the that described above. [0101] FIGS. 12 - 13 depict yet another embodiment of an imaging guidewire 10 having a graduated transition 120 . The imaging guidewire 10 of FIGS. 12 - 13 is identical to that of FIGS. 10 - 11 except that the spiral form 114 is replaced with a tapered finger section 116 . [0102] Still another embodiment of graduated transition 120 on an imaging guidewire 10 is shown in FIGS. 14 - 15 . In this embodiment, a reinforcing braided section 118 is placed over the connection between the imaging portion 26 and the main body 20 . The braided section 118 may be made of plastic such as polyethylene, co-extruded polymer materials, or any other suitable material. The braided section 118 performs similarly to the graduated transitions described above. [0103] Except for the varying graduated transition configurations of the guidewire body 16 , the imaging guidewires 10 of FIGS. 6 - 15 are identical to the imaging guidewire described for FIGS. 1 - 3 . In addition, the method of using the imaging guidewires is the same as previously described. [0104] The stress relief transition from the main body 20 to the imaging portion 26 may also be accomplished by varying the cross-sectional thickness of the main body 20 and/or the imaging portion 26 at the interface of the two tubes. Varying the thickness of the tubes in turn changes the stiffness of the tube. For example, the thickness of the main body 20 and/or the imaging portion 26 may be tapered, stepped or angle cut. Hence, if the main body 20 is made of a stiffer tube than the imaging portion 26 , the main body 20 would be made gradually thinner as it extends distally toward the imaging portion 26 ; and/or the imaging portion 26 would be gradually thickened as it extends proximally toward the main body 20 . An example of the varying thickness transition using a tapered main body and imaging portion 26 is shown in FIG. 16. [0105] Turning now also to FIGS. 17 - 20 , in one presently preferred form, the imaging guidewire 10 or 90 is capable of disconnectably mating with an adapter 150 which, in turn, couples to a motor drive unit 152 , as is shown in FIG. 1. The motor drive unit 152 may comprise, for example, a model MDU-4 motor drive unit currently distributed by Boston Scientific Corp. Thus, the adapter 150 may be coupled in a conventional manner to the motor drive unit 152 , and the structure and function of the motor drive unit 152 need not be described in detail herein, as the structure and function of the model MDU-4 motor drive unit is believed to be well known in the art. Nonetheless, it should be appreciated that a principal function of the adapter 150 and motor drive unit 152 is to provide a conduit for transmitting an imaging signal from the imaging guidewire 10 or 90 to the signal processing equipment 154 . In addition, the motor drive unit 152 and adapter 150 preferably are configured to provide a mechanical coupling to the imaging guidewire 10 or 90 such that torque may be applied by a motor (not shown) within the motor drive unit 152 via the adapter 150 to the drive cable 50 of the imaging guidewire 10 or 90 . Finally, those skilled in the art will also appreciate that the motor drive unit 152 and adapter 150 may be formed, if desired, as a single unit. [0106] Turning now in particular to FIG. 17, the motor drive unit 152 may comprise a model MDU-4 motor drive unit manufactured and distributed by Boston Scientific Corp. and preferably includes a case 186 which provides a port 187 for coupling to the adapter 150 . The port 187 provides both a mechanical and an electrical interface between the motor drive unit 152 and the adapter 150 . The motor drive unit 152 and adapter 150 also include various electronic circuits (not shown) for transmitting an imaging signal from the imaging guidewire 10 and 90 to the signal processing equipment 154 . The electronics within the motor drive unit 152 are connected to an electrical cable 190 that extends out of the case 186 of the motor drive unit 152 and is connectable to the signal processing electronics 154 (see FIG. 1) by a connector (not shown). [0107] While in the currently preferred embodiment a motor (not shown) is provided within the motor drive unit 152 , it will be appreciated that in alternative embodiments a motor for rotating the imaging core 18 may be external to the drive unit 152 and may be a part, for example, of the signal processing equipment 154 . In such embodiments, a motor drive cable may extend out of the case 186 of the motor drive unit 152 and have a connector that is connectable to the motor (not shown). Within the case 186 of the motor drive unit 152 , the motor drive cable would connect to a drive mechanism that, in turn, would transmit rotational torque from the drive cable to a drive mechanism within the adapter 150 . [0108] Turning now in particular to FIGS. 18 - 20 , it is presently preferred that the adapter 150 removably plug into the drive unit 152 via the port 187 . In an exemplary embodiment, the adapter 150 comprises a telescoping cover 202 . The telescoping cover 202 preferably has 2 or more plastic telescoping sections, and 5 telescoping sections 401 - 405 are shown in FIGS. 19 and 20. An adapter connector 204 is disposed on the proximal end of the adapter 150 and mechanically and electrically connects to a drive unit connector (not shown) provided within port 187 (shown in FIG. 17) of the motor drive unit 152 . An adapter flushport 206 is located on the end of the adapter cover 202 . In an exemplary embodiment, the flushport 206 is a T-shaped fitting having a main through port 208 and a side port 210 . Threaded knobs 212 on either side of the through port 208 are provided to compress o-ring seals 406 disposed therein. When compressed, the o-ring seals 406 and 407 fit tightly against an outer wall of an imaging guidewire 10 or 90 that has been inserted into the adapter 150 . The forward o-ring seal 406 may also be compressed against the exterior surface of a catheter (not shown), when the guidewire 10 or 90 is located within a lumen of the catheter. The side port 210 is preferably a luer fitting that allows for typical syringe type coupling to the main through port 208 . [0109] The telescoping adapter cover 202 protects the imaging core 18 from being openly exposed during pull-back procedures where the imaging core 18 is translated relative to the body 16 . This is important because eliminating such exposure can prevent the imaging signal from being distorted thereby preserving image quality. Moreover, the telescoping adapter cover 150 can be retracted out of the way during catheter exchanges over the guidewire such that the guidewire can be disconnected and reconnected to the adapter. [0110] Those skilled in the art will appreciate that in alternative embodiments, the adapter 150 may utilize a non-telescoping cover, and that with the exception of lacking a telescoping function, such an adapter would function in virtually the same manner as the adapter 150 shown in FIGS. 18 - 20 . [0111] Turning now to FIG. 20, there is shown a cross-sectional view of the adapter 150 having a proximal end of a guidewire 10 inserted therein. As shown, the proximal end of an imaging core 18 of the guidewire 10 is inserted into a female portion of a connector (not shown) that is disposed within a collet assembly 408 . The female portion of the connector provided within the collet assembly 408 preferably is of the type described above with reference to FIGS. 2 (A)- 2 (O) above. Thus, it will be appreciated that the female portion of the connector provided within the collet assembly 408 provides both a mechanical and electrical interface between the imaging core 18 of the guidewire 10 and the drive mechanism 410 and electronics (not shown) of the adapter 150 . [0112] Turning now also to FIG. 21, a collet assembly 408 in accordance with the present invention may comprise, for example, a rotator 450 that engages a drive shaft (not shown) of a motor drive unit 152 , a fixed ferrite 452 , a rotating ferrite 454 , a main collet body 456 and a collet cone 458 having a tapered inner cavity 460 . The rotator 450 is mechanically coupled to the rotating ferrite 454 by a drive shaft tube 462 , and the rotating ferrite 454 is fixedly attached to the main collet body 456 . The collet cone 458 is attached to a distal end of the main collet body 456 . A tapered cavity 464 is defined within the collet cone 458 and the main collet body 456 , and an imaging core engaging mechanism 466 is provided within the tapered cavity 460 . [0113] Turning now in addition to FIGS. 22 - 25 , the imaging core engaging mechanism 466 comprises a contact housing 468 that is coupled to a stationary pawl 470 , a rotary pawl 472 that has a female portion 168 , 182 or 301 of a connector mounted therein, and a spring 473 that engages the rotary pawl 472 and a proximal, internal section of the collet main body 456 . In addition, three ball bearings 474 are preferably disposed within respective cavities or recesses 476 formed within a distal end of the contact housing 468 . [0114] Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the stationary pawl 470 , rotary pawl 472 and spring 473 function in a manner quite similar operating mechanism of a conventional ball point pen. Thus, when the collet assembly 408 is assembled and disposed within an adapter 150 , the proximal end of an imaging guide wire 10 or 90 may be inserted through an opening in the distal end of the adapter 150 and into the collet assembly 408 . As the guidewire 10 or 90 is pushed into the female connector 168 , 182 or 301 of the collet assembly 408 , the rotary pawl 472 compresses the spring 473 allowing the core engaging mechanism 466 (including the contact housing 468 , stationary pawl 470 and rotary pawl 472 ) to move progressively within the main body 456 of the collet assembly 408 in the direction of the rotator 450 . That movement affords the ball bearings 474 housed within the contact housing 468 additional space within the tapered cavity 460 . As the imaging core engaging mechanism 466 moves further toward the rotator 450 , force is applied by a linear indexing ratchet 476 located on the stationary pawl 470 to a rotary indexing ratchet 478 located on the rotary pawl 472 urging the rotary pawl 472 to rotate about a central axis (not shown) of the collet assembly 408 . However, as shown in FIG. 25, the indexing ratchets 476 and 478 travel within channels 480 formed within an inner wall of the collet main body 456 , until the rotary indexing ratchet 478 escapes the channel 480 . At that time, the rotary indexing ratchet 478 and, thus, the rotating pawl 472 rotate about the central axis of the collet assembly 408 . The rotary indexing ratchet 478 then may engage surface 482 adjacent the channel 480 . When the guidewire 10 or 90 is pushed into the female connector 168 , 182 or 301 of the collet assembly 408 again, the rotary indexing ratchet 478 disengages the surface 482 and is caused to rotate in a manner such that it may pass into the channel 480 . As the imaging core engaging mechanism 466 moves toward the cone 458 , the ball bearings 474 are driven against the imaging core 18 by the wall of the tapered cavity 460 . Thus, it will be appreciated that, once the imaging core 18 is locked within the imaging core engaging mechanism 466 , pulling on the imaging core 18 in a direction away from the rotator 450 will only cause the imaging core engaging mechanism 466 to more tightly engage the imaging core 18 . [0115] Now, turning back to FIG. 21, imaging signals provided to the female connector 168 , 182 or 301 are carried on a pair of wires 490 to a first transformer coil 492 . The signals then are transmitted to a second transformer coil 494 by means of inductive coupling and, from there, the signals may be conveyed to the contacts (not shown) provided within the housing of the adapter 150 for transmission to the motor drive unit 152 and eventually to the processing system 154 . [0116] In view of the foregoing, the reader will see that the present invention provides an improved imaging guidewire. While the above description contains many specifics, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention, but rather as examples of particular embodiments thereof. Many other variations are possible. [0117] Accordingly, the scope of the present invention should be determined not by the embodiments illustrated above, but rather, the invention is to cover all modifications, alternatives and legal equivalents falling within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.

An intravascular imaging guidewire which can accomplish longitudinal translation of an imaging plane allowing imaging, by acoustic or light energy, of an axial length of a region of interest without moving the guidewire. The imaging guidewire comprises a body in the form of a flexible elongate tubular member. An elongate flexible imaging core is slidably received within the body. The imaging core includes a shaft having an imaging device mounted on its distal end. The body and the imaging core are cooperatively constructed to enable axial translation of the imaging core and imaging device relative to the body. The body has a transparent distal portion extending an axial length over which axially translatable imaging may be performed. The imaging guidewire has a maximum diameter over its entire length sized to be received within a guidewire lumen of an intravascular catheter.

This application is a continuation, of application Ser. No. 08/516,248, filed on Aug. 17, 1995 entitled "Methods and Apparatus for Fault Diagnosis in Self-Testable Systems", now abandoned. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to scan based built in self test systems and to such systems for fault diagnosis in a VLSI application. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Built-In Self-Test (BIST) is a widely accepted means for testing today's large and complex VLSI chips. In BIST, both test pattern generation and test response analysis are usually conducted on the same chip as the circuit under test (CUT). To efficiently analyze the test response in silicon, BIST schemes usually employ a data compaction technique called signature analysis to compress the large amount of test response from the CUT into a small signature of a few bits. At the end of a test session, the collected signature is compared against a fault-free signature to determine whether the CUT is good or not. Although signature analysis significantly reduces the complexity of test response analysis in BIST environments, it adds extra difficulties in fault diagnosis. Fault diagnosis is a process of locating physical faults to one or a set of primitive components according to the incorrect behaviour observed from a CUT. The definition of primitive components varies according to applications. For example, at circuit board level, the primitive components are usually IC chips. At IC chip level, the primitive components can be flip-flops, gates or transistors, depending on the resolution requirements of the applications. Usually, the higher the resolution requirements, the higher the complexity of the fault diagnosis process. Fault diagnosis can be used for different reasons. For example, at circuit board or multiple chip module level, fault diagnosis is normally used to assist repair. At IC chip level, fault diagnosis is usually used to identify design or process errors during the early phase of production. At this stage, the errors found in fault diagnosis can be used to assist debugging of the design or to guide the adjustment of the fabrication process to improve yield. Fault diagnosis can also be used to analyze the chips that failed in the field in order to provide information about the weakness of the design and manufacturing process. The present application deals with the fault diagnosis problem at IC chip level. Specifically, a new analytical fault diagnosis methodology targeting for VLSI BIST environments is presented. Based on faulty signature information, the diagnostic methodology achieves two goals. Firstly, it correctly locates errors to the CUT's outputs that produce the errors, independently of the number of errors these outputs may produce; secondly, it is also able to identify the test vector or vectors under which these errors are generated, with better resolution than that achievable by existing diagnostic methodologies. Prior Art Signature analysis used in BIST has introduced extra challenges to the problem of fault diagnosis. All the challenges are due to the fact that the error sequence generated at the outputs of a CUT has been compressed into a small faulty signature. Therefore, to locate the actual fault that causes the failure in test, it is first necessary to decipher the faulty signature to identify which output or outputs of the CUT was actually producing errors during test. Furthermore, it is also necessary to identify the values of the errors and to determine under which test vector or vectors these errors were produced. It is then possible to use the diagnostic techniques for conventional non-BIST environments to further locate a fault down to gates for example. Unfortunately, during the test response compaction process, a lot of error information is lost, thus destroying the one-to-one correspondence between faulty signatures and error sequences. This problem is the same as the well-known aliasing problem encountered in BIST test quality assessment. Although probabilistic analysis has shown that the diagnostic aliasing probability, i.e., the probability of locating an incorrect error sequence for a given faulty signature, is very low, being essentially the same as aliasing probability for signature analysis, the number of error sequences that can produce a given faulty signature is enormous. For practical test lengths, this number is usually well beyond millions. For example, let l be the length of the sequence to be compacted, and k be the length of the signature. The number of error sequences that can produce a given faulty signature can be estimated to be 2 l-k , where l is in the order of hundreds of thousands or even millions and k is only about 16 to 32. It can be seen from the above analysis that, given a faulty signature, correct fault diagnosis in BIST environments is a very challenging problem. The possibility of using faulty signature information for fault diagnosis was first pointed out by McAnney and Savir in 1987 (Proc. Int. Test Conf., 1987, pp. 630-636). In this work, a fault diagnosis technique was developed. This technique was designed for single input signature analyzer implemented by a Linear Feedback Shift Register (LFSR), and guarantees correct fault diagnosis for single error sequences, i.e., sequences that only contain a single error bit. In Chan et al, (Proc. Int. Test Conf. 1990, pp. 553-561), a similar result was obtained for signature analyzers implemented with Multiple Input Shift Registers (MISR). Other techniques that use two LFSRs for fault diagnosis of sequences that contain single or double errors have also been reported. (Stroud et al, Proc. IEEE VLSI Test Symp. 1995, pp. 244-249, and Savir et al, Proc. Int. Test Conf., 1988, pp. 322-328.) The major deficiency of these techniques comes from their single/double error assumptions. Although these assumptions can be valid in some very extreme cases, e.g., for some very "hard" faults, these assumptions are in general unrealistic. In practical BIST environments, a single defect in a CUT can usually produce hundreds or thousands of errors in a test response sequence. Therefore, the techniques based on the single or double error assumptions are of little use in practice. There is a simple relationship between single error signatures and multiple error signatures. For example, if a single error sequence e i (X)=X i (i.e., a single error at the bit position i in the sequence) produces signature S i (x) and another single error sequence e j (X)=X j produces S j (X), then a double error sequence e ij (X)=X i +X j will generate a faulty signature S ij (X)=Si(x)+S j (X), where "+" represents bit-wise XOR. This relationship is true in general for multiple errors. Based on the above observation, Chan et al (Proc. Int. Test Conf., 1989, pp. 935-936), developed a diagnostic technique for multiple error sequences. Unfortunately, the conclusion derived with this technique is very often misleading. It is easy to prove that this technique works only for sequences that contain fewer than t errors if the signature analyzer LFSR corresponds to a t-error correcting code, where t is very small compared to the number of possible errors in practice. In general, there are 2 l-k error sequences for every given faulty signature for a sequence length l and signature length k. Therefore, with the above techniques, it is impossible in general to correctly identify the real sequence that actually produced the faulty signature. Another class of fault diagnostic methodologies was developed by Aitken et al (Proc. ICCAD, Nov. 1989, pp. 574-577) and Waicukauski et al (Proc. Int. Test Conf. 1987, pp. 480-484), based on post-test fault simulation. Compared to the available analytical techniques, these post-test simulation-based techniques can usually provide better resolution since they utilize more information from the faulty CUT. The major deficiency shared by the techniques in Aitken et al and Waicukauski et al is the large tester memory requirements. In addition, this technique also requires on-tester decision-making, i.e., it requires the test engineer to make the decision as to what to do next according to an intermediate result obtained during testing. This is undesirable in practice. Another deficiency is the lack of fault diagnostic capability for non-stuck-at faults. Based on a complex coding technique, another type of diagnostic methodology was developed for circuit board level applications (Karpousky et al, Proc. FTCS, 1992, pp. 112-119). This method is capable of locating faults to the IC chips that produce errors during test. However, this methodology imposes substantial hardware overhead. Usually, it requires a dedicated ASIC chip to implement the coding technique. Therefore, this methodology is targeted only for circuit board level applications where the required amount of hardware overhead is allowed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is based on an analytical fault diagnostic methodology for chip level applications. This method requires little hardware overhead, thus making it feasible for chip level applications. The method assumes a scan design environment, and is capable of locating errors to the scan flops that capture the errors during test, independently of the number of errors that the CUT produces. Moreover, the proposed methodology is also capable of identifying the test vector or vectors under which the errors are generated, with better resolution than that achievable by existing analytical techniques. In addition, the proposed diagnostic methodology does not require any on-tester decision-making. Compared to prior research, the proposed methodology is practical in that it does not restrict the number of errors that a CUT can produce, and in that its hardware is small enough for chip level applications. Therefore, in accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for diagnosing faults in an integrated circuit utilizing scan-based built-in self-test functions. The apparatus includes a signal generator to input a pseudo-random test vector to a plurality of scan chains in said integrated circuit; a programmable data compactor to analyze test response data from said scan chains and to compress said data into an intermediate signature; a secondary data compactor in communication with said programmable compactor, said secondary compactor compressing said intermediate signature; control means associated with said programmable compactor to cause said intermediate signature to be transferred to said secondary compactor and thereafter to instruct said signal generator to input a further test vector to said scan chains; and means to download the contents of said secondary compactor to off-chip storage means after a plurality of test vectors have been scanned. In accordance with a second aspect, the present invention provides a method of diagnosing faults in an integrated circuit wherein the integrated circuit has scan based built-in self-testability, the method comprising: (a) select a chain of processing elements in the integrated circuit to be scanned; (b) scan a first test vector into a plurality of scan chains including said selected chain; (c) capture scan test data in said selected chain; (d) compress said scan test data in said programmable compactor to generate an intermediate signature; (e) compress said intermediate signature in a secondary compactor; (f) clear said intermediate signature from said programmable compactor; (g) scan a further test vector into said scan chain and generate a further intermediate signature in said programmable compactor; (h) compress said further intermediate signature in said secondary compactor; and (i) download the contents of said second compactor to an external storage means for off-line analysis after a plurality of test vectors have been applied. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will now be described in greater detail with reference to the attached drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the fault diagnosis circuit according to a first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a second embodiment; and FIG. 3 is a block diagram of an embodiment of the invention utilizing two sets of diagnostic hardware. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the functional elements according to a first embodiment of the invention. These elements include pattern generator 12 which is capable of generating a plurality of pseudo-random test vectors. Scan chain 1 to scan chain m represent the circuit components within the CUT for which fault diagnosis is required. Programmable compactor 14 to be discussed in greater detail hereinafter analyzes and compacts test data from the scan chains to create an intermediate signature. Secondary compactor 16 accepts a sequence of the intermediate signatures from programmable compactor 14 and compresses these signatures further to generate a final fault signature. In FIG. 1, the programmable data compactor 14 is a data compactor with a programmable feedback polynomial. For example, the programmable data compactor 14 can be a programmable LFSR (Linear Feedback Shift Register), a programmable MISR (Multiple Input Shift Register), a programmable CA (Cellular Automata), or a programmable GLFSR (Generalized Linear Feedback Shift Register). The secondary data compactor 16 is a multiple input data compactor, which can be a MISR, a multiple input CA or a GLFSR. It is to be assumed that all the scan chains are of equal length. In this application a scan flop frame i is a set of scan flops that contains all the i th scan flops from all the scan chains. In addition, it is initially assumed that all the scan chains work at the same frequency, for simplicity. The diagnostic methodology consists of two levels of data compaction. It first compresses the test response to a test vector into the programmable data compactor 14; and then it compresses the content of the programmable data compactor into a secondary data compactor 16 after all the test response to the test vector has been compressed. After the content of the programmable compactor 14 has been compressed, the programmable compactor 14 is cleared, and then used to compress the test response to a next test vector. After all test vectors have been applied, the signature obtained in the secondary compactor 16 is saved for off-line analysis. Then, the programmable compactor 14 is set to another feedback polynomial, and the whole process is repeated until an adequate number of signatures have been collected. The following procedure summarizes the process. 1. Set i=1; 2. Set the programmable data compactor 14 to polynomial f i (x); 3. Scan a test vector into the scan chains by setting the scan mode signal SM=1; 4. Capture the test response by setting SM=0; 5. Scan in another test vector by setting SM=1, and at the same time scan out the test response captured in the scan flops and compress them with the programmable register 14; 6. After all the test response to the test vector has been compressed into the programmable compactor 14 (in the meantime, a new test vector has been shifted into the scan chains), set SM=0 to capture the test response to the new test vector, and at the same time compress the content in the programmable compactor 14 into the secondary compactor 16; 7. Then, clear the programmable compactor 14 with the signal clr; 8. Go to Step 5, until all the test vectors are applied; 9. Save the signature collected in the secondary compactor 16 for off-line analysis; 10. Set i=i+1; 11. Go to Step 2, until an adequate number of signatures have been collected. 12. Stop. The feedback polynomials used for the programmable data compactor 14 i.e., to implement a data compaction function are required to follow certain error control coding rules. For example, the feedback polynomial can be defined as f i (x)=x-α i where α is a primitive element over Galois field GF(2 m ). It is usually required to repeat the same test vector set 2t times if up to t scan flop frames in the scan chains will capture or produce errors during test. Under single fault or single defect assumption, t can easily be determined by tracing the netlist of the CUT. In fact, in this case, t is equal to the maximum number of scan flops on a single chain that a single fault in the CUT may affect. The hardware overhead imposed by the proposed methodology is very small. In the case shown in FIG. 1, the hardware overhead is the programmable compactor. As will be shown later, this programmable compactor can either be used for aliasing reduction in normal BIST mode or be shared by normal BIST circuitry. Obviously, another type of cost imposed by the proposed methodology is the extra tester time required to repeat the same test set 2t times. However, compared to hardware overhead, which imposes recurring silicon cost for every single chip, the tester time expenditure is just a one-time cost only for a few faulty chips that require fault analysis. Furthermore, the proposed diagnostic methodology is independent of specific CUT designs, i.e., it uses the same hardware for all CUT designs. In addition, in both the normal BIST mode and the diagnostic mode, the proposed methodology does not affect the at-speed operation provided by some BIST techniques. Having collected enough signatures by applying the procedure described previously, the information of the collected signatures can be used to identify the locations of the failing scan flops or failing scan flop frames. Usually, if there can be up to t failing scan flop frames in the structure described in FIG. 1, 2t signatures are required. Assuming that 2t signatures have been collected, the procedure can be represented by the following equations: ΔS=H.sub.PC EH.sub.SC (Eq 1) =H.sub.PC ΔS.sup.1.sub.sf, ΔS.sub.sj.sup.2 . . . ΔS.sub.sj.sup.n ! (Eq2) where ΔS is the 2t error signatures collected; H PC represents the checking matrix of the code generator corresponding to the programmable compactor when it is used 2t times as previously described; H SC represents the checking matrix of the code generator corresponding to the secondary compactor; and E represents the error matrix where each entry E(τ,i) is the error from the i th scan flop frame in response to the test vector τ, E is of the size NxT, where N is the scan chain length, T is the number of test vectors in the test set, and ΔS SF i can be considered as the intermediate error signature for scan frame i. The above equations consist of 2t equations if 2t signatures are collected. If there can be up to t failing scan flop frames, there are 2t unknown variables in the above equations. Therefore, the above equations provide a unique solution to these 2t unknown variables. Among the unknown variables, t of them are the locations of the failing scan flop frames and the others are the intermediate error signatures each for a failing scan flop frame. Although this technique is able to identify the scan flop frames that captured errors during the test, we still do not know exactly which scan flops failed. In a second embodiment of the invention an approach that correctly locates errors in the failing scan flops is provided. In FIG. 1, all the scan chains are tested at the same time, and the test responses from all the scan chains are analyzed in parallel. Therefore, when the i th scan flop in the j th scan chain fails, the approach presented in FIG. 1 can only point out that the i th scan flop frame, which consists of all the i th scan flops from every single scan chain, contains errors, without knowing exactly which scan flop from which scan chain fails. To solve the resolution problem, an approach is to treat the multiple scan chains as multiple single scan chains, i.e., diagnose one chain at a time. In other words, the entire test set is applied to all the scan chains, but the test response from only a single chain is analyzed. This can be accomplished by gating the scan-out data as shown in FIG. 2. As shown, controller 18 is used to select the test responses. Assume the maximum t for scan chain i to be t i , where 0≦i≦m-1. Under the single fault assumption, t i is equal to the maximum number of scan flops in the i th scan chain that can be affected by a single fault in the CUT. In this case, the test set to a CUT is repeated 2t i times to diagnose its i th scan chain. Each time the complete test set is applied to all the scan chains, but only the test responses from the i th scan chain are fed into the compactors. Obviously, this approach guarantees correct fault diagnosis to failing scan flops at the cost of increased hardware requirements. In this case, the extra hardware requirements include a log 2 (m) bit counter plus some gates. In terms of tester time, the test one chain at a time approach requires: ##EQU1## where T is the tester time to apply the test vector set once. It is easy to show that Γ is the same as that required by the approach shown in FIG. 1 in the worst case. By worst case, it is meant that the t i scan flop frames from each chain are disjointed. Therefore, as a guideline to the CUT design, t i should be minimized by partitioning the scan flops that can be affected by a single circuit node into different scan chains. Tester time reduction for the approach shown in FIG. 2 is possible if the required tester time for the approach shown in FIG. 1 is less than Γ, i.e., less than the worst case tester time. In this case, we first fault diagnose all the chains in parallel as shown in FIG. 1, to identify the failing scan flop frames. Then, the scan chains are tested one at a time without fault diagnosis, simply to identify the failing chains. In this way, it is known that, in the failing scan flop frames, only those scan flops from the failing scan chains may produce errors. Thus, the total tester time is T(2t+m), where 2Tt is the tester time to identify the failing scan flop frames, and Tm is the tester time to identify failing chains. After identifying the scan flops that capture errors during test, it is usually required to further locate the gates that actually produce the errors. One approach follows the same strategy as other analytical BIST diagnostic techniques. That is, to identify the failing test vectors, and then analyze these vectors, by simulation for example, to identify the faulty gate or gates. For scan chain j, after repeating the test set 2t j times, we know exactly the failing scan flop positions i 1 , i 2 , . . . , i t .sbsb.j, as well as the intermediate signatures ΔS sf i .sbsp.1, ΔS sf i .sbsp.2, . . . , and ΔS sf i .sbsp.t.sbsp.j, by solving Equation 1. In fact, ΔS sf i .sbsp.n, where 1≦n≦t j , is equivalent to the error signature calculated by the secondary compactor under the assumption that scan chain j consists of only a single flop, i.e., scan flop i n . With the intermediate signatures for the failing flop i n , it is possible to identify the test vectors that generate errors in scan flop i n , given that the number of such test vectors is small. In general, we can identify up to r such test vectors if the secondary data compactor implements a r-error correcting code. Compared to existing analytical approaches, the presented approach yields better diagnostic capacity (measured by the number of failing test vectors that the approach guarantees to identify), and thus better resolution. This is because this approach is able to separate the failing scan flops and provides an independent error signature for each of these flops. In comparison, the existing approaches have only a single signature for all the failing flop i n . For example, if test vectors τ 1 and τ 2 generate two errors in scan flops i 1 and i 2 , respectively, the error sequence seen by the existing approaches is a double error sequence, while it is seen by our approach as two independent single error sequences, one generating ΔS sf i .sbsp.1, and the other generating ΔS sf i .sbsp.2. After knowing the exact positions of the failing scan flops, another possible approach to locate faults is to analyze the structure of the CUT. Under the single fault assumption, the circuit node or nodes that exactly fanout to all the failing scan flops are the best candidate fault sites. If no such nodes exist, other circuit nodes, such as those that fanout to all the failing scan flops, can be used as a candidate, or multiple faults should be considered. The programmable compactor required in the proposed diagnostic methodology can be used to reduce the aliasing in normal BIST operations. Since the programmable compactor can be set to a different primitive feedback polynomial than that for the secondary compactor, the aliasing probability achieved by a single compactor in normal BIST environments can be reduced from 2 -m to 2 -2m , assuming both compactors are of length m and primitive. In this case, the only required modification to the approach shown in FIG. 1 is to enable the secondary compactor and disable the clr signal in the normal BIST mode. If it is decided to diagnose one chain at a time, the extra compactor required by the proposed method can be shared with the normal BIST circuitry. In this case, we can use a m-stage compactor for normal BIST mode. In diagnostic mode, the m-stage compactor can be split into two, compactor 1 and compactor 2 . Compactor 1 can be used for the programmable compactor and compactor 2 for the secondary compactor. In this case, the total hardware overhead imposed by the proposed diagnostic approach is two controllers, one for the scan chain selection as shown in FIG. 2 and the other for the polynomial selection required by the programmable compactor. The controller for scan chain selection requires a log 2 (m) bit counter plus some gates if there exist m scan chains. The controller for polynomial selection requires a log 2 (N+1) bit counter plus some gates, if the longest scan chain consists of N scan flops. In this case, the length of the programmable compactor must be greater or equal to log 2 (N-1). The length of the secondary compactor must be long enough to guarantee satisfactory aliasing. The methodology uses the same diagnostic hardware for all CUT designs. By specifying the t i 's for each specific CUT, this methodology also adapts very well to the different requirements of different CUTs. For different CUTs, the tester time requirement for diagnosis can be quite different although the diagnostic hardware is always the same. Compared to hardware overhead, which imposes recurring silicon cost to every single chip, the tester time expenditure is a non-recurring cost only for the few faulty chips that require fault analysis. However, in some special cases, the required tester time may become unacceptable. In this case, the proposed methodology allows trade-off between hardware overhead and tester time requirement. For example, if it is advantageous to reduce the tester time by half, two sets of the diagnostic hardware can be used. Each set consists of a programmable compactor 14,24 and a secondary compactor 16,26. FIG. 3 shows such a configuration. In diagnostic mode, the two programmable compactors 14,16 are set to different feedback polynomials f i (x) and f 2i (x), where 1≦i≦t j for scan chain j. The two secondary compactors 16,26 are always of the same feedback polynomial. In this case, to identify up to t j failing scan flops in a chain, we only need to repeat the test set t j times, as opposed to 2t j times. In general, multiple copies of the diagnostic hardware can be used if the amount of hardware overhead is acceptable. In an extreme case, to locate up to t failing scan flops in a chain, one can use 2t sets of the diagnostic hardware. In the multiple frequency BIST environment, all the flops on a same scan chain work at the same frequency. In this case, we can easily extend our diagnostic methodology to this environment if we analyze the test responses from one chain at a time. The basic idea is that when we analyze the test responses from a scan chain working at clock clk i , we simply replace the signals clk and SM shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 with the signals clk i and SM i , respectively, where SM i is the scan mode signal for scan chains working at clock clk i . Since this modification is required only for diagnostic mode, the normal BIST operations will not be affected. In normal BIST mode, all the scan chains will still be analyzed at the highest clock frequency. It should be pointed out that the diagnostic mode can also run at speed. The methodology guarantees correct identification of the scan flops that capture errors during test, independently of the number of errors the circuit under test (CUT) may produce. The proposed methodology is CUT independent in that it uses the same diagnostic hardware for all CUT designs. On the other hand, it is also a CUT-specific methodology because it assigns different tester time to different CUTs according to their structures. The methodology does not assume any specific fault model in the CUT. Thus, it can be used to diagnose non-stuck-at faults in a CUT, such as timing failures, for example. The methodology also supports at-speed BIST operations and fits well in the multiple frequency BIST environment. In addition to the failing scan flops, the methodology is also able to identify the failing test vectors with a better resolution than existing analytical diagnostic methodologies. Although specific embodiments of the invention have been illustrated and described, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that variations and alternatives to these embodiments are possible. It is to be understood, however, that such variations and alternatives may fall within the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

An analytical fault diagnostic methodology for use in complex VLSI chips. The method assumes a scan design environment and is capable of locating errors to the scan flops that capture the errors during test, independently of the number of errors that the circuit-under-test produces. The methodology is also capable of identifying the test vector or vectors under which the errors are generated. The apparatus which is designed to implement the method is also described. As the apparatus requires little hardware, the method is practical for chip level applications.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to a shared cache memory, and more particularly to a multiprocessor system and to a method of controlling hit determination of a shared cache memory in a multiprocessor system that includes a plurality of processors that share a multiple-way (n-way) set-associative cache memory that includes a directory and a data array, the multiprocessor system being partitioned such that the plurality of processors each operate as independent systems. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] In a multiprocessor system in which a plurality of processors share a cache, and moreover, in a multiprocessor system that has been partitioned to allow the plurality of systems to operate independently, each partition operates as an independent system (OS), and processors may therefore in some cases use the same address to refer to different memory sites. [0005] Thus, when a different partition has registered a different memory block in the cache by the same address, a partition that refers to the cache at the same address may cause a conflicting cache hit. [0006] An example of such a conflicting cache hit will be explained hereinbelow with reference to FIG. 1. It is first assumed that the system is partitioned such that partition K 1 is processor 0 and partition K 2 is processor 1 . Processor 1 (partition K 2 ) sequentially supplies as output addresses X, Y, P, and Q in memory blocks A, B, C, and D, following which processor 0 (partition K 1 ) sequentially supplies as output addresses R, Y, P in memory blocks E, F, and G. It is further assumed that each of the above-described blocks A-G are blocks in the same set i and that the cache memory is in the initial state. [0007] When processor 1 (partition K 2 ) supplies addresses X, Y, P, and Q in blocks A, B, C, and D, copies of blocks A, B, C, and D are stored in ways 0 , 1 , 2 , and 3 of set i of data array 214 as shown in FIG. 1A. [0008] The subsequent output of address R in block E by processor 0 (partition K 1 ) results in a miss, and the copy of block A that was stored in way 0 is replaced by the copy of block E. [0009] The subsequent sequential output from processor 0 of addresses Y and P in blocks F and G (the same addresses as blocks B and C) results in a cache hit at ways 1 and 2 that were registered by partition K 2 , as shown in FIGS. 1C and 1D, resulting in a conflicting cache hit. [0010] As one example for preventing such a conflicting cache hit, Japanese Patent laid-open No. 2001-282617 discloses a case in which bits for storing partition numbers are extended on all cache tags, and a comparison circuit, when carrying out hit determination, determines partitions that are registered in the cache. As a result, cache hits are guaranteed not to occur in cache blocks that are registered in other partitions, and conflicting cache hits are therefore prevented. [0011] However, a method in which bits are added to a cache tag and shared cache areas are allocated to each partition such as the aforementioned Japanese Patent No. 2001-282617 also entails an increase in the hardware construction. The above-described method is therefore problematic because it does not allow miniaturization of the shared cache, miniaturization of an on-chip multiprocessor system having a limited chip area, or a reduction in costs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] It is an object of the present invention to provide a multiprocessor system and a method of controlling hit determination for a shared cache memory of the type initially defined, this system having the same amount of hardware as a system of the prior art and being capable of preventing conflicting cache hits of each partition, and further, being capable of both reducing costs and allowing miniaturization of a shared cache or miniaturization of an on-chip multiprocessor system having a limited chip surface area. [0013] According to a first aspect of the present invention hits of, of the ways in a set that have been designated at the time a processor of a particular partition accesses a shared cache memory, only those ways that have been allocated in advance in accordance with active signals that are supplied as output at the time of the access are determined. [0014] According to a second aspect of the present invention, the multiprocessor system comprises a circuit for determining hits of, of the ways in a set that have been designated at the time of a processor of a particular partition accesses the shared cache memory, only those ways that have been allotted in advance in accordance with active signals that are supplied as output at the time of the access. [0015] In a multiprocessor system that shares a cache among a plurality of processors and in which the multiprocessor system has been partitioned, allocating ways that correspond to each partition and removing from hit determination ways that are allocated to other partitions can prevent conflicting cache hits of each partition while using an amount of hardware that is equivalent to the prior art. This approach not only allows miniaturization of a shared cache or miniaturization of an on-chip multiprocessor system having a limited chip area, but also allows a reduction in cost. [0016] The above and other objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following description with reference to the accompanying drawings, which illustrate examples of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0017] [0017]FIG. 1 is a view for explaining the operations of the prior art; [0018] [0018]FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing the construction of an information processing system according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0019] [0019]FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing an example of the construction of a cache controller and an on-chip cache memory; [0020] [0020]FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing an example of the construction of the replacement control circuit shown in FIG. 3; [0021] [0021]FIG. 5 is a block diagram for explaining input/output signals of the comparison circuit that is shown in FIG. 3; and [0022] [0022]FIG. 6 is a view for explaining an example of the operation of the embodiment of FIG. 2. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0023] Referring now to FIG. 2, an information processing system according to an embodiment of the present invention includes on-chip multiprocessor system 110 , on-chip multiprocessor system 120 , off-chip cache memory 130 , main memory 140 , memory bus 150 , and memory bus 160 . [0024] In the present embodiment, on-chip multiprocessor system 110 is divided into two systems, is in a state in which three systems operate including multiprocessor system 120 , partition numbers being allocated such that partition K 1 is allocated to processor core 111 , partition K 2 is allocated to processor core 112 , and partition K 3 is allocated to on-chip multi processor system 120 . [0025] On-chip multiprocessor system 110 comprises processor cores 111 and 112 , cache controller 113 , and on-chip cache memory 114 . On-chip multiprocessor system 120 comprises processor cores 121 and 122 , cache controller 123 , and on-chip cache memory 124 . On-chip cache memory 114 and on-chip cache memory 124 are four-way set-associative cache memories. [0026] [0026]FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing an example of the construction of cache controller 113 and on-chip cache memory 114 that are shown in FIG. 2. Cache controller 123 and on-chip cache memory 124 are of the same construction. [0027] Address register 201 is a register for holding physical addresses (assumed to be 32-bit addresses) when processor cores 111 and 112 access main memory 140 . These physical addresses are each composed of block address 202 (here assumed to be 18 bits), set address 203 (here assumed to be 8 bits), and in-block byte address 204 (here assumed to be 6 bits). The number of sets in directory 207 and data array 214 is therefore 256 . [0028] A copy of an appropriate block of main memory 140 is stored in each of the areas (4 ways×256 sets) of data array 214 . Tags are stored in each of the areas (4 ways×256 sets) of directory 207 , these tags being composed of: the block addresses of blocks for which copies are stored in corresponding areas of data array 214 ; and effective bits that indicate whether these copies are effective or not. [0029] Register 209 is a register for holding set addresses 203 . Decoder 210 decodes a set address that is held in register 209 and supplies as output a selection signal to select one of the 0th to the 255th sets of directory 207 . [0030] Register 215 is a register for holding set addresses 203 . Decoder 216 decodes the set address that is held in register 215 and supplies as output a selection signal to select one of the 0th to the 255th sets of data array 214 . [0031] As shown in FIG. 5, comparison circuit 208 receives as input: the content (tags) of the 0th to third ways in the sets that have been selected by decoder 210 from the 256 sets of directory 207 , block addresses 202 that are held in address register 201 , and active signals 401 . Active signals 401 are two-bit signals and are supplied from memory elements such as registers when partition K 1 or partition K 2 accesses the memory. In this embodiment, the content of active signals 401 is the number of the partition that requested memory access, this number being “01” for partition K 1 and “10” for partition K 2 . [0032] Next, regarding the operation of comparison circuit 208 will be explained. [0033] Operation when active signal 401 indicates partition K 1 : [0034] Comparison circuit 208 compares block address 202 with the block addresses in the tag for which the effective bits of way 0 and way 1 , which have been allocated to partition K 1 , indicates that they are effective; and supplies as output a miss signal if matching does not occur and a hit signal if matching does occur. [0035] Operation when active signal 401 indicates partition K 2 : [0036] Comparison circuit 208 compares block address 202 with block addresses in the tag for which the effective bits of way 2 and way 3 , which have been allocated to partition K 2 , indicates that they are effective; and supplies as output a miss signal if matching does not occur and a hit signal if matching does occur. [0037] Operation when active signal 401 indicates a non-partitioned state: [0038] Comparison circuit 208 compares block address 202 with the block addresses in the tag for which the effective bits of way 0 , way 1 , way 2 and way 3 indicate that they are effective; supplies as output a miss signal if matching does not occur and a hit signal if matching does occur. In addition, the hit signal contains selection information indicating the way in which the matching block addresses are stored. [0039] Register 211 is a register for holding hit signals and miss signals that are supplied as output from comparison circuit 208 . [0040] If a hit signal is supplied as output from comparison circuit 208 , selection circuit 217 supplies the data that are stored in the area of data array 214 that is specified by the output of decoder 216 and the selection information that is contained within this hit signal. [0041] When a miss occurs, cache tag register 205 holds the tag that is written to directory 207 . Data register 212 , on the other hand, holds a copy of the block that is written to data array 214 when a miss occurs. [0042] When a miss signal is supplied as output from comparison circuit 208 , replacement control circuit 218 supplies a replacement way signal that indicates the way that is the object of replacement. The details of the construction and operation of replacement control circuit 218 will be explained hereinbelow. [0043] In accordance with a replacement way signal from replacement control circuit 218 , selection circuit 206 supplies the tag that is being held in cache tag register 205 to, of the four ways of directory 207 , the way that is indicated by the replacement way signal. Directory 207 writes the tag that has been supplied from selection circuit 206 to the area that is specified by the way that is the output destination and by the set that is selected by decoder 210 (the set in which the miss occurred). [0044] Selection circuit 213 , on the other hand, in accordance with the replacement way signal from replacement control circuit 218 , supplies the copy of the block that is being held in data register 212 to, of the four ways of data array 214 , the way that is indicated by the replacement way signal. Data array 214 writes the copy of the block that has been supplied from selection circuit 213 to the area that is specified by the way that is the output destination and the set that was selected by decoder 216 (the set in which the miss occurred). [0045] [0045]FIG. 4 is a block diagram that shows an example of the construction of replacement control circuit 218 that is shown in FIG. 3. This replacement control circuit 218 comprises LRU bit updating circuit 301 , LRU bit holding unit 302 , and replacement object selection circuit 303 . [0046] LRU bit holding unit 302 consists of the 256 sets from the 0th to the 255th set, and in each set, LRU bits are stored that indicate the order of reference of the four ways within that set. In the present embodiment, LRU bits are composed of 8 bits with two bits being allocated to each of way 0 , way 1 , way 2 and way 3 in that order starting from the leading bit. The bits that correspond to each way are set to “00”, “01”, “10”, and “11” in the order starting from the earliest reference. [0047] When a hit signal is supplied as output from comparison circuit 208 , LRU bit updating circuit 301 updates, of the LRU bits that are being held in LRU bit holding unit 302 , the LRU bits in the set that is specified by set address 203 . [0048] The miss signal from comparison circuit 208 , the output of LRU bit holding unit 302 (the content of the set that is selected by the set address), and the active signal are applied as input to replacement object selection circuit 303 . Replacement object selection circuits 303 manage the four ways of directory 207 and data array 214 by dividing the ways into groups: the ways for partition K 1 (way 0 and way 1 ) and the ways for partition K 2 (way 2 and way 3 ). [0049] When a miss signal is supplied as output from comparison circuit 208 , replacement object selection circuit 303 carries out the following operations based on the processor core that is indicated by the active signal (the processor core that performed the memory access that caused the miss). [0050] Operations when the active signal indicates partition K 1 : [0051] Of the LRU bits of 8-bit structure that are supplied from LRU bit holding unit 302 , the bits that correspond to ways 0 and 1 that are group-allocated to partition K 1 are compared (in the present embodiment, the 0th and first bits are compared with the second and third bits) to check which of the ways was consulted earliest. A replacement way signal that indicates the way that was consulted earliest is then generated and supplied as output. For example, if the bits that correspond to ways 0 and 1 are “00” and “10” respectively, a replacement way signal indicating way 0 is supplied. This replacement way signal is supplied to selection circuits 206 and 213 in FIG. 3. [0052] Operations when the active signal indicates partition K 2 : [0053] Of the LRU bits of 8-bit structure that are supplied from LRU bit holding unit 302 , the bits that correspond to ways 2 and 3 that are group-allocated to partition K 2 are compared (in the present embodiment, the fourth and fifth bits are compared with the sixth and seventh bits) to check which of the ways was consulted earliest. A replacement way signal that indicates the way that was consulted earliest is then generated and supplied as output. [0054] Operations when the active signal indicates a non-partitioned state: [0055] The LRU bits of 8-bit structure that are supplied as output from LRU bit holding unit 302 are compared to check which of the ways of way 0 , way 1 , way 2 , and way 3 was consulted earliest. A replacement way signal that indicates the way that was consulted earliest is then generated and supplied as output. [0056] The operation of the present embodiment will be described hereinbelow with reference to FIG. 6. [0057] As an example, processor core 111 now successively supplies addresses X and Y in blocks A and B; followed by processor core 112 which successively supplies addresses P, Q, and X in blocks C, D, and E; following which processor core 111 again successively supplies addresses X and Y in blocks A and B. It is here assumed that all of the above-described blocks A-E are blocks within the same set i, and that the cache memory is in the initial state. [0058] Processor core 111 supplies addresses X and Y in blocks A and B, following which processor core 112 supplies addresses P and Q in blocks C and D, whereupon copies of blocks A, B, C, and D are stored in ways 0 , 1 , 2 , and 3 of set i of data array 214 as shown in FIG. 6A. [0059] Processor core 112 then supplies address X (the same address as block A) in block E, whereupon a miss occurs because the ways for processor core 112 are limited to ways 2 and 3 , and the copy of block C that was stored in way 2 is replaced by the copy of block E, as shown in FIG. 6B. [0060] Despite the subsequent output from processor core 111 of addresses X and Y in blocks A and B, cache hits occur in ways 0 and 1 as shown in FIGS. 6C and 6D. [0061] Although the number of processors sharing a cache is just two in the above-described embodiment, this number may be three or more. In addition, although the number of partitions of the parts that share the cache was just two in the above-described embodiment, this number may be three or more. [0062] Finally, although the number of ways was four in the above-described embodiment, this number may be one, two, three, five, or more. [0063] Although the cache described in the above-described embodiment was a primary cache, the cache may also be a lower-order cache. For example, this embodiment was applied to off-chip cache memory 130 shown in FIG. 2 (in which case, the number of partitions is three). In this embodiment, the active signal was information on the partitions, but the active signal may also be other information (for example, the processor number), and the logic of the corresponding hit determination circuit and replacement object selection circuit can also be applied to such a case. [0064] While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been described using specific terms, such description is for illustrative purposes only, and it is to be understood that changes and variations may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the following claims.

A multiprocessor system includes a plurality of processors that share a multiple-way set-associative cache memory that includes a directory and a data array, the multiprocessor system being partitioned such that the plurality of processor operate as independent systems. The multiprocessor system also includes a hit judgement circuit that determines hits of, of the ways in the sets that are designated at the time a processor of a particular partition accesses the shared cache memory, only those ways that have been allocated in advance in accordance with active signals that are supplied as output at the time of the access.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/150,844, filed 12 Nov. 1993 now abandoned. The present invention relates to a novel and useful exercise apparatus. Dynamic exercising usually takes the form of running, walking, cycling, and the like. Persons engaging in such activities measure progress by distances or elapsed time over a certain course of travel. Persons training within a facility such as a stadium, or playing field are often limited by the perimeter of that area. In addition, time constraints require that exercising and training take place within as short a time period as possible, without overtaxing the trainees. Reference is made to U.S. Pat. No. 4,527,794 which describes a novel wind resistance exercise device. Although successful, the device depicted in this patent requires the user to affix an airfoil by use of a belt and employ a shoulder harness therewith. In addition, reversing the connection procedure of the device is time consuming and difficult, especially in situations requiring disconnection of the device for safety reasons. An exercise apparatus using air resistance which is easy to attach to the user and disconnect would be a notable advance in the physical training and therapy field. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, a novel and useful exercise apparatus is herein provided. The apparatus of the present utilizes a harness which may be in the form of a girth fitted about the waist of the user. The harness would include a cinching mechanism such as a buckle and the like. A base or boss extends from the harness and may be engaged by a pin extending from a plate connected to the harness. The boss may be constructed with a multiplicity of angled bores that extend backwardly and outwardly relative to the harness. A frame member is also found in the present invention and is connected or linked to the boss extending from the harness. The frame member may be formed with a plurality of rods or other elongated elements that are held within the multiplicity of bores formed in the boss. Such rods may be detachably held to the boss for the purpose of compactness during storage and shipping of the apparatus of the present invention. Such rods may be flexible and possess a high degree of durability and resilience under bending pressures. A sheet or airfoil is connected to the frame member and is capable of exerting a force on the harness through the frame member and connected boss. Such force would be generated when the harness is moved due to air resistance on the sheet. The sheet may be connected and disconnected from the frame member with ease. Locking means is also found in the present invention for detaching the sheet relative to the harness. Such locking means may take the form of providing a clip which is capable of affixing to the pin extending through a portion of the boss. In this manner, removal of the clip would permit the boss, and the connected frame and airfoil, to detach from the pin and the harness. A clip may be attached to a tether which is readily available to the user of the exercise apparatus of the present invention. It may be apparent that a novel and useful exercise apparatus has been described. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide an exercise apparatus which is simple to assemble and transport to a training facility. It is another object of the present invention to provide an exercise apparatus which utilizes an airfoil or sheet to produce a resistance force which must be overcome by the user's physical effort during walking, running, cycling, and the like. Another object of the present invention is to provide an exercise apparatus which is relatively simple to manufacture and maintain. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide an exercise apparatus which utilizes the air resistance of an airfoil and permits the user the freedom of arm motion during such exercising. Another object of the present invention is to provide an exercise apparatus which allows a person running or walking to engage in such activity in a relatively small geographical area with a high degree of effort. The invention possesses other objects and advantages especially as concerns particular characteristics and features thereof which will become apparent as the specification continues. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the apparatus of the present invention in use on a runner shown in phantom. FIG. 2 is a front elevational view of the apparatus of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a side elevational view of the apparatus of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a partial sectional view of the boss supporting a frame member at the rear of the harness. FIG. 5 is a rear elevational view of a portion of the apparatus of the present invention at the area of the harness to which the boss and frame member are connected. FIG. 6 is an enlarged partial side view showing the interconnection of the airfoil with the frame member. For a better understanding of the invention reference is made to the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments thereof which should be referenced to the prior described drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Various aspects of the present invention will evolve from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments which should be taken on conjunction with the previously discussed drawings. The invention as a whole is depicted in the drawings by reference character 10. The exercise apparatus 10 includes as one of its elements a harness 12, FIGS. 1 and 2. Harness 12 is shown in the form of a band 14 having a belt 16 connected thereto. Belt 16 is formed with a bitter end 18 which is capable of mating with a buckle 20 on another end of belt 16. Thus, harness 12 is generally in the form of a girth which is capable of fitting around the waist of user 21, FIG. 1. Belt 16 permits the cinching of harness 12 to adjust to the size of a particular waist of user 21. Harness 12 is also formed with reinforced encircling loops 22 and 24 which extend around the rear portion of harness 12, as depicted in FIG. 1. Reinforcing loops 22 and 24 may be constructed of any suitable material such as cloth, wood, metal, and the like. A plurality of fasteners 26 extend through loops 22 and 24 to hold a plate 28 along the outer surface 30 of band 14 of harness 12. Salvage portions 31 and 33 extend along the edges of band 14 for the purpose of strengthening the same, FIGS. 4 and 5. Boss or base 34 lies against plate 28 and is held thereto by a central pin 36 which extends through boss 34. Clip 38, in the form of a cotter pin, passes through an opening 40 of pin 36 and functions as a retainer for boss 34, in the position shown in FIGS. 4 and 5. A plurality of bores 42 such extend into boss 34 at an angle which is oriented outwardly and backwardly from plate 28. Bore 44 represents the typical construction of any of the plurality of bores 42. Frame member 46 is also found in the present invention. Frame member 46 includes a quartet of flexible rods 48, 50, 52, and 54 which are capable of entering any of the plurality of bores 42 and remaining thereat by a friction fit. With further reference to FIG. 4, it may be observed that plurality of rods 48, 50, 52, and 54 of frame member 46 extend outwardly and rearwardly from plate 28. FIG. 3 illustrates the full extension of plurality of rods 48, 50, 52, and 54 from boss 34. Sheet or airfoil 56 fastens to the ends of rods 48, 50, 52, and 54. Sheet 56 is depicted in the drawings as having a trapezoidal-shape, however other shapes producing an air resistance would suffice. With reference to FIG. 6, it may be seen that fastening means 58 for holding sheet 56 to frame 46 is depicted with respect to rod 54. It may be apparent that fastening means 58 is also employed to hold sheet 56 to rods 48, 50, and 52. In this regard, rod 54 terminates in a cap 60 having a slot 62. Sheet 56 possesses a quartet of reinforced corners such as corner 64 having a protuberance such as ring 66 at the terminus thereof. Ring 66 fits in slot 62 and is held thereto by the flexing of rod 54. As noted in FIG. 3, 2 and 3, rods 48, 50, 52, and 54 possess a slight bow due to the sizing of sheet 56. Such bowing keeps sheet 56 under tension and permits the sheet to be affixed to frame 46. Locking means 70 detachably connects sheet 56 to harness 12 by the use of boss 34, pin 36, and clip 38. Tether 72 extends forward to the user to permit the user to pull clip 72 from pin 36. At this point, boss 34 will slide from pin 36 such that sheet 56 is detached from harness 12. In operation, the user assembles apparatus 10 by placing rods 48, 50, 52, and 54 within the bores 42 of boss 34, FIG. 4. Sheet 56 is then attached to the ends of rods 48, 50, 52, and 54 by the use of fastening means 58, FIG. 6. The user then straps harness 12 about his or her waist and cinches the same to a comfortable fit. The user 21 then moves by walking, jogging, cycling, and the like. Air resistance on sheet 56 subsequently produces a force against which the user must work. Such additional work, of course, adds to the exercise effort of user 21. Tether 72 may be yanked or pulled to immediately release sheet 56 from harness 12, as conditions dictate. It has been found that apparatus 10 permits the user 21 to exercise vigorously within a relatively small geographic perimeter, unlike the area required for normal walking, jogging, cycling, and the like. While, in the foregoing, embodiments of the present invention have been set forth in considerable detail for the purposes of making a complete disclosure of the invention, it may be apparent to those of skill in the art that numerous changes may be made in such detail without departing from the spirit and principles of the invention.

An exercise apparatus utilizing a harness or girth which attaches to the central region of a user. A boss extends outwardly and rearwardly from the harness to support a frame member. The frame member is detachably connected to the boss and connected to a sheet or airfoil which is capable of creating air resistance and increases work to the user as the user travels in a certain direction.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Application Ser. No. 61/114,845, filed on Nov. 14, 2008, which is incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] This patent application relates generally to full-duplex digital communication, communication signal repeaters, and power line communications. BACKGROUND [0003] In some cases it is desirable to have uninterrupted two-way communication between two devices. For example, telephone calls typically allow uninterrupted two-way communication to simulate a face-to-face communication. Two-way communication can be achieved by dedicating separate communication media to signals in each direction. In some circumstances using separate media can be expensive or impossible. Full-duplex communications allow two devices to both send and receive signals at the same time on a single communication medium. The problem that arises when the devices transmit and receive simultaneously on a communication medium is that the transmitted signal may interfere with the received signal and prevent accurate reception. One way to achieve full-duplex communications is to allocate different frequency bands to each direction of transmission. Confining the transmissions in each direction to non-overlapping frequency bands prevents the signals from interfering with one another. Band-pass filters may be used to cleanly receive each signal while alternate direction transmission continues. This approach may have some draw-backs in certain circumstances, such as reducing the usable bandwidth on the medium available for transmissions in each direction and thus limiting the rate of data transfer. [0004] Communications signal repeaters are devices used to relay signals between communication nodes that may share access to communication medium, but are still unable to communicate directly with each other because, for example, one node is out of range to reliably receive transmissions from another node. For example, repeaters are often employed in Power Line Communications (PLC) networks. Due to limited bandwidth (e.g., 2-80 MHz) and regulatory limits on radio frequency emissions, digital transmissions over power lines have limited range, typically 1-2 km. In order to propagate signals over longer distances on a power line, digital repeaters are mounted on pole tops at distances corresponding to the range limitations of the power line. Reaching customers located at the extreme end of a power line can require as many as 25 hops between repeaters. [0005] Transmissions requiring several hops can incur significant delay and consume a relatively large amount of available bandwidth because each retransmission of a signal occupies bandwidth on the communication medium. PLC devices typically share the medium via a Carrier Sense Multiple Access—Collision Avoidance (CSMA-CA) mechanism. This is essentially a listen-before-talk scheme. If the medium is busy, a station will wait until the medium is idle before sending any queued data. Transmissions on a CSMA-CA network are broken up into units of limited duration called frames. When a station has data to transmit and detects the medium is idle it will contend for the medium by commencing the transmission of a frame. If no collision occurs, the station will complete transmission of the frame. Upon completion of the frame, the station will relinquish the medium for at least a predetermined period of time to allow other stations to contend for the medium with transmissions of appropriate priority level. After the period of time expires, the station may commence transmission of another frame as needed. Repeaters must contend for the medium in order to retransmit a frame of data that they have received. Repeaters receive one or more complete frames of data and store that data until the repeater is able to successfully contend for the medium and commence retransmission of the data in a new frame or frames. This store and forward method causes an additional delay of at least the frame duration for each repeater hop in the path of a message. Each retransmission along the path also occupies bandwidth on the medium for the entire duration of the frame or frames. SUMMARY [0006] In one aspect, in general, an apparatus includes a first modulator that converts a symbol to a waveform. The apparatus further includes a first non-linear filter, configured to at least partially compensate for non-linear distortions of a transmission signal path. The apparatus further includes a first medium coupling device for coupling signals to a communication medium. The apparatus further includes a second medium coupling device for coupling signals from the communication medium. The apparatus further includes summing circuitry with a first input connected to an output of the second medium coupling device. The apparatus further includes cancellation circuitry, connected to a second input of the summing circuit, that converts the symbol to an analog waveform that is substantially 180 degrees out of phase with the analog waveform encoding the symbol on the first input to the summing circuit. [0007] Aspects can include one or more of the following features. The first non-linear filter may be cascaded after the first modulator and the first medium coupling device may be cascaded after the first non-linear filter. The waveform may be a digitally encoded waveform. The apparatus may further include a first digital to analog converter cascaded after the first non-linear filter. The apparatus may further include a first analog amplifier connected to the output of the first digital to analog converter. The apparatus may further include a second analog amplifier with an automatic gain control circuit with the input connected to the output of the summing circuit. The apparatus may further include an analog to digital converter connected to the output of the second analog amplifier, a digital filter that converts the symbol to a digitally encoded waveform that is substantially 180 degrees out of phase with a residual signal encoding the symbol on the output of the analog to digital converter, and a digital summer that adds the output of the digital filter to the output of the analog to digital converter. The cancellation circuitry may include a second non-linear filter configured to at least partially pre-compensate for non-linear distortions of the cancellation circuitry. The first non-linear filter may be a memory polynomial filter. The communication medium may be a power line. The first non-linear filter may have a plurality of sets of coefficients, wherein each set of coefficients is associated with a different phase of the power cycle on the power line and each set of coefficients is adapted independently of the other sets of coefficients. The first modulator may be an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing modulator. The apparatus may further include a second analog amplifier connected to the output of the summing circuit, an analog to digital converter connected to the output of the second analog amplifier, and a signal path estimation block configured to estimate the non-linear distortion in the transmission signal path and the linear distortion in the transmission signal path based on the signal at the output of the analog to digital converter and the symbol. The signal path estimation block may be configured to estimate the linear distortion first and use the linear distortion estimate to estimate the non-linear distortion. The non-linear distortion estimate from the signal path estimation block may be used to configure the first non-linear filter and the estimation process is repeated with a subsequent symbol. The first medium coupling device and the second medium coupling device may share one or more common components. [0008] In another aspect, in general, a method includes filtering a transmission signal with a non-linear filter to at least partially pre-compensate for nonlinear distortion in a first signal path to generate a pre-compensated transmission signal. The method further includes coupling the pre-compensated transmission signal to a communication medium. The method further includes receiving, at a co-located receiver, an analog received signal from the communication medium that includes a component caused by the transmission signal. The method further includes filtering the transmission signal to generate an analog cancellation signal that is substantially 180 degrees out of phase with the component of the analog received signal that is caused by the transmission signal. The method further includes adding the analog cancellation signal to the analog received signal. [0009] Aspects can include one or more of the following features. The non-linear filter may be a digital filter. The method may further include converting the pre-compensated transmission signal to an analog transmission signal. The method may further include converting the received signal resulting from analog cancellation to a digital received signal, filtering the transmission signal to output a digital cancellation signal that is substantially 180 degrees out of phase with a residual component of the digital received signal that is caused by the transmission signal, and adding the digital cancellation signal to the digital received signal. Filtering the transmission signal to generate an analog cancellation signal may include filtering with a non-linear filter configured to substantially pre-compensate for non-linear distortions of a cancellation path. The non-linear filter may be a memory polynomial filter. The communication medium may be a power line. The transmission signal may be an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing signal. The communication medium may be a coaxial cable. The communication medium may be a twisted pair cable. An estimate of an impulse response of a signal path including the communication medium may be used to filter the transmission signal to generate an analog cancellation signal. [0010] In another aspect, in general, a method includes transmitting a plurality of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing symbols on a communication medium. The method further includes receiving the symbols from the communication medium at a co-located receiver. The method further includes applying a discrete Fourier transform to each of the received symbols to compute the frequency domain representation of the received symbols. The method further includes dividing the frequency domain representation of each of the received symbols by the frequency domain representation of the corresponding transmitted symbol. The method further includes averaging the quotients over all the symbols to estimate a transfer function of a first signal path. The method further includes dividing the frequency domain representation of each of the received symbols by the transfer function estimate and applying an inverse discrete Fourier transform to produce linear distortion compensated received symbols. The method further includes estimating the non-linear distortion in the first signal path based on the transmitted symbols and the linear distortion compensated received symbols. [0011] Aspects can include one or more of the following features. The method may further include configuring a non-linear filter to pre-compensate for non-linear distortions in the first signal path based on the estimate of the non-linear distortion in the first signal path, applying the non-linear filter to a plurality of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing symbols, and iterating the path estimation process, using the pre-compensated symbols to estimate the linear distortion of the signal path. The method may further include calculating the change in the linear and non-linear channel estimates from the last iteration and continuing to iterate until the change in the linear and non-linear channel estimates is below a threshold, at which point the linear and non-linear channel estimates are stored. The non-linear distortion on the first signal path may be modeled as a memory polynomial for estimation. The coefficient estimates for the memory polynomial may be calculated using a gradient descent algorithm. The gradient descent algorithm may use different adaptation step sizes for each harmonic branch of the memory polynomial. The gradient descent algorithm may use smaller step sizes for higher harmonic branches of the memory polynomial. The method may further include passing a plurality of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing symbols through a second signal path that includes a cancellation path to an analog summer in the co-located receiver and iterating the estimation process to estimate the linear and non-linear distortions in the second signal path. [0012] In another aspect, in general, a method includes transmitting a first multi-carrier signal on a communication medium and recovering a second multi-carrier signal from the communication medium, wherein the first multi-carrier signal and the second multi-carrier signal at least partially overlap in both frequency and time. Recovering the second multi-carrier signal includes adding a cancellation signal to a signal detected from the medium to suppress the first multi-carrier signal and recover the second multi-carrier signal. [0013] Aspects can include one or more of the following features. Recovering the second multi-carrier signal may include calculating the cancellation signal to be substantially 180 degrees out of phase with the component of the signal detected from the medium that is caused by the first multi-carrier signal. The communication medium may be a power line. The communication medium may be a coaxial cable. The communication medium may be a twisted pair cable. An estimate of an impulse response of a signal path including the communication medium may be used to filter the transmission signal to generate an analog cancellation signal. The first and second multi-carrier signals may be orthogonal frequency division multiplexed signals. The set of carrier frequencies modulated by data in the first multi-carrier signal and the set of carrier frequencies modulated by data in the second multi-carrier signal may intersect. The first multi-carrier signal and the second multi-carrier signal may be synchronized. Symbol boundaries of the first multi-carrier signal and the second multi-carrier signal may be aligned in time at the receiver. The first multi-carrier signal and the second multi-carrier signal may be synchronized so that symbol boundaries are aligned in time at the receiver. The multi-carrier signals may be broadband signals. The first multi-carrier signal may encode data from a frame that is still being received from the second multi-carrier signal. [0014] In another aspect, in general, an apparatus includes a modulator that converts a symbol to a digitally encoded waveform. The apparatus further includes a non-linear filter, configured to substantially pre-compensate for non-linear distortions of a transmission signal path, cascaded after the modulator. The apparatus further includes a digital to analog converter cascaded after the non-linear filter. The apparatus further includes an analog amplifier connected to the output of the digital to analog converter. The apparatus further includes a medium coupling device connected to the output of the analog amplifier. The apparatus further includes a receiver connected to the medium coupling device, receiving a detected signal appearing on a medium connected to the medium coupling device. The apparatus further includes a cancellation device that substantially cancels the representation of the symbol in the detected signal to determine a cancelled signal. The apparatus further includes an adaptation block that calculates new values for coefficients of the non-linear filter based in part on the cancelled signal. [0015] Aspects can include one or more of the following features. The cancellation device may include an analog summing circuit that is used to add a cancellation signal to the detected signal. The non-linear filter may be a memory polynomial filter. The medium coupling device may be connected to a power line and couple signals to and from the power line. The medium coupling device may be connected to a coaxial cable and couple signals to and from the coaxial cable. The medium coupling device may be connected to a twisted pair cable and couple signals to and from the twisted pair cable. The first non-linear filter may have a plurality of sets of coefficients, wherein each set of coefficients is associated with a different phase of the power cycle on the power line and each set of coefficients is adapted independently of the other sets of coefficients. The first modulator may be an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing modulator. [0016] In another aspect, in general, an apparatus includes a transmitter configured to modulate a first multi-carrier signal and couple the first multi-carrier signal to a communication medium. The apparatus further includes a receiver configured to couple signals from the communication medium and demodulate a second multi-carrier signal, wherein the first multi-carrier signal and the second multi-carrier signal at least partially overlap in both frequency and time. The apparatus further includes a processing device connected to both the transmitter and the receiver and configured to calculate a cancellation signal and add the cancellation signal to signals coupled from the communication medium by the receiver to suppress the first multi-carrier signal and recover the second multi-carrier signal. [0017] Aspects can include one or more of the following features. The cancellation signal may be substantially 180 degrees out of phase with the component of the signals coupled from the communication medium that is caused by the first multi-carrier signal. The communication medium may be a power line. The communication medium may be a coaxial cable. The communication medium may be a twisted pair cable. The processing device may calculate an estimate of an impulse response of a signal path including the communication medium that is used to filter the transmission signal to generate the cancellation signal. The cancellation signal may be analog and the receiver may include an analog summer circuit that is used to add the cancellation signal to signals coupled from the communication medium. The first and second multi-carrier signals may be orthogonal frequency division multiplexed signals. The set of carrier frequencies modulated by data in the first multi-carrier signal and the set of carrier frequencies modulated by data in the second multi-carrier signal may intersect. The first multi-carrier signal and the second multi-carrier signal may be synchronized. Symbol boundaries of the first multi-carrier signal and the second multi-carrier signal may be aligned in time at the receiver. The first multi-carrier signal and the second multi-carrier signal may be synchronized so that symbol boundaries are aligned in time at the receiver. The multi-carrier signals may be broadband signals. The transmitter may include a non-linear filter, configured to at least partially compensate for non-linear distortions of a transmission signal path. The non-linear filter may include coefficients that are calculated by the processing device based at least in part on signals coupled from the communication medium by the receiver. The processing device may calculate a second cancellation signal that is digital, the receiver may further include an analog to digital converter connected to the output of the analog summer circuit, and the second cancellation signal may be added to digital signals from the analog to digital converter. The second cancellation signal may be substantially 180 degrees out of phase with a residual component of the signals coupled from the communication medium that is caused by the first multi-carrier signal that remains after addition of the analog cancellation signal. The first multi-carrier signal may encode data from a frame that has been partially demodulated and is still being demodulated by the receiver from the second multi-carrier signal. [0018] In another aspect, in general, an apparatus includes a means for transmitting a first multi-carrier signal on a communication medium. The apparatus further includes a means for recovering a second multi-carrier signal from the communication medium, wherein the first multi-carrier signal and the second multi-carrier signal at least partially overlap in both frequency and time. Recovering the second multi-carrier signal includes adding a cancellation signal to a signal detected from the medium to suppress the first multi-carrier signal and recover the second multi-carrier signal. [0019] Among the many advantages of the invention (some of which may be achieved only in some of its various aspects and implementations) are the following. [0020] Transmission signals from a transmitter that are detected by a collocated receiver can be suppressed to enable simultaneous transmission and reception of signals on a communication medium while reusing bandwidth for both transmission and reception. For example, the described methods and apparatus may be applied in a full-duplex orthogonal frequency division multiplexed (OFDM) communications system with upstream and downstream signals simultaneously occupying some or all of the same frequency spectrum. In another example, the described methods and apparatus may be applied in a communications signal repeater to reduce delay through a network without reducing throughput by allowing the repeater to begin the forwarding transmission of a frame of data before reception of the entire frame is completed, while reusing some or all of the same frequency spectrum on the communication medium. Furthermore, some of the methods and apparatus described in this application provide for effective local transmit cancellation in the presence of transmit amplifiers and transmission channels that have both linear and non-linear distortion components. [0021] The transmit signal is pre-compensated for non-linear distortion such that the signal, when it reaches the communication medium, is cleaner in the sense that the non-linear distortions of the transmit amplifier are mitigated. By adding a cancellation waveform to the received waveform in the analog domain, the signal-to-noise ratio at the digital receiver is improved and the requisite dynamic range or required bits of the analog-to-digital converter are reduced. Estimating the linear distortion effects independently from the non-linear distortion effects, yields a highly computationally efficient cancellation model. The system allows for robust full duplex communication on a network with large distortions, attenuations and reflections that result in a reflected version of the transmit signal with power that is large relative to signal received from a remote transmitter. [0022] Some of the foregoing method(s) may be implemented as a computer program product comprised of instructions that are stored on one or more machine-readable media, and that are executable on one or more processing devices. The foregoing method(s) may be implemented as an apparatus or system that includes one or more processing devices and memory to store executable instructions to implement the method. [0023] The details of one or more examples are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Further features, aspects, and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0024] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a digital communication transceiver employing transmission suppression. [0025] FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing signal paths and their associated distortions. [0026] FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a data modulator used to generate an analog transmit-cancellation signal. [0027] FIG. 4 is a flowchart of a process for computing estimates of the non-linear and linear channel characteristics of a signal path. [0028] FIG. 5 is block diagram a TX distortion measurement block. [0029] FIG. 6 is schematic of a memory-polynomial based pre-distorter used for non-linearity compensation. [0030] FIG. 7 is a detailed block diagram of a digital communication transceiver employing transmission suppression. [0031] FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of a transmission line with repeaters. [0032] Like reference numerals in different figures indicate like elements. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0033] There are a great many possible implementations of the invention, too many to describe herein. Some possible implementations that are presently preferred are described below. It cannot be emphasized too strongly, however, that these are descriptions of implementations of the invention, and not descriptions of the invention, which is not limited to the detailed implementations described in this section but is described in broader terms in the claims. [0034] Cancellation techniques are used to achieve full-duplex communication or low-delay forwarding on a communication medium while allowing the transmitted and received signals to overlap in both time and frequency. When the transmitted signal is coupled to the medium, it is detected by a collocated receiver along with a desired signal from a remote device. A cancellation signal is generated based upon information about the transmitted signal and the signal paths. The cancellation signal is added to the detected signal to substantially suppress or eliminate the components associated with the transmitted signal and facilitate reception of the desired signal. The cancellation signal may be generated by applying adaptive linear and/or non-linear filters to a representation of the transmitted signal. [0035] Non-linearities in the transmit signal path may be pre-compensated using a adaptive non-linear filter in the transmit path, thus simplifying the adaptation of the filters in the cancellation signal path. The non-linear pre-compensation filter may be adapted based on measurements of the detected signal, possibly after processing to remove linear distortions from the signal. The use of a non-linear pre-compensation filtering in the transmit path has the additional benefit of providing a cleaner transmitted signal on the medium, thus facilitating remote reception and regulatory compliance. [0036] Some or all of the cancellation may be performed on the analog detected signal by using an analog summing circuit to apply an analog cancellation signal to the detected signal prior to analog to digital conversion. Applying a cancellation signal in the analog domain may allow the use of a digital to analog converter with a smaller dynamic range which is generally cheaper. This advantage is most pronounced when the power of the component of the detected signal corresponding to the transmitted signal is large relative to the power of the desired signal component. A digital cancellation signal may be applied to the received signal after analog to digital conversion to further suppress any residual components in the signal relating to the transmitted signal. [0037] Some implementations of the physical (PHY) layer use OFDM modulation. In OFDM modulation, data are transmitted in the form of OFDM “symbols.” Each symbol has a predetermined time duration or symbol time T s . Each symbol is generated from a superposition of N sinusoidal carrier waveforms that are orthogonal to each other and form the OFDM carriers. Each carrier has a center (or “peak”) frequency f i and a phase Φ i measured from the beginning of the symbol. For each of these mutually orthogonal carriers, a whole number of periods of the sinusoidal waveform is contained within the symbol time T s . The symbol time T s does not include added time between symbols for features of a transmission protocol such as a guard band or cyclic prefix. Equivalently, each carrier frequency is an integral multiple of a frequency interval Δf=1/T s . The phases Φ i and amplitudes A i of the carrier waveforms can be independently selected (according to an appropriate modulation scheme) without affecting the orthogonality of the resulting modulated waveforms. The carriers occupy a frequency range between frequencies f 1 and f N referred to as the OFDM bandwidth. [0038] FIG. 1 depicts an exemplary transmit cancellation system where OFDM symbol data 10 , generated by a micro controller or other such data source, is passed to the TX Data Modulator 11 . The TX Data Modulator 11 digitally transforms the symbol data into a corresponding digitally represented spectrally encoded OFDM symbol. The TX Data Modulator 11 then converts this frequency domain symbol into a digitally encoded time domain symbol, and adds an appropriately sized guard interval to the time domain waveform. The digitally encoded time domain waveform data is then passed to the non-linear pre-compensation block 18 where the inverse of the nonlinearities of the system's transmit and receive signal propagation path H 1 36 ( FIG. 2 ), which has been measured by the TX Distortion Measurement block 13 , are applied to the transmit waveform. The digitally represented pre-compensated time domain symbol waveform data is then passed to a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) 16 where it is translated into a time domain voltage waveform. This voltage waveform is then amplified in the transmit amplifier TX AMP 20 to an appropriate power level and coupled by the coupler 23 to the communication medium 25 where the waveform will be observable by all receivers within range, including the local receiver which is co-located with the transmitter blocks. The transmitted signal that enters the co-located receiver may cause interference with the reception of a signal from a distant transmitter. The cancellation system is able to suppress any such interference. [0039] The waveform used to cancel the transmitted waveform as it appears at the receive summer 22 is also computed from the same OFDM symbol data 10 used by the TX Data Modulator 11 . Much like the TX Data Modulator 11 the Cancellation (CX) Data Modulator 12 digitally transforms the symbol data into a corresponding digitally represented spectrally encoded OFDM symbol. This spectrally encoded symbol is then adjusted for the system's linear distortions by multiplying it's spectrally encoded representation by the spectral representation of the composite linear channel distortion computed by the TX Distortion Measurement block 13 . This composite linear channel distortion is equal to the linear spectral distortion experienced by path H 1 36 divided by the linear spectral distortion experienced by path H 2 37 . These distortions are measured by the TX Distortion Measurement block 13 and stored (e.g., in a memory within the block 13 ). After the spectrally encoded symbol has been compensated for the composite linear distortions of the system, it is transformed into the time domain, where the appropriate length guard interval is added to its time domain digital representation. Let h 1 and h 2 refer to the impulse response of the two paths H 1 and H 2 respectively. Let x refer to the spectrally encoded OFDM symbol in the time domain at the output of the TX Data Modulator 11 . Then the spectrally-encoded cancellation OFDM symbol in the time-domain, x c , is given by [0000] x c =F N −1 ( F N ( x )* F N ( h 1)/ F N ( h 1)) [0040] In the above equation, N represents the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) size used in the OFDM system, and F N represents the N-point FFT operation. The inverse FFT (F N −1 ) operation above represents the N-point IFFT as defined by the system and could involve the conjugate symmetric extension of the argument. [0041] Note that h 1 and h 2 or F N (h 1 ) and F N (h 2 ) may be computed and stored in the TX distortion measurement block 13 . [0042] The time domain cancellation signal (x c ) in the above equation is then extended with a corresponding prefix for the guard interval. Thus, in essence, the CX data modulator filters the output of the TX data modulator 11 and performs the same operation as the TX data modulator on this filtered output. The described operation of the CX data modulator is depicted in FIG. 3 . The filter 46 in FIG. 3 is described in the frequency domain in the above equation. The system may reuse hardware by sharing building blocks, such as FFT engines, in the various digital signal paths for a more cost effective and efficient implementation. Though FIG. 1 shows one embodiment where the CX data modulator 12 receives its input from the output of the TX data modulator 11 , the CX data modulator could alternatively receive the input symbol data 10 directly in order to compute the cancellation signal. [0043] The time domain signal at the output of the CX data modulator 12 is then pre-compensated for the nonlinearities experienced by path H 2 37 . These nonlinearities are measured by, and stored in, the TX Distortion Measurement 13 block and applied to the digitally represented time domain symbol by the CX Non-linear Pre-compensation 26 block. After the digitally represented time domain symbol has been fully compensated it is passed to the CX DAC 17 where it is translated into a corresponding analog voltage waveform. It should be noted that the time domain symbol transmitted from the CX DAC 17 is transmitted synchronously with the corresponding symbol which is transmitted from the TX DAC 16 . The analog voltage waveform coming from the CX DAC 17 is then amplified by the CX AMP 21 which drives the analog summer 22 . After the summing process, the signal leaving the analog summer 22 and driving the RX AMP 24 will contain all the signals found on the medium, with the exception of the all or part of the signals transmitted by the local transmitter (e.g., from any of the blocks 11 , 18 , 16 , or 20 ) which have been cancelled out in the summation process. Any residual signals from the output of the TX AMP 20 that remain at the output of the RX AMP 24 will be removed in the Digital TX signal cancellation block 14 . [0044] In OFDM systems, the complexity of the transmission suppression system may be reduced by synchronizing the transmitted OFDM signal with the received OFDM signal to exploit the guard interval, or cyclic prefix. Synchronization allows the cancellation filtering to be performed on a symbol by symbol basis using cyclic convolution, instead of performing a more complex linear convolution on the sequence of OFDM symbols. When symbol by symbol cyclic convolution is used errors are created in the cancellation signal at the symbol boundaries due to the inaccuracy of the approximation of the transmitted signal as a periodic signal. These errors have a duration determined by the length of the impulse response of the channel estimate. In this case it is desirable to have a guard interval that is at least as long as the delay spread of the channel H 1 . When this condition on the guard interval is met and the symbols of the two OFDM signals are aligned at the receiver, the error in the cancellation signal occurs during the guard interval of the desired received signal, which is discarded by the receiver anyway. Thus, the cancellation approach described above exploits the guard interval in multicarrier systems to avoid cancellation at symbol boundaries, thereby greatly simplifying the cancellation process. Measurement Process—Analog Cancellation Loop [0045] In order for the aforementioned analog transmit power cancellation process to provide accurate cancellation, accurate linear and non-linear measurements of the transmit path H 1 36 and the cancellation path H 2 37 should be made and stored. This can be done, for example, in the following manner. [0046] As the transmitted signal propagates from the TX DAC 16 to the RX ADC 19 along path H 1 36 , it experiences numerous linear and non-linear distortions. FIG. 2 shows a partial block diagram that depicts some representative distortions experienced by the signal that is transmitted from the TX DAC 16 as it propagates along propagation path H 1 36 to the RX ADC 19 , and some representative distortions 34 and 35 experienced by the cancellation signal transmitted from the CX DAC 17 as it follows path H 2 37 to the RX ADC 19 . Distortions caused by the TX AMP 20 , CX AMP 21 , and RX AMP 24 are represented by replacing those blocks with TX Dist block 32 , Cancel Dist block 34 and RX Dist block 35 , respectively. Distortions caused by the coupler 23 and communication medium 25 are represented as a single Coupler & Medium Dist block 33 . These distortions are varied in their nature and may be caused by these or other parts of the system in different proportions. In the illustrated example, the major source of non-linear distortion for path H 1 36 is generated by the transmit amplifier TX AMP 20 and the major source of non-linear distortion for path H 2 37 is generated by the cancellation amplifier CX AMP 21 . Additionally, in this example the major source of linear distortion for path H 1 36 is most often due to the effects of the communication medium 25 as it is coupled via the coupler 23 to the signal path. In other words, a reflected version of the transmitted signal travels through the channel before entering the co-located receive port leading to a linear distortion that is caused by the channel. [0047] Accurate measurements of the linear and non-linear distortions in paths H 1 36 and H 2 37 can be attained by using the method described in the flowchart of FIG. 4 . The training process for measuring the linear and non-linear distortion of path H 1 36 will be used as an example. Similar techniques can also be employed to measure the distortion of path H 2 37 . Referring to FIG. 7 , during the training phase, switch 28 remains in the up position connecting the Rx ADC 19 to the TX distortion measurement block 13 . When the linear and non-linear distortions on path H 1 are being measured, switches 70 and 72 are closed and switch 71 is open. When measuring distortions on path H 2 , switches 71 and 72 are closed and switch 70 is open. To start the measurement process the channel under measurement, in this case H 1 36 , is assumed to be completely linear 51 , hence no non-linear pre-compensation is applied to the initial signal to be transmitted. First, a multi-symbol training waveform 52 is generated and transmitted 53 through path H 1 36 . Each symbol received at the RX ADC 19 is moved into the frequency domain and divided by the corresponding spectrum of the same symbol before it was transmitted (the undistorted spectrum of the original symbol). The quotient of this per-symbol division operation is then averaged over a sufficiently large number of symbols. The averaging process spreads the power of the noise and other uncorrelated signals and increased the accuracy of the linear channel distortion estimate 54 . The estimate of the linear distortion 54 is then saved for later use. [0048] Let N s OFDM symbols be used to estimate H 1 . Let x i represent the time-domain OFDM symbol ‘i’ at the output of the TX data modulator 11 , and let y i represent the corresponding received symbol at the input of the RX ADC 19 . Then, the computation of the channel's linear spectral transformation (distortion) described above can be written as follows: [0000] H 1=(1 /N s )*Σ i F N ( y i )/ F N ( x i ), i=1, 2, . . . , N s [0049] After the linear channel distortion 54 has been computed, the effects of the linear channel are then removed from one or more of the received symbols 55 by dividing the spectral description of the received symbol by the estimated channel (H 1 ). [0000] z i =F N −1 ( F N ( y i )/ H 1) [0050] The linearly compensated RX symbol z i is then used to compute the inverse non-linearity 56 of the signal path being measured, which is, in this case, H 1 36 . Note that for signal path H 1 , x i is the input and z i represents the non-linear output (because the effect of the linear component of the channel has been removed in the computation of z i ). Thus, [0000] x i =G ( z i ), [0000] where G represents the inverse non-linearity function. The two quantities x i and z i are used to adaptively estimate the inverse non-linearity function G. The procedure to estimate G is presented later. The operation of the TX distortion measurement block 13 as described in FIG. 4 is shown in more detail in FIG. 5 . In this embodiment, an adaptive algorithm is used to estimate G in block 56 . [0051] A new multi-symbol calibration waveform is then generated as before. This waveform is then moved into the digital time domain where it is pre-compensated for the systems nonlinearities 58 using the inverse non-linearity function, G, estimated by the non-linear distortion measurement block 18 . Suppose the calibration waveform consisted of a sequence of time-domain OFDM symbols {α i }, the pre-compensated transmit waveform is given by {G (α i )}. [0052] The pre-compensated waveform is then transmitted 53 and received as before. The received linearized (pre-compensated) waveform is then used to compute a more accurate estimate of the linear channel characteristics 54 . The new, more exact, linear channel estimate is then removed from the signal, and, as before, the resultant signal is used to estimate the non-linear channel characteristics 55 and 56 , which can again be used to transmit another, more accurately pre-compensated 58 channel calibration waveform. This process is repeated until the accuracy of the linear and non-linear channel estimates are adequate for the application 57 , at which point the linear and non-linear channel estimates are stored for later use 59 and the calibration process is stopped 60 . Measurement and Cancellation Process—Digital Loop [0053] Due to imperfect measurements and imperfect device characteristics, the transmit power cancellation achieved at the analog summer 22 may be less than required for optimum performance. In order to further improve the removal of the transmitter's power from the received signal, digital cancellation loops can be implemented. These loops can include linear cancellation loops and/or non-linear cancellation loops. [0054] FIG. 2 shows a representative digital linear cancellation loop. The remaining channel distortion H 3 40 is computed by taking the spectrum of the OFDM symbol received at the RX ADC 19 and dividing it by the original symbol spectral data Symbol Data 10 which was used by the transmitter when generating the symbol now being received. This value is then averaged over a number of symbols to improve its accuracy and to spread the power of noise and interfering signals. The computed remaining linear cancellation distortion H 3 42 is then multiplied by the negative of the original symbol's spectral data Symbol Data 10 yielding the inverse of the transmitted symbols remaining power. This cancellation spectral power is then added 43 to the spectrum of the received symbol, thereby further reducing the transmitted symbols power found in the received symbol data RXD 44 . The process is very similar to the one used to estimate H 1 and H 2 as described above. Referring to FIG. 7 , during the training phase for estimating H 3 , switch 28 is in the up position, switch 70 and 71 are closed, and switch 72 is open. Thus, the distortion measured by the TX distortion block 13 is the residual linear distortion (H 3 ) after non-linearity pre-compensated transmission and analog transmit signal cancellation. [0055] For additional system performance digital non-linear cancellation loops can also be implemented. This digital non-linear cancellation will work in conjunction with the digital linear cancellation loop much like the non-linear estimation and cancellation process described in FIG. 4 and explained in the analog cancellation section. [0056] Note that switches 70 , 71 , 72 , and 25 that are shown in FIG. 7 are only present to simplify exposition and to identify the path of signal-flows during different training and calibration modes of operation. Any implementation need not have any or all of these switches. These switches can be replaced with short-circuits and necessary paths can be turned on and off digitally. Estimating the Inverse Non-Linearity Function [0057] As mentioned earlier, training symbols are used to estimate the linear and non-linear components of the signal transmission path. Let x i be a transmitted OFDM symbol, and z i be the corresponding non-linear component at the output of the transmission path. In other words, z i is the received symbol from which the effects of the linear channel has been removed in block 55 . It has been said before that the relationship between x i and z i can be expressed as x i =G(z i ), where G represents the non-linear component of the transmission path. [0058] The inverse non-linearity is modeled using memory polynomials (also known as non-linear tapped delay lines). Thus, the relationship between x i and z i explicitly be expressed as [0000] x i ( n )=Σ k Σ q w kq z i ( n−q )| z i ( n−q )| k−1 , q= 0, 2 , . . . , Q− 1, and k⊂{1, 2, 3, . . . }. [0059] In the above equation, k is the set of harmonics that we are trying to suppress, and Q−1 is the memory of the system. FIG. 6 illustrates the memory polynomial model of the non-linearity with Q=2 and k={1, 2, 3, 5}. During the training process, x i and z i are used to compute the weights w kq 61 . The weights are obtained using a gradient descent algorithm like the LMS (least-mean-squares) algorithm. In one embodiment of the algorithm that uses LMS, the weights are obtained in an iterative manner as follows: [0000] w kq ( n+ 1)= w kq ( n )+μ k z i ( n−q )| z i ( n−q )| k−1 ( x i ( n )−Σ k Σ k w kq ( n ) kq ( n ) z i ( n−q )| z i ( n−q )| k−1 ), [0000] where μ k represents the step size that is used to adapt the coefficients corresponding to the kth harmonic viz., w kq , q=0, 2, . . . , Q−1. [0060] In one embodiment of the algorithm, every harmonic branch uses a different step size for faster convergence. Once the weights w kq are determined, the inverse non-linearity function is fully defined, and it can be used for non-linear pre-compensation on the transmit path. [0061] A transceiver employing the transmission suppression method described above may be used by a communication signal repeater to reduce forwarding delay and enhance network throughput. An exemplary repeater application in a PLC network is depicted in FIG. 8 . The PLC network 800 includes a head end 810 and several stations (e.g. 811 , 812 , 813 , 814 , 815 , 816 , 817 , and 818 ) operating repeaters and positioned on poles spaced along the power line 820 such that only adjacent stations are within reception range of each other. The repeaters include transceivers with the transmission suppression capabilities described above. In the example scenario the head end 810 has data to transmit to station 815 . Head end 810 first partitions the data into one or more CSMA-CA frames and sets the destination field for the frame or frames to the address for station 815 . Head end 810 may also set the value of a control field in the frame header to indicate that immediate forwarding is enabled. [0062] When head end 810 detects that the medium is idle, it transmits the first frame on the power line 820 using a PHY layer protocol such as, for example, OFDM. The repeater at station 811 begins reception of the frame and checks the destination address. Because station 811 is not the destination and the immediate forwarding is enabled, the repeater begins copying the incoming frame and commences retransmission of the frame before reception of the frame is complete. As it retransmits the frame, station 811 may clear the immediate forwarding control field to indicate that immediate forwarding for the next hop is disabled. Head end 810 is still transmitting the first frame and ignores the retransmission. Station 812 then begins reception of the retransmitted frame and engages its own repeater. Because the immediate forwarding is disabled, station 812 stores the frame until reception is complete and then commences retransmission of the frame. As it retransmits the frame, station 812 may set the immediate forwarding control field to indicate that immediate forwarding for the next hop is enabled. This process of reception and retransmission continues at each repeater 813 and 814 down the power line 820 until station 815 receives the retransmission of the frame from the repeater at station 814 . Station 815 checks the destination address for the frame and determines that it is the final destination of the frame. Thus station 815 does not retransmit the frame, completes reception and decode of the frame so the payload may be passed up for higher network layer stack processing at station 815 . [0063] After head end 810 completes transmission of the first frame it will wait a length of time sufficient allow retransmission of the first frame by a non-adjacent station, in this case station 812 , or until an acknowledgment for the first frame is received. Head end 810 will then attempt to contend for the medium 820 in order to transmit the next remaining frame if any. The entire process will be repeated until all frames have been sent from head end 810 and received by destination station 815 . [0064] The amount of time the head end 810 must wait after completion of its transmission of the first frame to start transmission of the next frame is reduced compared to a system that stores the entire frame before commencing retransmission from the repeater at station 811 , because a substantial portion of the frame may be retransmitted prior to completion of the first transmission. Thus head end 810 is able to transmit a sequence of frames faster and a higher network throughput is achieved by reusing the bandwidth on the medium 820 for simultaneous forwarding. The system may also achieve a higher data rate than a comparable system using non-overlapping frequency bands for the transmission and retransmission of a forwarded frame, because more of the usable bandwidth on the medium 820 may be used for each transmission. [0065] Repeaters employing transmission suppression may reuse bandwidth used by an incoming transmission for concurrent retransmission as long as the destination node (e.g. the next repeater in the repeater chain or the ultimate destination node) is sufficiently remote from the source node (e.g. the previous repeater in the chain or the ultimate source node). If the source node is sufficiently remote from the destination node then interference from the incoming transmission will be small enough to allow reliable reception of the retransmission at the destination node. In this manner forwarding delay is reduced relative to a store and forward repeater scheme while data rates and network throughput may be kept high by efficiently reusing some or all available bandwidth on the medium. [0066] Any processes described herein and their various modifications (hereinafter “the processes”), are not limited to the hardware and software described above. All or part of the processes can be implemented, at least in part, via a computer program product, e.g., a computer program tangibly embodied in an information carrier, such as one or more machine-readable media or a propagated signal, for execution by, or to control the operation of, one or more data processing apparatus, e.g., a programmable processor, a computer, multiple computers, and/or programmable logic components. [0067] A computer program can be written in any form of programming language, including compiled or interpreted languages, and it can be deployed in any form, including as a stand-alone program or as a module, component, subroutine, or other unit suitable for use in a computing environment. [0068] Actions associated with implementing all or part of the processes can be performed by one or more programmable processors executing one or more computer programs to perform the functions of the calibration process. All or part of the processes can be implemented as, special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) and/or an ASIC (application-specific integrated circuit). [0069] Processors suitable for the execution of a computer program include, by way of example, both general and special purpose microprocessors, and any one or more processors of any kind of digital computer. Generally, a processor will receive instructions and data from a read-only memory or a random access memory or both. Components of a computer include a processor for executing instructions and one or more memory devices for storing instructions and data. [0070] Components of different embodiments described herein may be combined to form other embodiments not specifically set forth above. Other embodiments not specifically described herein are also within the scope of the following claims.

A transmission suppression apparatus includes a first modulator that converts a symbol to a waveform. The apparatus further includes a first non-linear filter, configured to at least partially compensate for non-linear distortions of a transmission signal path. The apparatus further includes a first medium coupling device for coupling signals to a communication medium. The apparatus further includes a second medium coupling device for coupling signals from the communication medium. The apparatus further includes summing circuitry with a first input connected to an output of the second medium coupling device. The apparatus further includes cancellation circuitry, connected to a second input of the summing circuit, that converts the symbol to an analog waveform that is substantially 180 degrees out of phase with the analog waveform encoding the symbol on the first input to the summing circuit.

RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation, under 35 U.S.C. §120, of International Patent Application No. PCT/ZA02/00086, filed on May 24, 2002, under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), which was published by the International Bureau in English on Nov. 13, 2003, which designates the United States, and which claims the benefit of South African Patent Application No. 2002/3429, filed Apr. 30, 2002. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] This invention relates to a method for reducing the toxicity of a mixture of hydrocarbons by means of fractional distillation, a distillate having a reduced toxicity and a composition including the distillate. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Refined crude or synthetic oils or, compositions which include refined crude or synthetic oils, released into the environment are toxic and/or detrimental to the environment and are often used in industry with negative effects to the environment, for example, drilling fluids (sometimes called muds) used in offshore oil and gas production and exploration. Drilling fluids are used to lubricate the drill bit and to carry the debris, such as drill cuttings, up to the surface for disposal. The debris is normally separated from the drilling fluids, however, the debris retain a layer of the drilling fluid. The oil covered debris resulting from such well boring operations need to be shipped to land for safe disposal or, if it were to be discharged onto the seabed or overboard into the sea, it needs to comply with strict environmental impact restrictions. Due to the high expense of shipping and disposing of the mud drilling compositions, a need exists to use drilling fluid which can be discharged onto the seabed or overboard and which complies with the strict environmental impact restrictions. One such requirement is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) LC 50 requirement of more than 30 000 result in a Mysid shrimp ( Mysidopsis Bahia ) bioassay prescribed in 1984 EPA-600/3-84-067. Generally, the Mysid shrimp bioassay measures the toxicity of the water column in which the shrimps live. Recently it became apparent that not only is the toxicity of the water column relevant, but even more so is the toxicity of the seabed sediment, onto which discharged debris settle after it has been discharged overboard. Therefore, more relevant for drilling fluids used where the debris is to be discharged overboard, is the requirement that oils used for the manufacture of such drilling fluids pass a stringent ten day marine amphipod ( Leptocheirus plumulosus ) acute sediment toxicity test in accordance with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Guideline E 1367, EPA 600/R-94/025, which tests the toxicity of the actual marine sediment. This test is especially relevant to all offshore drilling platforms since the discharge of toxic drilling mud compositions from a drilling platform onto the seabed would have a significant negative environmental impact on the seabed. [0004] In this specification, the hydrocarbons will be understood to be a collective term for molecules comprising carbon and hydrogen only and include non cyclic saturated hydrocarbons referred to as “paraffins”, unsaturated hydrocarbons referred to as “olefins”, cyclic hydrocarbons referred to as “cycloparaffins” and aromatic hydrocarbons referred to as “aromatics”. Straight chain paraffins will be referred to as n-paraffins and branched paraffins referred to as iso-paraffins. Synthetic hydrocarbons will be understood to mean any hydrocarbons derived from a chemical process in which a chemical reaction takes place, as opposed to natural hydrocarbons, which is refined or distilled from crude oil. [0005] Natural hydrocarbons, which are refined or distilled from crude oil are normally contaminated with high levels aromatics and are relatively toxic to marine life, making these drilling fluids that contain “natural” crude hydrocarbons environmentally unacceptable. High levels of n-paraffins in these fluids would have poor cold flow characteristics limiting their application in cold environments due to formation of waxy deposits. [0006] The process for the preparation and use of plant or vegetable oil based environmentally friendly drilling fluid has been described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,631,136. [0007] The use of synthetic hydrocarbons became popular due to their low aromatic content and availability. Several patents described the use of synthetic hydrocarbons for drilling fluids. U.S. Pat. No. 5,096,883 discloses the use of C 18 to C 40 hydrocarbons derived from dimerised 1-decene which is esterified. The good biodegradability of esters is well known, but esters are hydrolytically unstable. U.S. Pat. No. 5,589,442 discloses the use of non alpha, linear internal C 14 to C 18 olefins obtained by an alpha olefin isomerisation process. U.S. Pat. No. 5,569,642 discloses the use of a preferable C 14 to C 20 blend of n-paraffins and iso-paraffins. This patent also teaches that iso-paraffins having up to 40 carbon atoms per molecule are liquids over the temperature range of interest for drilling fluids, whereas, n-paraffins having more than about 16 to 23 carbon atoms per molecule are waxy solids. This is important with regard to the viscosity and rheology of drilling fluids. Similarly, U.S. Pat. No. 5,866,748 discloses the use of a mixture of C 8 to C 20 n-paraffins and iso-paraffins derived from hydro isomerisation of C8 to C 20 n-paraffins. U.S. Pat. No. 6,096,690 discloses, by way of example, the use of a mixture of C 13 to C 18 n-paraffins and iso-paraffins derived from hydro cracking of Fisher Tropsch waxes. This patent further claims that mono methyl iso-paraffins are less toxic than more branched iso-paraffins. U.S. Pat. No. 5,498,596 discloses the use of a mixture of C 10 to C 18 paraffins from mineral oils and poly(alpha olefins) derived from the dimer of decene. U.S. Pat. No. 5,189,012 and a related U.S. Registered Statutory Invention No. H1000 discloses the use of branched chain oligomers and unhydrogenated synthetic hydrocarbon compositions of C 9 to C 71 synthesized from oligomerization of C 2 to C 14 olefins. U.S. Pat. No. 5,635,457 discloses, in one embodiment, the use of a hydrocarbon mixture of which at least 95% has 11 or more carbon atoms and, in another embodiment, at least 95% has 10 or more carbon atoms. [0008] Each of the above patents utilised a water column toxicity bioassay. All, except U.S. Pat. No. 5,498,596 which used a marine Copepod bioassay, used the Mysid shrimp bioassay. [0009] The applicant has found that, for the ( Leptocheirus plumulosus ) acute sediment toxicity test, the toxicity rapidly decreases for a distillation fraction of hydrocarbons the higher its boiling point above about 270° C. A trend in toxicity reduction was noted for toxicity as the boiling range of the fluid increased. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] According to a first aspect of the invention there is provided a method for reducing the sediment toxicity of a composition which includes a mixture of hydrocarbons, the mixture including hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 270° C. and below about 340° C., the method including the steps of fractional distilling of the composition; and collecting a fraction of hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 270° C. and below about 340° C. [0011] It will be appreciated that the average molecular weight of the hydrocarbons of such collected fractions will depend on its isomeric content. In general, the more branched the hydrocarbons the higher its average molecular weight for a certain boiling point. [0012] The sediment toxicity may be towards ( Leptocheirus plumulosus ) and the fraction of hydrocarbons may have a median lethal concentration (LC 50 ), in accordance with ASTM Guideline E 1367, EPA 600/R-94/025, of more than about 500 mg/kg and a Sediment Toxicity Ratio (STR) of greater than about 1. [0013] The mixture of hydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 280° C. and a fraction of hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 280° C., a median lethal concentration (LC 50 ), in accordance with ASTM Guideline E 1367, EPA 600/R-94/025, of more than about 2000 mg/kg and a STR of about 1 or less, may be collected. [0014] The mixture of hydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 290° C. and a fraction of hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 290° C., a median lethal concentration (LC 50 ), in accordance with ASTM Guideline E 1367, EPA 600/R-94/025, of more than about 2000 mg/kg and a STR of about 1 or less, may be collected. [0015] The mixture of hydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 300° C. and a fraction of hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 300° C., a median lethal concentration (LC 50 ), in accordance with ASTM Guideline E 1367, EPA 600/R-94/025, of more than about 2000 mg/kg and a STR of about 1 or less, may be collected. [0016] The mixture of hydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 310° C. and a fraction of hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 310° C., a median lethal concentration (LC 50 ), in accordance with ASTM Guideline E 1367, EPA 600/R-94/025, of more than about 2000 mg/kg and a STR of about 1 or less, may be collected. [0017] The mixture of hydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 320° C. and a fraction of hydrocarbons having a boiling point above about 320° C., a median lethal concentration (LC 50 ), in accordance with ASTM Guideline E 1367, EPA 600/R-94/025, of more than about 15000 mg/kg and a STR of about 1 or less, may be collected. [0018] The composition may include isoparaffins and/or n-paraffins. [0019] The composition may include aromatic hydrocarbons of up to about 0.1% maximum, preferably none. [0020] The toxicity of the composition may be reduced for use in base oils and drilling fluids, or drilling mud compositions useful in the exploration for, and/or production of oil and gas. [0021] The composition may be natural hydrocarbons selected from low aromatic crude derived diesels, mineral oils, hydrocarbons and/or n-paraffins derived from molecular sieving or extractive distillation processes. [0022] The composition may also be synthetic hydrocarbons selected from a distillate product of an oligomerization of olefins process such as a Conversion of Olefins to Diesel (COD) process (SA Patent 92/0642), or other dimerised or trimerised olefins, which could be further hydrogenated if required. A zeolite type catalyst may catalyse such a conversion of olefins. Also, the composition may be iso-paraffins derived from skeletal isomerisation processes, and hydrocarbons derived from high or low temperature Fisher-Tropsch processes. [0023] According to a second aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for producing a base oil for use in manufacturing of a drilling fluid, the method including the method for reducing the sediment toxicity of a composition as described above. [0024] According to a third aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of manufacturing a drilling fluid, the method including the step of mixing the fraction of hydrocarbons, as described above, with one or more of diluents, synthetic or natural esters, plant oils, thinning agents, viscosifiers, emulsifiers, wetting agents, weighting agents, proppants, fluid loss control agents and/or particulate matter. [0025] According to a fourth aspect of the invention, there is provided the use of a fraction of hydrocarbons, collected from a method as described above, for the manufacture of a base oil and/or a drilling fluid, or a drilling mud composition useful in the exploration for, and production of oil and gas. [0026] According to a fifth aspect of the invention, there is provided a fraction of hydrocarbons, collected from a method as described above, for the manufacture of a base oil and/or a drilling fluid, or a drilling mud composition useful in the exploration for, and production of oil and gas. [0027] The fraction may be a mixture of predominantly iso-paraffins and may have an initial boiling point as tested by ASTM D 86 of about 250° C., preferably at least about 260° C. and more preferably at least about 270° C. and even more preferably at least about 280° C. The fraction may have a final boiling point as tested by ASTM D 86 of between about 300° C. and 340° C., preferably about 330° C. The flash point of the fraction as tested by ASTM D 93 may be at least about 95° C., more typically above about 120° C. and most typically about 130° C. The viscosity of the fraction at 40° C. as measured by ASTM D 445 may fall between about 2 cSt and 5 cSt. The dynamic viscosity of the fraction at 0° C., as tested by the Brookfield Viscometer equipped with a UL adapter may be less than 20 cP, more typically less than 15 cP. Fractions with a Brookfield Viscosity of less than 10 cP at 0° C., 60 rpm may also be typical. The pour point of the fraction may typically be lower than −55° C., more commonly lower than −50° C. and most commonly lower than −40° C. The naphthene content of the fraction may be greater than 5% m/m as measured by 12×12 Mass Spectrometry (MS) analyses. The portion boiling above C 15 may contain a minimum of 60% iso-paraffinic molecules, more preferably more than 70% iso-paraffin's and most preferably more than 80% iso-paraffins. The average molecular mass of the detoxified fluid would be greater that 230. [0028] The fraction may be a mixture of predominantly n-paraffins and may have an initial boiling point as tested by ASTM D 86 of about 250° C., preferably at least about 260° C., more preferably at least about 270° C. and even more preferably at least about 280° C. The fluid may have a final boiling point as tested by ASTM D 86 of between about 300° C. and 340° C., preferably about 330° C. The flash point of this material as tested by ASTM D 93 may be at least about 95° C., more typically above about 120° C. and most typically above about 130° C. The viscosity of the fluid at 40° C. as measured by ASTM D 445 may fall between about 2 cSt and 5 cSt. The pour point of this fluid may typically be lower than about 20° C. It will be appreciated that blends of this fraction with hydrocarbon mixtures having a lower pour point may be required to obtain a more suitable pour point, or solvents may be used where needed. The naphthene content of the well fluid may be greater than 5% m/m as measured by 12×12 MS analyses. The portion boiling above C15 may contain a minimum of 60% n-paraffinic molecules, more preferably more than 70% n-paraffin's and most preferably more than 80% n-paraffins. The average molecular mass of the detoxified fluid would be greater that 230. [0029] According to a sixth aspect of the invention, there is provided a base oil and/or a drilling fluid, or a drilling mud composition useful in the exploration for, and production of oil and gas, the base oil and/or a drilling fluid, or a drilling mud composition including a fraction of hydrocarbons collected from a method as described above. [0030] The drilling fluid may include a fraction of hydrocarbons collected from a method described above, a C 12 -C 20 n-paraffin iso-paraffin mixture and a C 23 ester. The C 12 -C 20 n-paraffin mixture may be a commercially available mixture and could be up to about 30% volume of the drilling fluid and the ester may be up to about 10% volume of the drilling fluid. [0031] The drilling fluid may include up to about 70% of the predominantly iso-paraffinic fraction described above and a portion containing up to about 30% C 11 to C 20 of n-paraffin's and not more than about 9.5% of a plant ester component. The C 11 to C 20 of n-paraffin's may be commercially obtained and may typically be derived from a Fisher-Tropsch process. The drilling fluid may have an initial boiling point as tested by ASTM D 86 of between about 210° C. and 250° C., preferably about 240° C. The drilling fluid has a final boiling point as tested by ASTM D 86 of about 300° C., preferably at least about 310° C., more preferably at least about 320° C. and even more preferably about 330° C. Fluids boiling above 340° C. may also be possible. The flash point of the drilling fluid as tested by ASTM D 93 is at least about 90° C., more typically above about 100° C. and most typically about 110° C. The viscosity of the fluid at 40° C. as measured by ASTM D 445 may fall between about 2 cSt and 5 cSt. The dynamic viscosity at 0° C., as tested by the Brookfield Viscometer equipped with a UL adapter may be less than about 20 cP, more typically less than about 10 cP, even more typically less than about 9 cP and most typically less than about 8 cP. The pour point of the drilling fluid is typically higher than about −20° C., more commonly higher than about −15° C. and most commonly higher than about −10° C. The naphthene content of the drilling fluid may be more than 5% m/m as measured by 12×12 MS analyses. [0032] The portion of the drilling fluid boiling below C 15 may include a minimum of n-paraffin content of at least about 50%, more preferably more than about 60% n-paraffin's and even more preferably more than about 70% n-paraffin's. The portion of the drilling fluid boiling above C 15 may include a minimum of about 50% iso-paraffins, preferably more than about 60% iso-paraffins and more preferably more than about 70% iso-paraffins. The portion of the drilling fluid boiling above C 15 may contain a minimum of 2%-oxygenated molecules. The average molecular mass of the detoxified fluid would be greater than 230. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0033] The invention is now described in more detail and by way of non limiting examples. [0034] In order for a drilling fluid to pass the stringent ten day marine amphipod ( Leptocheirus plumulosus ) acute sediment toxicity test in accordance with ASTM Guideline E 1367, EPA 600/R-94/025, a sample must exhibit a sediment toxicity ratio (STR) of less than or equal to 1.00 in order to pass the test. The STR was calculated using the following equation: LC 50 ⁢   ⁢ of ⁢   ⁢ Reference ⁢   ⁢ Material LC 50 ⁢   ⁢ of ⁢   ⁢ NAF + ( 0.20 × LC 50 ⁢   ⁢ of ⁢   ⁢ Reference ⁢   ⁢ Material ) where LC 50 =median lethal concentration, Reference Material=C 16 -C 18 internal olefin, and NAF=non-aqueous fluid. [0035] The LC 50 value for different samples may vary from one batch to the other of marine organisms tested, Leptocheirus in this case, and an internal standard has therefore been built in i.e. the C 16 -C 18 Internal Olefin. [0036] Table 1 shows a typical sediment toxicity profile of fractions of a zero aromatic containing hydrocarbon mixture derived from a conversion of olefins to diesel process. TABLE 1 Toxicity as LC 50 Ave Molecular Fraction mg/kg STR Weight Full boiling range <1000 2.84 221 Boiling range 200-210° C. 120 4.34 162 Boiling range 210-220° C. 117 4.35 169 Boiling range 220-240° C. 117 4.35 177 Boiling range 240-260° C. 131 4.29 196 Boiling range 260-280° C. 272 3.78 211 Boiling range 280-320° C. 2147 1.41 237 Boiling range above 320° C. 18227 0.22 298 [0037] Table 2 shows a typical sediment toxicity profile of fractions of a low aromatic content hydrocarbon mixture derived from a conversion of olefins to diesel process. TABLE 2 Toxicity as LC 50 Ave Molecular Fraction mg/kg STR Weight Full boiling range <1000 >2 220 Boiling range 220-240° C. 117 4.35 180 Boiling range 240-260° C. 131 4.29 198 Boiling range 260-280° C. 290 3.92 212 Boiling range 280-320° C. 1784 1.61 238 Boiling range above 320° C. 19314 0.21 297 [0038] Table 3 shows a typical sediment toxicity profile of fractions of a synthetic mixture of n-paraffins. TABLE 3 Toxicity as LC 50 Ave Molecular Fraction mg/kg STR Weight Full boiling range <1000 <2 200 Boiling range 220-240° C. <1000 >1.6 166 Boiling range 240-260° C. <1000 >1.6 171 Boiling range 260-280° C. 1299 1.33 183 Boiling range 280-320° C. 4064 0.52 208 [0039] Tables 1 to 3 clearly show a tendency of lower sediment toxicity for higher boiling hydrocarbons with a sharp decline in toxicity at about a boiling point of above about 270° C. [0040] Table 4 gives the characterisation of an example of a typical fraction of predominantly iso-paraffins collected by means of the method for reducing the sediment toxicity of a composition which include a mixture of hydrocarbons, in accordance with the invention. TABLE 4 Properties Units Test method Result Sediment Toxicity Ratio ASTM E 1367 <1.0 Sediment Toxicity mg/kg ASTM E 1367 >8000 Carbon Content % Carbon ASTM D 5291 85.16 Density @ 20° C. kg/L ASTM D 4052 0.8084 Flash point (PMcc) ° C. ASTM D 93 132.5 Aromatic content % m/m UOP 495 0.06 Total Sulphur ppm m/m ASTM D 3120 <0.30 Kinematic viscosity cSt ASTM D 445 4.565 @ 40° C. Kinematic viscosity cSt ASTM D 445 1.510 @ 100° C. Refractive Index ASTM D 1218 1.44726 Pour point ° C. ASTM D 97 <−51 Distillation ASTM D 86 Initial boiling point ° C. 275 Final boiling point ° C. 317 Average Molecular Mass 235 [0041] Table 5 gives the characterisation of an example of a typical fraction of predominantly n-paraffins collected by means of the method for reducing the sediment toxicity of a composition which include a mixture of hydrocarbons, in accordance with the invention. TABLE 5 Properties Units Test method Result Sediment Toxicity Ratio ASTM E 1367 <1.0 Sediment Toxicity mg/kg ASTM E 1367 >3000 Carbon Content % Carbon ASTM D 5291 84.74 Density @ 20° C. kg/L ASTM D 4052 0.7759 Flash point (PMcc) ° C. ASTM D 93 136.5 Aromatic content % m/m UOP 495 <0.01 Total Sulphur Ppm m/m ASTM D 3120 <0.10 Kinematic viscosity @ 40° C. cSt ASTM D 445 3.168 Refractive Index ASTM D 1218 1.43583 Pour point ° C. ASTM D 97 15 Distillation ASTM D 86 Initial boiling point ° C. 276 Final boiling point ° C. 310 Average Molecular Mass 232 [0042] Table 6 gives the characterisation of an example of a typical drilling fluid, in accordance with the invention. TABLE 6 Properties Units Test method Result Sediment Toxicity Ratio ASTM E 1367 <1.0 Sediment Toxicity mg/kg ASTM E 1367 >4000 Carbon Content % Carbon ASTM D 5291 84.44 Density @ 20° C. Kg/L ASTM D 4052 0.8980 Flash point (PMcc) ° C. ASTM D 93 110 Aromatic content % m/m UOP 495 0.06 Total Sulphur ppm m/m ASTM D 3120 <0.30 Kinematic viscosity @ 40° C. cSt ASTM D 445 3.470 Dynamic viscosity @ 0° C. cSt Brookfield 8.60 Pour point ° C. ASTM D 97 −19 Distillation ASTM D 86 Initial boiling point ° C. 244 Final boiling point ° C. 329 Average Molecular Mass 229 [0043] The applicant believes that the invention provides a flexible method for detoxifying hydrocarbons, which may be used in a variety of environmentally exposed applications. The invention also allows the rheology and other characteristics of such detoxified fractions, as described, to be manipulated for use in specific applications.

This invention relates to a method for reducing the toxicity of a mixture of hydrocarbons by means of fractional distillation, a distillate having a reduced toxicity and a composition including the distillate.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to an NFC smart sign that can prevent damage to an NFC tag and allow an NFC tag to be easily replaced when the information in the NFC tag is required to be changed and supplemented. [0003] 2. Description of the Related Art [0004] In general, there are various signs for providing useful information to users in various facilities such as an amusement park, an arboretum, a museum, and a public place. For example, a user may need information about rides in an amusement park, information about exhibits in a museum, and information such as the names, scientific names, species, and lifespans of trees in an arboretum, so those facilities provide the information simply on signs. [0005] In relation to this subject, for example, as shown in FIG. 1 in Korean Patent No. 10-1309378, generally, the information about a tree is shown on a display side 10 a of a sign and the sign is placed in front of or beside the tree. [0006] However, according to the way of showing the information about a tree disclosed in Korean Patent No. 10-1309378, simple letters or images are provided on the display side 10 a , so the amount of the information is limited and sufficient information cannot be provided for users. Further, users have to get close to the sign to read the information. [0007] Furthermore, it is required to replace the entire display side 10 a in order to change the contents on the sign, so it is troublesome and expensive. [0008] The information disclosed in the Background of the Invention section is only for the enhancement of understanding of the background of the invention, and should not be taken as an acknowledgment or as any form of suggestion that this information forms a prior art that would already be known to a person skilled in the art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0009] Accordingly, the present invention has been made keeping in mind the above problems occurring in the related art, and the present invention is intended to allow a user to be actively provided with sufficient information kept in an NFC tag by recognizing an NFC tag in a hole of a wood panel of a sign, using his/her portable terminal, and to keep checking information remaining in the portable terminal even if he/she moves away from the sign. [0010] Further, the present invention is intended to propose an NFC smart sign that can prevent a damage to an NFC tag due to external factors such as rain and wind by shielding the NFC tag from exposure to the outside and that allows the NFC tag to be easily replaced when the information in the NFC tag needs to be changed or supplemented. [0011] In order to achieve the above object, according to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided an NFC smart sign that includes: a wood panel having a display part on a front side and a seat on a rear side; an NFC tag received in the seat and keeping information relating to the display part; and a cover closing the seat with the NFC tag in the seat of the wood panel. [0012] The NFC tag may be detachably attached to a bottom of the seat of the wood panel. [0013] The cover may be formed to correspond to the shape of the seat, received in the seat, and fixed to the wood panel. [0014] A ferrite sheet may be disposed on an inner side of the cover. [0015] The cover may be received in the seat and fixed to the wood panel by bolts or permanent magnets. [0016] A first side of the cover may be hinge-fixed to the rear side of the wood pane at a first side of the seat. [0017] Grooves may be formed at a second side of the bottom of the seat and projections inserted in the grooves may be formed at a second side of the cover. [0018] The thickness between the front side of the wood panel and the bottom of the seat may be 10 mm˜20 mm. [0019] According to the present invention, a user can be actively provided with sufficient information kept in an NFC tag by recognizing an NFC tag in a hole of a wooden panel of a sign, using his/her portable terminal, and can keep checking information remaining in the portable terminal even if he/she moves away from the sign. [0020] Further, it is possible to prevent damage to an NFC tag due to external factors such as rain and wind by shielding the NFC tag from exposure to the outside and to allow the NFC tag to be easily replaced when the information in the NFC tag needs to be changed or supplemented. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0021] The above and other objects, features and other advantages of the present invention will be more clearly understood from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: [0022] FIG. 1 is a perspective view schematically showing an NFC smart sign according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0023] FIG. 2 is a perspective view showing the rear side of the NFC smart sign shown in FIG. 1 ; [0024] FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view of the NFC smart sign shown in FIG. 2 ; [0025] FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view taken along line A-A of FIG. 1 ; [0026] FIG. 5 is a perspective view schematically showing a ferrite sheet attached to the inner side of a cover; [0027] FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view schematically showing a state when the cover with the ferrite sheet is fitted in a groove to which an NFC tag is attached; [0028] FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view schematically showing projections in the groove on a wood panel and grooves on the inner side of the cover; [0029] FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view showing the assembly of the parts shown in FIG. 7 ; [0030] FIG. 9 is a perspective view schematically showing an NFC smart sign according to a second embodiment of the present invention; [0031] FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional view showing the rear side of the NFC smart sign shown in FIG. 9 ; [0032] FIG. 11 is a perspective view schematically showing a cover that is open; and [0033] FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view taken along line B-B of FIG. 10 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0034] Hereinafter, exemplary embodiments of the present invention are described in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. The scope of the present invention is not limited to the following embodiments and the present invention may be modified in various ways by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit of the present invention. [0035] FIG. 1 is a perspective view schematically showing an NFC smart sign according to an embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 2 is a perspective view showing the rear side of the NFC smart sign shown in FIG. 1 , and FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view of the NFC smart sign shown in FIG. 2 . [0036] AN NFC smart sign according to an embodiment of the present invention is made of wood, can be used for various purposes, such as an information sign, a guide sign, and a directional sign, and includes a wood panel 10 , an NFC tag 20 , and a cover 30 , as shown in FIGS. 1 to 3 . [0037] First, as shown in FIGS. 1 to 3 , a display part 110 providing information about an object is provided on the front side of the wood panel 10 and a seat 120 where the NFC tag 20 is disposed is formed on the rear side of the wood panel 10 . [0038] The cover 30 for opening/closing the seat 120 is fastened to the rear side of the wood panel 10 . [0039] An NFC indicator 112 that shows that the NFC tag 20 is in the wood pane 10 may be disposed on the front side of the display 110 . [0040] As shown in FIG. 3 , the NFC tag 20 having information such as identification, explanation, and an URL of an object that is described on the display part 110 is disposed in the seat 120 on the rear side of the wood panel 10 . [0041] The NFC tag 20 can be detachably attached to the bottom of the seat 120 by tape or Velcro having an adhesive layer on the rear side. [0042] In detail, when a user tags the NFC guide 112 on the front side of the display part 110 with a portable terminal, the portable terminal can recognize the identification, explanation, and URL of the object stored in the NFC tag 20 in the seat 120 of the wood panel 10 . [0043] Accordingly, the user can actively obtain sufficient information about the object, using the portable terminal, without getting close to the display part 110 and reading the contents provided on the sign. [0044] The portable terminal may be a terminal having an exclusive application and a communication function, including a smartphone, a smart pad, and a PDA. [0045] FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view taken along line A-A of FIG. 1 . [0046] Further, as shown in FIGS. 2 to 4 , the cover 30 may be formed in a shape corresponding to the seat 120 to open/close the seat 120 with the NFC tag 20 therein. [0047] The cover 30 can be fixed to the wood panel 10 by bolts 310 or permanent magnets, with the inner side in contact with the bottom of the seat 120 receiving the NFC tag 20 . [0048] In detail, as shown in FIG. 3 , when the cover 30 is fixed to the wood panel 10 by the bolts 310 , bolt holes 320 for fixing the bolts 310 are formed at upper, lower, left, and right sides of the cover 30 . Threaded holes 122 in which the bolts 310 are inserted are formed at upper, lower, left, and right sides in the seat 120 to correspond to the bolt holes 320 of the cover 30 . [0049] Further, though not shown in the figures, when the cover 30 is fixed to the wood panel 10 by permanent magnets, permanent magnets may be disposed at upper, lower, left, and right sides in the cover 30 . Magnetic bodies such as a magnet or metal having a polarity opposite to the permanent magnets may be disposed at upper, lower, left, and right sides of the bottom of the seat 120 to correspond to the permanent magnets in the cover 30 . [0050] As described above, since the cover 30 is fixed to the wood panel 10 by the bolts 310 or permanent magnets, a manager can easily open/close the cover 30 to replace the NFC tag 20 . Further, when it is required to change the information about the object described on the display part 110 , it is possible to easily replace the NFC tag 20 in the seat 120 after opening the cover 30 . [0051] Further, as shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 , since the seat 120 is closed by the cover 30 with the NFC tag 20 therein, the NFC tag 20 is not exposed outside the wood panel 10 , so it is possible to prevent the NFC tag 20 from being damaged by external factors such as rain and wind. [0052] In particular, in order to smoothly perform the communication function of the NFC tag 20 in the seat 120 and prevent the wood panel 10 from being damaged, the thickness (T in FIG. 4 ) between the front side of the wood panel 10 and the bottom of the seat 120 may be 10 mm˜20 mm. [0053] When the thickness between the front side of the wood panel 10 and the bottom of the seat 120 exceeds 20 mm, the portion between the front side of the wood panel 10 and the bottom of the seat 120 is too thick, so a communication malfunction may be generated while the portable terminal of a user recognizes the NFC tag 20 , and an interrogation rate may decrease, so smooth communication cannot be made. [0054] When the thickness between the front side of the wood panel 10 and the bottom of the seat 120 is less than 10 mm, the portion between the front side of the wood panel 10 and the bottom of the seat 120 is too thin, so the wood panel 10 may be easily broken. [0055] FIG. 5 is a perspective view schematically showing a ferrite sheet attached to the inner side of a cover and FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view schematically showing a state when the cover with the ferrite sheet is fitted in a groove to which an NFC tag is attached. [0056] Since the NFC technology is for local communication, when there is an obstacle, it means the available communication range decreases. [0057] In order to remove this problem, as shown in FIGS. 5 and 6 , a ferrite sheet 40 may be attached to the inner side of the cover 30 . [0058] By the ferrite sheet 40 , it is possible to increase the available communication range by maintaining electron bonding between the NFC tag 20 and the portable terminal of a user, so it is possible to increase reliability and stability of NFC. [0059] As shown in FIG. 6 , when the cover 30 with the ferrite sheet 40 is fixed to the seat 120 , the NFC tag 20 on the bottom of the seat 120 and the ferrite sheet 40 can be bonded and fixed. Accordingly, the ferrite sheet 40 supplements the communication range of the NFC tag 20 , so NFC can be amplified. [0060] In particular, when it is required to replace the NFC tag 20 in order to correct or supplement the information in the NFC tag 20 , it is possible to replace only the NFC tag 20 without replacing both of the NFC tag 20 and the ferrite sheet, so replacement is easy and the replacement cost is reduced. [0061] FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view schematically showing projections in the groove on a wood panel and grooves on the inner side of the cover and FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view showing the assembly of the parts shown in FIG. 7 . [0062] Next, as shown in FIGS. 7 and 8 , projections 130 may be formed on the bottom of the seat 120 and grooves 330 in which the projections 130 are inserted may be formed on the inner side of the cover 30 . [0063] In detail, as shown in FIG. 7 , the projections 130 may protrude at a predetermined distance away from the seat 120 from the bottom of the seat 120 in a rectangular shape, with the NFC tag 20 on the bottom of the seat 120 . [0064] The grooves 330 may be formed at a predetermined depth in the inner side of the cover 30 in a shape corresponding to the shape made by the projections 130 . [0065] In particular, as shown in FIG. 8 , the projections 130 in the seat 120 may be inserted in the grooves 330 of the cover 30 . [0066] Accordingly, it is possible to prevent water from flowing into the gap, which is formed when the cover 30 is fixed to the seat 120 , so it is possible to prevent the NFC tag 20 and the ferrite sheet 40 from being damaged by water and the cover 30 can be more firmly fixed to the seat 120 . [0067] FIG. 9 is a perspective view schematically showing an NFC smart sign according to a second embodiment of the present invention and FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional view showing the rear side of the NFC smart sign shown in FIG. 9 . [0068] An NFC smart signal according to a second embodiment of the present invention is the same as that of the previous embodiment, but in which, as shown in FIG. 9 , the NFC guide 112 is formed at a lower portion on the front side of the display part 110 , and as shown in FIG. 10 , the cover 30 is disposed at a side on the rear side of the wood panel 10 . [0069] FIG. 11 is a perspective view schematically showing a cover that is open and FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view taken along line B-B of FIG. 10 . [0070] As shown in FIGS. 10 to 12 , a first side of the cover 30 may be hinge-fixed to the rear side of the wood panel 10 at a first side of the seat 120 and a second side of the cover 30 may be fixed to a side of the wood panel 10 by bolts. [0071] A manager can open the cover 30 by holding the second side of the cover 30 and turning the cover 30 away from the wood panel 10 . [0072] In detail, as shown in FIG. 11 , a plurality of bolt holes 310 for fixing bolts may be formed at the second side of the cover 30 and threaded holes 122 for receiving the bolts 310 may be formed at the side of the wood panel 10 to correspond to the bolt holes 310 . [0073] Further, as shown in FIGS. 11 and 12 , grooves 330 may be formed at a second side of the seat 120 and projections 130 that protrude toward the grooves 330 and are inserted in the grooves 330 may be formed at the second side of the cover 30 . [0074] Although the exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been described for illustrative purposes, a person skilled in the art will appreciate that various modifications, additions and substitutions are possible, without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention as disclosed in the accompanying claims.

The present invention relates to an NFC smart sign that can prevent damage to an NFC tag and allows an NFC tag to be easily replaced when the information in the NFC tag is required to be changed or supplemented.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a multilayer silver halide color photographic light-sensitive material. More specifically, it relates to a multilayer silver halide color photographic light-sensitive material which contains a novel combination of couplers and has good color formability, improved color reproducibility, improved image preservability and a good color balance. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In a silver halide color photographic light-sensitive material, a multilayer light-sensitive layer composed of three kinds of silver halide emulsion layers selectively sensitized to blue light, green light and red light is coated on a support. For example, in a so-called color photographic paper, a red-sensitive emulsion layer, a green-sensitive emulsion layer and a blue-sensitive emulsion layer are usually coated on the support in this order from the exposure side, and a color mixing preventing or ultraviolet light absorbing interlayer, a protective layer, etc., are provided among the light-photosensitive layers. In a color positive film, a green-sensitive emulsion layer, a red-sensitive emulsion layer and a blue-sensitive emulsion layer are coated in this order on a support generally from a side far from the support, i.e., from the exposure side. A color negative film has a variety of layer arrangements, but generally, a blue-sensitive emulsion layer, a green-sensitive emulsion layer and a red-sensitive emulsion layer are coated in this order from the exposure side. Some photographic materials having at least two emulsion layers having the same color sensitivity but different sensitivities include an emulsion layer of a different color sensitivity arranged between the first-mentioned emulsion layers with further inclusion of a bleachable yellow filter layer, an interlayer, a protective layer, etc. To form a color photographic image, photographic couplers of three colors, yellow, magenta and cyan are included in light-sensitive layers of a photographic material, and the exposed photographic material is subjected to color development with so-called color developing agents. A coupling reaction of the oxidation product of an aromatic primary amine with the couplers gives colored dyes. The couplers desirably have the highest possible coupling speeds at this time to give high color densities within a limited time period of development. The colored dyes are required to be brilliant cyan, magenta and yellow dyes of little subsidiary absorptions and to give a color photographic image of good color reproducibility. The color photographic image formed, on the other hand, is required to have good preservability under various conditions. To meet this requirement, it is important that the speeds of fading or discoloration of the colored dyes of different hues should be slow, and that the speed of fading should be as uniform as possible over the entire range of image densities to avoid changes in the color balance of the remaining dye image. With conventional photographic materials, particularly conventional color papers, cyan dye images are greatly degraded by fading in the dark under the influences of humidity and heat upon long term storage, and their color balance tends to be varied. Hence, a strong desire exists to improve the cyan dye images in this respect. The conventional photographic materials have a strong contradictory tendency. For example, a cyan dye image resistant to fading in the dark has a poor hue and is susceptible to fading or vanishing under light. Accordingly, a novel combination of couplers has been desired. In an attempt to solve the foregoing problem partly, certain combinations of couplers have heretofore been proposed, and examples thereof are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Publication No. 7344/77, and Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 200037/82, 57238/84 and 160143/84 (the term "OPI" as used herein refers to a "published unexamined Japanese patent application open to public inspection"). These combinations, however, have not been able to entirely remove various defects such as insufficient color formability, poor hues of formed dyes, adverse effects on color reproduction, variations in the color balance of residual dye images owing to degradation by light or heat, or temporary disappearance of cyan under light. The phenomenon of temporary disappearance of cyan is reversibly corrected in the dark to regain the original color, but an improvement is also desired in this regard. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a simultaneous solution of the above problems. Specifically, it is a primary object of this invention to provide a multilayer silver halide color photographic light-sensitive material containing a novel combination of cyan, magenta and yellow couplers which leads to good color formability, improved color reproducibility of the resulting color photographic image, improved image preservability and particularly the freedom from variations in color balance both in the dark and under light exposure over an extended period of time. Another object of this invention is to provide a multilayer silver halide color photographic light-sensitive material with which a temporary reduction in the density of a cyan image under strong light irradiation such as direct sunlight (to be referred to as color disappearance) can be circumvented. The above objects of this invention are achieved by a silver halide color photographic light-sensitive material comprising a support and red-sensitive, green-sensitive and blue-sensitive light-sensitive layers formed on the support, said light-sensitive layers separately containing a coupler represented by the following formula (I), a coupler represented by the following formula (II) or (III), and a coupler represented by the following formula (IV). ##STR2## In general formulae (I), (II), (III) and (IV): R 1 represents a substituted or unsubstituted divalent aliphatic group, R 2 represents a phenyl group substituted by at least one cyano group, or a phenyl group substituted by at least one chlorine aton at the ortho-position, R 3 represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, or a substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or alkoxy group, n represents an integer of 1 to 5, and when n is 2 or more, the R 3 substituents are identical or different, R 4 and R 5 each represents a substituted or unsubstituted phenyl group, R 6 represents a hydrogen atom, an acyl group or an aliphatic or aromatic sulfonyl group, R 7 represents a hydrogen atom or a substituent, R 8 represents a substituted or unsubstituted N-phenylcarbamoyl group, Z a , Z b and Z c each represents methine, substituted methine, ═N-- or --NH--, Y 1 , Y 2 , Y 3 and Y 4 each represents a hydrogen atom or a group which can be split off during the coupling reaction with the oxidation product of a developing agent, a dimer or a polymer may be formed by R 2 , R 3 or Y 1 ; R 4 , R 5 or Y 2 ; R 7 , Y 3 or Z a , Z b or Z c which is substituted methine; or R 8 or Y 4 , and the aliphatic group above is linear, branched or cyclic, and saturated or unsaturated. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In formula (I), the divalent aliphatic group for R 1 may be linear or cyclic and saturated or unsaturated, and preferably has 1 to 32 carbon atoms. Typical examples are methylene, 1,3-propylene, 1,4-butylene and 1,4-cyclohexylene groups. The divalent aliphatic group may be branched by being substituted by another aliphatic group, or contain at least one substituent group (including substituent atom; this is the same for the following description) exemplified below. Examples of substituents for R 1 in this invention include aromatic groups (such as phenyl and naphthyl groups), heterocyclic groups (such as 2-pyridyl, 2-imidazolyl, 2-furyl and 6-quinolyl groups), aliphatic oxy groups (such as methoxy, 2-methoxyethoxy and 2-propenyloxy groups), aromatic oxy groups (such as 2,4-di-tert-amylphenoxy, 4-cyanophenoxy and 2-chlorophenoxy groups), acyl groups (such as acetyl and benzoyl groups), ester groups (such as butoxycarbonyl, phenoxycarbonyl, acetoxy, benzoyloxy, butoxysulfonyl and toluenesulfonyloxy groups), amido groups (such as acetylamino, methanesulfonamido, ethylcarbamoyl and butylsulfamoyl groups), imido groups (such as succinimido and hydantoinyl groups), ureido groups (such as phenylureido and dimethylureido groups), aliphatic or aromatic sulfonyl groups (such as methanesulfonyl and phenylsulfonyl groups), aliphatic or aromatic thio groups (such as phenylthio and ethylthio groups), a hydroxyl group, a cyano group, a carboxyl group, a nitro group, a sulfone group, and a halogen atom (such as fluorine, chlorine and bromine atoms). Where there are two or more substituents, they may be identical or different. R 2 represents a phenyl group which is substituted at least by a cyano group, or which is substituted by a chlorine atom at the ortho-position. The phenyl group may also be substituted by the substituents described above for the substitution of R 1 . The alkyl or alkoxy group for R 3 may be linear, branched or cyclic, and preferably has 1 to 22 carbon atoms. Examples of the halogen atom for R 3 are a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a bromine atom, and an iodine atom. It may be substituted by the substituents described for R 1 . Examples of the alkyl group are methyl, ethyl, n-butyl, tert-butyl, hexadecyl and cyclohexyl groups, and examples of the alkoxy group are the above exemplified alkyl groups to which an oxygen atom is attached. R 1 and aliphatic groups to be described below include unsaturated aliphatic groups, for example, alkenyl groups (such as propenyl and 2-octadecenyl groups) and alkynyl groups (such as a propargyl group). When Y 1 , Y 2 , Y 3 or Y 4 in formula (I), (II), (III) or (IV) represents a group to be split off upon coupling (to be referred to as a "split-off group"), it is a group which bonds an aliphatic group, an aromatic group, a heterocyclic group, an aliphatic, aromatic or heterocyclic sulfonyl group, or an aliphatic, aromatic or heterocyclic carbonyl group to the coupling active carbon through an oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur or carbon atom; a halogen atom; an aromatic azo group; etc. The aliphatic, aromatic or heterocyclic groups included in these split-off groups may be substituted by the substituents described above for R 1 . When there are two or more such substituents, they may be the same or different. These substituents may further have the substituents described for R 1 . Specific examples of the split-off groups include halogen atoms (such as fluorine, chlorine and bromine atoms), alkoxy groups (such as ethoxy, dodecyloxy, methoxyethylcarbamoylmethoxy, carboxypropyloxy and methylsulfonylethoxy groups), aryloxy groups (such as 4-chlorophenoxy, 4-methoxyphenoxy and 4-carboxyphenoxy groups), acyloxy groups (such as acetoxy, tetradecanoyloxy) and benzoyloxy groups), aliphatic or aromatic sulfonyloxy groups (such as methanesulfonyloxy and toluenesulfonyloxy groups), acylamino groups (such as dichloroacetylamino and heptafluorobutyrylamino groups), aliphatic or aromatic sulfonamido groups (such as methanesulfonamino and p-toluenesulfonylamino groups), alkoxycarbonyloxy groups (such as ethoxycarbonyloxy and benzyloxycarbonyloxy groups), aryloxycarbonyloxy groups (such as a phenoxycarbonyloxy group), aliphatic, aromatic or heterocyclic thio groups (such as ethylthio, phenylthio and tetrazoylthio groups), carbamoylamino groups (such as N-methylcarbamoylamino and N-phenylcarbamoylamino groups), 5- or 6-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclic groups (such as imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl and 1,2-dihydro-2-oxo-1-pyridyl groups), imido groups (such as succinimido and hydantoinyl groups), and aromatic azo groups (such as a phenylazo group). These groups may be substituted by the substituents described for R 1 . As an example of a split-off group bonded through a carbon atom, there is a bis-type coupler obtained by condensing a 4-equivalent coupler with an aldehyde or ketone. The split-off groups in accordance with this invention may include photographically useful groups such as a development inhibitor or a development accelerator. Preferred combinations of the split-off groups in each of the above formulae will be described later in this specification. Advantageously, in formula (I), R 1 is a linear or branched alkylene group preferably having 1 to 22 carbon atoms, more preferably 5 to 16 carbon atoms. In formula (I), the substituent of the phenyl group for R 2 is preferably a chlorine atom or an alkyl group, more preferably a branched alkyl group with 3 to 12 carbon atoms. The split-off group Y 1 is preferably a hydrogen atom or a halogen atom, especially preferably a chlorine atom. In formula (I), it is preferred that at least one R 3 other than hydrogen is substituted at a position ortho to --NHCO--. A most preferred coupler represented by formula (I) according to this invention comprises the coupler, wherein R 1 is a branched alkylene group, R 2 is a phenyl group substituted by at least one chlorine atom at the ortho-position, and R 3 is a halogen atom or an alkyl group. It is known in the art that the magenta coupler represented by formula (II) has the following keto-enol type tautomerism when R 6 is a hydrogen atom. ##STR3## In formula (II), substituents for R 4 and R 5 are the same as the substituents described for R 1 . Where there are two or more substituents, they may be the same or different. In formula (II), R 6 is preferably a hydrogen atom, an aliphatic acyl group or an aliphatic sulfonyl group, especially preferably a hydrogen atom. Examples of the aliphatic moiety of the aliphatic acyl group or aliphatic sulfonyl group for R 6 are those as described for R 1 . Y 2 is preferably a coupling split-off group which is connected through a sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen atom to the coupling position. The split-off group which is connected through a sulfur atom is especially preferred. The compound represented by formula (III) is a 5-member-5-member fused nitrogen-containing heterocyclic coupler (to be referred to as a 5,5N-heterocyclic coupler), and its color forming matrix has aromaticity isoelectronic with naphthalene and is of a chemical structure usually called azapentalene generically. Of the couplers of formula (III), preferred are 1H-imidazo[1,2-b]pyrazoles, 1H-pyrazolo[1,5-b]pyrazoles, 1H-pyrazolo[5,1-c][1,2,4]triazoles, 1H-pyrazolo[1,5-b][1,2,4]triazoles and 1H-pyrazolo[1,5-d]tetrazoles, which are represented respectively by the following formulae (V), (VI), (VII), (VIII) and (IX). ##STR4## The substituents in formulae (V) to (IX) will be described in detail. R 11 , R 12 and R 13 each represents an aliphatic, aromatic or heterocyclic group which may be substituted by at least one of the substituents described for R 1 (the above group of the substituents will be referred to as R). R 11 , R 12 and R 13 may also be RO--, ##STR5## a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, a cyano group, or an imido group. R 11 , R 12 and R 13 may further be a carbamoyl, sulfamoyl, ureido or sulfamoylamino group, and the nitrogen atoms of these groups may be substituted by the substituents described for R 1 . X is the same as Y 3 . Either one of R 11 , R 12 , R 13 and X may be a divalent group and form a dimer, or may be a divalent group linking the main chain of the polymer with the chromophore of the coupler. Preferably, R 11 , R 12 and R 13 each represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, a substituent defined by R, RO--, RCONH--, RSO 2 NH--, RNH--, RS-- or ROCONH. X is preferably a halogen atom, an acylamino group, an imido group, an aliphatic or aromatic sulfonamido group, a 5- or 6-membered nitrogen-containing heterocyclic group to be joined to the active site of coupling through the nitrogen, an aryloxy group or an alkoxy group. In the above, R preferably represents a substituted or unsubstituted aliphatic, aromatic or heterocyclic group. In formula (IV), the substituent on the phenyl group of the N-phenylcarbamoyl group R 8 may be selected from the group of the substituents described for R 1 . Where there are two or more substituents, they may be the same or different. A preferred example of R 8 is represented by the following formula (IV-A). ##STR6## In formula (IV-A), G 1 represents a halogen atom or an alkoxy group; G 2 represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom or an alkoxy group which may optionally have a substituent; and R 14 represents an alkyl group which may optionally contain a substituent. The substituents for G 2 and R 14 in formula (IV-A) typically include, for example, alkyl groups, alkoxy groups, aryl groups, aryloxy groups, amino groups, dialkylamino groups, heterocyclic groups (such as N-morpholino, N-piperidino and 2-furyl groups), halogen atoms, nitro groups, hydroxyl groups, carboxyl groups, sulfo groups, and alkoxycarbonyl groups. Preferred split-off groups Y 4 include groups represented by the following formulae (X) to (XVI). ##STR7## wherein R 20 represents an aryl or heterocyclic group which may be substituted. ##STR8## In formulae (XI) and (XII), each of R 21 and R 22 represents a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, a carboxylic acid ester group, an amino group, an alkyl group, an alkylthio group, an alkoxy group, an alkylsulfonyl group, an alkylsulfinyl group, a carboxylic acid group, a sulfonic acid group, or a substituted or unsubstituted phenyl or heterocyclic group. R 21 and R 22 may be identical or different. ##STR9## wherein W 1 represents a non-metallic atomic group required to form a 4-, 5- or 6-membered ring together with ##STR10## in the formula. Specifically, W 1 is an atom selected from the group consisting of carbon, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. As the ring formed, 5- or 6-membered rings are preferred, and examples include N-phthalimidyl, N-succinimidyl, N-maleimidyl, N-glutarimidyl, 1,2-cyclohexanedicarboximid-N-yl, 1-cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboximid-N-yl, 3-cyclohexene-1,2-dicarboximid-N-yl, malonimid-N-yl, hydantoin-N-yl, 2,5-oxazolidinedion-N-yl, tetrahydro-1,4-oxazin-3,5-dion-4-yl, thiazolidin-2,4-dion-3-yl, and 1,2,4-triazolidin-3,5-dion-4-yl, which may have substituents on the atoms which can be substituted. Among the groups of formula (XIII), preferred are those of the following formulae (XIV) to (XVI). ##STR11## In the above formulae (XIV) to (XVI), each of R 23 and R 24 represents a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group, an aryl group, an alkoxy group, an aryloxy group or a hydroxyl group; each of R 25 , R 26 and R 27 represents a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group, an aryl group, an aralkyl group or an acyl group; and W 2 represents an oxygen or sulfur atom. Some literature references which describe other examples of the couplers represented by formulae (I) to (IX) or methods of their synthesis are cited below. The compounds of formula (I) are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) No. 80045/81. The compounds of formula (II) are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 111631/74 and 126833/81 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,351,897. The compounds of formula (IV) are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) No. 48541/79, Japanese Patent Publication No. 10739/83, U.S. Pat. No. 4,326,024, and Research Disclosure, 18053. The compounds of formula (V) are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) No. 162548/84. The compounds of formula (VI) are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Application No. 151354/83. The compounds of formula (VII) are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Publication No. 27411/72. The compounds of formula (VIII) are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) No. 171956/84 and Japanese Patent Application No. 27745/84. The compounds of formula (IX) are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Application No. 142801/83. The highly color forming ballast groups described, for example, in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 42045/83, 214854/84, 177553/84, 177554/84, and 177557/84 can be linked to any of the compounds of formulae (I) to (IX). Since the 5,5N-heterocyclic couplers of formula (III) give a magenta dye with small amounts of unwanted yellow subsidiary absorption components by coupling with the oxidation product of a color developing agent as compared with the 5-pyrazolone type couplers of formula (II), they can give color prints which are better in color separation and color reproduction. Previously, a magenta dye which has little yellow subsidiary absorption which has sharply decreasing absorptions on the long wavelength side has been desired. The couplers of formula (III) form such a dye. Among the 5,5N-heterocyclic couplers of formulae (V) to (IX), those couplers which give dyes of such particularly favorable hues fall within formulae (V), (VII) and (VIII). The couplers of formulae (V), (VI), (VIII) and (IX) give magenta dyes having higher light fastness than do the couplers of formula (VII). Generally, the 1H-pyrazolo[1,5-b][1,2,4]triazole-type couplers of formula (VIII) are superior in all respects in regard to the spectral absorptions of magenta dyes formed, light and heat fastness characteristics and color fading balance. Specific examples of the compounds of formulae (I), (II) or (III), and (IV) are shown below under the designation of (C-1), (M-1) and (Y-1) and subsequent numbers preceded by C, M and Y, respectively. It should be understood, however, that the invention is in no way limited to these exemplified compounds. ##STR12## A preferred embodiment of this invention is a photographic silver halide light-sensitive material, wherein a blue-sensitive silver halide layer contains at least one coupler represented by formula (IV), a green-sensitive silver halide layer contains at least one coupler represented by formula (II) or (III), and a red-sensitive silver halide layer contains at least one coupler represented by formula (I). The couplers represented by formulae (I), (II) or (III), and (IV) are included in silver halide emulsion layers constituting light-sensitive layers each in an amount of 0.1 to 1.0 mole, preferably 0.1 to 0.5 mole, per mole of silver halide. The mole ratio of the couplers of formulae (I), (II) or (III), and (IV) is in many cases in the range of about 1:0.2-1.5:0.5-1.5. The photographic materials can also be designed outside this range. To add the couplers to the light-sensitive layers in this invention, various known techniques can be applied. Usually, they can be added by a method of dispersing oil droplets in water known as an oil protecting method. For example, the couplers are dissolved in a high boiling organic solvent such as phthalic acid esters (e.g., dibutyl phthalate and dioctyl phthalate), and phosphoric acid esters (e.g., tricresyl phosphate and trinonyl phosphate), or a low boiling organic solvent such as ethyl acetate, and the solution is dispersed in an aqueous solution of gelatin containing a surface active agent. Or it is also possible to add water or an aqueous solution of gelatin to a solution of the coupler containing a surface active agent, thereby forming an oil-in-water dispersion with phase inversion. An alkali-soluble coupler can also be dispersed by the so-called Fischer dispersing method. It is also possible to remove the low boiling organic solvent from the coupler dispersion by distillation, noodle washing, ultrafiltration, etc., and then mixing it with a photographic emulsion. To introduce the yellow coupler, magenta coupler and cyan coupler in accordance with this invention, it is possible to use, as required, high boiling organic solvents having a boiling point of at least 160° C., for example, alkyl phthalates such as dibutyl phthalate and dioctyl phthalate, phosphoric acid esters such as diphenyl phosphate, triphenyl phosphate, tricresyl phosphate and dioctylbutyl phosphate, citrates such as tributyl acetylcitrate, benzoates such as octyl benzoate, alkylamides such as diethyllaurylamide, fatty acid esters such as dibutoxyethyl succinate and dioctyl azelate, and phenols such as 2,4-di-tert-amylphenol, and low boiling organic solvents having a boiling point of 30° to 150° C., for example, lower alkyl acetates such as ethyl acetate and butyl acetate, ethyl propionate, secbutyl alcohol, methyl iosbutyl ketone, β-ethoxyethyl acetate and methyl Cellosolve acetate, either singly or in combination. Two or more couplers may be selected from the group of couplers of the same hue represented by formula (I), (II) or (III), or (IV), and used jointly. The couplers may be jointly emulsified, or they may be separately emulsified and then mixed. An anti-fading agent to be described below may be used as a mixture with the couplers. The coupler of formula (I) may be mixed with other known cyan couplers, but the effect of the present invention is remarkable when the amount of the cyan coupler of the invention is at least 30 mole%, preferably at least 50 mole%, based on the total amount of cyan couplers used in one layer. The phenolic cyan couplers, which have an alkyl group having at least 2 carbon atoms at the 5-position of the phenolic nucleus and which have an --NHCOY group in which Y is an alkaryloxyalkylidene group at the 2- position of the phenolic nucleus, described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,772,002, are preferred as the known cyan couplers to be used jointly. A typical example of such cyan couplers is 4,6-dichloro-5-ethyl-2-(2,4-di-tertamylphenoxypropylidenecarbonylamino)phenol. To achieve the objects of this invention, the weight ratio of the high boiling organic solvent to the yellow coupler of this invention is preferably adjusted to not more than 1.0, particularly 0.1 to 0.8. The amount of the high boiling solvent in the magenta coupler and the cyan coupler is adjusted to an optimum value preferably by considering the solubility, the developability of the photographic material, etc. Usually, the amount of the high boiling organic solvent is set at 10% to 300% based on the weight of the magenta coupler or cyan coupler of the invention. As required, special couplers other than the couplers of the invention represented by the above formulae may be included in the photographic material of this invention. For example, a colored magenta coupler may be included in the green-sensitive emulsion layer to impart a masking effect. A development inhibitor releasing coupler (DIR coupler), hydroquinone capable of releasing a development inhibitor, etc., may be used together in the emulsion layers or layers adjacent thereto. The development inhibitor released from these compounds with the development brings about intra- and interlayer effects such as the increased sharpness of the image, finer grains of the image, and increased monochromatic saturation. By adding a coupler, which releases a development inhibitor or nucleating agent with the progress of silver development, to the photographic emulsion layers or adjacent layers, such effects as increased photographic sensitivity, improvement of the graininess of the color image, and harder gradation can be obtained. In the present invention, an ultraviolet light absorber may be added to any desired layer. Preferably, it is added to the layer containing the compound of formula (I) or an adjacent layer. Examples of the ultraviolet light absorber that can be used in this invention are a group of the compounds listed in VIII, C of Research Disclosure, 17643, preferably the benzotriazole derivatives of the following formula (XVII). ##STR13## In formula (XVII), R 28 , R 29 , R 30 , R 31 and R 32 may be identical or different and each represents a hydrogen atom or an aromatic group which may be substituted by the substituents described for R 1 ; and R 31 and R 32 may be cyclized to form a 5- or 6-membered aromatic ring composed of carbon atoms. Among these groups, those which can be substituted may further have the substituents described for R 1 . The compounds of formula (XVII) may be used singly or in combination. Typical examples of these compounds are shown below as UV-1 to UV-19. ##STR14## The methods of synthesizing the compounds of formula (XVII) or examples of other ultraviolet light absorber compounds are described, for example, in Japanese Patent Publication No. 29620/69, Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 151149/75 and 95233/79, U.S. Pat. No. 3,766,205, European Patent No. 0057160, and Research Disclosure, 22519 (1983, No. 225). The high molecular weight ultraviolet light absorbers described in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 111942/83, 178351/83, 181041/83, 19945/84 and 23344/84. A specific example thereof is given above as UV-20. Low molecular weight and high molecular weight ultraviolet light absorbers may be used jointly. The ultraviolet light absorber is dissolved in high boiling organic solvents and low boiling organic solvents either singly or as a mixture as in the case of the couplers, and dispersed in a hydrophilic colloid. There is no limitation on the amounts of the high boiling organic solvent and the ultraviolet light absorber. Usually, the high boiling organic solvent is used in an amount of 0 to 300% based on the weight of the ultraviolet light absorber. The use of those ultraviolet light absorbers which are liquid at room temperature alone or in combination is preferred. The use of the ultraviolet light absorber of formula (XVII) together with the combination of the couplers in accordance with this invention can lead to an improvement in the preservability of the dye image, particularly the cyan dye image, especially its light fastness. The ultraviolet light absorber and the cyan coupler may be emulsified together. The amount of the ultraviolet light absorber to be coated may be one which is sufficient to imprat light stability to the cyan dye image. If it is used in too large an amount, it may cause yellowing to the unexposed area (white area) of the color photographic material. Usually, therefore, it is adjusted preferably to 1×10 -4 mole/m 2 to 2×10 -3 mole/m 2 , especially 5×10 -4 mole/m 2 to 1.5×10 -3 mole/m 2 . With the light-sensitive layer structure of an ordinary color paper, the ultraviolet light absorber is included in one, preferably both, of two layers adjacent the red-sensitive emulsion layer containing the cyan coupler. When the ultraviolet light absorber is added to an interlayer between the green-sensitive layer and the red-sensitive layer, it may be emulsified together with a color mixing preventing agent. When the ultraviolet light absorber is added to a protective layer, another protective layer may be coated as the outermost layer. This protective layer may contain a matting agent of any desired particle size. To increase the preservability of dye images formed, especially yellow and magenta images, an anti-fading agent, such as various organic compounds and metal complexes, may be used together. Examples of the organic anti-fading agent include hydroquinones, gallic acid derivatives, p-alkoxyphenols, and p-oxyphenols. Dye image stabilizers, stain preventing agents or anti-oxidants that may be used in this invention are disclosed in the patents cited in paragraphs I to J, VII of Research Disclosure, 17643. The anti-fading agents of the metal complex type are described, for example, in Research Disclosure, 15162. To improve the fastness of the yellow image to heat and light, there may be used many compounds which fall within phenols, hydroquinones, hydroxycoumarones, hydroxycoumarans, hindered amines, and their alkyl ethers, silyl ethers or hydrolyzable precursor derivatives. The compounds of the following formulae (XVIII) and (XIX) effectively improve simultaneously the light and heat fastness characteristics of the yellow images obtained from the couplers of formula (IV). ##STR15## In formulae (XVIII) and (XIX), R 40 represents a hydrogen atom, an aliphatic group, an aromatic group, a heterocyclic group or a substituted silyl group of the formula ##STR16## in which R 50 , R 51 and R 52 may be identical or different and each represents an aliphatic group, an aromatic group, an aliphatic oxy group or an aromatic oxy group. These groups may have the substituents described for R 1 . R 41 , R 42 , R 43 , R 44 and R 45 in formula (XVIII) may be identical or different and each represents a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group, an aryl group, an alkoxy group, a hydroxyl group, a mono- or dialkylamino group, an imino group or an acylamino group. In formula (XIX), R 46 , R 47 , R 48 and R 49 may be identical or different and each represents a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group; X represents a hydrogen atom, an aliphatic group, an acyl group, an aliphatic or aromatic sulfonyl group, an aliphatic or aromatic sulfinyl group, an oxy radical or a hydroxyl group; and A represents a non-metallic atomic group required to form a 5-, 6- or 7-membered ring. Specific examples of the compounds of formula (XVIII) or (XIX) are given below without any intention of limitation. ##STR17## The methods of synthesizing the compounds corresponding to formula (XVIII) or (XIX) or examples of other compounds corresponding to these formulae are described in British Patents 1,326,889, 1,354,313 and 1,410,846, U.S. Patents 3,336,135 and 4,268,593, Japanese Patent Publication Nos. 1420/76 and 6623/77 and Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 114036/83 and 5246/84. Two or more compounds of formulae (XVIII) and (XIX) may be used in combination with each other or with previously known anti-fading agents. The amount of the compound of formula (XVIII) or (XIX) differs depending upon the type of the yellow coupler to be used in combination with it. Generally, the desired purpose can be achieved by using it in an amount of 0.5 to 200% by weight, preferably 2 to 150% by weight, based on the yellow coupler. Preferably, this compound is emulsified together with the yellow coupler of formula (IV). The aforesaid various dye image stabilizers, stain preventing agents or antioxidants are also effective in improving the preservability of magenta dye images produced by the couplers of formula (II) or (III) or from (V) to (IX). Groups of compounds represented by the following formulae (XX), (XXI), (XXII), (XXIII), (XXIV) and (XXV) are especially preferred because they greatly improve the light fastness of the aforesaid magenta dye images. ##STR18## In formulae (XX) to (XXV), R 60 is the same as R 40 in formula (XVIII); R 61 , R 62 , R 63 , R 64 and R 65 may be identical or different and each represents a hydrogen atom, an aliphatic group, an aromatic group, an acylamino group, a mono- or dialkylamino group, an aliphatic or aromatic thio group, an acylamino group, an aliphatic or aromatic oxycarbonyl group, or the group --OR 40 ; R 40 and R 61 may be bonded to each other to form a 5- or 6-membered ring; R 61 and R 62 together may form a 5- or 6-membered ring; R 66 and R 67 may be identical or different and each represents a hydrogen atom, an aliphatic group, an aromatic group or a hydroxyl group; R 68 represents a hydrogen atom, an aliphatic group or an aromatic group; R 66 and R 67 may together form a 5- or 6-membered ring; M represents Cu, Co, Ni, Pd or Pt; when the substituents R 61 to R 68 are aliphatic or aromatic groups, they may be substituted by the substituents described for R 1 ; and n represents an integer of from 0 to 6 and m represents an integer of from 0 to 4, and n and m indicate the number of the groups R 62 and R 61 , respectively, and when they are 2 or more, the substituents R 62 or the substituents R 61 may be identical or different. In formula (XXIV), preferred typical examples of X are ##STR19## R 70 herein represents a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group. In formula (XXV), R 61 is preferably a group capable of being attached by hydrogen bonding. Compounds of formula (XXV) in which at least one of R 62 , R 63 and R 64 is a hydrogen atom, a hydroxyl group, an alkyl group or an alkoxy group are preferred. Each of the substituents R 61 to R 68 preferably contains not more than 4 carbon atoms in total. Specific examples of the compounds of formulae (XX) to (XXV) are given below without any intention of limitation. ##STR20## The methods of synthesizing these compounds and examples of other compounds within the above formulae are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,336,135, 3,432,300, 3,573,050, 3,574,627, 3,700,455, 3,764,337, 3,935,016, 3,982,944, 4,254,216 and 4,279,990, British Pat. Nos. 1,347,556, 2,062,888, 2,066,975 and 2,077,455, Japanese Patent Application No. 205278/83, Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 152225/77, 17729/78, 20327/78, 145530/79, 6321/80, 21004/80, 24141/83 and 10539/84 and Japanese Patent Publication Nos. 31625/73 and 12337/79. Of the anti-fading agents used in this invention, the compounds of formulae (XX) to (XXIV) are added in an amount of 10 to 200 mole%, preferably 30 to 100 mole%, based on the magenta coupler in accordance with this invention. On the other hand, the compound of formula (XXV) is added in an amount of 1 to 100 mole%, preferably 5 to 40 mole%, based on the magenta coupler. Preferably, these compounds are emulsified together with the magenta couplers. For preventing fading, Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 11330/74 and 57223/75 disclose techniques of enclosing a dye image with an oxygen-shielding layer composed of a substance having a low oxygen permeability, and Japanese Patent Application (OPI) No. 85747/81 discloses the provision of a layer having an oxygen permeability of not more than 20 ml/m 2 .hr.atm. on the support side of a color image forming layer of a color photographic light-sensitive material. These techniques can also be applied to the present invention. Various silver halides can be used in the silver halide emulsion layers used in this invention. Examples are silver chloride, silver bromide, silver chlorobromide, silver iodobromide and silver chloroiodobromide. Silver iodobromide containing 2 to 20 mole% of silver iodide and silver chlorobromide containing 10 to 50 mole% of silver bromide are preferred. There is no limitation on the crystal form, crystal structure, grain size, grain size distribution, etc., of the silver halide grains. The crystals of silver halide may be normal or twinning, and may be hexagonal, octagonal or tetradecagonal. Or they may be tabular grains having a thickness of 0.5 micron or less, a diameter of at least 0.6 micron and an average aspect ratio of at least 5 as described in Research Disclosure, 22534. The crystal structure may be uniform or have a difference in composition between the interior and the outside portions. It may be a layered structure or contain silver halides of different compositions bonded by epitaxial bonding. Alternatively, it may comprise a mixture of grains having various crystal forms. The silver halide crystals may also permit formation of latent images mainly on the surface of the grains or in the inside of the grains. The grain diameter of the silver halide may be not more than 0.1 micron, or they may be large sized grains with a projection area diameter of up to 3 microns. They may be monodisperse emulsions having a narrow size distribution, or polydisperse emulsions having a broad size distribution. These silver halide grains can be produced by known methods customarily used in the art. The silver halide emulsions can be sensitized by ordinary chemical sensitization methods using sulfur and noble metals either singly or in combination. The silver halide emulsions in this invention may also be sensitized to the desired light-sensitive wavelength regions by using sensitizing dyes. Dyes which can be advantageously used in this invention include methine dyes such as cyanines, hemicyanines, rhodacyanines, merocyanines, oxonols, and hemioxonols, and styryl dyes. They may be used singly or in combination. A transparent support such as polyethylene terephthalate or cellulose triacetate and a reflective support to be described below may be used in the present invention. The reflective support is preferred. Examples of the support include baryta paper, polyethylene-coated paper, polypropylene type synthetic paper-like sheets, and transparent supports having a reflective layer or a reflective material such as a glass sheet, polyester films such as polyethylene terephthalate, cellulose triacetate or cellulose nitrate films, polyamide films, polycarbonate films and polystyrene films. These supports may be properly selected according to the intended uses. The blue-sensitive, green-sensitive and red-sensitive emulsions used in this invention are spectrally sensitized to the respective colors with methine and other dyes. Useful sensitizing dyes include cyanine dyes, merocyanine dyes, complex cyanine dyes, complex merocyanine dyes, holopolar cyanine dyes, hemicyanine dyes, styryl dyes and hemioxonol dyes. Especially useful dyes are those belonging to cyanine dyes, merocyanine dyes and complex merocyanine dyes. These dyes may contain basic heterocyclic nuclei usually utilized in cyanine dyes, for example, pyrroline, oxazoline, thiazoline, pyrrole, oxazole, thiazole, selenazole, imidazole, tetrazole and pyridine nuclei; nuclei resulting from fusing of alicyclic hydrocarbon rings to these nuclei; and nuclei resulting from fusing of aromatic hydrocarbon rings to these nuclei, such as indolenine, benzindolenine, indole, benzoxazole, naphthoxazole, benzothiazole, naphthothiazole, benzoselenazole, benzimidazole and quinoline nuclei. These nuclei may be substituted on carbon atoms. The merocyanine dyes or complex merocyanine dyes may include 5- or 6-membered heterocyclic nuclei, such as pyrazolin-5-one, thiohydantoin, 2-thioxazolidin-2,4-dione, thiazolidin-2,4-dione, rhodanine and thiobarbituric acid nuclei, as nuclei having a ketomethylene structure. These sensitizing dyes may be used singly or in combination. Combinations of sensitizing dyes are frequently used for the purpose of supersensitization. Typical examples are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,688,545, 2,977,229, 3,397,060, 3,522,052, 3,527,641, 3,617,293, 3,628,964, 3,666,480, 3,672,898, 3,679,428, 3,703,377, 3,769,301, 3,814,609, 3,837,862 and 4,026,707, British Pat. Nos. 1,344,281 and 1,507,803, Japanese Patent Publication Nos. 4936/68 and 12375/78, and Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 110618/77 and 109925/77. The emulsions may contain, in addition to the sensitizing dyes, dyes which do not have spectral sensitizing action by themselves or substances which do not substantially absorb visible light and show supersensitizing activity. The color photographic light-sensitive material of this invention may further contain auxiliary layers such as a subbing layer, an interlayer and a protective layer in addition to the main layers described above. As required, a second ultraviolet light absorbing layer may be provided between the red-sensitive silver halide emulsion layer and the green-sensitive silver halide emulsion layer. The ultraviolet light absorbers described hereinabove are preferably used in the second ultraviolet light absorbing layer, but other known ultraviolet light absorbers may also be used. Advantageously, gelatin is used as a binder or protective colloid for the photographic emulsions. Other hydrophilic colloids may also be used. For example, there can be used various synthetic hydrophilic high molecular weight materials, for example, proteins such as gelatin derivatives, graft polymers of gelatin with other polymers, albumin and casein; cellulose derivatives such as hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose and cellulose sulfate; carbohydrate derivatives such as sodium alginate and starch derivatives, and mono- and copolymers such as polyvinyl alcohol, a partial acetal of polyvinyl alcohol, poly-N-vinylpyrrolidone, polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid, polyacrylamide, polyvinyl imidazole and polyvinyl pyrazole. Lime-treated gelatin, acid-treated gelatin and enzyme-treated gelatin which is described in Bull. Soc. Sci. Phot., Japan, No. 16, page 30 (1966) may be used as the gelatin. A hydrolysis product or enzymatically decomposed product of gelatin may also be used. In the photographic material of this invention, the photographic emulsion layers and other hydrophilic colloid layers may contain bleaching agents of the stilbene, triazine, oxazole or coumarin type. They may be water-soluble bleaching agents. Alternatively, water-insoluble bleaching agents may be used in the form of a dispersion. Specific examples of fluorescent bleaching agents are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,632,701, 3,269,840 and 3,359,102, British Patents 852,075 and 1,319,763, and the description of brighteners at page 24, left-hand column, lines 9-36 of Research Disclosure, Vol. 176, 17643 (published in December 1978). When the hydrophilic colloid layer of the photographic material of this invention contains a dye, an ultraviolet light absorber, etc., they may be mordanted by a cationic polymer, etc. For example, there can be used the polymers described in British Pat. No. 685,475, U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,675,316, 2,839,401, 2,882,156, 3,048,487, 3,184,309 and 3,445,231, West German Patent Application (OLS) No. 1,914,362, and Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 47624/75 and 71332/75. The photographic material of this invention may contain hydroquinone derivatives, aminophenol derivatives, gallic acid derivatives, ascorbic acid derivatives, etc., as color antifogging agents. Specific examples thereof are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,360,290, 2,336,327, 2,403,721, 2,418,613, 2,675,314, 2,701,197, 2,704,713, 2,728,659, 2,732,300 and 2,735,765, Japanese Patent Application (OPI) Nos. 92988/75, 92989/75, 93928/75, 110337/75 and 146235/77, and Japanese Patent Publication No. 23813/75. As required, other various photographic additives known in the art, such as stabilizers, anti-foggants, surface active agents, couplers other than those of this invention, filter dyes, irradiation preventing dyes, and developing agents, can be added to the color photographic light-sensitive material of this invention. As required, substantially non-photosensitive silver halide emulsions in fine grains (for example, silver chloride, silver bromide and silver chlorobromide emulsions having an average grain size of not more than 0.20 micron) may be added to the silver halide emulsion layers or the other hydrophilic colloid layer. A preferred color developer which can be used in this invention is an alkaline aqueous solution containing an aromatic primary amine color developing agent as a main component. Typical examples of the color developing agent include 4-amino-N,N-diethylaniline, 3-methyl-4-amino-N,N-diethylaniline, 4-amino-N-ethyl-N-β-hydroxyethylaniline, 3-methyl-4-amino-N-ethyl-N-β-hydroxyethylaniline, 3-methyl-4-amino-N-ethyl-N-β-methanesulfonamidoethylaniline, and 4-amino-3-methyl-N-ethyl-N-β-methoxyethylaniline. The color developer may contain pH buffers such as alkali metal sulfites, carbonates, borates and phosphates, and development inhibitors or antifoggants such as bromides, iodides, and organic antifoggants. As required, it may further contain water-softening agents, preservatives such as hydroxylamine, organic solvents such as benzyl alcohol and diethylene glycol, development accelerators such as polyethylene glycol, quaternary ammonium salts and amines, dye forming couplers, competitive couplers, foggants such as sodium borohydride, auxiliary developers such as 1-phenyl-3-pyrazolidone, viscosity imparting agents, the polycarboxylic acid type chelating agents described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,083,723, and the antioxidants described in West German Patent Application (OLS) No. 2,622,950. Usually, the photographic emulsion layers after color development are subjected to a bleaching treatment. The bleaching treatment may be carried out at the same time as fixation, or separately. Examples of bleaching agents include compounds of polyvalent metals such as iron (III), cobalt (III), chromium (VI) and copper (II), peracids, quinones and nitroso compounds. For example, there can be used ferricyanides, bichromate salts, organic complex salts of iron (III) or cobalt (III), complex salts or organic acids such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, nitrilotriacetic acid, aminopolycarboxylic acids (e.g., 1,3-diamino-2-propanoltetraacetic acid), citric acid, tartaric acid and malic acid, persulfates, permanganates, and nitrosophenol. Of these, potassium ferricyanide, sodium iron (III) ethylenediaminetetraacetate and ammonium iron (III) ethylenediaminetetraacetate are especially useful. Iron (III) complex salts of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid are useful both in an independent bleaching solution and in a monobath bleaching-fixing solution. After color development or the bleaching fixing treatment, the photographic material may be washed with water. The color development may be carried out at any temperature between 18° C. and 55° C., preferably at least 30° C., especially preferably at least 35° C. The time required for the development is about 3.5 minutes to about 1 minute and is preferably shorter. In continuous development, the solution is preferably replenished. Per m 2 of a processed area, 330 to 160 cc, preferably not more than 100 cc, of the solution is additionally supplied. Preferalby, the concentration of benzyl alcohol in the developer solution is not more than 5 ml/liter. Bleaching-fixation can be carried out at any desired temperature between 18° and 50° C., preferably at least 30° C. If the temperature is set at 35° C. or higher, the treating time can be shortened to 1 minute or less, and the amount of the solution to be additionally supplied can be decreased. The time required for washing after color development or bleaching-fixation is usually within 3 minutes, and washing can be performed within 1 minute using a stabilization bath. The resulting dyes are susceptible to degradation by light, heat or moisture, and also by molds during storage. The cyan image is especially susceptible to degradation by molds, and the use of moldproofing agents is preferred. The 2-thiazolyl benzimidazoles described in Japanese Patent Application (OPI) No. 157244/82 are specific examples of the moldproofing agents. The mold-proofing agent may be incorporated in the photographic material or added externally in the step of development. It may be added at any desired stage if it is present in the processed photographic material. The following non-limiting Examples illustrate the present invention in greater detail. Unless otherwise indicated, all parts, percents, etc., are by weight. EXAMPLE 1 The first layer (lowermost layer) to the seventh layer (uppermost layer) indicated in Table I were coated on paper having polyethylene laminated to both surfaces to prepare color photographic light-sensitive materials (Samples A to M). The coating solution for the first layer was prepared as follows: 100 g of the yellow coupler indicated in Table I was dissolved in a mixture of 166.7 ml of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and 200 ml of ethyl acetate. The solution was emulsified and dispersed in 800 g of a 10% aqueous solution containing 80 ml of a 1% aqueous solution of sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate. The dispersion was mixed with 1,450 g (66.7 g as Ag) of a blue-sensitive silver chlorobromide (Br 80%) to prepare the coating solution. The coating solutions for the other layers were prepared in the same way as above. As a hardener for each of the layers, the sodium salt of 2,4-dichloro-6-hydroxy-s-triazine was used. The following spectral sensitizing agents were used for the emulsions. Blue-Sensitive Emulsion Layer Sodium salt of 3,3'-di(γ-sulfopropyl)selenacyanine (2×10 -4 mole per mole of silver halide) Green-Sensitive Emulsion Layer Sodium salt of 3,3'-di(γ-sulfopropyl)-5,5'-diphenyl-9-ethyloxacarbocyanine (2.5×10 -4 mole per mole of silver halide) Red-Sensitive Emulsion Layer Sodium salt of 3,3'-di(γ-sulfopropyl)-9-methylthiadicarbocyanine (2.5×10 -4 mole per mole of silver halide) The following irradiation preventing dyes were used for the emulsion layers. ##STR21## In Table I, TOP stands for tri(n-octyl phosphate), and the compounds a to i have the following chemical structures. ##STR22## Each of the above samples was gradation exposed by an enlarging machine (Fuji Color Head 690, a product of Fuji Photo Film Co., Ltd.), and then subjected to the following development. ______________________________________DeveloperTrisodium nitrilotriacetate 2.0 gBenzyl alcohol 15 mlDiethylene glycol 10 mlNa.sub.2 SO.sub.3 2.0 gKBr 0.5 gHydroxylamine sulfate 3.0 g4-Amino-3-methyl-N--ethyl-N--[β-(methane- 5.0 gsulfonamido)ethyl]-p-phenylenediaminesulfateNa.sub.2 CO.sub.3 (monohydrate) 30 gWater to make 1 liter (pH 10.1)Bleaching-Fixing BathAmmonium thiosulfate (70 wt %) 150 mlNa.sub.2 SO.sub.3 15 gNH.sub.4 [Fe(EDTA)] 55 gEDTA.2Na 4 gWater to make 1 liter (pH 6.9)______________________________________ Temperature TimeProcessing Steps (°C.) (minutes)______________________________________Developer 33 3.5Bleaching-fixing solution 33 1.5Washing with water 28-35 3Drying______________________________________ Each of the samples so processed was subjected to a fading test involving direct exposure to sunlight. The yellow, magenta and cyan densities of the samples were measured by a Macbeth densitometer (Model RD-514) with blue light, green light and red light. Table II summarizes the densities of the samples (initial density=1.0) after exposure for 2 hours, 6 hours, 4 weeks and 8 weeks, respectively. The measurement of fading after exposure for 2 or 6 hours was made immediately after exposure. The measurement of fading after exposure for 4 or 8 weeks was carried out after leaving the samples for 1 day in the dark when the vanished color was reversibly returned to the original color. The results are shown in Table II. The following conclusions can be drawn from Table II. The samples for comparison abruptly decrease in cyan density upon exposure to sunlight for several hours, while scarcely any change occurs in the yellow and magenta densities. Hence, the color balance is destroyed, and the color becomes reddish. The samples exposed to sunlight for a long period of time decrease in cyan density to a greater extent than in yellow and magenta densities, and the color becomes reddish. In contrast, the samples of this invention decrease little in cyan density upon exposure for short to long periods of time and maintain a balance among the three colros, yellow, magenta and cyan. They show a fading behavior not significantly perceptible visually. Furthermore, the yellow, magenta and cyan dye images of Samples G to M of the invention hardly change at high temperatures and humidities and are very stable. TABLE I__________________________________________________________________________ Sample No. Comparison Invention A B C D E F G H I J K L M__________________________________________________________________________7th layer (protectivelayer)Amount of gelatin 1500 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.26th layer (ultraviolet lightabsorbing layer)Amount of gelatin 1500 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.2Types of ultraviolet UV-3/ " " " " " " " " " " " UV-3/light absorbers UV-1/ UV-4/ UV-4 UV-16Amounts of the ultra- 50/150/ " " " " " " " " " " " 50/150/violet light absorbers 300 mg/ 400 mg/coated m.sup.2 m.sup.2Type of a solvent for DBP " " " " " " " " " " " "the ultravioletlight absorberAmount of the solvent 200 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.25th layer (red-sensitivelayer)Amount of Ag in silver 300 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "chlorobromide emulsion m.sup.2(Br 50%)Type of cyan coupler a a/b c d e f c-1 c-1/a c-7 c-1 c-6 c-9 c-1Amount of the cyan 400 mg/ 200/ 400 " " " " 250/ 400 mg/ " " " "coupler coated m.sup.2 200 mg/ mg/ 150 m.sup.2 m.sup.2 m.sup.2 mg/ m.sup.2Type of a solvent DBP " " " " " " " " " " " "for the cyan couplerAmount of the solvent 240 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.2Ultraviolet light -- UV-3/ -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- UV-3/ "absorber UV-1/ UV-1/ UV-4 UV-4 -- 20/50/ -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 20/50/ " 60 mg/ 60 mg/ m.sup.2 m.sup.24th layer (ultraviolet lightabsorbing layer)Amount of gelatin 2000 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.2Types of ultraviolet UV-3/ " " " " " " " " " " " UV-3/light absorbers UV-1/ UV-4/ UV-4 UV-16Amounts of the ultra- 15/45/ " " " " " " " " " " " 15/45/violet light absorber 90 mg/m.sup.2 140 mg/coated m.sup.2Type of a solvent for DBP " " " " " " " " " " " "the ultraviolet lightabsorbersAmount of the solvent 60 mg/m.sup.2 " " " " " " " " " " " "coated3rd layer (green-sensitive layer)Amount of Ag of a 450 mg/ " " " " " " " " 200 mg/ " " "silver chlorobromide m.sup.2 m.sup.2emulsion (Br 70%)Type of a magenta M-18 " " " " " " " " M-15 " " "coupler coatedAmount of the magenta 350 mg/ " " " " " " " " 300 mg/ " " "coupler coated m.sup.2 m.sup.2Type of a solvent TOP " " " " " " " " " " " "for the magentacouplerAmount of the solvent 440 mg/ " " " " " " " " 400 mg/ " " "coated m.sup.2 m.sup.2Type of an anti- g/h " " " " " " " " " " " "fading agentAmount of the anti- 50/ " " " " " " " " " " " "fading agent coated 100 mg/ m.sup.22nd layer (colormixing preventing layer)Amount of gelatin 1500 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.21st layer (blue-sensitive layer)Amount of Ag in a 400 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "silver chlorobromide m.sup.2(Br 80%)Type of a yellow Y-36 " " " " " " " " " Y-35 Y-10 Y-35couplerAmount of the yellow 600 mg/ " " " " " " " " " 650 mg/ 600 650 mg/Coupler coated m.sup.2 m.sup.2 m.sup.2 m.sup.2Type of a solvent for DBP " " " " " " " " " TOP " "the yellow couplerAmount of the solvent 1000 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.2Type of an antifading i " " " " " " " " " " " "agentAmount of the anti- 100 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "fading agent coated m.sup.2__________________________________________________________________________ *The mark " in the above table means that it is the same as the left. TABLE II__________________________________________________________________________ Fading under Fading under Fading under Fading underSample Sunlight, 2 Hours Sunlight, 6 Hours Sunlight, 4 Weeks Sunlight, 8 WeeksNo. Remark D.sub.B D.sub.G D.sub.R D.sub.B D.sub.G D.sub.R D.sub.B D.sub.G D.sub.R D.sub.B D.sub.G D.sub.R__________________________________________________________________________A Comparison 1.00 0.99 0.92 1.00 0.99 0.88 0.93 0.90 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.73B " 1.00 1.00 0.90 0.99 1.00 0.86 0.94 0.91 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.71C " 1.00 1.00 0.91 1.00 1.00 0.89 0.93 0.90 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.70D " 1.00 0.99 0.90 1.00 0.99 0.87 0.92 0.91 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.71E " 1.00 1.00 0.92 0.99 1.00 0.88 0.94 0.90 0.81 0.82 0.81 0.70F " 1.00 1.00 0.92 1.00 1.00 0.89 0.94 0.92 0.83 0.81 0.82 0.69G Invention 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.97 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.82 0.82 0.82H " 0.99 1.00 0.97 0.99 1.00 0.95 0.93 0.92 0.89 0.83 0.81 0.79I " 1.00 0.99 0.98 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.94 0.91 0.90 0.81 0.83 0.84J " 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.93 0.91 0.91 0.84 0.82 0.82K " 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.99 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.83 0.81 0.81L " 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.94 0.91 0.90 0.82 0.80 0.80M " 1.00 0.99 0.98 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.91 0.82 0.88 0.81__________________________________________________________________________ (D.sub.B, D.sub.G and D.sub.R respectively represents the densities of yellow, magenta and cyan.) EXAMPLE 2 The first layer (lowermost layer) to the seventh layer (uppermost layer) indicated in Table III were coated on paper having polyethylene laminated to both surfaces to prepare color photographic light-sensitive materials (Samples A-1 to M-1). The preparation of the respective layers, spectral sensitizer, irradiating preventing agent, and the chemical structures of compounds a to f, h, and i are the same as in Example 1. The thus prepared respective samples were subjected to the exposure to light and photographic processing in the same manner as in Example 1. Each of the samples so processed was subjected to a fading test involving direct exposure to sunlight. The yellow, magenta and cyan densities of the samples were measured by a Macbeth densitometer (Model RD-514) with blue light, green light and red light. Table IV summarizes the densities of the samples (initial density=1.0) after exposure for 2 hours, 6 hours, 4 weeks and 8 weeks, respectively. The measurement of fading after exposure for 2 or 6 hours was made immediately after exposure. The measurement of fading after exposure for 4 or 8 weeks was carried out after leaving the samples for 1 day in the dark when the vanished color was reversibly returned to the original color. The results are shown in Table IV. The following conclusions can be drawn from Table IV. The samples for comparison abruptly decrease in cyan density upon exposure to sunlight for several hours, while scarcely any change occurs in the yellow and magenta densities. Hence, the color balance is destroyed, and the color becomes reddish. The samples exposed to sunlight for a long period of time decrease in cyan density to a greater extent than in yellow and magenta densities, and the color becomes reddish. In contrast, the samples of this invention decrease little in cyan density upon exposure for short to long periods of time and maintain a balance among the three colors, yellow, magenta and cyan. They show a fading behavior not significantly perceptible visually. Furthermore, the yellow, magenta and cyan dye images of Samples G-1 to M-1 of the invention hardly change at high temperatures and humidities and are very stable. TABLE III__________________________________________________________________________ Sample No. Comparison Invention A-1 B-1 C-1 D-1 E-1 F-1 G-1 H-1 I-1 J-1 K-1 L-1 M-1__________________________________________________________________________7th layer (protectivelayer)Amount of gelatin 1500 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.26th layer (ultaviolet lightabsorbing layer)Amount of gelatin 1500 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.2Type of ultraviolet UV-3/ " " " " " " " " " " " UV-3/light absorbers UV-1/ UV-4/ UV-4 UV-16Amounts of the ultra- 50/150/ " " " " " " " " " " " 50/150/violet light absorbers 300 mg/ 400 mg/coated m.sup.2 m.sup.2Type of a solvent for DBP " " " " " " " " " " " "the ultraviolet lightabsorberAmount of the solvent 200 gm/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.25th layer (red-sensitive layer)Amount of Ag in 300 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "silver chlorobromide m.sup.2emulsion (Br 50%)Type of cyan coupler a a/b c d e f c-1 c-1/a c-7 c-1 c-6 c-9 c-1Amount of the 400 mg/ 200/ 400 mg/ " " " " 250/ 400 " " " "cyan coupler coated m.sup.2 200 mg/ m.sup.2 150 mg/ m.sup.2 mg/ m.sup.2 m.sup.2Type of a solvent DBP " " " " " " " " " " " "for the cyan couplerAmount of the 240 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "solvent coated m.sup.2Ultraviolet light -- UV-3/ -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- UV-3/ "absorber UV-1/ UV-1/ UV-4 UV-4 -- 20/50/ -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 20/50/ " 60 mg/m.sup.2 60/mg/ m.sup.24th layer (ultraviolet lightabsorbing layer)Amount of gelatin 200 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.2Types of ultraviolet UV-3/ " " " " " " " " " " " UV-3/light absorbers UV-1/ UV-4/ UV-4 UV-16Amount of the ultra- 15/45/ " " " " " " " " " " " 15/45/violet light absorbers 90 mg/m.sup.2 140 mg/coated m.sup.2Type of a solvent for DBP " " " " " " " " " " " "the ultraviolet lightabsorbersAmount of the 60 mg/m.sup.2 " " " " " " " " " " " "solvent coated3rd layer (green-sensitive layer)Amount of Ag of a 200 mg/ " " " " " " " " 200 mg/ " " "silver chlorobromide m.sup.2 m.sup.2emulsion (Br 70%)Type of a magenta M-40 " " " " " " " " M-49 " " "coupler coatedAmount of the magenta 350 mg/ " " " " " " " " 370 mg/ " " "coupler coated m.sup.2 m.sup.2Type of a solvent TOP " " " " " " " " " " " "for the magentacouplerAmount of the solvent 600 mg/ " " " " " " " " 630 mg/ " " "coated m.sup.2 m.sup.2Type of an anti- h " " " " " " " " " " " "fading agentAmount of the anti- 270 mg/ " " " " " " " " 285 mg/fading agent coated m.sup.2 m.sup.22nd layer (color mixingpreventing layer)Amount of gelatin 1500 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.21st layer (blue-sensitive layer)Amount of Ag in a 400 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "silver chlorobromide m.sup.2emulsion (Br 80%)Type of a yellow Y-36 " " " " " " " " " Y-35 Y-10 Y-35couplerAmount of the yellow 600 mg/ " " " " " " " " " 650 600 650 mg/coupler coated m.sup.2 mg/ mg/ m.sup.2 m.sup.2 m.sup.2Type of a solvent for DBP " " " " " " " " " TOP " "the yellow couplerAmount of the solvent 1000 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "coated m.sup.2Type of an anti- i " " " " " " " " " " " "fading agentAmount of the anti- 100 mg/ " " " " " " " " " " " "fading agent coated m.sup.2__________________________________________________________________________ *The mark " in the above table means that it is the same as the left. TABLE IV__________________________________________________________________________ Fading under Fading under Fading under Fading underSample Sunlight, 2 Hours Sunlight, 6 Hours Sunlight, 4 Weeks Sunlight, 8 WeeksNo. Remark D.sub.B D.sub.G D.sub.R D.sub.B D.sub.G D.sub.R D.sub.B D.sub.G D.sub.R D.sub.B D.sub.G D.sub.R__________________________________________________________________________A-1 Comparison 1.00 1.00 0.92 1.00 1.00 0.88 0.93 0.93 0.85 0.83 0.84 0.72B-1 " 1.00 1.00 0.90 0.99 1.00 0.87 0.94 0.94 0.83 0.82 0.83 0.71C-1 " 1.00 1.00 0.92 1.00 1.00 0.89 0.93 0.93 0.84 0.83 0.84 0.70D-1 " 1.00 1.00 0.90 1.00 1.00 0.87 0.92 0.93 0.85 0.83 0.84 0.71E-1 " 1.00 1.00 0.91 0.99 0.99 0.88 0.94 0.94 0.82 0.82 0.83 0.70F-1 " 1.00 1.00 0.92 1.00 1.00 0.89 0.94 0.95 0.84 0.81 0.85 0.70G-1 Invention 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.94 0.95 0.92 0.82 0.84 0.83H-1 " 0.99 1.00 0.97 0.99 1.00 0.95 0.93 0.93 0.90 0.83 0.84 0.80I-1 " 1.00 1.00 0.98 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.82 0.84 0.84J-1 " 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.93 0.91 0.84 0.84 0.82K-1 " 0.99 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.93 0.94 0.91 0.83 0.83 0.81L-1 " 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.82 0.83 0.80M-1 " 1.00 1.00 0.98 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.96 0.96 0.91 0.83 0.88 0.81__________________________________________________________________________ (D.sub.B, D.sub.G and D.sub.R respectively represents the densities of yellow, magenta and cyan.) EXAMPLE 3 Multilayer color photographic films (Sample Nos. 1 to 3) were prepared by coating the following first layer (lowermost layer) to the sixth layer (uppermost layer) shown in Table V on a cellulose triacetate support. In the following tabulation, mg/m 2 represents the amount of coating. TABLE V______________________________________6th layer Gelatin 750 mg/m.sup.2(protectivelayer)5th layer Silver chlorobromide emulsion (silver(green- bromide 30 mole %; silver 500 mg/m.sup.2)sensitive Gelatin 1,300 mg/m.sup.2layer) Sensitizing dye (*1) 2.1 mg/m.sup.2 Magenta coupler (*2) 600 mg/m.sup.2 Solvent for the coupler (*3) 110 mg/m.sup.24th layer Gelatin 500 mg/m.sup.23rd layer Silver chlorobromide emulsion (silver(red- bromide 30 mole %; silver 500 mg/m.sup.2)sensitive Gelatin 2,900 mg/m.sup.2layer) Sensitizing dye (*4) 0.2 mg/m.sup.2 Cyan coupler (*5) 1,500 mg/m.sup.2 Ultraviolet light absorber (*6) 400 mg/m.sup.2 Solvent for the coupler (*7) 700 mg/m.sup.22nd layer Gelatin 500 mg/m.sup.21st layer Silver iodobromide emulsion (silver iodide(blue- 0.2 mole %; silver 1,000 mg/m.sup.2)sensitive Gelatin 2,200 mg/m.sup.2layer) Yellow coupler (*8) 1,200 mg/m.sup.2 Solvent for the coupler (*9) 600 mg/m.sup.2Support Cellulose triacetate______________________________________ (*1): Sensitizing dye, triethylammonium 4[6chloro-5-cyano-1-ethyl-2-{3[5phenyl-3-(4-sulfonaphthobutyl)benzoxazoli-2-ylidene1-propenyl}benzimidazolium3]butane sulfonate (*2): Magenta coupler, M18 given hereinabove (*3): Solvent for the coupler, tricresyl phosphate (*4): Sensitizing dye, potassium 2{5[4(6-methyl-3-pentylbenzothiazolin-2-ylidene)-2-methyl-2-butenylidene3rhodanine} acetate (*5): Cyan coupler, used in accordance with the Film Sample Nos. 1 to 3 i Table VI. (*6): Ultraviolet light absorber, UV2/UV-3/UV-4 mixture (3:3:4 by weight) (*7): Solvent for the coupler, used in accordance with Film Sample Nos. 1 to 3 in Table VI. (*8): Yellow coupler, Compound Y1 given hereinabove (*9): Solvent for the coupler, dibutyl phthalate By using the couplers and solvents shown in Table VI, the Sample Nos. 1 to 3 were prepared. Each of the sample films was exposed to blue light, green light and red light through a continuous wedge, and developed in the following manner. The processed samples were tested for optical density to red light, and the gamma values and maximum densities shown in Table VII were obtained. To evaluate the hues of the processed films, the spectral density of the cyan dye image was measured by using a self-recording spectrophotometer (Model 340 made by Hitachi Ltd.). The maximum density wavelength (λ max ) and the half value width (λ1/2) of absorption on shorter wavelengths were determined, and are shown in Table VII. The processed films were also tested for the fastness of the cyan dye image. The fastness of each sample upon standing in the dark at 100° C. for 3 days, the fastness of the sample upon standing in the dark at 60° C. and 70% RH (relative humidity) for 6 weeks, and the fastness of the sample upon exposure to light for 7 days by a xenon tester (20,000 lux) were expressed by the percent decrease of the density from the initial density of 1.0. The results are shown in Table VII. The decrease of cyan is based on the density at the time when the vanished color returned to its original color. ______________________________________Development StepsColor development 36° C., 3 minutesStopping 36° C., 40 secondsFirst fixing 36° C., 40 secondsBleaching 36° C., 1 minuteSecond fixing 36° C., 40 secondsWashing with water 30° C., 30 secondsComposition of the Color DeveloperSodium sulfite 5 g4-Amino-3-methyl-N,N--diethylaniline 3 gSodium carbonate 20 gPotassium bromide 2 gWater to make 1 liter pH 10.5Composition of the Stopping SolutionSulfuric acid (6 N) 50 mlWater to make 1 liter pH 1.0Composition of the Fixing SolutionAmmonium thiosulfate 60 gSodium sulfite 2 gSodium hydrogensulfite 10 gWater to make 1 liter pH 5.8Composition of the Bleaching SolutionPotassium ferricyanide 30 gPotassium bromide 15 gWater to make 1 liter pH 6.5______________________________________ The results given in Table VII demonstrate that the use of the couplers in accordance with this invention gave better color formability (higher gamma and higher maximum density) and better dye image fastness than the use of known couplers for comparison, and also permits adjustment of hue while narrowing the half value width of absorptions. TABLE VI______________________________________ Coupler and its Amount Solvent forFilm Sample (× 10.sup.-1 mole/mole of Ag) the Coupler______________________________________1 a 4.0 *S-1 (60%) +(comparison) *S-2 (40%)2 a/c-1 2.0/2.0 *S-1 (60%) + *S-2 (40%)3 c-1 4.0 *S-1 (60%) + *S-2 (40%)______________________________________ *S-1: Dibutyl phthalate *S2: 2,4Di-tert-amylphenol TABLE VII__________________________________________________________________________ Fastness of the Dye Image Hue of the Color (percent decrease, %) Dye Formed* Formability Light γ.sub.max γ.sub.1/2 Maximum 100° C., 60° C., 70% RH (xenon)Film Sample (nm) (nm) Gamma Density 3 Days 6 Weeks 7 Days__________________________________________________________________________1 670 70 3.58 3.45 52 23 14(comparison)2 666 70 3.64 3.53 14 6 11(invention)3 660 68 3.76 3.55 8 4 10(invention)__________________________________________________________________________ *γ.sub.1/2 was measured and is defined as the difference between the wavelength at which the absorption intensity is 50% of the maximum absorption intensity of the spectrum, and the wavelength at which the density is maximum. EXAMPLE 4 Multilayer color photographic films (Sample Nos. 4 to 6) were prepared by coating the following first layer (lowermost layer) to the sixth layer (uppermost layer) shown in Table VIII on a cellulose triacetate support. In the following tabulation, mg/m 2 represents the amount of coating. TABLE VIIII______________________________________6th layer Gelatin 750 mg/m.sup.2(protectivelayer)5th layer Silver chlorobromide emulsion (silver(green- bromide 30 mole %; silver 500 mg/m.sup.2)sensitive Gelatin 1,300 mg/m.sup.2layer) Sensitizing dye (*1) 2.1 mg/m.sup.2 Magenta coupler (*2) 700 mg/m.sup.2 Fading preventing agent (*3) 540 mg/m.sup.2 Solvent for the coupler (*4) 1,050 mg/m.sup.24th layer Gelatin 500 mg/m.sup.23rd layer Silver chlorobromide emulsion (silver(red- bromide 30 mole %; silver 500 mg/m.sup.2)sensitive Gelatin 2,900 mg/m.sup.2layer) Sensitizing dye (*5) 0.2 mg/m.sup.2 Cyan coupler (*6) 1,500 mg/m.sup.2 Ultraviolet light absorber (*7) 400 mg/m.sup.2 Solvent for the coupler (*8) 700 mg/m.sup.22nd layer Gelatin 500 mg/m.sup.21st layer Silver iodobromide emulsion (silver iodide(blue- 0.2 mole %; silver 1,000 mg/m.sup.2)sensitive Gelatin 2,200 mg/m.sup.2layer) Yellow coupler (*9) 1,200 mg/m.sup.2 Solvent for the coupler (*10) 600 mg/m.sup.2Support Cellulose triacetate______________________________________ (*1): Sensitizing dye, triethylammonium 4[6chloro-5-cyano-1-ethyl-2-{3[5phenyl-3-(4-sulfonaphthobutyl)benzoxazoli-2-ylidene1-propenylbenzimidazolium-3]butane sulfonate (*2): Magenta coupler, M40 given hereinabove (*3): G14 (*4): Solvent for the coupler, tricresyl phosphate (*5): Sensitizing dye, potassium 2{5[4(6-methyl-3-pentylbenzothiazolin-2-ylidene)-2-methyl-2-butenylidene3rhodanine} acetate (*6): Cyan coupler, used in accordance with the Film Sample Nos. 4 to 6 i Table IX. (*7): Ultraviolet light absorber, UV2/UV-3/UV-4 mixture (3:3:4 by weight) (*8): Solvent for the coupler, used in accordance with Film Sample Nos. 4 to 6 in Table IX. (*9): Yellow coupler, Compound Y1 given hereinabove (*10): Solvent for the coupler, dibutyl phthalate By using the couplers and solvents shown in Table IX, the Sample Nos. 4 to 6 were prepared. Each of the sample films was exposed to blue light, green light and red light through a continuous wedge, and developed in the same manner as in Example 3. The processed samples were tested for optical density to red light, and the gamma values and maximum densities shown in Table X were obtained. To evaluate the hues of the processed films, the spectral density of the cyan dye image was measured by using a self-recording spectrophotometer (Model 340 made by Hitachi Ltd.). The maximum density wavelength (λ max ) and the half value width (λ 1/2 ) of absorption on shorter wavelengths were determined, and are shown in Table X. The processed films were also tested for the fastness of the cyan dye image. The fastness of each sample upon standing in the dark at 100° C. for 3 days, the fastness of the sample upon standing in the dark at 60° C. and 70% RH for 6 weeks, and the fastness of the sample upon exposure to light for 7 days by a xenon tester (20,000 lux) were expressed by the percent decrease of the density from the initial density of 1.0. The results are shown in Table X. The decrease of cyan is based on the density at the time when the vanished color returned to its original color. The results given in Table X demonstrate that the use of the couplers in accordance with this invention gave better color formability (higher gamma and higher maximum density) and better dye image fastness than the use of known couplers for comparison, and also permits adjustment of hue while narrowing the half value width of absorptions. Further, they also demonstrate that the use of the pyrazolazole coupler in the green-sensitive layer increases the saturation of the magneta color gives an excellent color image. TABLE IX______________________________________ Coupler and its Amount Solvent forFilm Sample (× 10.sup.-1 mole/mole of Ag) the Coupler______________________________________4 a 4.0 *S-1 (60%) +(comparison) *S-2 (40%)5 a/c-1 2.0/2.0 *S-1 (60%) + *S-2 (40%)6 c-1 4.0 *S-1 (60%) + *S-2 (40%)______________________________________ *S-1: Dibutyl phthalate *S2: 2,4Di-tert-amylphenol TABLE X__________________________________________________________________________ Fastness of the Dye Image Hue of the Color (percent decrease, %) Dye Formed* Formability Light γ.sub.max γ.sub.1/2 Maximum 100° C., 60° C., 70% RH (xenon)Film Sample (nm) (nm) Gamma Density 3 Days 6 Weeks 7 Days__________________________________________________________________________4 670 70 3.55 3.45 52 23 13(comparison)5 666 70 3.62 3.54 14 7 9(invention)6 660 68 3.75 3.56 8 5 8(invention)__________________________________________________________________________ *γ.sub.1/2 was measured and is defined as the difference between the wavelength at which the absorption intensity is 50% of the maximum absorption intensity of the spectrum, and the wavelength at which the density is maximum. While the invention has been described in detail and with reference to specific embodiments thereof, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various changes and modifications can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope thereof.

A silver halide color photographic light-sensitive material comprising a support and red-sensitive, green-sensitive and blue-sensitive light-sensitive layers formed on the support. The light-sensitive layers separately contain a coupler of formula (I), a coupler of formula (II) or (III), and a coupler of formula (IV). ##STR1## This novel combination of couplers leads to good color formability, improved color reproducibility, improved image preservability and good color balance.